title: Religion and sexuality

text: Conservative Judaism formally prohibits interfaith marriage and its standards currently indicate it will expel a rabbi who performs an interfaith marriage. It maintains a variety of formal strictures including a prohibition on making birth announcements in synagogue bulletins for children on non-Jewish mothers and accepting non-Jews as synagogue members. However, interfaith marriage is relatively widespread among the Conservative laity, and the Conservative movement has recently adapted a policy of being more welcoming of interfaith couples in the hopes of interesting their children in Judaism.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Conservative Judaism, which was for much of the 20th century the largest Jewish denomination in the United States declined sharply in synagogue membership in the United States the 1990s, from 51% of synagogue memberships in 1990 to 33.1% in 2001, with most of the loss going to Orthodox Judaism and most of the rest to Reform. The fracturing in American society of opinion between increasingly liberal and increasingly traditionalist viewpoints on sexual and other issues, as well as the gap between official opinion and general lay practice vis-a-vis the more traditionalist and liberal denominations, may have contributed to the decline.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: There are several levels to the observance of physical and personal modesty ("tzniut"), according to Orthodox Judaism, as derived from various sources in "halakha". Observance of these rules varies from aspirational to mandatory to routine across the spectrum of Orthodox stricture and observance.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Orthodox Judaism also maintains a strong prohibition on interfaith sexual relations and marriage. Orthodox Judaism, alone of all the Jewish denominations, retains relatively mild traditional disabilities on divorce, including a Biblical prohibition on a Kohen (priestly descendant of Aaron) marrying a divorcee or a woman who has engaged in certain types of sexual misconduct. An Orthodox bill of divorce is required for a divorce to be recognized.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Reform Judaism, Humanistic Judaism, and Reconstructionist Judaism do not observe or require traditional sexuality rules and have welcomed non-married and homosexual couples and endorsed homosexual commitment ceremonies and marriages.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism are more tolerant of interfaith marriage, and many rabbis in both communities will perform one. Humanistic Judaism permits interfaith marriage. Reform, Reconstructionist, and Humanistic Judaism also do not require a religious divorce ceremony separate from a civil divorce.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: It has been speculated that the more tolerant attitudes of Reform, Reconstructionist, and Humanistic Judaism towards both sexual diversity and interfaith marriage may have contributed to the rise in their popularity during the 1990s, from about 33% of affiliated households to 38%, passing Conservative Judaism as the largest Jewish denomination in the United States.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: The most common formulation of Buddhist ethics are the five precepts and the Noble Eightfold Path, which say that one should neither be attached to nor crave sensual pleasure. These precepts take the form of voluntary, personal undertakings, not divine mandate or instruction.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Of the five precepts, the third vow is to refrain from sex with another's spouse, someone under age (namely, those protected by their parents or guardians), and those who have taken vows of religious celibacy. In Chinese Buddhism, the third vow is interpreted as refraining from sex outside marriage.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Buddhist monks and nuns of most traditions are expected to refrain from all sexual activity and the Buddha is said to have admonished his followers to avoid unchastity "as if it were a pit of burning cinders." While laypersons may have sex within marriage, monastics are not to have any sexual conduct at all.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Religiously, Hindus begin life at the Brahmacharya or "student" stage, in which they are directed to chastely advance themselves educationally and spiritually to prepare themselves for a life of furthering their "dharma" (societal, occupational, parental, etc. duties) and "karma" (right earthly actions); only once they reach the Grihastya or "householder" stage can they seek "kama" (physical pleasure) and artha (worldly achievement, material prosperity) through marriage and their vocations, respectively.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: According to the Dharmasastras or the religious legal texts of Hinduism, marriage in Hinduism is an institution for reproduction and thus is naturally limited to heterosexual couples. Furthermore, sex outside of marriage is prohibited. The Manusmriti list eight types of marriage of which four are consensual and encouraged and four are non-consensual and discouraged. However, popular practices did not necessarily reflect religious teachings.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: The "Kama Sutra" (Discourse on Kāma) by Vatsayana, widely believed to be just a manual for sexual practices, offers an insight into the sexual mores, ethics and societal rules that were prevalent in ancient India. The erotic sculptures of Khajuraho also offer insight. Abhigyana Shakuntalam, a drama in Sanskrit by Kālidāsa, cited as one of the best examples of shringara rasa (romance, one of the nine rasas or emotions), talks of the love story of Dushyanta and Shakuntala.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: In Chinese mythology, Jiutian Xuannü is the goddess of war, sex, and longevity. She is closely related to Sunü (素女), who is her divine sister. Both their names combined, as "xuansu zhidao" (玄素之道), signify the Daoist arts of the bedchamber. Most books bearing Jiutian Xuannü's name were about warfare, but there were a few books that were specifically about sex. The "Xuannü Jing" (玄女經, "Mysterious Woman Classic") and the "Sunü Jing" (素女經, "Natural Woman Classic"), both dating to the Han dynasty, were handbooks in dialogue form about sex. Texts from the "Xuannü Jing" have been partly incorporated into the Sui dynasty edition of the "Sunü Jing". From the Han dynasty onwards, these handbooks would be familiar to the upper class. On the other side, during the Han dynasty, Wang Chong had criticized the sexual arts as "not only harming the body but infringing upon the nature of man and woman." During the Tang dynasty and earlier periods, Jiutian Xuannü was often associated with the sexual arts. The "Xuannü Jing" remained a familiar work among the literati during the Tang and Sui dynasties.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: The "Dongxuanzi Fangzhong Shu" (洞玄子房中術, "Bedchamber Arts of the Master of the Grotto Mysteries"), which was likely written by the 7th-century poet Liu Zongyuan, contains explicit descriptions of the sexual arts that was supposedly transmitted from Jiutian Xuannü. The sexual practices, that Jiutian Xuannü supposedly taught, were often compared to alchemy and physiological procedures for prolonging life. In Ge Hong's "Baopu Zi", there's a passage in which Jiutian Xuannü tells Huangdi that sexual techniques are "like the intermingling of water and fire—it can kill or bring new life depending upon whether or not one uses the correct methods."


