title: Mixtec

text: The Mixtecan languages (in their many variants) were estimated to be spoken by about 300,000 people at the end of the 20th century, although the majority of Mixtec speakers also had at least a working knowledge of the Spanish language. Some Mixtecan languages are called by names other than Mixtec, particularly Cuicatec (Cuicateco), and Triqui (or Trique).


title: Mixtec

text: The Mixtec are well known in the anthropological world for their Codices or phonetic pictures in which they wrote their history and genealogies in deerskin in the "fold-book" form. The best-known story of the Mixtec Codices is that of Lord Eight Deer, named after the day in which he was born, whose personal name is Jaguar Claw, and whose epic history is related in several codices, including the Codex Bodley and Codex Zouche-Nuttall. He successfully conquered and united most of the Mixteca region.


title: Mixtec

text: They were also known for their exceptional mastery of jewelry and mosaic, among which gold and turquoise figure prominently. Products by Mixtec goldsmiths formed an important part of the tribute the Mixtecs paid to the Aztecs during parts of their history. Turquoise mosaic masks also played an important role in both political and religious functions. These masks were used as gifts to form political alliances, in ceremonies during which the wearer of the mask impersonated a god, and were fixed to funerary bundles that were seen as oracles.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: "Be Thou My Vision" () is a traditional Christian hymn of Irish origin. The words are based on a Middle Irish poem that has traditionally been attributed to Dallán Forgaill.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: The best-known English version, with some minor variations, was translated in 1905 by Mary Elizabeth Byrne, then made into verse by Eleanor Hull and published in 1912. Since 1919 it has been commonly sung to an Irish folk tune, noted as "Slane" in church hymnals, and is one of the most popular hymns in the United Kingdom.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: The original Old Irish text, "Rop tú mo Baile", is often attributed to Saint Dallán Forgaill in the 6th century. However, scholars believe it was written later than that. Some date it to the 8th century; others putting it as late as the 10th or 11th century. A 14th-century manuscript attributed to Adhamh Ó Cianáin contains a handwritten copy of the poem in Middle Irish, and is held at the National Library of Ireland. A second manuscript is at the Royal Irish Academy, dating from about the 10th or 11th century.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: The text of "Rop tú mo Baile"/"Be Thou My Vision" reflects aspects of life in Early Christian Ireland (c.400-800 AD). The prayer belongs to a type known as a "lorica", a prayer for protection. The symbolic use of a battle-shield and a sword to invoke the power and protection of God draws on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians (), which refers to "the shield of faith" and "the sword of the Spirit". Such military symbolism was common in the poetry and hymnnology of Christian monasteries of the period due to the prevalence of clan warfare across Ireland. The poem makes reference to God as "King of the Seven Heavens" and the "High King of Heaven". This depiction of the Christian God as a chieftain or High King () is a traditional representation in Irish literature; medieval Irish poetry typically used heroic imagery to cast God as a clan protector.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: In 1905, "Rop tú mo Baile" was translated from Old Irish into English by Mary Elizabeth Byrne in "Ériu", the journal of the School of Irish Learning. The English text was first versified in 1912 by Eleanor Hull, president of the Irish Literary Society, and this is now the most common text used.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: The hymn is sung to the melody noted as “Slane” in hymnals, an Irish folk tune in time, first published as "With My Love on the Road" in Patrick Joyce's "Old Irish Folk Music and Songs" in 1909. The tune is a more elemental distillation of earlier forms, such as "The Hielan's o' Scotland' and "By the Banks of the Bann," also compiled in Joyce (1909). The words of "Be Thou My Vision" were first combined with this tune in 1919 (harmonised by Leopold L Dix, 1861-1935), and in a new version harmonised by David Evans in 1927. A further version was harmonised by Erik Routley for the English Hymnal.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: It was common practice to attribute hymn tune names to the place where they were collected by folk song collectors, such as Vaughan Williams who co-edited The English Hymnal, published in 1906. Slane is a village in Ireland.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: Three more 20th century hymns have been set to the same tune. The first was "Lord of All Hopefulness" written by Jan Struther around 1931. The second was "Lord of Creation, to Thee be All Praise" written by J. C. Winslow and first published in 1961. The third was a popular wedding hymn, "God, In the Planning and Purpose of Life", written by John L. Bell and Graham Maule and first appearing in publication in 1989.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: "Gå inte förbi" ("Don't Walk Past") is a duet-single set to the tune, recorded by Swedish singer Peter Jöback and Norwegian singer Sissel Kyrkjebø and written by Ulf Schagerman. Jöback sings the lyrics in Swedish while Sissel sings in Norwegian. It was released as a single in 2003 and at an extended reissue of Jöback's Christmas album Jag kommer hem igen till jul. It was a hit in Norway and Sweden in the Christmas time of 2003 and a music video directed by Mikadelica was made in Denmark. Norwegian newspaper VG gave it 4 out of 6.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: The original texts of the now-called "Be Thou My Vision" are in Old Irish similar still in style to Modern Irish. The hymn has been translated into Modern Irish many times. The most popular is that by Aodh Ó Dúgain of Gaoth Dobhair, County Donegal. Two verses of his translation were recorded by his granddaughter Moya Brennan – the first time any part of his text has been publicly recorded. Since then, those two verses have been recorded by many artists, including Roma Downey and Aoife and Iona. These verses are very close translations to the first two of the Old Irish text above.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: With Old Irish being the ancestor language of Modern Scottish Gaelic, the song was translated by Céitidh Mhoireasdan and published by Sabhal Mòr Ostaig.


title: Be Thou My Vision

text: Two variants of Eleanor Hull's 1912 English translation exist; one version, commonly used in Irish and Scottish hymnals (including the Hymnbooks of the Church of Scotland), fits the metre 10.10.10.10, while a paraphrased version that is used in English books (such as the "New English Hymnal") is suitable to an anacrucial metre 10.11.11.11.


title: Disappearance of John Favara

text: John Favara (March 4, 1929 – disappeared July 28, 1980, later declared dead in 1983) was the backyard neighbor of Gambino crime family captain and later boss John Gotti, in Howard Beach, New York, United States, who disappeared on July 28, 1980, over four months after he struck and killed Gotti's 12-year-old son, Frank Gotti, by car as he darted into the street on a motorized minibike, on March 18.


title: Disappearance of John Favara

text: On March 18, 1980, John Gotti's middle son, 12-year-old Frank Gotti, had met with a friend who owned a minibike, who was allowing his friends to take turns borrowing it. When the friend permitted Gotti to take his turn, Gotti took the bike immediately to the surprise of his friend, who had not yet given his instructions on appropriate handling of the motorized bike. Gotti darted out into the street and was hit by a car driven by John Favara, Gotti's backyard neighbor. Due to Gotti's failure to wait for his friend's tutorial and entering the street at a blind spot, his death was ruled an accident and criminal charges were never filed against Favara. However, Favara subsequently received death threats and was attacked with a baseball bat by Victoria Gotti Senior, the deceased's mother, when Favara visited the Gottis to apologize. When the Gotti children grew up and had children of their own, each of them named one of their sons Frank in honor of their brother.


title: Disappearance of John Favara

text: On July 28, 1980, Favara was abducted and disappeared. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), before Favara and his family were able to move, he was shoved into a van by several men near his place of business. There were several witnesses to the abduction and accounts ranged from his being beaten with a baseball bat, shot with a silenced .22 caliber pistol, or both. Accounts differed on what was done with Favara's body. One account said that while Favara was alive, he was dismembered with a chainsaw, stuffed into a barrel filled with concrete and dumped in the ocean, or buried somewhere on the lot of a chop shop.


title: Disappearance of John Favara

text: After the abduction, Favara's wife and two sons moved out of Howard Beach; Favara was declared legally dead in 1983. In November 2004, informants led the FBI to excavate a parking lot in The Hole, New York City suspected to be a mob graveyard and the site of Favara's body. While two bodies were found, Favara's was not among them.


title: Disappearance of John Favara

text: Gotti is widely assumed to have ordered the murder despite his and his family leaving on vacation for Florida three days before the murder. When questioned by two detectives on Favara's disappearance, Gotti said: "I'm not sorry the guy's missing. I wouldn't be sorry if the guy turned up dead."


title: Disappearance of John Favara

text: Previously, prosecutors believed Favara's remains were stuffed in a barrel of concrete and tossed off a Sheepshead Bay pier, but Brooklyn federal court papers filed by federal prosecutors the week of January 5, 2009, contain allegations that mob hitman Charles Carneglia killed Favara and disposed of his body in acid.


title: Disappearance of John Favara

text: Favara's murder is depicted in the 1996 HBO production "Gotti". In the film, Gotti, portrayed by Armand Assante, is shown pointedly admonishing underboss Salvatore "Sammy the Bull" Gravano, played by William Forsythe, that his son's death was an accident and to "leave it alone". Upon learning of his identity, Gravano is shown beating and shooting Favara in a pedestrian underpass, then fleeing.


title: Disappearance of John Favara

text: The incident bears similarities to the opening episode of Showtime's "Your Honor", in which a New Orleans mafia boss' son was hit by a car on a motorbike, which leads the father to take revenge.


title: Ruger (singer)

text: Michael Adebayo Olayinka (born 23 September 1999), popularly known as Ruger, is a Nigerian Afrobeat singer and songwriter. Ruger came into lime-light 2021 after he signed a record deal with D'Prince "Jonzing world record" with a publishing and distribution deal with Columbia Records, and Sony Music Entertainment, U.K division. On 4 March 2021, he released his debut EP "Pandemic".


title: Ruger (singer)

text: "Bounce", became a major hit song from "Pandemic" EP, and debuted at number 39 on the Top 50 chart. In the same year, it debuted at number 20, on the TurnTable End of the Year chart. On 19 November 2021, he released his second EP, titled "The Second Wave", and was led by "Dior" from the EP, which is the first to peak number 1 song in Nigeria 2022, along side Gambia, Kenya, Uganda, Sierra Leone, Madagascar and other African countries). "Dior" also peaked number 32 on the Top 50 chart, and number 15 on the UK Afrobeats Singles Chart.


title: Ruger (singer)

text: Michael Adebayo Olayinka was born on 23 September 1999, He is originally from Lagos State, Nigeria. he is the only son of a family.