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Tu'er Shen (), The Leveret Spirit is a Chinese Shenist or Taoist deity who manages love and sex between men. His name is often colloquially translated as "Rabbit God". Wei-Ming Temple in the Yonghe District of New Taipei City in Taiwan is dedicated to Tu'er Shen. About 9000 pilgrims visit the temple each year to pray to find a suitable partner. The Wei-ming temple also performs love ceremony for gay couples.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Homosexuality is religiously acceptable in Haitian Vodou. The lwa or loa (spirits) Erzulie Dantor and Erzulie Freda are often associated with and viewed as protectors of queer people.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Within Candomblé, a syncretic religion founds primarily found in Brazil, there is widespread (though not universal) support for gay rights, many members are LGBT, and have performed gay marriages. Practitioners of Santería, primarily found in Cuba, generally (though not universally) welcome LGBT members and include them in religious or ritual activities. Also a Brazilian syncretic religion, Umbanda houses generally support LGBT rights and have performed gay marriages. Homosexuality is religiously acceptable in Haitian Vodou. The lwa or loa (spirits) Erzulie Dantor and Erzulie Freda are often associated with and viewed as protectors of queer people. The lao Ghede Nibo is sometimes depicted as an effeminate drag queen and inspires those he inhabits to lascivious sexuality of all kinds.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Individuals who went against the traditional gender binary were heavily involved in the cult of Inanna, an ancient Mesopotamian goddess. During Sumerian times, a set of priests known as "gala" worked in Inanna's temples, where they performed elegies and lamentations. Men who became "gala" sometimes adopted female names and their songs were composed in the Sumerian "eme-sal" dialect, which, in literary texts, is normally reserved for the speech of female characters. Some Sumerian proverbs seem to suggest that "gala" had a reputation for engaging in anal sex with men. During the Akkadian Period, "kurgarrū" and "assinnu" were servants of Ishtar who dressed in female clothing and performed war dances in Ishtar's temples. Several Akkadian proverbs seem to suggest that they may have also had homosexual proclivities. Gwendolyn Leick, an anthropologist known for her writings on Mesopotamia, has compared these individuals to the contemporary Indian "hijra." In one Akkadian hymn, Ishtar is described as transforming men into women. Some modern pagans include Inanna in their worship.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Among the Indigenous peoples of the Americas prior to the European colonization, many Nations had respected ceremonial, religious, and social roles for homosexual, bisexual, and gender-nonconforming individuals in their communities and in many contemporary Native American and First Nations communities, these roles still exist. Homosexual and gender-variant individuals were also common among other pre-conquest civilizations in Latin America, such as the Aztecs, Mayans, Quechuas, Moches, Zapotecs, and the Tupinambá of Brazil and were accepted in their various religions.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Since the beginning of the sexual liberation movement in the Western world, which coincided with second-wave feminism and the women's liberation movement initiated in the early 1960s, new religious movements and alternative spiritualities such as Modern Paganism and the New Age began to grow and spread across the globe alongside their intersection with the sexual liberation movement and the counterculture of the 1960s, and exhibited characteristic features, such as the embrace of alternative lifestyles, unconventional dress, rejection of Abrahamic religions and their conservative social mores, use of cannabis and other recreational drugs, relaxed attitude, sarcastic humble or self-imposed poverty, and "laissez-faire" sexual behavior. The sexual liberation movement was aided by feminist ideologues in their mutual struggle to challenge traditional ideas regarding female sexuality, male sexuality, and queer sexuality. Elimination of undue favorable bias towards men and objectification of women, as well as support for women's right to choose their sexual partners free of outside interference or societal judgment, were three of the main goals associated with sexual liberation from the feminist perspective.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Most Neopagan religions have the theme of fertility (both physical and creative/spiritual) as central to their practices, and as such encourage what they view as a healthy sex life, consensual sex between adults, regardless of gender.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Heathenry, a modern Germanic Pagan movement, includes several pro-LGBT groups. Some groups legitimize openness toward LGBT practitioners by reference to the gender-bending actions of Thor and Odin in Norse mythology. There are, for instance, homosexual and transgender members of The Troth, a prominent U.S. Heathen organisation. Many Heathen groups in Northern Europe perform same-sex marriages, and a group of self-described "Homo-Heathens" marched in the 2008 Stockholm Pride carrying a statue of the Norse god Freyr. Research found a greater proportion of LGBT practitioners within Heathenry (21%) than wider society, although noted that the percentage was lower than in other forms of modern Paganism.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Wicca, like other religions, has adherents with a broad spectrum of views, ranging from conservative to liberal. It is a largely nondogmatic religion and has no prohibitions against sexual intercourse outside of marriage or relationships between members of the same sex. The religion's ethics are largely summed up by the Wiccan Rede: "An it harm none, do as thou wilt", which is interpreted by many as allowing and endorsing responsible sexual relationships of all varieties. Specifically in the Wiccan tradition of modern witchcraft, one of the widely accepted pieces of Craft liturgy, the Charge of the Goddess instructs that "...all acts of love and pleasure are [the Goddess'] rituals", giving validity to all forms of sexual activity for Wiccan practitioners.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: In the Gardnerian and Alexandrian forms of Wicca, the "Great Rite" is a sex ritual much like the hieros gamos, performed by a priest and priestess who are believed to embody the Wiccan God and Goddess. The Great Rite is almost always performed figuratively using the athame and chalice as symbols of the penis and vagina. The literal form of the ritual is always performed by consenting adults, by a couple who are already lovers and in private. The Great Rite is not seen as an opportunity for casual sex.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Raëlism, an international new religious movement and UFO religion which was founded in France in 1974, promotes a positive outlook towards human sexuality, including homosexuality. Its founder Raël recognised same-sex marriage, and a Raëlian press release stated that sexual orientation is genetic and it also likened discrimination against gay people to racism. Some Raëlian leaders have performed licensed same-sex marriages.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: The cult of Santa Muerte is a new religious movement centered on the worship of Santa Muerte, a cult image, female deity, and folk saint which is popularly revered in Mexican Neopaganism and folk Catholicism. A personification of death, she is associated with healing, protection, and safe delivery to the afterlife by her devotees. Santa Muerte is also revered and seen as a saint and protector of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) communities in Mexico, since LGBTQ+ people are considered and treated as outcasts by the Catholic Church, evangelical churches, and Mexican society at large. Many LGBTQ+ people ask her for protection from violence, hatred, disease, and to help them in their search for love. Her intercession is commonly invoked in same-sex marriage ceremonies performed in Mexico. The Iglesia Católica Tradicional México-Estados Unidos, also known as the Church of Santa Muerte, recognizes gay marriage and performs religious wedding ceremonies for homosexual couples. According to R. Andrew Chesnut, PhD in Latin American history and professor of Religious studies, the cult of Santa Muerte is the single fastest-growing new religious movement in the Americas.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: LaVeyan Satanism is critical of Abrahamic sexual mores, considering them narrow, restrictive and hypocritical. Sex is viewed as an indulgence, but one that should only be freely entered into with consent. The Eleven Satanic Rules of the Earth only give two instructions regarding sex, namely "Do not make sexual advances unless you are given the mating signal" and "Do not harm little children", although the latter is much broader and encompasses physical and other abuse. This has always been consistent part of Church of Satan policy since its inception in 1966 as Peter H. Gilmore wrote in an essay supporting same sex marriage:


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Satanists are pluralists, accepting gays, lesbians, bisexuals, BDSM, polyamorists, transgender people, and asexuals. In that essay, he also stated:


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Sex magic is a term for various types of sexual activity used in magical, ritualistic, or otherwise religious and spiritual pursuits found within Western esotericism which is a broad spectrum of spiritual traditions found in Western society, or refers to the collection of the mystical, esoteric knowledge of the Western world. One practice of sex magic is using the energy of sexual arousal or orgasm with visualization of a desired result. A premise of sex magic is the concept that sexual energy is a potent force that can be harnessed to transcend one's normally perceived reality. The earliest known practical teachings of sex magic in the Western world come from 19th-century American occultist Paschal Beverly Randolph, under the heading of "The Mysteries of Eulis". In the latter part of the 19th century, sexual reformer Ida Craddock published several works dealing with sacred sexuality, most notably "Heavenly Bridegrooms" and "Psychic Wedlock". Aleister Crowley reviewed "Heavenly Bridegrooms" in the pages of his journal "The Equinox", stating:


title: Religion and sexuality

text: It was one of the most remarkable human documents ever produced, and it should certainly find a regular publisher in book form. The authoress of the MS. claims that she was the wife of an angel. She expounds at the greatest length the philosophy connected with this thesis. Her learning is enormous. [...]


title: Religion and sexuality

text: This book is of incalculable value to every student of occult matters. No Magick library is complete without it.


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Aleister Crowley became involved with Theodor Reuss and Ordo Templi Orientis following the publication of "The Book of Lies" between 1912 and 1913. According to Crowley's account, Reuss approached him and accused him of having revealed the innermost (sexual) secret of O.T.O. in one of the cryptic chapters of this book. When it became clear to Reuss that Crowley had done so unintentionally, he initiated Crowley into the IX° (ninth degree) of O.T.O. and appointed him "Sovereign Grand Master General of Ireland, Iona and all the Britains."


title: Religion and sexuality

text: While the O.T.O. included, from its inception, the teaching of sex magick in the highest degrees of the Order, when Crowley became head of the Order, he expanded on these teachings and associated them with different degrees as follows:


title: Religion and sexuality

text: Professor Hugh Urban, Professor of Comparative Religion at Ohio State University, noted Crowley's emphasis on sex as "the supreme magical power". According to Crowley:


title: Titanium alloy

text: Titanium alloys are alloys that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme temperatures). They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand extreme temperatures. However, the high cost of both raw materials and processing limit their use to military applications, aircraft, spacecraft, bicycles, medical devices, jewelry, highly stressed components such as connecting rods on expensive sports cars and some premium sports equipment and consumer electronics.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Although "commercially pure" titanium has acceptable mechanical properties and has been used for orthopedic and dental implants, for most applications titanium is alloyed with small amounts of aluminium and vanadium, typically 6% and 4% respectively, by weight. This mixture has a solid solubility which varies dramatically with temperature, allowing it to undergo precipitation strengthening. This heat treatment process is carried out after the alloy has been worked into its final shape but before it is put to use, allowing much easier fabrication of a high-strength product.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Beta titanium alloys exhibit the BCC allotropic form of titanium (called beta). Elements used in this alloy are one or more of the following other than titanium in varying amounts. These are molybdenum, vanadium, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, manganese, iron, chromium, cobalt, nickel, and copper.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Beta titanium is nowadays largely utilized in the orthodontic field and was adopted for orthodontics use in the 1980s. This type of alloy replaced stainless steel for certain uses, as stainless steel had dominated orthodontics since the 1960s. It has strength/modulus of elasticity ratios almost twice those of 18-8 austenitic stainless steel, larger elastic deflections in springs, and reduced force per unit displacement 2.2 times below those of stainless steel appliances.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Some of the beta titanium alloys can convert to hard and brittle hexagonal omega-titanium at cryogenic temperatures or under influence of ionizing radiation.


title: Titanium alloy

text: The crystal structure of titanium at ambient temperature and pressure is close-packed hexagonal α phase with a c/a ratio of 1.587. At about 890 °C, the titanium undergoes an allotropic transformation to a body-centred cubic β phase which remains stable to the melting temperature.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Some alloying elements, called alpha stabilizers, raise the alpha-to-beta transition temperature, while others (beta stabilizers) lower the transition temperature. Aluminium, gallium, germanium, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen are alpha stabilizers. Molybdenum, vanadium, tantalum, niobium, manganese, iron, chromium, cobalt, nickel, copper and silicon are beta stabilizers.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Generally, beta-phase titanium is the more ductile phase and alpha-phase is stronger yet less ductile, due to the larger number of slip planes in the bcc structure of the beta-phase in comparison to the hcp alpha-phase. Alpha-beta-phase titanium has a mechanical property which is in between both.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Titanium dioxide dissolves in the metal at high temperatures, and its formation is very energetic. These two factors mean that all titanium except the most carefully purified has a significant amount of dissolved oxygen, and so may be considered a Ti–O alloy. Oxide precipitates offer some strength (as discussed above), but are not very responsive to heat treatment and can substantially decrease the alloy's toughness.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Many alloys also contain titanium as a minor additive, but since alloys are usually categorized according to which element forms the majority of the material, these are not usually considered to be "titanium alloys" as such. See the sub-article on titanium applications.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Titanium alone is a strong, light metal. It is stronger than common, low-carbon steels, but 45% lighter. It is also twice as strong as weak aluminium alloys but only 60% heavier. Titanium has outstanding corrosion resistance to seawater, and thus is used in propeller shafts, rigging and other parts of boats that are exposed to seawater. Titanium and its alloys are used in airplanes, missiles, and rockets where strength, low weight, and resistance to high temperatures are important. Further, since titanium does not react within the human body, it and its alloys are used in artificial joints, screws, and plates for fractures, and for other biological implants. See: Titanium orthopedic implants.


title: Titanium alloy

text: The ASTM International standard on titanium and titanium alloy seamless pipe references the following alloys, requiring the following treatment:


title: Titanium alloy

text: "Alloys may be supplied in the following conditions: Grades 5, 23, 24, 25, 29, 35, or 36 annealed or aged; Grades 9, 18, 28, or 38 cold-worked and stress-relieved or annealed; Grades 9, 18, 23, 28, or 29 transformed-beta condition; and Grades 19, 20, or 21 solution-treated or solution-treated and aged."


title: Titanium alloy

text: "Note 1—H grade material is identical to the corresponding numeric grade (that is, Grade 2H = Grade 2) except for the higher guaranteed minimum UTS, and may always be certified as meeting the requirements of its corresponding numeric grade. Grades 2H, 7H, 16H, and 26H are intended primarily for pressure vessel use."


title: Titanium alloy

text: "The H grades were added in response to a user association request based on its study of over 5200 commercial Grade 2, 7, 16, and 26 test reports, where over 99% met the 58 ksi minimum UTS."


title: Titanium alloy

text: "This alpha-beta alloy is the workhorse alloy of the titanium industry. The alloy is fully heat treatable in section sizes up to 15 mm and is used up to approximately 400 °C (750 °F). Since it is the most commonly used alloy – over 70% of all alloy grades melted are a sub-grade of Ti6Al4V, its uses span many aerospace airframe and engine component uses and also major non-aerospace applications in the marine, offshore and power generation industries in particular."


title: Titanium alloy

text: ""Applications": Blades, discs, rings, airframes, fasteners, components. Vessels, cases, hubs, forgings. Biomedical implants."


title: Titanium alloy

text: Titanium alloys are heat treated for a number of reasons, the main ones being to increase strength by solution treatment and aging as well as to optimize special properties, such as fracture toughness, fatigue strength and high temperature creep strength.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Alpha and near-alpha alloys cannot be dramatically changed by heat treatment. Stress relief and annealing are the processes that can be employed for this class of titanium alloys. The heat treatment cycles for beta alloys differ significantly from those for the alpha and alpha-beta alloys. Beta alloys can not only be stress relieved or annealed, but also can be solution treated and aged. The alpha-beta alloys are two-phase alloys, comprising both alpha and beta phases at room temperature. Phase compositions, sizes, and distributions of phases in alpha-beta alloys can be manipulated within certain limits by heat treatment, thus permitting tailoring of properties.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Titanium is used regularly in aviation for its resistance to corrosion and heat, and its high strength-to-weight ratio. Titanium alloys are generally stronger than aluminium alloys, while being lighter than steel.


title: Titanium alloy

text: Titanium alloys have been extensively used for the manufacturing of metal orthopedic joint replacements and bone plate surgeries. They are normally produced from wrought or cast bar stock by CNC, CAD-driven machining, or powder metallurgy production. Each of these techniques comes with inherent advantages and disadvantages. Wrought products come with an extensive material loss during machining into the final shape of the product and for cast samples the acquirement of a product in its final shape somewhat limits further processing and treatment (e.g. precipitation hardening), yet casting is more material effective. Traditional powder metallurgy methods are also more material efficient, yet acquiring fully dense products can be a common issue.


title: Titanium alloy

text: With the emergence of solid freeform fabrication (3D printing) the possibility to produce custom-designed biomedical implants (e.g. hip joints) has been realized. While it is not applied currently on a larger scale, freeform fabrication methods offers the ability to recycle waste powder (from the manufacturing process) and makes for selectivity tailoring desirable properties and thus the performance of the implant. Electron Beam Melting (EBM) and Selective Laser Melting (SLM) are two methods applicable for freeform fabrication of Ti-alloys. Manufacturing parameters greatly influence the microstructure of the product, where e.g. a fast cooling rate in combination with low degree of melting in SLM leads to the predominant formation of martensitic alpha-prime phase, giving a very hard product.


title: Marl

text: Marl is an earthy material rich in carbonate minerals, clays, and silt. When hardened into rock, this becomes marlstone. It is formed in marine or freshwater environments, often through the activities of algae.


title: Marl

text: Marl makes up the lower part of the cliffs of Dover, and the Channel Tunnel follows these marl layers between France and the United Kingdom. Marl is also a common sediment in post-glacial lakes, such as the marl ponds of the northeastern United States.


title: Marl

text: Marl has been used as a soil conditioner and neutralizing agent for acid soil and in the manufacture of cement.