title: Ruger (singer)

text: Michael started music at a very tender age, and was a member of his school music band as a teenager and also a member of his church choir. He began composing songs and perform at shows and school functions. After he was discovered by D'Prince, he was named "Ruger" by D'Prince himself. In January 2021, D’Prince announced the signing of Ruger to Jonzing World and Sony Music Entertainment UK, in a joint venture with Columbia Records.


title: Ruger (singer)

text: He was introduced to the public by D'Prince, following the release of "One Shirt", with Rema. On 19 February 2021, he released Ruger, a self-titled single off his first EP project, titled "PANDEMIC". Pandemic was certified "Platinum in Sub-Saharan Africa" He achieved mainstream recognition with the release of his debut extended play and its hit track "Bounce", which became his major hit, with over 45 million views on youtube music video and had reached number one on Apple Music in Nigeria, and other African countries. Also number 2 most shazam songs of 2021 Nigeria and Number 3 Apple music top songs 2021. He also peaked number 1 top rising artiste on Boomplay 2021. On 19 November 2021, he released his second extended play titled "The Second Wave", solely produced by Kukbeatz. Which was led by "Dior" from the EP, becoming the first to peak number 1 song in Nigeria 2022, along side Gambia, Kenya, Uganda, Sierra Leone, Madagascar and other African countries). "Dior" also peaked number 32 on the Top 50 chart, and number 15 on the UK Afrobeats Singles Chart. 2021 AFRIMMA (African Muzik Magazine Awards) nominated RUGER for Best NewComer 2021 2021 AFRIMA (All Africa Music Awards) nominated Ruger for Best Artiste, Duo or Group in African Reggae, Ragga or Dancehall and Most Promising African Artiste of the year. AEAUSA (African Entertainment Awards USA) nominated Ruger for Best New Artist and Best Reggae or Dancehall Act of the year award. RUGER was listed among the 22 Musicians Set To Rule 2022 by Vogue Magazine UK. On 17 June 2022, he adds three songs (Girlfriend, WeWe, Warning) to the previous project titled "The Second Wave Deluxe," all produced by Kukbeatz.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: "Levels" is a progressive house song by Swedish DJ Avicii that was released on 28 October 2011 through Universal Music Group on iTunes. "Levels" topped the Swedish Singles Chart. Outside Sweden, "Levels" topped the charts in Norway and peaked within the top ten of the charts in Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, the Republic of Ireland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom and received a platinum certification eight times in Sweden, twice in the United Kingdom, and once in the United States.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: Before the song's release, an early version known as "Unnamed" played during a radio program on BBC Radio 1 in the United Kingdom on 11 December 2010. The final version was not played until the Ultra Music Festival in March 2011, where it was referred to as "ID." Afterward, "Levels" played in many clubs and festivals around the world before its eventual release on iTunes. Avicii has stated that he made the song so that he could incorporate a vocal sample from the 1962 gospel-inspired song "Something's Got a Hold on Me" by Etta James.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: The music video was directed by Petro Papahadjopoulos, who came up with the concept after a phone interview with Avicii about the supposed "symbolism" behind "Levels." The video is about a businessman who starts dancing in his office in front of his co-workers and boss before being stunned by an officer and sent to the hospital. All the hospital workers slowly start dancing against their own free will after two of them touch a flower sprouted out of the businessman's mouth.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: In an interview with "Artist Direct"'s editor-in-chief, Rick Florino, Avicii expressed a desire to use a vocal sample from Etta James' "Something's Got a Hold on Me". He said that "After I came up with the 'Levels' hook, I tried using the vocal over it, and it worked really well". He then mentioned that his producer, Arash Pournouri, made a deal with "our label" for promoting the song. Avicii has stated that he did not expect the song to be so popular. In an interview with The Austin Times, where he was asked if he intended for the song to be a big hit, he responded by saying "Not at all". Avicii then said that it took a long time to become a hit and that he is still surprised by the popularity of "Levels". In an interview from Bryce, a host from the radio station, WNYL, DJ Mike Posner claimed that he was sent "Levels" by Avicii while it was still in production to provide vocals to it. Posner produced six "toplines" but did not use them, saying that, "they were good, but not... the thing".


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: An early prototype of "Levels" was first played in BBC Radio 1's Essential Mix on 11 December 2010, initially referred to as "Unnamed". An even earlier prototype using an electric piano as baseline instrument was not released until 19 August 2015 on Instagram. The first time the final version was played was during the Ultra Music Festival on 25 March 2011. It was referred to as "ID". On 12 May 2011, Avicii linked to a preview version of the song on SoundCloud via Facebook, still referring to it as "ID". After the 2011 Ultra Music Festival, "Levels" was played in many festivals and clubs around the world. During this time, a bootleg leak of "Levels" was posted on YouTube and gained over 15 million views. On 27 October 2011, Avicii posted on his YouTube channel a promo trailer of the song "Levels", which featured clips of many of the pre-release performances of "Levels" and placed the release date to October/November 2011. "Levels" was released via iTunes on 28 October 2011 in Australia, Denmark, Ireland, Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Sweden. On 31 October 2011, Universal Music Group posted a teaser on YouTube. The trailer features the cover art of "Levels" with added effects on it including the elevator door opening and the light flickering. The same day, "Levels" was released via iTunes in the United States.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: "Levels" is a progressive house song produced in a dance style and composed in a key of C minor with a tempo of 127 BPM. The song's main aspect is its simple synth hook that is divided into two phrases. The synth hook, which is accompanied by a chord progression of Cm–E–B–A, is repeated throughout most of the song.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: In the middle of the song, the synth hooks drop and the drums are cut out, being replaced by an echoing sound that sounds like a chorus. A sample of the intro to Etta James's "Something's Got a Hold on Me" is played. After the interlude, the synth hooks, and the drumbeat start up again along with a synth line that rises fast before slowly dropping. It was referred to by "Billboard" as a "briefly burbling whistle sound that augments the hook..."


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: Since its release, "Levels" has generated very positive reviews from music critics for its catchy and recognizable synth riff, and has become known as one of the greatest songs of all time, both in EDM and in general. In 2012, the song was nominated for "Best Electro/Dance" and won "Best Song" in the Grammis Awards. In 2013, the song was nominated for "Best Dance Recording" on the Grammy Awards.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: AllMusic critic, David Jefferies, described "Levels" as a "simple and effective EDM monster that launched Swedish producer Avicii to Swedish House Mafia, Afrojack, or Tiesto, erm, levels." Anje Riberra, on the Spanish news site, "El Correo", called the song a "very danceable tune that makes you enjoy it continuously." In "Billboard"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Avicii's 10 Best Songs: Critics' Picks list, "Levels" was placed at number one and described as "quite possibly one of the biggest dance music songs ever recorded." "Billboard", in a separate article, has described in detail why "Levels" was one of the best songs in the world. Kat Bein from Miami New Times called the song, "a worldwide anthem" and said that Avicii is "part of a whole new generation of young producers helping make EDM the biggest youth culture movement since boy bands."


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: DJ producer, Joe Bermudez, when talking about "Levels" said that "Avicii's uplifting chord progressions instantly transport club goers to euphoric state." Music artist Zedd said it is the one song he wished he had produced, saying "...there is something about the genius simplicity of this song; the unbelievably anthemic and powerful emotion I feel when I hear it." The song was put on CULTR's "11 Best Dance & EDM of 2011" as number 11, praised for its "iconic melody that is still catchy to this day." "Pitchfork" ranked "Levels" as the 200th best song of the 2010s, praising the song for its "...monumental synths and jetstream whooshes..." while on "New York"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s subsidiary, "The Vulture", Emily Yoshida praised the song for its "central hook, stabbing, skyscraper-tall synth line, shiny and sleek and feeling like it could touch God..." Future Music called "Levels", interesting because of its composition and its example of how "...a simple part can become complex." One criticism of "Levels" came from Simon Darnell on MK News, where he praised "Levels" for the vocals appearing for brief moment, but otherwise criticized the song for being "utterly predictable, right down to the end."


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: "Levels" found the most chart success in Avicii's native Sweden, peaking at number 1 on the Swedish charts the week of 11 November 2011. It maintained its peak position for seven weeks. It was Avicii's fifth song to make it to Sverigetopplistan's weekly charts. "Levels" was part of three consecutive year-end charts, reaching number 23 in 2011, number 3 in 2012, and number 43 in 2013. After leaving the charts in 2013, it made a return in the week of 24 April 2018 as number 4 and was on charts for four months. That same year, it was placed as number 54 on the year-end charts. "Levels" was also on the charts on two non-consecutive weeks in 2019, the week of 4 January as number 94, and the week of 19 April as number 77. It has received a platinum certification eight times from the Swedish Recording Industry Association, indicating that "Levels" has been shipped to Sweden 320,000 times.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: "Levels" was also very successful in the United States, entering the weekly Hot 100 charts in the week of 11 December 2011 at number 66. "Levels" was the first song Avicii released that entered "Billboard"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s weekly Hot 100 charts. The song stayed on the Hot 100 for 20 weeks, reaching its peak as number 60 on the week of 17 February 2012. On other charts, It stayed on the Mainstream Top 40 for 5 weeks, reaching its peak position of number 33 on 9 March 2012. It reached a peak position of number two on Dance/Mix Show Airplay on 24 February 2012 and was on the chart for 29 weeks, and it reached a peak position of number 1 on Dance Club Songs on 30 December 2011 and was on the chart for 20 weeks. On the year-end charts, It reached number 32 on the year-end Dance Club Songs chart, and number 11 on the year-end Dance/Mix Show Airplay chart. It earned a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America on 9 January 2013, indicating that it was shipped to the US over one million times. It had previously been awarded the gold certification on 27 March 2012.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: "Levels" was also successful in the UK and Norway. In the UK, "Levels" entered the "Official Singles Chart Top 100" on the week of 27 November 2011 at its peak position of number four. It stayed on the chart for 50 weeks and left the charts after its position of number 96 in the week of 16 September 2012. On UK's "Official Dance Singles Chart Top 40," it peaked as number one on the week of 25 December 2011. In the year-end charts of UK, it was number 101 in 2011, and number 59 in 2012. In Norway, "Levels" entered the charts on the week of 7 November 2011 as number four. It peaked as number one on the week of 17 December 2011 and stayed number one for four weeks. It was on the Norwegian charts for around 30 weeks. "Levels" was certified in both the United Kingdom and Norway. In Norway, the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry awarded "Levels" a platinum certification five times, indicating that 50,000 copies were sold in Norway. In the United Kingdom, "Levels" earned a platinum certification twice from the British Phonographic Industry, indicating that it was sold and streamed 1,200,000 times in the United Kingdom. In other nations, it reached a peak position of number 5 in Switzerland, number 4 in Austria, Netherlands, and Belgium, and number 3 in Denmark and Ireland. "Levels" has also received a platinum certification at least once from Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: According to director Petro Papahadjopoulos, he was approached by Universal Music Group for the concept of a music video for Avicii that would make him famous. Papahadjopoulos contacted Avicii to understand the symbolism behind "Levels" and to create a concept that would match the song. Papahadjopoulos created a concept based on Office Space, that he described as "about a man who wakes up to realize he is living in hell. Everyone around him just thinks he's crazy. But his craziness is infectious." Avicii later received the concept of the music video from his production manager, Arash Pournouri, and showed support for it. He posted the concept on his official website on 8 December 2011. Papahadjopoulos collaborated with Richie Greenfield for direction and choreography of the music video. It was ultimately released to YouTube on 29 November 2011.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: The music video depicts a weary businessman, who is played by Richie Greenfield, working at an office. The businessman eventually starts dancing and writing "Avicii" on the tables and walls. A security guard walks into the office, brings out an electroshock weapon, and stuns the businessman unconscious. During the interlude with a sample from "Something's Got a Hold on Me", the man is dreaming of pushing a big boulder up a mountain, mirroring Sisyphus' fate. The music video then cuts to him being restrained to a table in the hospital. A flower blossoms from his mouth. Two hospital workers who were in the same room notices and walk towards the businessman. One of them picks up a piece of the flower, eats a part of it, and then touches it to the other hospital worker. As both of them are walking away, the businessman swallows the flower and he and the two hospital workers start dancing around the hospital. As the hospital workers dance in the hospital, everyone else in the hospital starts dancing against their will.