title: Marl

text: Marl or marlstone is a carbonate-rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and silt. The term was originally loosely applied to a variety of materials, most of which occur as loose, earthy deposits consisting chiefly of an intimate mixture of clay and calcium carbonate, formed under freshwater conditions. These typically contain 35–65% clay and 65–35% carbonate. The term is today often used to describe indurated marine deposits and lacustrine (lake) sediments which more accurately should be named 'marlstone'.


title: Marl

text: Marlstone is an indurated (resists crumbling or powdering) rock of about the same composition as marl. This is more correctly described as an earthy or impure argillaceous limestone. It has a blocky subconchoidal fracture, and is less fissile than shale. The dominant carbonate mineral in most marls is calcite, but other carbonate minerals such as aragonite or dolomite may be present.


title: Marl

text: "Glauconitic marl" is marl containing pellets of glauconite, a clay mineral that gives the mark a green color. Glauconite is characteristic of sediments deposited in marine conditions.


title: Marl

text: The lower stratigraphic units of the chalk cliffs of Dover consist of a sequence of glauconitic marls followed by rhythmically banded limestone and marl layers. Such alternating cycles of chalk and marl are common in Cretaceous beds of northwestern Europe. The Channel Tunnel follows these marl layers between France and the United Kingdom. Upper Cretaceous cyclic sequences in Germany and marl–opal-rich Tortonian-Messinian strata in the Sorbas basin related to multiple sea drawdown have been correlated with Milankovitch orbital forcing.


title: Marl

text: Marl as lacustrine sediment is common in post-glacial lake-bed sediments. "Chara", a macroalga also known as stonewort, thrives in shallow lakes with high pH and alkalinity, where its stems and fruiting bodies become calcified. After the alga dies, the calcified stems and fruiting bodies break down into fine carbonate particles that mingle with silt and clay to produce marl. Marl ponds of the northeastern United States are often kettle ponds in areas of limestone bedrock that become poor in nutrients (oligotrophic) due to precipitation of essential phosphate. Normal pond life is unable to survive, and skeletons of freshwater molluscs such as "Sphaerium" and "Planorbis" accumulate as part of the bottom marl.


title: Marl

text: In Hungary, Buda Marl is found that was formed in the Upper Eocene era. It lies between layers of rock and soil and may be defined it as both "weak rock and strong soil."


title: Marl

text: Marl has been used as a soil conditioner and neutralizing agent for acid soil and in the manufacture of Portland cement. Because some marls have a very low permeability, they have been exploited for construction of the Channel Tunnel between England and France and are being investigated for the storage of nuclear waste.


title: Marl

text: Marl is one of the oldest soil amendments used in agriculture. In addition to increasing available calcium, marl is valuable for improving soil structure and decreasing soil acidity and thereby making other nutrients more available. It was used sporadically in Britain beginning in prehistoric times and its used was mentioned by Pliny the Elder in the 1st century. Its more widespread use from the 16th century on contributed to the early modern agricultural revolution. However, the lack of a high-energy economy hindered its large-scale use until the Industrial Revolution.


title: Marl

text: Marl was used extensively in Britain, particularly in Lancashire, during the 18th century. The marl was normally extracted close to its point of use, so that almost every field had a marl pit, but some marl was transported greater distances by railroad. However, marl was gradually replaced by lime and imported mineral fertilizers early in the 19th century. A similar historical pattern was seen in Scotland.


title: Marl

text: Marl was one a few soil amendments available in limited quantities the southern United States, where soils were generally poor in nutrients, prior to about 1840. By the late 19th century, marl was being mined on an industrial scale in New Jersey and was increasingly being used on a more scientific basis, with marl being classified by grade and the state geological survey publishing detailed chemical analyses.


title: Marl

text: Marl continues to be used for agriculture into the 21st century, though less frequently. The rate of application must be adjusted for the reduced content of calcium carbonate versus straight lime, expressed as the calcium carbonate equivalent. Because the carbonate in marl is predominantly calcium carbonate, magnesium deficiency may be seen in crops treated with marl if they are not also supplemented with magnesium.


title: Marl

text: Marl has been used in Pamlico Sound to provide a suitable artificial substrate for oysters in a reef-like environment.


title: Marl

text: Marl has been used in the manufacture of Portland cement. It is abundant and yields better physical and mechanical properties than metakaolin as a supplementary cementitious material and can be calcined at a considerably lower temperature.


title: Marl

text: The Channel Tunnel was constructed in the West Melbury Marly Chalk, a geological formation containing marl beds. This formation was chosen because of its very low permeability, absence of chert, and lack of fissures found in overlying formations. The underlying Glauconitic Marl is easily recognizable in core samples and helped establish the right level for excavating the tunnel.


title: Marl

text: Marl soil has poor engineering properties, particularly when alternately wetted and dried. The soils can be stabilized by adding pozzolan (volcanic ash) to the soil.


title: Marl

text: Some marl beds have a very low permeability and are under consideration for use in the storage of nuclear waste. One such proposed storage site is the Wellenberg in central Switzerland.


title: Marl

text: A marl lake is a lake whose bottom sediments include large deposits of marl. They are most often found in areas of recent glaciation and are characterized by alkaline water, rich in dissolved calcium carbonate, from which carbonate minerals are deposited.


title: Marl

text: Marl lakes have frequently been dredged or mined for marl, often used for manufacturing Portland cement. However, they are regarded as ecologically important, and are vulnerable to damage by silting, nutrient pollution, drainage, and invasive species. In Britain, only the marl lakes of the more remote parts of northern Scotland are likely to remain pristine into the near future.


title: James Hampton (actor)

text: James Wade Hampton (July 9, 1936 – April 7, 2021) was an American actor, television director, and screenwriter. He is best known for his TV roles such as Private Hannibal Shirley Dobbs on "F Troop" (1965–1967), and Leroy B. Simpson on "The Doris Day Show" (1968–1969), "Love, American Style" (1969–1974), and his movie roles such as Caretaker in "The Longest Yard" (1974), Howard Clemmons in "Hawmps!" (1976), Harold Howard in "Teen Wolf" (1985), and Jerry Woolridge in "Sling Blade" (1996).


title: James Hampton (actor)

text: Hampton was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, the son of Edna (Gately), who worked at a millinery, and Ivan Hampton, who ran a dry cleaning business. He was raised in Dallas, Texas, and majored in theatre arts at the University of North Texas in Denton. While attending UNT, he was a member of the Gamma Lambda chapter of Kappa Alpha Order.


title: James Hampton (actor)

text: After a series of failed jobs including bodyguard, bartender, and photojournalist, he was inducted into the United States Army. He was stationed in Germany and performed with the USO, for which he won awards.


title: James Hampton (actor)

text: Following his service, he performed in summer stock in Texas and then moved to New York City, where he was given his first film role - the Academy Award-nominated short subject "The Cliffdwellers".


title: James Hampton (actor)

text: Hampton's next role came as the lead character in a May 1963 "Gunsmoke" episode entitled "Jeb", featuring his friend and series regular Burt Reynolds. He returned to "Gunsmoke" later that year in "Pa Hack’s Brood" (S9E13), again as a character named Jeb, although Marshall Dillon makes no reference in this episode to the previous appearance. He returned to "Gunsmoke" one more time as the title character (and hilarious cousin to Festus) in the 1965 episode “Eliab’s Aim”.


title: James Hampton (actor)

text: In 1964, Hampton was cast as publisher William Randolph Hearst in the episode "The Paper Dynasty" of the syndicated western television series, "Death Valley Days", hosted by Stanley Andrews. In the story line, Hearst struggles to turn a profit despite increased circulation of "The San Francisco Examiner". James Lanphier (1920-1969) plays Ambrose Bierce; Robert O. Cornthwaite was cast as Sam Chamberlain.


title: James Hampton (actor)

text: Hampton is known for his roles in CBS's "The Doris Day Show" (as Leroy, the handyman); ABC's "F Troop" (as Hannibal Dobbs the incompetent bugler); Robert Aldrich's "The Longest Yard" (1974); " (1975)"; "Teen Wolf" (1985); the "Teen Wolf" television series (1986 to 1989); "" (1988); and "Sling Blade" (1996). Hampton guest starred as Jim Rockford's cousin Aaron Ironwood in a 1975 episode of NBC's "The Rockford Files". He received a HALO Award for "Hawmps!", and a Golden Globe Award nomination for "Most Promising Newcomer" for the part of "Caretaker" in "The Longest Yard". He was also the spokesman for the American Egg Board.


title: James Hampton (actor)

text: In 1980, he starred alongside Gary Collins in the low-budget movie "Hangar 18". It was filmed primarily in Big Spring, Texas, and the two played NASA astronauts trying to expose a UFO coverup.


title: James Hampton (actor)

text: In 2012, Hampton appeared in an advertisement on MeTV touting some of the shows in which he had guest starred, including "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C." and "The Rockford Files".


title: James Hampton (actor)

text: He died of complications from Parkinson's disease on April 7, 2021, at his home in Fort Worth, Texas. He was 84.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: The chancellor of the Republic of Austria () is the head of government of the Republic of Austria. The position corresponds to that of Prime Minister in several other parliamentary democracies.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: Current officeholder is Karl Nehammer of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP), who was sworn in on 6 December 2021 following the resignations of Sebastian Kurz and Alexander Schallenberg, of the same party, as party leader and Chancellor. All three leaders formed a government with the Green Party, the first coalition between these two parties at the federal level. Brigitte Bierlein was the Second Republic's first , forming a nonpartisan caretaker government between a vote of no confidence in Kurz's first government in June 2019 and the formation of his second in January 2020.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: Austria's chancellor chairs and leads the cabinet, which is composed of the chancellor, the vice chancellor and the ministers. Together with the president, who is head of state, the cabinet forms the country's executive branch leadership.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: Austria is a parliamentary republic, the system of government in which real power is vested in the head of government. However, in Austria most executive actions of great extent can only be exercised by the president, upon advice or with the countersignature of the chancellor or a specific minister. Therefore the chancellor often requires the president's consent to implement greater decisions. Furthermore neither the ministers nor the vice chancellor report to the chancellor.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: In legislature, the chancellor's power depends on the size of their affiliated parliamentary group. In case of a coalition cabinet, the chancellor commonly is the leader of the party most represented in the National Council, with the leader of the party able to grant a majority, usually serving as the vice chancellor.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: The first Austrian sovereign head of government was the State Chancellor of the Austrian Empire, a position only held by Klemens von Metternich. The office was later renamed to Minister-President of the Austrian Empire and remained from there on until the dissolution of Austria-Hungary. The first head of government after the monarchy was the State Chancellor of German-Austria, an office again only held by one person; Karl Renner. After allied powers declined a union between Austria and Germany, the office was renamed to just State Chancellor of Austria and later changed to Federal Chancellor, which remained the position's final form until present day.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: The official residence and executive office of the chancellor is the chancellery, which is located at the Ballhausplatz in the center of Vienna. Both the chancellor as well as the cabinet are appointed by the president and can be dismissed by the president.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: The current officeholder is Karl Nehammer, who was sworn in as chancellor on 6 December 2021 by President Alexander Van der Bellen.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: The use of the term Chancellor (, derived from ) as head of the chancery writing office can be traced back as far as the 9th century, when under King Louis the German the office of the Archchancellor (), later Imperial Chancellor (), was created as a high office on the service of the Holy Roman Emperor. The task was usually fulfilled by the Prince-Archbishops of Mainz as Archchancellors of the German lands.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: In the course of the Imperial reform, the Habsburg Emperor Maximilian I in 1498 attempted to counter the spiritual power of the with a more secular position of an Imperial Court Chancellor (), but the two became merged. These were also the times when attempts were made to balance Imperial absolutism by the creation of Imperial Governments (), ultimately a failure.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: Nevertheless, when Maximilian's grandson Ferdinand I succeeded him as Archduke of Austria in 1521, his elder brother Emperor Charles V (1519–1556) appointed Mercurino Gattinara as "Grand Chancellor of all the realms and kingdoms of the king" (). The separate position of an Austrian Court Chancellor appeared as a around 1526, when the Habsburg monarchy arose with the Bohemian and Hungarian inheritance; it was however once again merged with the equivalent office of the Holy Roman Empire in 1559.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: Upon the 1620 Battle of White Mountain and the suppression of the Bohemian revolt, Emperor Ferdinand II had separate Court Chancelleries established in order to strengthen the unity of the Habsburg hereditary lands. Beside a Bohemian and Hungarian chancellery, he created the office of an Austrian chancellor in Vienna, responsible for the Archduchy of Austria proper (i.e. Upper and Lower Austria) with the Inner Austrian territories and Tyrol. Under Emperor Leopold I (1658–1705) the term again became with Johann Paul Freiherr von Hocher (1667–1683), and Theodor von Strattman (1683–1693).


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: The eighteenth century was dominated by Prince Wenzel Anton of Kaunitz-Rietberg (1753–1792), who was Chancellor to four Habsburg emperors from Maria Theresa to Francis II, with the titles of both and . He was succeeded by Johann Philipp von Cobenzl (1792–1793), who was dismissed by Emperor Francis II over the Partition of Poland and was succeeded by Johann Amadeus Francis de Paula (Baron Thugot) (1793–1800). Thugot's chancellorship did not survive the Austrian defeats by the French at the battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden in 1800 and he was replaced by Johan Ludwig Joseph Cobenzl (1800–1805), his predecessor's cousin, but who in turn was dismissed following the Austrian defeat at Austerlitz in 1805.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: With the consequent dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and founding of the Austrian Empire, Francis II abdicated the former Imperial Throne, but remained Emperor Francis I of Austria in 1806. He had replaced Cobenzl with Johan Philip Charles Stadion (1805–1809) the previous year, but his career was in turn cut short in 1809 following yet another Austrian defeat by Napoleon at the Battle of Wagram and subsequent humiliation at the Treaty of Schönbrunn. Prince Klemens von Metternich was appointed by Francis I to the positions of and (1821–1848). However, there is some opinion that the Chancellor title was not used between Prince Kaunitz-Rietberg's resignation in 1792 and 1821.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: As the Metternich system had become a synonym for his reactionary politics, the title of a State Chancellor was abolished upon the 1848 revolutions. The position became that of a Minister-President of Austria, equivalent to Prime Minister, with the exception of Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust (1867–1871)


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: the title only re-emerging at the birth of German Austria after World War I in 1918, when Karl Renner was appointed . With the enactment of the Constitution of Austria on 10 November 1920, the actual term was implemented as head of the executive branch of the First Austrian Republic.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: The Chancellor is appointed and sworn in by the President. In theory, the President can appoint anyone eligible to be elected to the National Council, essentially meaning any Austrian national over the age of 18. In practice, a Chancellor is unable to govern without the confidence of the National Council. For this reason, the Chancellor usually is the leader of the largest party in the National Council, or the senior partner in a coalition government. A notable exception to this occurred after the 1999 election. The Freedom Party won the most seats and went into coalition with the People's Party. While this would have normally made Freedom Party leader Jörg Haider Chancellor, he was deemed too controversial to be a member of the Cabinet, let alone Chancellor. He thus stepped aside in favour of People's Party leader Wolfgang Schüssel.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: The Chancellor has no term limits. As a matter of constitutional convention, the Chancellor usually offers his or her resignation to the President upon dissolution of the National Council. The President usually declines and directs the Chancellor and his or her cabinet to operate as a caretaker government until a new National Council is in session and a new majority leader has emerged. In fact, the constitution expressly encourages the President to use a Chancellor as his or her own interim successor.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: A Chancellor is typically appointed or dismissed together with all of the ministers, which means the whole government. Technically, the President can only appoint ministers on advice of the Chancellor, so the Chancellor is appointed first. Having been sworn in, the Chancellor presents the President with a list of ministers; they will usually have been installed just minutes later. Neither Chancellors nor ministers need to be confirmed by either house of parliament; the appointees are fully capable of discharging the functions of their respective offices immediately after having been sworn in.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: The National Council can force the President to dismiss a Chancellor or a minister through a vote of no confidence. The President is constitutionally required to dismiss a cabinet member the National Council declares it wants gone. Opposition parties will sometimes table votes of no confidence against ministers, and occasionally whole cabinets, in order to demonstrate criticism; these votes had not been expected to pass. The first successful vote of no confidence in Austrian federal politics took place in May 2019 when Sebastian Kurz was ousted as Chancellor.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: The Chancellor chairs the meetings of the cabinet. The constitution does not vest the Chancellor with the authority to issue directions to ministers; it characterizes his or her role in the cabinet as that of a "primus inter pares". The power of the office to set policy derives partly from its inherent prestige, partly from the fact that the President is required to dismiss ministers the Chancellor requests removed, and partly from the Chancellor's position of leadership in the party or coalition controlling the National Council.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: Most articles of the constitution that mention the office of Chancellor are tasking the incumbent with notarizing decisions by the President or by various constitutional bodies, with ensuring that these decisions are duly announced to the general public, or with acting as an intermediary between various branches of government. In particular, the Chancellor