title: Levels (Avicii song)

text: The intended symbolism of the music video was described in an early concept page on Avicii's website. The concept describes the idea that "we are already in Avici, and that maybe we at times are aware of this and the existence of other levels." It goes on to describe that reality is "an infinite loop of reality. Day in and day out. The reality looks just like our own, but shot through a gritty and unsaturated lens." The concept page then describes in a summary of the original concept story, how the symbolism ties into the music video: "We watch as the man’s reality implodes, he’s experiencing awareness of other levels and his entire reality all around him transforms to something new."


title: Maula Jatt

text: Maula Jatt (), is a 1979 Pakistani Punjabi language action, musical film directed by Younis Malik and produced by "Sarwar Bhatti". The film is an unofficial sequel to the 1975's "Wehshi Jatt", starring Sultan Rahi as Maula Jatt and Mustafa Qureshi as his arch-rival Noori Natt, two of the most iconic characters in Pakistani cinema.


title: Maula Jatt

text: This movie belongs to a genre which represents the rural culture of Pakistani central Punjab. Its success set the trend of action films being popular in Pakistan and cemented Sultan Rahi as Lollywood's main hero. The film was inspired by Ahmed Nadeem Qasmi's short story "Gandasa" which described the culture of Gujranwala's rural areas. It received positive reviews from critics. An unofficial sequel titled "Maula Jatt in London", also directed by the Yunus Malik, was released in 1981.


title: Maula Jatt

text: The story is set in a village near the town of Mamdal, near Kabirwala. Following the settlement of Maula Jatt's family feud, Maula has renounced violence and is in charge of administering the peace of his village and its surrounding villages.


title: Maula Jatt

text: The film begins with "Maakha Natt" chasing a girl. She asks for help but as soon as people hear that she is being pursued by Maakha, the brother of Noori Natt, they ask her to leave and not share her misfortune with them. She arrives in Maula's village and asks for help. Maula's Bhabi Daani calls Maula Jatt. Maula Jatt arrives and advises Maakha. When Maakha disagrees with Maula, his friend "Moodha" beats up Maakha and leaves a scar after kicking him on the nose. Maula decrees that if Maakha wants to avoid the fate of being killed by his 'Gandasa', he should marry the girl whom he has dishonoured and marry his sister off to her brother. As girl has no family, so Maula orders Maakha to marry his sister to Moodha.


title: Maula Jatt

text: When Makha returns home to plot his revenge, his sister "Daaro" incensed upon hearing what he has agreed to, kills him. The Natt clan now try to avenge the humiliation that Maula Jatt has caused them while Maula Jatt tries to ensure that his decision is enforced and justice is done.


title: Maula Jatt

text: When Noori Natt gets out of jail, he tells jailor that he has run out of competition and now he wants a worthy opponent. On jailor's advice he pays a visit to Malik Haku. Haku doesn't tell Noori the name of his old rival and warns him not to get in his way if he ever finds out about him. On returning home, he gets to know the whole incident. Noori starts a quest to find Maula. Noori finally arrives in Maula's village, but instead he gets Moodha. When Moodha tells Noori that it was he who left a scar on his brother's nose, Noori beats him up badly and breaks his leg. Maula returns and finds a broken legged Moodha, he then swears to take Noori's leg.


title: Maula Jatt

text: Maula and Noori finally face off but police stop them from killing each other. Later on, Maula and Noori get together for a final clash, in which Maula overpowers Noori. Just as he is about to deliver the final blow, Daaro, comes to the rescue and requests Maula to spare Noori and considering that Maula had called her his sister. Maula agrees but Noori amputates his own leg so Maula's revenge is completed. The film ends with Daaro agreeing to marry Moodha and their rivalry resolved forever.


title: Maula Jatt

text: Film "Maula Jatt" was commercially successful in the 1980s and celebrated its "Diamond Jubilee" at the cinemas and the box office. Over the years, the movie has been able to attain cult status. It spawned a number of sequels, becoming the first-ever successful unofficial franchise for a Lollywood title. "Maula Jat"'s success spawned "Maula Jat tey Noorie Nut" as well as "Maula Jat in London" and continues to influence popular culture. It was also remade in Hindi as "Jeene Nahi Doonga". Productions such as the 2002 play "Jatt and Bond" use "Maula Jatt" as their "inspiration".


title: Maula Jatt

text: Bilal Lashari, the director of "Waar" (2013) expressed interest in directing a remake of Maula Jatt. On the remake, he commented, "My version of Maula Jatt will be a visual epic, with less dialogue and many captivating moments. It will be a dark but stylised take on Pakistan’s original film genre." "The Legend of Maula Jatt", set to release in 2019, was delayed to October 2022 due to COVID-19.


title: Maula Jatt

text: The songs were composed by Master Inayat Hussain. These were sung by some very popular singers: Noor Jehan, Mehnaz, Inayat Hussain Bhatti, Alam Lohar, Shaukat Ali and Ghulam Ali.


title: James LoMenzo

text: James LoMenzo (born January 13, 1959) is an American heavy metal bass guitarist. He was a member of the band White Lion, performing with them from 1984 to 1991. He was later the bassist for Black Label Society, Slash's Snakepit, and Megadeth. He was announced as Megadeth's touring bassist in August 2021 and in June 2022 he fully returned to the band. Outside music, he is known for being a contestant on the 21st season of the reality television series "The Amazing Race".


title: James LoMenzo

text: In the late 1970s, he started in a band called "Empty Sky", a rock band with hints of jazz. The band was based out of Brooklyn and was one of the biggest up-and-coming young bands. LoMenzo was the lead vocalist and bassist. The band consisted of Robert Littera at lead guitar, Julie Pontecorvo on trumpet, Marco Lagana on trombone, Frank Bonanno on tenor saxophone, Oscar Olivera on drums, Vincent Chirico on rhythm guitar and John Buccellato on electric piano. The band broke up as the members began to mature and take their separate career paths.


title: James LoMenzo

text: He played bass with Clockwork, his first original hard rock band in 1980 to 1983. He then went on to play in the band Rondinelli with Ray Gillen before joining White Lion in 1984.


title: James LoMenzo

text: He played bass with White Lion from 1984 to 1991, and then went on with White Lion drummer Greg D'Angelo to play with former Kiss guitarist Ace Frehley, and then later with Zakk Wylde's side-project Lynyrd Skynhead who evolved into Pride & Glory and released one album in 1994. Although he left the band during their 1994 tour, he returned to play on Zakk Wylde's 1996 solo album "Book of Shadows". He had a brief stint in the recording studio with Ozzy Osbourne in 1994 but the sessions were not used, and "Ozzmosis" was re-recorded by different musicians the next year. In 1995, LoMenzo, along with Pride & Glory drummer Brian Tichy joined Slash's Snakepit as touring musicians. He was a member of David Lee Roth's band in the late 1990s and early 2000s and performed on his album "Diamond Dave".


title: James LoMenzo

text: In 2004, LoMenzo rejoined Zakk Wylde in his band Black Label Society until October 2005 when he was replaced by Black Label Society's original bassist John DeServio.


title: James LoMenzo

text: From February 2006 to February 2010, LoMenzo was the bassist of thrash metal band Megadeth. The first Megadeth record he performed on was 2007's "United Abominations". LoMenzo also performed on the band's next album, "Endgame" from 2009. On February 8, 2010, it was announced that original Megadeth bassist Dave Ellefson replaced LoMenzo.


title: James LoMenzo

text: On August 11, 2021, it was announced that LoMenzo had returned to Megadeth as Ellefson's replacement for the tour. Ellefson had been fired from the band three months prior in May 2021. On May 31, 2022, Megadeth confirmed on their website that Lomenzo was again a permanent member of the band.


title: James LoMenzo

text: In 2010, LoMenzo played bass for Lynch Mob. He is also part of the band "Hideous Sun Demons". LoMenzo played bass on the album "Get Your Rock On" by X-Drive which was released August 25, 2014 via Frontiers Records and produced by Led Zeppelin engineer Andy Johns. He is also featured on the upcoming Sweet & Lynch album, "Only to Rise" featuring Michael Sweet, George Lynch, and Brian Tichy due out on Frontiers Records (January 27, 2015).