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: The Chancellor also convenes the Federal Assembly if the National Council moves to have the President removed from office, or if the National Council moves to lift the immunity of the President from criminal prosecution. In the former case, the Federal Assembly votes on whether to allow a referendum on the matter. In the latter case, the assent of the Federal Assembly is required for the President's immunity to be rescinded.


title: Chancellor of Austria

text: Finally, the Chancellor becomes Acting President if the President is incapacitated. However, if the President remains incapacitated beyond twenty days or has died, the role of Acting President is passed on to the three Presidents of the National Council.


title: Road rage

text: Road rage is aggressive or angry behavior exhibited by motorists. These behaviors include rude and verbal insults, yelling, physical threats or dangerous driving methods targeted at other drivers, pedestrians or cyclists in an effort to intimidate or release frustration. Road rage can lead to altercations, damage to property, assaults, and collisions that result in serious physical injuries or even death. Strategies include (but are not limited to) cutting motorists off, inappropriate honking, flipping off another driver, swerving, tailgating, brake checking and attempting to fight.


title: Road rage

text: According to a study by the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety that examined police records nationally, there were more than 1,250 incidents of road rage on average reported per year between 19901996 in the United States. Many of these incidents have ended with serious injuries or fatalities. These rates rose yearly throughout the six years of the study. A number of studies have found that individuals with road rage are predominantly young (33 years old on average) and 96.6% male.


title: Road rage

text: In some jurisdictions, there can be a legal difference between "road rage" and "aggressive driving." In the U.S., only a few states have enacted special aggressive driving laws, where road rage cases are normally prosecuted as assault and battery (with or without a vehicle), or as vehicular homicide.


title: Road rage

text: The legal definition of road rage encompasses a group of behaviors expressed while driving, or stemming from traffic-related incidents. The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration defines road rage as when "[t]he operation of a motor vehicle in a manner that endangers or is likely to endanger persons or property." This definition makes the distinction that aggressive driving is a traffic violation and that road rage is a criminal offense.


title: Road rage

text: A stressed driver's behavior depends on that driver's coping abilities. Generally, drivers who score high on aggression tests use direct confrontation strategies when faced with stress while driving. Many drivers who experience road rage have admitted that they believe they commit more traffic violations. Driving presents many stresses because of high speeds and the actions of other drivers. As stress increases, the likelihood of a person exhibiting road rage increases dramatically. Typically, younger males are most susceptible to road rage. Most reported cases of road rage occur because of cutting in and out of traffic, lane changes, disputes over parking spots or rude gestures. A report found that 6.8% of road rage incidents result in death.


title: Road rage

text: According to one study, people who customize their cars with stickers and other adornments are more prone to road rage. In the study, the number of territory markers predicted road rage better than did vehicle value or condition. Only the number of bumper stickers, not their content, predicted road rage.


title: Road rage

text: Common targets of road rage are driving instructors and learner drivers; as these road users tend to follow road regulations very closely, with learners prone to making more mistakes, they are often antagonized by aggressive drivers. In 2019, a survey by British insurance provider Young Marmalade found that 77% of driving instructors face regular abuse and intimidation from other road users while teaching students, and that 8% of learner drivers have abandoned learning to drive as a result of road rage they have experienced.


title: Road rage

text: Road rage is not an official mental disorder recognized in the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" ("DSM"). However, according to an article published by the Associated Press in June 2006, the behaviors typically associated with road rage can be the result of a disorder known as intermittent explosive disorder that is recognized in the DSM. This conclusion was drawn from surveys of 9,200 adults in the United States between 2001 and 2003. The surveys were funded by the National Institute of Mental Health.


title: Road rage

text: Road rage is a potentially serious act, and it may be seen as an endangerment of public safety. However, it is not always possible to judge intent by observation, so "road ragers" who are stopped by police may be charged with other offenses such as careless or reckless driving, or may be fined or arrested. Some consider road ragers to be criminals.


title: Road rage

text: In New South Wales, Australia, road rage is considered an extremely serious act. Any person who "engages in a course of conduct that causes or threatens an impact involving the other vehicle" while intending to cause a person bodily harm can be charged with predatory driving, a serious offense that can send the culprit to jail for up to five years. Offenders can also be fined A$100,000 and disqualified from driving, regardless of intent to physically harm the victim. If the predatory driving results in physical assault or harm, and/or the victim's car is intentionally damaged, penalties can be much more severe.


title: Road rage

text: Most common-law countries prohibit common assault, which could apply to road rage in which the personal safety of the victim is seen to be threatened. The common law regards assault as both a criminal and civil matter, leading to both public criminal penalties and private civil liabilities.


title: Road rage

text: Road rage, insults and rude gestures in traffic can lead to fines and prison sentences for drivers who shout insults or make offensive gestures while driving.


title: Road rage

text: In New Zealand, road rage in itself is not an offense, but drivers are usually charged with other offences committed during an act of road rage (usually assault or unlawful possession of an offensive weapon). Drivers have a legal duty to take reasonable care to avoid endangerment of human life when operating a vehicle (s 156 Crimes Act 1961); failure to discharge this duty, such as an act of aggressive driving, can give rise to liability in criminal nuisance (s 146 Crimes Act 1961). Ramming a vehicle constitutes intentional or reckless damage to property, a criminal offense, with a maximum penalty of seven years of imprisonment (s 269 Crimes Act 1961). New Zealand courts currently have no powers to disqualify drivers who physically assault another road user.


title: Road rage

text: Road rage is a crime in Singapore. Offenders found guilty of road rage may be liable to an imprisonment term of up to two years and / or a fine of up to $5,000 for causing damage.


title: Road rage

text: In the UK, road rage can result in criminal penalties for assault or more serious offenses against the person. The Public Order Act 1986 can also apply to road rage. Sections 4A and 5 of the 1986 Act prohibit public acts likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress. Section 4 also prohibits threatening, abusive or insulting words or behavior with intent to cause a victim to believe that violence will be used against himself or another.


title: Road rage

text: In some jurisdictions, such as the Commonwealth of Virginia, it is easier to prosecute road rage as reckless driving instead of aggressive driving simply because the burden of proof does not require intent to successfully convict.


title: Road rage

text: It is likely that those causing serious injury or death during road-rage incidents will suffer more serious penalties than those applicable to similar outcomes from simple negligence. In April 2007, a Colorado driver was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to two consecutive life terms for causing the deaths of two motorists in November 2005.


title: Road rage

text: Fourteen U.S. states have passed laws against aggressive driving. Only one state, California, has turned "road rage" into a legal term of art by giving it a particular meaning. In Virginia, aggressive driving is punished as a lesser crime (Class 2 misdemeanor) than is reckless driving (Class 1 misdemeanor).