title: James LoMenzo

text: As of June 2020, LoMenzo plays for the band Firstborne, the first project created by Chris Adler (Lamb of God, Megadeth).


title: James LoMenzo

text: LoMenzo is also a graphic artist and did the art work for Gilby Clarke's solo album "Rubber" in 1998. Also, in 1997, he did the photos in Mike Tramp's first solo album "Capricorn". LoMenzo is also a member of a tribute band called HAIL!. HAIL!'s rotating cast of members include Andreas Kisser, Tim "Ripper" Owens, Paul Bostaph, David Ellefson, Mike Portnoy, Jimmy DeGrasso, and Roy Mayorga. Owens, DeGrasso, Ellefson and Kisser formed the band in late 2008. The band toured Europe in 2009, and in June 2010, HAIL! was on their second European tour with the line-up Andreas Kisser, Tim Owens, Paul Bostaph, and LoMenzo. Due to the death of previously announced Slipknot bassist Paul Gray, LoMenzo agreed on only one day's notice to fly to Portugal and play the Rock in Rio festival where HAIL! was scheduled to perform on May 30, 2010. Lomenzo also joined Lynch Mob in late July 2010, replacing Marco Mendoza. LoMenzo previously jammed with Lynch Mob drummer Brian Tichy in both Pride & Glory and Slash's Snakepit.


title: James LoMenzo

text: On August 29, 2012, LoMenzo was announced as a cast member of "The Amazing Race 21" along with his partner Mark "Abba" Abbattista. They ended up in 6th place out of 11 teams and were the sixth team eliminated at Sokolniki Park in Moscow, Russia due to an unsuccessful search for Abba's stolen passport.


title: James LoMenzo

text: In October 2014, LoMenzo briefly joined former Megadeth members Nick Menza and Chris Poland for an unnamed project. Shortly after announcing this project, LoMenzo left, to be replaced by OHM bassist Robby Pagliari. Nick Menza would go on to join OHM as drummer, filling the role left by David Eagle's death.


title: James LoMenzo

text: LoMenzo is best known for his frequent use of the Warwick Buzzard bass and Warwick Stryker bass. His amplification section is dominated by Ashdown amps and cabinets. His effects pedals include Dunlop Crybaby, MXR Chorus, MXR Distortion, and Aphex Punch as well as other pedals. He has his own signature pedal, the Ashdown Lomenzo Hyperdrive. His rig bears a strong resemblance to that of John Entwistle, who also used Ashdown amps and Buzzard basses (which he designed himself). LoMenzo's live rig can be seen here. He is an endorser of RotoSound bass strings. He is also known to play a spyder model Alembic bass guitar. He was also seen playing a Fender Marcus Miller Jazz Bass for the entirety of the 2007 Megadeth Tour of Duty. As of September 2008, LoMenzo has been seen playing a Yamaha BB Custom Shop model; which in itself, has a slightly smaller body than a standard BB, two pairs of P bass pick-ups (one reversed), a neck pick-up based on a Gibson Model One, a maple neck and a Hipshot D-Tuner. Some Megadeth photos show LoMenzo playing Yamaha Attitude Ltd models that also have the P-bass/neck pickup and D-tuner configuration.


title: Comparison of online dating services

text: All services in the list that have an entry, whether they support heterosexual connections, currently support homosexual connections.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism (MLM) is a political philosophy that synthesizes and builds upon Marxism–Leninism and Maoism. Its proponents refer to Marxism–Leninism–Maoism as Maoism and Maoism as Mao Zedong Thought (MZT) or Marxism–Leninism–Mao Zedong Thought. Marxism–Leninism–Maoism was first formalized by the Shining Path in 1982 although Marxism-Leninism-Maoism was proclaimed as a central tenet of the North Kalimantan Communist Party in 1969.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: The synthesis of Marxism–Leninism–Maoism did not occur during the life of Mao Zedong. From the 1960s, groups that called themselves Maoist or which upheld Maoism were not unified around a common understanding of Maoism and had instead their own particular interpretations of the political, philosophical, economical and military works of Mao; these disorganized ideological trends comprised, and still comprise, Mao Zedong Thought. Adherents of Marxism–Leninism–Maoism claim it to be a unified, coherent higher stage of Marxism and that it was not synthesized until the 1980s through the experience of the people's war waged by the Shining Path in Peru. This led the Shining Path to posit Marxism–Leninism–Maoism as the newest development of Marxism.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism has grown and developed significantly, serving as an animating force of revolutionary movements in countries such as Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, India, Nepal and the Philippines. It has also led to efforts being undertaken towards the constitution or reconstitution of communist parties in countries such as Austria, France, Germany, Sweden and the United States. There are several non-party Maoist organizations in many countries, such as in Norway and the Red Guards in the United States.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: The theory of New Democracy holds that the national-bourgeois in semi-feudal and semi-colonial countries has a dual character in that although it is an exploitative capitalist force, it can also but not always side with the proletariat against colonialism, imperialism and the comprador-bourgeoisie (whose existence is due to imperialism).


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: Much like the New Economic Policy in Russia, New Democracy is conceived of as a necessary (but temporary) stage for the long-term development of socialism, or in this case for the construction and consolidation of socialism in the first place. It holds that the national-bourgeois in the New Democratic stage must always be firmly under the command of the proletariat and they must be firmly dispensed with as soon as the national situation allows (in other words, when the contradiction between feudalism and the masses is no longer the primary contradiction of the nation, or when the bourgeois-democratic revolution is at a sufficiently advanced stage) for an outright dictatorship of the proletariat.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: Building on the theory of the vanguard party by Vladimir Lenin, the theory of the mass line outlines a strategy for the revolutionary leadership of the masses, consolidation of the dictatorship of the proletariat and strengthening of the party and for the building of socialism. The mass line can be summarized by the phrase "from the masses, to the masses". It has three components or stages:


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: These three steps should be applied over and over again, reiteratively uplifting practice and knowledge to higher and higher stages.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: Marxist–Leninist–Maoists uphold Mao Zedong's philosophical works, particularly his work on dialectics in "On Contradiction" and on epistemology in "On Practice".


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: In a joint document released in 1998, several Marxist–Leninist–Maoist communist parties affirmed the difference between the specific strategic line of protracted people's war and the more general and universally applicable people's war. Protracted people's war is identified as being a specific application of the concept of people's war to countries with a large population or majority of peasantry and involving encircling the cities from base areas of communist control in the countryside.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: The issue of applying people's war to fully industrialized first world nations is the subject of much debate. Many Marxist–Leninist–Maoist organizations such as the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement have put forward that much of a hypothetical people's war in the First World would take place in urban areas.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: Marxist–Leninist–Maoists draw heavily from the experiences and lessons of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution which sought to eradicate the bourgeois that arose within the vanguard party itself and to transform all aspects of the social superstructure. The catchphrase "class struggle continues, and is intensified, under socialism" is frequently used.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: Marxist–Leninist–Maoists hold the primacy of the relations of production over the productive forces, criticize Joseph Stalin's line that bourgeois influence under an advanced stage of socialism is primarily due to external forces (to the almost complete exclusion of internal forces) and strongly reaffirm the base-superstructure dialectic (that the conscious transformation of the base on its own is not enough, but the superstructure must also be consciously transformed).


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: The three most notable differences between Marxism–Leninism–Maoism and Mao Zedong Thought are the following:


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: Perhaps the most notable international was the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement (RIM). RIM was founded in 1984 and included such organizations as the Shining Path and the then-Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), eventually known as the Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist). Today, the RIM appears to be defunct or near defunct. The magazine associated with the RIM, "A World to Win", has not published an issue since 2006, though A World to Win News Service still publishes regularly on the Internet. In addition, many of the one-time RIM organizations have become increasingly critical of each other and this has resulted in many public splits.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: The Communist Party of India (Maoist) is a Marxist–Leninist–Maoist political party which aims to overthrow the government of India. It was founded on 21 September 2004 through the merger of the Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) People's War and the Maoist Communist Centre of India. The merger was announced to the public on 14 October the same year. In the merger, a provisional central committee was constituted, with the erstwhile people's war leader Muppala Lakshmana Rao (alias Ganapathi) as the general secretary. It is currently proscribed as a terrorist organization by the Indian government.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: The Kangleipak Communist Party has claimed that Manipur was annexed by the Union of India under the guise of Manipur Merger Agreement of 1949. According to this Marxist–Leninist–Maoist group, the merger of Manipur with the Union of India was in blatant contradiction of relevant international law as the then king of Manipur no longer had the authority to sign the agreement following the establishment of a democratically elected government. According to the group's chairman Ibungo Ngangom, "the then king signed the merger instrument only under duress, or more precisely, at gunpoint and so the so-called Manipur merger agreement was null and void from the very beginning". The group is currently at war with the government India and its express primary goal is not only to have Manipur secede from India, but also to bring about a communist state in Manipur through the scientific socialism of Karl Marx.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: Many significant Marxist–Leninist–Maoist groups exist across Latin America, including the Communist Party of Brazil (Red Fraction), the Communist Party of Chile (Red Fraction), the Communist Party of Ecuador–Red Sun, the Maoist Organization for the Reconstitution of the Communist Party of Colombia and the Revolutionary Nucleus for the Reconstitution of the Communist Party of Mexico.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: The Shining Path is a guerrilla insurgent organization in Peru. It was founded in 1968 by Abimael Guzmán. The Shining Path suffered a setback after the capture of Guzmán and much of the party leadership in 1992 as well as a takeover of the Main Regional Committee, the greater part of the People's Liberation Army and the liquidation of the main Base Areas. Nonetheless, the Shining Path continues to exist in the VRAEM area of Peru and continues to carry out military actions. This party is not to be confused with Militarized Communist Party of Peru, or the Peruvian Communist Party; of which it is unaffiliated.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: The Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), a national communist party with a revolutionary background, is a follower of Marxism–Leninism–Maoism. However, the party has also developed its own guiding thought known as Marxism–Leninism–Maoism–Prachanda Path which was developed taking Nepal's political, sociological and geographical constraints into consideration.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: The Communist Party of Nepal is another Marxist–Leninist–Maoist party in Nepal. It claims that the UCPN(M) is a revisionist organization and is continuing the people's war against the UCPN(M) government.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: In the Philippines, the Communist Party of the Philippines and its New People's Army has been waging a people's war since 1968. Its strength peaked during the dictatorial rule of Ferdinand Marcos and was the main bulk of the opposition against the dictatorship. However, it suffered setbacks and stagnancy until it carried out the Second Great Rectification Movement. It maintains nearly 100 active guerrilla fronts throughout the Philippines today and is considered by the military as the main threat to national security.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: The Revolutionary Communist Party, USA (RCP) was previously a Marxist–Leninist–Maoist political party in the United States. The RCP participated in the founding conference of the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement on 12 March 1984. The RCP signed the "Declaration of the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement" and supported the RIM's declaration "Long Live Marxism–Leninism–Maoism!" on 26 December 1993 which recognized "Marxism–Leninism–Maoism as the new, third and higher stage of Marxism". However, today the RCP uses the "New Synthesis of Communism" to describe its ideology, although they still call themselves Maoists. Because of this, the RCP has been accused of revisionism by several Marxist–Leninist–Maoist groups such as the Communist Party of India (Maoist) and the Revolutionary Communist Party of Canada.


title: Marxism–Leninism–Maoism

text: The Red Guards was a Marxist–Leninist–Maoist collective of community organizers and mass workers founded in 2015.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: Nighthawks is a 1942 oil on canvas painting by Edward Hopper that portrays four people in a downtown diner late at night as viewed through the diner's large glass window. The light coming from the diner illuminates a darkened and deserted urban streetscape. The bartender may be a soda jerker, the three guests are night owls, giving the painting the title.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: It has been described as Hopper's best-known work and is one of the most recognizable paintings in American art. Within months of its completion, it was sold to the Art Institute of Chicago on May 13, 1942, for $3,000.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: It has been suggested that Hopper was inspired by a short story of Ernest Hemingway's, either "The Killers" (1927), which Hopper greatly admired, or from the more philosophical "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" (1933). In response to a query on loneliness and emptiness in the painting, Hopper outlined that he "didn't see it as particularly lonely". He said "unconsciously, probably, I was painting the loneliness of a large city".


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: Starting shortly after their marriage in 1924, Edward Hopper and his wife Josephine (Jo) kept a journal in which he would use a pencil, make a sketch-drawing of each of his paintings, along with a detailed description of specific technical details. Jo Hopper would then add additional information about the theme of the painting.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: A review of the page on which "Nighthawks" is entered shows (in Edward Hopper's handwriting) that the intended name of the work was actually Night Hawks and that the painting was completed on January 21, 1942.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: Jo's handwritten notes about the painting give considerably more detail, including the possibility that the painting's title may have had its origins as a reference to the beak-shaped nose of the man at the bar or that the appearance of one of the "nighthawks" was tweaked to relate to the original meaning of the word:


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: In January 1942, Jo confirmed her preference for the name. In a letter to Edward's sister Marion she wrote, "Ed has just finished a very fine picture--a lunch counter at night with 3 figures. Night Hawks would be a fine name for it. E. posed for the two men in a mirror and I for the girl. He was about a month and half working on it."


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: Upon completing the canvas in the late winter of 1941–42, Hopper placed it on display at Rehn's, the gallery at which his paintings were normally placed for sale. It remained there for about a month. On St. Patrick's Day, Edward and Jo Hopper attended the opening of an exhibit of the paintings of Henri Rousseau at New York's Museum of Modern Art, which had been organized by Daniel Catton Rich, the director of the Art Institute of Chicago. Rich was in attendance, along with Alfred Barr, the Museum of Modern Art director. Barr spoke enthusiastically of "Gas", which Hopper had painted a year earlier, and "Jo told him he just had to go to Rehn's to see "Nighthawks". In the event, it was Rich who went, pronounced "Nighthawks" 'fine as a [Winslow] Homer', and soon arranged its purchase for Chicago." The sale price was $3,000 ().


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: The scene was supposedly inspired by a diner (since demolished) in Greenwich Village, Hopper's neighborhood in Manhattan. Hopper himself said the painting "was suggested by a restaurant on Greenwich Avenue where two streets meet". Additionally, he noted that "I simplified the scene a great deal and made the restaurant bigger".


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: That reference has led Hopper fans to engage in a search for the location of the original diner. The inspiration for the search has been summed up in the blog of one of these searchers: "I am finding it extremely difficult to let go of the notion that the Nighthawks diner was a real diner, and not a total composite built of grocery stores, hamburger joints, and bakeries all cobbled together in the painter's imagination".


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: The spot usually associated with the former location is a now-vacant lot known as Mulry Square, at the intersection of Seventh Avenue South, Greenwich Avenue, and West 11th Street, about seven blocks west of Hopper's studio on Washington Square. However, according to an article by Jeremiah Moss in "The New York Times", that cannot be the location of the diner that inspired the painting because a gas station occupied that lot from the 1930s to the 1970s.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: Moss located a land-use map in a 1950s municipal atlas showing that "Sometime between the late '30s and early '50s, a new diner appeared near Mulry Square". Specifically, the diner was located immediately to the right of the gas station, "not in the empty northern lot, but on the southwest side, where Perry Street slants". That map is not reproduced in the "Times" article but is shown on Moss's blog.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: Moss concludes that Hopper should be taken at his word: the painting was merely "suggested" by a real-life restaurant, he had "simplified the scene a great deal", and he "made the restaurant bigger". In short, there probably never was a single real-life scene identical to the one that Hopper had created, and if one did exist, there is no longer sufficient evidence to pin down the precise location. Moss concludes, "the ultimate truth remains bitterly out of reach".


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: Because it is so widely recognized, the diner scene in "Nighthawks" has served as the model for many homages and parodies.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: Hopper influenced the Photorealists of the late 1960s and early 1970s, including Ralph Goings, who evoked "Nighthawks" in several paintings of diners. Richard Estes painted a corner store in "People's Flowers" (1971), but in daylight, with the shop's large window reflecting the street and sky.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: More direct visual quotations began to appear in the 1970s. Gottfried Helnwein's painting "Boulevard of Broken Dreams" (1984) replaces the three patrons with American pop culture icons Humphrey Bogart, Marilyn Monroe, and James Dean, and the attendant with Elvis Presley. According to Hopper scholar Gail Levin, Helnwein connected the bleak mood of "Nighthawks" with 1950s American cinema and with "the tragic fate of the decade's best-loved celebrities." "Nighthawks Revisited", a 1980 parody by Red Grooms, clutters the street scene with pedestrians, cats, and trash. A 2005 Banksy parody shows a fat, shirtless soccer hooligan in Union Flag boxers standing inebriated outside the diner, apparently having just smashed the diner window with a nearby chair.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: A large mural recreation of "Nighthawks" was painted on a defunct Chinese restaurant in Santa Rosa, California until the building was demolished in 2019.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: Several writers have explored how the customers in "Nighthawks" came to be in a diner at night, or what will happen next. Wolf Wondratschek's poem "Nighthawks: After Edward Hopper's Painting" imagines the man and woman sitting together in the diner as an estranged couple: "I bet she wrote him a letter/ Whatever it said, he's no longer the man / Who'd read her letters twice." Joyce Carol Oates wrote interior monologues for the figures in the painting in her poem "Edward Hopper's Nighthawks, 1942". A special issue of "Der Spiegel" included five brief dramatizations that built five different plots around the painting; one, by screenwriter Christoph Schlingensief, turned the scene into a chainsaw massacre. Erik Jendresen and Stuart Dybek also wrote short stories inspired by this painting.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: Hopper was an avid moviegoer and critics have noted the resemblance of his paintings to film stills. "Nighthawks" and works such as "Night Shadows" (1921) anticipate the look of film noir, whose development Hopper may have influenced.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: Hopper was an acknowledged influence on the film musical "Pennies from Heaven" (1981), for which production designer Ken Adam recreated "Nighthawks" as a set. Director Wim Wenders recreated "Nighthawks" as the set for a film-within-a-film in "The End of Violence" (1997). Wenders suggested that Hopper's paintings appeal to filmmakers because "You can always tell where the camera is." In "Glengarry Glen Ross" (1992), two characters visit a café resembling the diner in a scene that illustrates their solitude and despair. The painting was also briefly used as a background for a scene in the animated film "Heavy Traffic" (1973) by director Ralph Bakshi.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: "Nighthawks" also influenced the "future noir" look of "Blade Runner"; director Ridley Scott said "I was constantly waving a reproduction of this painting under the noses of the production team to illustrate the look and mood I was after". In his review of the 1998 film "Dark City", Roger Ebert noted that the film had "store windows that owe something to Edward Hopper's "Nighthawks"." "Hard Candy" (2005) acknowledged a similar debt by setting one scene at a "Nighthawks Diner" where a character purchases a T-shirt with "Nighthawks" printed on it.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: The painting features in the 2009 movie "", where it is erroneously shown to be a part of the Smithsonian. The painting comes to life in the film through CGI animation with all the characters briefly reacting to the events in the outside world.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: A number of model railroaders, most notably John Armstrong, have recreated the scene on their layouts.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: The theater lighting manufacturer Electronic Theatre Controls has a human-sized scale model of the diner in the lobby of their headquarters in Middleton, Wisconsin. It is used as a reception area for the building.