title: Road rage

text: In 1854, a satirical article describing a hell-bent railroad engineer named "Joe Smashup" intentionally ramming other locomotives appeared in U.S. newspapers.


title: Road rage

text: A 2007 study of the largest U.S. metropolitan areas concluded that the cities with the least courteous drivers (most road rage) are Miami, Phoenix, New York, Los Angeles and Boston. The cities with the most courteous drivers (least road rage) are Minneapolis, Nashville, St. Louis, Seattle and Atlanta. In a 2009 AutoVantage survey, New York, Dallas/Fort Worth, Detroit, Atlanta and Minneapolis/St. Paul were rated the top five American cities for road rage.


title: Reichsmarschall

text: Until 1940, the highest rank in the German military was (). At the beginning of World War II, the only active holder of that rank was Hermann Göring, Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe. In a ceremony on 19 July 1940, after winning the Battle of France, Hitler promoted twelve generals to the rank of "Generalfeldmarschall". During the same ceremony, Göring was promoted to the newly created rank of "Reichsmarschall" to placate his thirst for prestige and to highlight his position as senior to the other "Wehrmacht" commanders, without giving him any actual authority over them. This was done in order to ensure that the newly created "Oberkommando Der Wehrmacht" (OKW), the High Command of the German Armed Forces, which was headed by Hitler, would retain overall control and authority over the German military.


title: Reichsmarschall

text: Göring was also designated as Hitler's successor. Nevertheless, on 23 April 1945, when Göring suggested to Hitler that he assume leadership of the crumbling remains of Nazi Germany, Hitler relieved Göring of his duties and named a new successor in his last will and testament, Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz. Dönitz's appointment was made on or before the day of Hitler's suicide.


title: Boiling

text: Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding atmosphere. There are two main types of boiling: nucleate boiling where small bubbles of vapour form at discrete points, and critical heat flux boiling where the boiling surface is heated above a certain critical temperature and a film of vapor forms on the surface. Transition boiling is an intermediate, unstable form of boiling with elements of both types. The boiling point of water is 100 °C or 212 °F but is lower with the decreased atmospheric pressure found at higher altitudes.


title: Boiling

text: Boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes and viruses that may be present. The sensitivity of different micro-organisms to heat varies, but if water is held at for one minute, most micro-organisms and viruses are inactivated. Ten minutes at a temperature of 70 °C (158 °F) is also sufficient to inactivate most bacteria.


title: Boiling

text: "Nucleate boiling" is characterized by the growth of bubbles or pops on a heated surface (heterogeneous nucleation), which rises from discrete points on a surface, whose temperature is only slightly above the temperature of the liquid. In general, the number of nucleation sites is increased by an increasing surface temperature.


title: Boiling

text: An irregular surface of the boiling vessel (i.e., increased surface roughness) or additives to the fluid (i.e., surfactants and/or nanoparticles) facilitate nucleate boiling over a broader temperature range, while an exceptionally smooth surface, such as plastic, lends itself to superheating. Under these conditions, a heated liquid may show boiling delay and the temperature may go somewhat above the boiling point without boiling.


title: Boiling

text: Homogeneous nucleation, where the bubbles form from the surrounding liquid instead of on a surface, can occur if the liquid is warmer in its center, and cooler at the surfaces of the container. This can be done, for instance, in a microwave oven, which heats the water and not the container.


title: Boiling

text: "Critical heat flux (CHF)" describes the thermal limit of a phenomenon where a phase change occurs during heating (such as bubbles forming on a metal surface used to heat water), which suddenly decreases the efficiency of heat transfer, thus causing localised overheating of the heating surface. As the boiling surface is heated above a critical temperature, a film of vapor forms on the surface. Since this vapor film is much less capable of carrying heat away from the surface, the temperature rises very rapidly beyond this point into the transition boiling regime. The point at which this occurs is dependent on the characteristics of boiling fluid and the heating surface in question.


title: Boiling

text: "Transition boiling" may be defined as the unstable boiling, which occurs at surface temperatures between the maximum attainable in nucleate and the minimum attainable in film boiling.


title: Boiling

text: The formation of bubbles in a heated liquid is a complex physical process which often involves cavitation and acoustic effects, such as the broad-spectrum hiss one hears in a kettle not yet heated to the point where bubbles boil to the surface.


title: Boiling

text: If a surface heating the liquid is significantly hotter than the liquid then film boiling will occur, where a thin layer of vapor, which has low thermal conductivity, insulates the surface. This condition of a vapor film insulating the surface from the liquid characterizes "film boiling".


title: Boiling

text: The boiling point of an element at a given pressure is a characteristic attribute of the element. This is also true for many simple compounds including water and simple alcohols. Once boiling has started and provided that boiling remains stable and the pressure is constant, the temperature of the boiling liquid remains constant. This attribute led to the adoption of boiling points as the definition of 100°C.


title: Boiling

text: Mixtures of volatile liquids have a boiling point specific to that mixture producing vapour with a constant mix of components - the constant boiling mixture. This attribute allows mixtures of liquids to be separated or partly separated by boiling and is best known as a means of separating ethanol from water.


title: Boiling

text: Most types of refrigeration and some type of air-conditioning work by compressing a gas so that it becomes liquid and then allowing it to boil. This adsorbs heat from the surroundings cooling the fridge or freezer or cooling the air entering a building. Typical liquids include propane, ammonia, carbon dioxide or nitrogen.


title: Boiling

text: As a method of disinfecting water, bringing it to its boiling point at , is the oldest and most effective way since it does not affect the taste, it is effective despite contaminants or particles present in it, and is a single step process which eliminates most microbes responsible for causing intestine related diseases. The boiling point of water is at sea level and at normal barometric pressure. In places having a proper water purification system, it is recommended only as an emergency treatment method or for obtaining potable water in the wilderness or in rural areas, as it cannot remove chemical toxins or impurities.


title: Boiling

text: The elimination of micro-organisms by boiling follows first-order kinetics—at high temperatures, it is achieved in less time and at lower temperatures, in more time. The heat sensitivity of micro-organisms varies, at , Giardia species (causes Giardiasis) can take ten minutes for complete inactivation, most intestine affecting microbes and "E. coli" (gastroenteritis) take less than a minute; at boiling point, "Vibrio cholerae" (cholera) takes ten seconds and hepatitis A virus (causes the symptom of jaundice), one minute. Boiling does not ensure the elimination of all micro-organisms; the bacterial spores Clostridium can survive at but are not water-borne or intestine affecting. Thus for human health, complete sterilization of water is not required.


title: Boiling

text: The traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures greater than and bringing it to its boiling point is also a useful indication that can be seen without the help of a thermometer, and by this time, the water is disinfected. Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process.


title: Boiling

text: "Boiling" is the method of cooking food in boiling water or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk. Simmering is gentle boiling, while in poaching the cooking liquid moves but scarcely bubbles.


title: Boiling

text: The boiling point of water is typically considered to be , especially at sea level. Pressure and a change in the composition of the liquid may alter the boiling point of the liquid. High elevation cooking generally takes longer since boiling point is a function of atmospheric pressure. At an elevation of about , water boils at approximately . Depending on the type of food and the elevation, the boiling water may not be hot enough to cook the food properly. Similarly, increasing the pressure as in a pressure cooker raises the temperature of the contents above the open air boiling point.


title: Boiling

text: Also known as "boil-in-bag", this involves heating or cooking ready-made foods sealed in a thick plastic bag. The bag containing the food, often frozen, is submerged in boiling water for a prescribed time. The resulting dishes can be prepared with greater convenience as no pots or pans are dirtied in the process. Such meals are available for camping as well as home dining.


title: Boiling

text: At any given temperature, the molecules in a liquid have varying kinetic energies. Some high energy particles on the liquid surface may have enough energy to escape the intermolecular forces of attraction of the liquid and become a gas. This is called evaporation.