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: "Nighthawks" has been widely referenced and parodied in popular culture. Versions of it have appeared on posters, T-shirts and greeting cards as well as in comic books and advertisements. Typically, these parodies—like Helnwein's "Boulevard of Broken Dreams", which became a popular poster—retain the diner and the highly recognizable diagonal composition but replace the patrons and attendant with other characters: animals, Santa Claus and his reindeer, or the respective casts of "The Adventures of Tintin" or "Peanuts".


title: Nighthawks (Hopper)

text: One parody of "Nighthawks" even inspired a parody of its own. Michael Bedard's painting "Window Shopping" (1989), part of his "Sitting Ducks" series of posters, replaces the figures in the diner with ducks and shows a crocodile outside eying the ducks in anticipation. Poverino Peppino parodied this image in "Boulevard of Broken Ducks" (1993), in which a contented crocodile lies on the counter while four ducks stand outside in the rain.


title: Lists of integrals

text: Integration is the basic operation in integral calculus. While differentiation has straightforward rules by which the derivative of a complicated function can be found by differentiating its simpler component functions, integration does not, so tables of known integrals are often useful. This page lists some of the most common antiderivatives.


title: Lists of integrals

text: A compilation of a list of integrals (Integraltafeln) and techniques of integral calculus was published by the German mathematician (aka ) in 1810. These tables were republished in the United Kingdom in 1823. More extensive tables were compiled in 1858 by the Dutch mathematician David Bierens de Haan for his "Tables d'intégrales définies", supplemented by "Supplément aux tables d'intégrales définies" in ca. 1864. A new edition was published in 1867 under the title "Nouvelles tables d'intégrales définies". These tables, which contain mainly integrals of elementary functions, remained in use until the middle of the 20th century. They were then replaced by the much more extensive tables of Gradshteyn and Ryzhik. In Gradshteyn and Ryzhik, integrals originating from the book by Bierens de Haan are denoted by BI.


title: Lists of integrals

text: Not all closed-form expressions have closed-form antiderivatives; this study forms the subject of differential Galois theory, which was initially developed by Joseph Liouville in the 1830s and 1840s, leading to Liouville's theorem which classifies which expressions have closed form antiderivatives. A simple example of a function without a closed form antiderivative is , whose antiderivative is (up to constants) the error function.


title: Lists of integrals

text: Since 1968 there is the Risch algorithm for determining indefinite integrals that can be expressed in term of elementary functions, typically using a computer algebra system. Integrals that cannot be expressed using elementary functions can be manipulated symbolically using general functions such as the Meijer G-function.


title: Lists of integrals

text: Gradshteyn, Ryzhik, Geronimus, Tseytlin, Jeffrey, Zwillinger, and Moll's (GR) "Table of Integrals, Series, and Products" contains a large collection of results. An even larger, multivolume table is the "Integrals and Series" by Prudnikov, Brychkov, and Marichev (with volumes 1–3 listing integrals and series of elementary and special functions, volume 4–5 are tables of Laplace transforms). More compact collections can be found in e.g. Brychkov, Marichev, Prudnikov's "Tables of Indefinite Integrals", or as chapters in Zwillinger's "CRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae" or Bronshtein and Semendyayev's "Guide Book to Mathematics", "Handbook of Mathematics" or "Users' Guide to Mathematics", and other mathematical handbooks.


title: Lists of integrals

text: Other useful resources include Abramowitz and Stegun and the Bateman Manuscript Project. Both works contain many identities concerning specific integrals, which are organized with the most relevant topic instead of being collected into a separate table. Two volumes of the Bateman Manuscript are specific to integral transforms.


title: Lists of integrals

text: There are several web sites which have tables of integrals and integrals on demand. Wolfram Alpha can show results, and for some simpler expressions, also the intermediate steps of the integration. Wolfram Research also operates another online service, the Mathematica Online Integrator.


title: Lists of integrals

text: "C" is used for an arbitrary constant of integration that can only be determined if something about the value of the integral at some point is known. Thus, each function has an infinite number of antiderivatives.


title: Lists of integrals

text: When there is a singularity in the function being integrated such that the antiderivative becomes undefined or at some point (the singularity), then "C" does not need to be the same on both sides of the singularity. The forms below normally assume the Cauchy principal value around a singularity in the value of "C" but this is not in general necessary. For instance in


title: Lists of integrals

text: there is a singularity at 0 and the antiderivative becomes infinite there. If the integral above were to be used to compute a definite integral between −1 and 1, one would get the wrong answer 0. This however is the Cauchy principal value of the integral around the singularity. If the integration is done in the complex plane the result depends on the path around the origin, in this case the singularity contributes −"i" when using a path above the origin and "i" for a path below the origin. A function on the real line could use a completely different value of "C" on either side of the origin as in:


title: Lists of integrals

text: Let be a continuous function, that has at most one zero. If has a zero, let be the unique antiderivative of that is zero at the root of ; otherwise, let be any antiderivative of . Then


title: Lists of integrals

text: where is the sign function, which takes the values −1, 0, 1 when is respectively negative, zero or positive.


title: Lists of integrals

text: This can be proved by computing the derivative of the right-hand side of the formula, taking into account that the condition on is here for insuring the continuity of the integral.


title: Lists of integrals

text: This gives the following formulas (where ), which are valid over any interval where is continuous (over larger intervals, the constant must be replaced by a piecewise constant function):


title: Lists of integrals

text: If the function does not have any continuous antiderivative which takes the value zero at the zeros of (this is the case for the sine and the cosine functions), then is an antiderivative of on every interval on which is not zero, but may be discontinuous at the points where . For having a continuous antiderivative, one has thus to add a well chosen step function. If we also use the fact that the absolute values of sine and cosine are periodic with period , then we get:


title: Lists of integrals

text: , : Trigonometric integrals, : Exponential integral, : Logarithmic integral function, : Error function


title: Lists of integrals

text: There are some functions whose antiderivatives "cannot" be expressed in closed form. However, the values of the definite integrals of some of these functions over some common intervals can be calculated. A few useful integrals are given below.


title: Lists of integrals

text: If the function has bounded variation on the interval , then the method of exhaustion provides a formula for the integral:


title: Algebraic expression

text: In mathematics, an algebraic expression is an expression built up from integer constants, variables, and the algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and exponentiation by an exponent that is a rational number). For example, is an algebraic expression. Since taking the square root is the same as raising to the power , the following is also an algebraic expression:


title: Algebraic expression

text: By contrast, transcendental numbers like and are not algebraic, since they are not derived from integer constants and algebraic operations. Usually, is constructed as a geometric relationship, and the definition of requires an "infinite number" of algebraic operations.


title: Algebraic expression

text: A rational expression is an expression that may be rewritten to a rational fraction by using the properties of the arithmetic operations (commutative properties and associative properties of addition and multiplication, distributive property and rules for the operations on the fractions). In other words, a rational expression is an expression which may be constructed from the variables and the constants by using only the four operations of arithmetic. Thus,


title: Algebraic expression

text: A rational equation is an equation in which two rational fractions (or rational expressions) of the form


title: Algebraic expression

text: are set equal to each other. These expressions obey the same rules as fractions. The equations can be solved by cross-multiplying. Division by zero is undefined, so that a solution causing formal division by zero is rejected.


title: Algebraic expression

text: The roots of a polynomial expression of degree "n", or equivalently the solutions of a polynomial equation, can always be written as algebraic expressions if "n" < 5 (see quadratic formula, cubic function, and quartic equation). Such a solution of an equation is called an algebraic solution. But the Abel–Ruffini theorem states that algebraic solutions do not exist for all such equations (just for some of them) if "n" formula_5 5.


title: Algebraic expression

text: By convention, letters at the beginning of the alphabet (e.g. formula_6) are typically used to represent constants, and those toward the end of the alphabet (e.g. formula_7 and formula_8) are used to represent variables. They are usually written in italics.


title: Algebraic expression

text: By convention, terms with the highest power (exponent), are written on the left, for example, formula_9 is written to the left of formula_10. When a coefficient is one, it is usually omitted (e.g. formula_11 is written formula_9). Likewise when the exponent (power) is one, (e.g. formula_13 is written formula_14), and, when the exponent is zero, the result is always 1 (e.g. formula_15 is written formula_16, since formula_17 is always formula_18).


title: Algebraic expression

text: The table below summarizes how algebraic expressions compare with several other types of mathematical expressions by the type of elements they may contain, according to common but not universal conventions.


title: Algebraic expression

text: A "rational algebraic expression" (or "rational expression") is an algebraic expression that can be written as a quotient of polynomials, such as . An "irrational algebraic expression" is one that is not rational, such as .


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: Balaji Motion Pictures is a wholly-owned subsidiary company of Balaji Telefilms Limited which is an Indian film production and distribution company established by Shobha Kapoor and her daughter Ekta Kapoor. Based in Mumbai, it produces and distributes Hindi films. The chairman of the company is former Bollywood actor Jeetendra Kapoor.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: Balaji Motion Pictures is based in Mumbai in the Balaji House on New Link Road, Andheri West, Mumbai. It operates from its head office in Andheri West and has studios in Film City and other locations in Mumbai. In terms of studio facilities, Balaji Motion Pictures is one of the largest film productions houses in Mumbai.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: Balaji Motion Pictures was set up in 2001 by Hindi television producer Ekta Kapoor with the purpose of venturing into film production. She produced "Kyo Kii... Main Jhuth Nahin Bolta", released in 2001 with Govinda and Sushmita Sen in the lead roles. The film was a failure at the box office, collecting . Later, the company produced "Kucch To Hai" (2003), "Krishna Cottage" (2004) and "Koi Aap Sa" (2005), all of which did not fare well at the box office.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: In 2005, the company produced and released "Kyaa Kool Hai Hum", which grossed and made it to the top 10 films of 2005.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: In 2007, the company co-produced "Shootout at Lokhandwala" with Sanjay Gupta. It was a critical and commercial success, collecting worldwide.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: In 2008, the company produced and released "C Kkompany", which was a critical and commercial failure. In the same year, the company co-produced "Mission Istanbul" and "EMI – Liya Hai Toh Chukana Parega" with Sunil Shetty. Both films failed critically and commercially. In the same year, the company acquired the distribution rights of "Bhool Bhulaiyaa" (2007) and "Sarkar Raj" (2008) with a deal of almost . The films were both commercially successful, thereby marking a step further of Balaji.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: In 2010, the company sub-branded ALT Entertainment, a youth focused brand and produced a low-budget film, "Love Sex aur Dhokha", which proved to be a sleeper hit at the box office. In the same year, the company released "Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai", which was also a critical and commercial success. The film marked the company's successful entry into film.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: In 2011, the company marked its entry into Marathi films by producing "Taryanche Bait". The film was a critical and commercial hit and won many accolades including three awards for Best Film. The company also released "Shor in the City", a small-budget critically acclaimed film. The same year also saw the release of "Ragini MMS", co-produced with Amit Kapoor and Sidhartha M. Jain. The film won the Stardust Award for Best Film, and Ekta Kapoor announced the sequel of the film would be released in 2013, starring Indo-Canadian actress Sunny Leone. The company released "The Dirty Picture" starring Vidya Balan on 2 December 2011. This proved to be a major blockbuster and was regarded as one of the best films of 2011, winning Vidya Balan her first National Award and numerous acting awards of 2011 for her performance. The film won six awards for Best Film.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: In 2012, the company released its first adult comedy, "Kyaa Super Kool Hai Hum", sequel to the 2005 hit "Kyaa Kool Hai Hum", which was slammed by critics but was a box office success, made on a budget of and collecting in its first week.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: In April 2013, the company released the horror film "Ek Thi Daayan", co-produced with Vishal Bhardwaj. It received positive reviews from critics and received 3 out of 5 on average. Jinson John of Indian Box Office stated ""Ek Thi Daayan" is not that regular "Bhootiya Isshtoorry", the plot stands out of them all, it's surely is an experimental plot, but not written by an idiot." The film opened at around 30-40% occupancy, with a better opening in multiplexes rather than single screens, netting around over the first weekend.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: In May 2013, the company released "Shootout at Wadala". The film opened to mixed-to-positive reviews. Bollywood Hungama rated the film with stars whereas "The Times of India" rated it stars. Made on a shoestring budget of , the film grossed worldwide. The film was declared "average" by Box Office India. In July 2013, the company released "Lootera", starring Sonakshi Sinha and Ranveer Singh as leads. It opened to positive reviews from critics. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama rated the film stars, saying, "On the whole, "LOOTERA" is an intrinsically earnest and profoundly heartwarming story that stays in your heart. An absolute must for those who love romantic films or are romantic at heart. This one's a cinematic gem!" Raja Sen of Rediff.com gave it stars and noted, ""Lootera" is a gorgeous, gorgeous film, one that uses its period setting affectionately, with loving detail, and not exploitatively, as our cinema is wont to do." Meena Iyer of "The Times of India" assigned the film stars and noted, ""Lootera" is a love saga of yore... You may find this film boring if state-of-the-art, slow romance is not your idea of a movie outing." The film was made on a budget of and netted worldwide in its lifetime.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: In August 2013, the company released "Once Upon ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara!", the sequel to one of its most successful films, "Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai". The film opened to negative reviews from critics, some of whom slammed it for its poor drafting and execution of storyline. The film was made on a high budget of to and collected worldwide, thereby netting a loss, and was declared a "flop".


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: On February 28, 2014, the company released "Shaadi Ke Side Effects" starring Farhan Akhtar and Vidya Balan. It opened to positive reviews and collected on its first day. It grossed in its opening weekend. It grossed worldwide during its lifetime run and was declared "below average" by Box Office India.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: On March 21, 2014, the company released "Ragini MMS 2", starring Sunny Leone, the sequel to another successful film of the company, "Ragini MMS". Made on a budget of , the film opened to mixed reviews from critics and went on to collect . The film was a major commercial success and was declared a "hit" by Box Office India.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: On April 4, 2014, the company released "Main Tera Hero", starring Varun Dhawan as the protagonist, directed by David Dhawan. It received positive reviews from critics. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama rated it stars, and wrote "On the whole, "Main Tera Hero" is a wild, wacky, madcap entertainer that has the unmistakable stamp of the master of entertainers -- David Dhawan. An over the top plot, humor quotient and performances are three aces the film stands on. The film should work well with admirers of typical Bollywood masalathons, also because Varun Dhawan pulls off the act with flamboyance and bowls you over with an uproarious act in this zany entertainer. Go, have fun and laugh out loud!" Srijana Mitra Das of "The Times of India" gave the movie stars, saying, "Main Tera Hero is a pav bhaji picture, quick, spicy, hot. It has the depth of a comic strip but it also has its neon-shaded fun. For those who want a light laugh, here's your boy." Made on a budget of , the movie went on to collect worldwide and was declared a "hit" by Box Office India.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: On May 30, 2014, the company released the small budget film "Kuku Mathur Ki Jhand Ho Gayi", co-produced by Bejoy Nambiar. It opened to mixed reviews from critics and also failed to collect at the box office. It collected a mere , thereby recovering its costs.


title: Balaji Motion Pictures

text: In June 2014, the company released "Ek Villain" co-starring Sidharth Malhotra, Shraddha Kapoor and Riteish Deshmukh. It opened to positive reviews from critics. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama awarded the movie 4/5 stars and wrote, "On the whole, "Ek Villain" is a stylish, spellbinding and terrifying edge-of-the-seat thriller. It's a step forward in this genre, without doubt. A sure-shot winner!" Raedita Tandon from "Filmfare" gave the film stars and noted that, "Though indulgent in parts, Ek Villain packs in a punch. Copy of a Korean film or not, it's ‘good’ paisa vasool entertainment. Make it your weekend watch." Meena Iyer of "The Times of India" gave the film stars, stating that "You cannot fault the scale of "Ek Villain" or berate its lead star cast. But you wish you could celebrate this thriller like you did Suri's last movie outing "Aashiqui 2"." The film, made on a budget of , went on to collect in India and grossed (approx.) with a distributor share of itself in India. The film was declared a "super hit" by Box Office India.


title: Fountain

text: A fountain, from the Latin "fons" (genitive "fontis"), meaning source or spring, is a decorative reservoir used for discharging water. It is also a structure that jets water into the air for a decorative or dramatic effect.


title: Fountain

text: Fountains were originally purely functional, connected to springs or aqueducts and used to provide drinking water and water for bathing and washing to the residents of cities, towns and villages. Until the late 19th century most fountains operated by gravity, and needed a source of water higher than the fountain, such as a reservoir or aqueduct, to make the water flow or jet into the air.


title: Fountain

text: In addition to providing drinking water, fountains were used for decoration and to celebrate their builders. Roman fountains were decorated with bronze or stone masks of animals or heroes. In the Middle Ages, Moorish and Muslim garden designers used fountains to create miniature versions of the gardens of paradise. King Louis XIV of France used fountains in the Gardens of Versailles to illustrate his power over nature. The baroque decorative fountains of Rome in the 17th and 18th centuries marked the arrival point of restored Roman aqueducts and glorified the Popes who built them.


title: Fountain

text: By the end of the 19th century, as indoor plumbing became the main source of drinking water, urban fountains became purely decorative. Mechanical pumps replaced gravity and allowed fountains to recycle water and to force it high into the air. The Jet d'Eau in Lake Geneva, built in 1951, shoots water in the air. The highest such fountain in the world is King Fahd's Fountain in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, which spouts water above the Red Sea.


title: Fountain

text: Fountains are used today to decorate city parks and squares; to honor individuals or events; for recreation and for entertainment. A splash pad or spray pool allows city residents to enter, get wet and cool off in summer. The musical fountain combines moving jets of water, colored lights and recorded music, controlled by a computer, for dramatic effects. Fountains can themselves also be musical instruments played by obstruction of one or more of their water jets.


title: Fountain

text: Ancient civilizations built stone basins to capture and hold precious drinking water. A carved stone basin, dating to around 2000 BC, was discovered in the ruins of the ancient Sumerian city of Lagash in modern Iraq. The ancient Assyrians constructed a series of basins in the gorge of the Comel River, carved in solid rock, connected by small channels, descending to a stream. The lowest basin was decorated with carved reliefs of two lions. The ancient Egyptians had ingenious systems for hoisting water up from the Nile for drinking and irrigation, but without a higher source of water it was not possible to make water flow by gravity, There are lion-shaped fountains in the Temple of Dendera in Qena.


title: Fountain

text: The ancient Greeks used aqueducts and gravity-powered fountains to distribute water. According to ancient historians, fountains existed in Athens, Corinth, and other ancient Greek cities in the 6th century BC as the terminating points of aqueducts which brought water from springs and rivers into the cities. In the 6th century BC, the Athenian ruler Peisistratos built the main fountain of Athens, the "Enneacrounos", in the Agora, or main square. It had nine large cannons, or spouts, which supplied drinking water to local residents.


title: Fountain

text: Greek fountains were made of stone or marble, with water flowing through bronze pipes and emerging from the mouth of a sculpted mask that represented the head of a lion or the muzzle of an animal. Most Greek fountains flowed by simple gravity, but they also discovered how to use principle of a siphon to make water spout, as seen in pictures on Greek vases.


title: Fountain

text: The Ancient Romans built an extensive system of aqueducts from mountain rivers and lakes to provide water for the fountains and baths of Rome. The Roman engineers used lead pipes instead of bronze to distribute the water throughout the city. The excavations at Pompeii, which revealed the city as it was when it was destroyed by Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, uncovered free-standing fountains and basins placed at intervals along city streets, fed by siphoning water upwards from lead pipes under the street. The excavations of Pompeii also showed that the homes of wealthy Romans often had a small fountain in the atrium, or interior courtyard, with water coming from the city water supply and spouting into a small bowl or basin.


title: Fountain

text: Ancient Rome was a city of fountains. According to Sextus Julius Frontinus, the Roman consul who was named "curator aquarum" or guardian of the water of Rome in 98 AD, Rome had nine aqueducts which fed 39 monumental fountains and 591 public basins, not counting the water supplied to the Imperial household, baths and owners of private villas. Each of the major fountains was connected to two different aqueducts, in case one was shut down for service.


title: Fountain

text: The Romans were able to make fountains jet water into the air, by using the pressure of water flowing from a distant and higher source of water to create hydraulic head, or force. Illustrations of fountains in gardens spouting water are found on wall paintings in Rome from the 1st century BC, and in the villas of Pompeii. The Villa of Hadrian in Tivoli featured a large swimming basin with jets of water. Pliny the Younger described the banquet room of a Roman villa where a fountain began to jet water when visitors sat on a marble seat. The water flowed into a basin, where the courses of a banquet were served in floating dishes shaped like boats.


title: Fountain

text: Roman engineers built aqueducts and fountains throughout the Roman Empire. Examples can be found today in the ruins of Roman towns in Vaison-la-Romaine and Glanum in France, in Augst, Switzerland, and other sites.


title: Fountain

text: In Nepal there were public drinking fountains at least as early as 550 AD. They are called "dhunge dharas" or "hitis". They consist of intricately carved stone spouts through which water flows uninterrupted from underground water sources. They are found extensively in Nepal and some of them are still operational. Construction of water conduits like hitis and dug wells are considered as pious acts in Nepal.


title: Fountain

text: During the Middle Ages, Roman aqueducts were wrecked or fell into decay, and many fountains throughout Europe stopped working, so fountains existed mainly in art and literature, or in secluded monasteries or palace gardens. Fountains in the Middle Ages were associated with the source of life, purity, wisdom, innocence, and the Garden of Eden. In illuminated manuscripts like the , the Garden of Eden was shown with a graceful gothic fountain in the center (see illustration). The by Jan van Eyck, finished in 1432, also shows a fountain as a feature of the adoration of the mystic lamb, a scene apparently set in Paradise.


title: Fountain

text: The cloister of a monastery was supposed to be a replica of the Garden of Eden, protected from the outside world. Simple fountains, called lavabos, were placed inside Medieval monasteries such as Le Thoronet Abbey in Provence and were used for ritual washing before religious services.


title: Fountain

text: Fountains were also found in the enclosed medieval "jardins d'amour", "gardens of courtly love" – ornamental gardens used for courtship and relaxation. The medieval romance The "Roman de la Rose" describes a fountain in the center of an enclosed garden, feeding small streams bordered by flowers and fresh herbs.


title: Fountain

text: Some Medieval fountains, like the cathedrals of their time, illustrated biblical stories, local history and the virtues of their time. The Fontana Maggiore in Perugia, dedicated in 1278, is decorated with stone carvings representing prophets and saints, allegories of the arts, labors of the months, the signs of the zodiac, and scenes from Genesis and Roman history.


title: Fountain

text: Medieval fountains could also provide amusement. The gardens of the Counts of Artois at the Château de Hesdin, built in 1295, contained famous fountains, called "Les Merveilles de Hesdin" ("The Wonders of Hesdin") which could be triggered to drench surprised visitors.


title: Fountain

text: Shortly after the spread of Islam, the Arabs incorporated into their city planning the famous Islamic gardens. Islamic gardens after the 7th century were traditionally enclosed by walls and were designed to represent paradise. The paradise gardens, were laid out in the form of a cross, with four channels representing the rivers of Paradise, dividing the four parts of the world. Water sometimes spouted from a fountain in the center of the cross, representing the spring or fountain, Salsabil, described in the Qur'an as the source of the rivers of Paradise.


title: Fountain

text: In the 9th century, the Banū Mūsā brothers, a trio of Persian Inventors, were commissioned by the Caliph of Baghdad to summarize the engineering knowledge of the ancient Greek and Roman world. They wrote a book entitled the "Book of Ingenious Devices", describing the works of the 1st century Greek Engineer Hero of Alexandria and other engineers, plus many of their own inventions. They described fountains which formed water into different shapes and a wind-powered water pump, but it is not known if any of their fountains were ever actually built.


title: Fountain

text: The Persian rulers of the Middle Ages had elaborate water distribution systems and fountains in their palaces and gardens. Water was carried by a pipe into the palace from a source at a higher elevation. Once inside the palace or garden it came up through a small hole in a marble or stone ornament and poured into a basin or garden channels. The gardens of Pasargades had a system of canals which flowed from basin to basin, both watering the garden and making a pleasant sound. The Persian engineers also used the principle of the syphon (called "shotor-gelu" in Persian, literally 'neck of the camel) to create fountains which spouted water or made it resemble a bubbling spring. The garden of Fin, near Kashan, used 171 spouts connected to pipes to create a fountain called the "Howz-e jush", or "boiling basin".


title: Fountain

text: Reciprocating motion was first described in 1206 by Iraqi engineer and inventor al-Jazari when the kings of the Artuqid dynasty in Turkey commissioned him to manufacture a machine to raise water for their palaces. The finest result was a machine called the double-acting reciprocating piston pump, which translated rotary motion to reciprocating motion via the crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism.


title: Fountain

text: The palaces of Moorish Spain, particularly the Alhambra in Granada, had famous fountains. The patio of the Sultan in the gardens of Generalife in Granada (1319) featured spouts of water pouring into a basin, with channels which irrigated orange and myrtle trees. The garden was modified over the centuries – the jets of water which cross the canal today were added in the 19th century.


title: Fountain

text: The fountain in the Court of the Lions of the Alhambra, built from 1362 to 1391, is a large vasque mounted on twelve stone statues of lions. Water spouts upward in the vasque and pours from the mouths of the lions, filling four channels dividing the courtyard into quadrants. The basin dates to the 14th century, but the lions spouting water are believed to be older, dating to the 11th century.


title: Fountain

text: The design of the Islamic garden spread throughout the Islamic world, from Moorish Spain to the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent. The Shalimar Gardens built by Emperor Shah Jahan in 1641, were said to be ornamented with 410 fountains, which fed into a large basin, canal and marble pools.


title: Fountain

text: In the Ottoman Empire, rulers often built fountains next to mosques so worshippers could do their ritual washing. Examples include the Fountain of Qasim Pasha (1527), Temple Mount, Jerusalem, an ablution and drinking fountain built during the Ottoman reign of Suleiman the Magnificent; the Fountain of Ahmed III (1728) at the Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, another Fountain of Ahmed III in Üsküdar (1729) and Tophane Fountain (1732). Palaces themselves often had small decorated fountains, which provided drinking water, cooled the air, and made a pleasant splashing sound. One surviving example is the Fountain of Tears (1764) at the Bakhchisarai Palace, in Crimea; which was made famous by a poem of Alexander Pushkin.


title: Fountain

text: The sebil was a decorated fountain that was often the only source of water for the surrounding neighborhood.


title: Fountain

text: In the 14th century, Italian humanist scholars began to rediscover and translate forgotten Roman texts on architecture by Vitruvius, on hydraulics by Hero of Alexandria, and descriptions of Roman gardens and fountains by Pliny the Younger, Pliny the Elder, and Varro. The treatise on architecture, "De re aedificatoria", by Leon Battista Alberti, which described in detail Roman villas, gardens and fountains, became the guidebook for Renaissance builders.


title: Fountain

text: In Rome, Pope Nicholas V (1397–1455), himself a scholar who commissioned hundreds of translations of ancient Greek classics into Latin, decided to embellish the city and make it a worthy capital of the Christian world. In 1453, he began to rebuild the Acqua Vergine, the ruined Roman aqueduct which had brought clean drinking water to the city from eight miles (13 km) away. He also decided to revive the Roman custom of marking the arrival point of an aqueduct with a "mostra", a grand commemorative fountain. He commissioned the architect Leon Battista Alberti to build a wall fountain where the Trevi Fountain is now located. The aqueduct he restored, with modifications and extensions, eventually supplied water to the Trevi Fountain and the famous baroque fountains in the Piazza del Popolo and Piazza Navona.


title: Fountain

text: One of the first new fountains to be built in Rome during the Renaissance was the fountain in the piazza in front of the church of Santa Maria in Trastevere (1472), which was placed on the site of an earlier Roman fountain. Its design, based on an earlier Roman model, with a circular vasque on a pedestal pouring water into a basin below, became the model for many other fountains in Rome, and eventually for fountains in other cities, from Paris to London.


title: Fountain

text: In 1503, Pope Julius II decided to recreate a classical pleasure garden in the same place. The new garden, called the Cortile del Belvedere, was designed by Donato Bramante. The garden was decorated with the Pope's famous collection of classical statues, and with fountains. The Venetian Ambassador wrote in 1523, "... On one side of the garden is a most beautiful loggia, at one end of which is a lovely fountain that irrigates the orange trees and the rest of the garden by a little canal in the center of the loggia ... The original garden was split in two by the construction of the Vatican Library in the 16th century, but a new fountain by Carlo Maderno was built in the Cortile del Belvedere, with a jet of water shooting up from a circular stone bowl on an octagonal pedestal in a large basin.


title: Fountain

text: In 1537, in Florence, Cosimo I de' Medici, who had become ruler of the city at the age of only 17, also decided to launch a program of aqueduct and fountain building. The city had previously gotten all its drinking water from wells and reservoirs of rain water, which meant that there was little water or water pressure to run fountains. Cosimo built an aqueduct large enough for the first continually-running fountain in Florence, the Fountain of Neptune in the Piazza della Signoria (1560–1567). This fountain featured an enormous white marble statue of Neptune, resembling Cosimo, by sculptor Bartolomeo Ammannati.


title: Fountain

text: Under the Medicis, fountains were not just sources of water, but advertisements of the power and benevolence of the city's rulers. They became central elements not only of city squares, but of the new Italian Renaissance garden. The great Medici Villa at Castello, built for Cosimo by Benedetto Varchi, featured two monumental fountains on its central axis; one showing with two bronze figures representing Hercules slaying Antaeus, symbolizing the victory of Cosimo over his enemies; and a second fountain, in the middle of a circular labyrinth of cypresses, laurel, myrtle and roses, had a bronze statue by Giambologna which showed the goddess Venus wringing her hair. The planet Venus was governed by Capricorn, which was the emblem of Cosimo; the fountain symbolized that he was the absolute master of Florence.


title: Fountain

text: By the middle Renaissance, fountains had become a form of theater, with cascades and jets of water coming from marble statues of animals and mythological figures. The most famous fountains of this kind were found in the Villa d'Este (1550–1572), at Tivoli near Rome, which featured a hillside of basins, fountains and jets of water, as well as a fountain which produced music by pouring water into a chamber, forcing air into a series of flute-like pipes. The gardens also featured "giochi d'acqua", water jokes, hidden fountains which suddenly soaked visitors.


title: Fountain

text: Between 1546 and 1549, the merchants of Paris built the first Renaissance-style fountain in Paris, the Fontaine des Innocents, to commemorate the ceremonial entry of the King into the city. The fountain, which originally stood against the wall of the church of the Holy Innocents, as rebuilt several times and now stands in a square near Les Halles. It is the oldest fountain in Paris.


title: Fountain

text: Henry constructed an Italian-style garden with a fountain shooting a vertical jet of water for his favorite mistress, Diane de Poitiers, next to the Château de Chenonceau (1556–1559). At the royal Château de Fontainebleau, he built another fountain with a bronze statue of Diane, goddess of the hunt, modeled after Diane de Poitiers.


title: Fountain

text: Later, after the death of Henry II, his widow, Catherine de Medici, expelled Diane de Poitiers from Chenonceau and built her own fountain and garden there.