title: Boiling

text: When a liquid reaches its boiling point bubbles of gas form in it which rise into the surface and burst into the air. This process is called boiling. If the boiling liquid is heated more strongly the temperature does not rise but the liquid boils more quickly.


title: Boiling

text: This distinction is exclusive to the liquid-to-gas transition; any transition directly from solid to gas is always referred to as sublimation regardless of whether it is at its boiling point or not.


title: Santiago Bernabéu (footballer)

text: Santiago Bernabéu de Yeste (; 8 June 1895 – 2 June 1978) was a Spanish footballer who played for Real Madrid as a forward. He is widely regarded one of the most important figures in the history of Real Madrid, having served as its president for 35 years, from 11 September 1943 until his death in 1978.


title: Santiago Bernabéu (footballer)

text: Under Bernabéu's leadership, Real Madrid became a dominant team both on national and international level, with its influence stretching beyond the football pitch. The club's current stadium is named in his honour.


title: Santiago Bernabéu (footballer)

text: Bernabéu was born in Almansa, Albacete, Spain. His family moved to Madrid when he was very young, and Bernabéu himself joined the Real Madrid junior ranks in 1909 at age 14, after being a regular spectator at their matches for years. Bernabéu wore the captain's armband for years. In 1920, Santiago Bernabéu withdrew from Real Madrid and went on to join their city rival Atlético Madrid, with whom he would only play one game. In 1921, he returned to Real Madrid, playing as a striker before retiring from playing in 1926. He continued to be associated with the club until 1935, first as manager of the first team, then as a director and later becoming assistant manager.


title: Santiago Bernabéu (footballer)

text: With the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, professional football ceased to be played in Spain. During the war, Bernabéu fought on the side of Francisco Franco's Nationalists under the general Agustín Muñoz Grandes.


title: Santiago Bernabéu (footballer)

text: After the war, Bernabéu proceeded to spend the next several months finding and contacting former players, directors, and club members, eventually restructuring the club.


title: Santiago Bernabéu (footballer)

text: In 1943, Bernabéu was elected president of Real Madrid – a position he would occupy until his death on 2 June 1978, beginning to implant his ideas. He restructured the club at all levels, in what would become the normal operating structure of professional clubs in the future, giving every section and level of the club independent technical teams and recruiting people who were ambitious and visionary in their own right, such as Raimundo Saporta.


title: Santiago Bernabéu (footballer)

text: He then endeavoured to build what would become the stadium that today bears his name, at the time the largest stadium in all of Europe. The Ciudad Deportiva, built so that the players could train without damaging the stadium's pitch, was also constructed during these years. Finally, he embarked upon an ambitious strategy of signing world-class players from Spain and abroad, the most prominent of them being the signing of Alfredo Di Stéfano. During Bernabéu's presidency many of Real Madrid's most legendary names played for the club, including Molowny, Muñoz, Di Stéfano, Gento, Rial, Santamaría, Kopa, Puskás, Amancio, Pirri, Netzer, Santillana, Juanito, Camacho, del Bosque, and many others. With this legendary team, Real Madrid would go on to usher in an unprecedented era of dominance both domestically and internationally, highlighted by its five consecutive European Cup triumphs and numerous domestic titles.


title: Santiago Bernabéu (footballer)

text: In 1955, acting upon the idea proposed by the "L'Équipe" journalist Gabriel Hanot and building upon the Copa Latina (a tournament involving clubs from France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy), Bernabéu met in the Ambassador Hotel in Paris with Bedrignan and Gustav Sebes and created what was at first a loosely constructed tournament played among invited teams, but which over time developed into what is today the Champions League. Under the administration of UEFA, it is the world's premier club tournament.


title: Santiago Bernabéu (footballer)

text: At the time of his death, Bernabéu had been the club's president for 35 years, during which his club won 1 Intercontinental Cup, 6 European Cups, 16 league titles, 6 Spanish Cups, 2 Latin Cups, and 1 Copa Eva Duarte. He died in 1978, while the World Cup was being played in Argentina. In his honour FIFA decreed three days of mourning during the tournament. In 2002, he was posthumously awarded the FIFA Order of Merit.


title: Terrence Ross

text: Terrence James Elijah Ross also known as The Human Torch (born February 5, 1991) is an American professional basketball player for the Orlando Magic of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Washington Huskies, where he was a first-team All-Pac-12 selection before being drafted eighth overall in the 2012 NBA draft by the Toronto Raptors. As a rookie, he was crowned champion of the 2013 Slam Dunk Contest. In January 2014, he became the first player in NBA history to score 50 or more points in a game while averaging fewer than 10 points per game at the time. In February 2017, he was traded to the Magic.


title: Terrence Ross

text: As a freshman and sophomore, Ross attended Jefferson High School in Portland, Oregon where he won the Oregon 5A Player of the Year, after leading Jefferson to the first of three consecutive state championships. As a junior in 2008–09, he attended Montrose Christian School in Rockville, Maryland where he was first-team All-Metro after averaging 13.5 points per game for the number 1 ranked Montrose. Midway through his senior year, Ross returned to Jefferson High School but could not play basketball due to transfer rules.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On April 30, 2010, Ross signed a National Letter of Intent to play college basketball for the University of Washington.


title: Terrence Ross

text: Considered a four-star recruit by ESPN.com, Ross was listed as the No. 5 small forward and the No. 30 player in the nation in 2010.


title: Terrence Ross

text: In his freshman season with the Huskies, Ross earned honorable mention Pac-10 All-Freshman team honors after averaging 8.0 points, 2.8 rebounds and 1.0 assists in 34 games. He was also named to the Pac-10 All-Tournament team after averaging 15.3 points and 2.7 rebounds per game in the 2011 Pac-10 tournament.


title: Terrence Ross

text: In his sophomore season, Ross earned first-team All-Pac-12 honors after averaging 16.4 points, 6.4 rebounds, 1.4 assists, and 1.3 steals in 35 games. He helped Washington reach the semi-finals of the 2012 National Invitation Tournament with averages of 25.0 points and 5.5 rebounds per game.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On April 1, 2012, Ross declared for the NBA draft, foregoing his final two years of college eligibility.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On June 28, 2012, Ross was selected with the eighth overall pick in the 2012 NBA draft by the Toronto Raptors. On July 10, 2012, he signed his rookie scale contract with the Raptors.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On January 2, 2013, Ross had a season-best game with 26 points and six three-pointers in a 102–79 win over the Portland Trail Blazers. On February 16, 2013, Ross defeated Jeremy Evans in the 2013 Sprite Slam Dunk Contest, receiving 58% of the vote from fans worldwide in the final round.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On October 24, 2013, the Raptors exercised their third-year team option on Ross' rookie scale contract, extending the contract through the 2014–15 season.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On January 25, 2014, Ross scored a career-high and franchise-tying 51 points in a 126–118 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers. He was 16-for-29 from the floor, 10-for-17 from behind the arc (his 10 three-pointers set a career high) and 9-for-10 from the free-throw line. He tied the franchise record for points in a game set by Vince Carter on February 27, 2000. Ross entered the game averaging 9.3 points per game, making him the first player in NBA history to have a 50-point game while averaging under 10 points per game.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On October 13, 2014, the Raptors exercised their fourth-year team option on Ross' rookie scale contract, extending the contract through the 2015–16 season. On February 4, 2015, he scored a season-high 23 points and matched a season high with five three-pointers in a loss to the Brooklyn Nets.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On November 2, 2015, Ross signed a three-year, $33 million contract extension with the Raptors. Ross averaged just 6.3 points in 17.5 minutes over the first seven games of the season, coming off the bench in all seven. He then missed six games with a left thumb injury before returning to action on November 20, scoring eight points in a 102–91 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. He made his first start of the season on December 7, also against the Lakers, scoring a season-high 22 points in place of injured starter DeMarre Carroll. On February 28, 2016, he set a new season high with 27 points in a 114–101 loss to the Detroit Pistons.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On March 30, he scored 13 points in a 105–97 win over the Atlanta Hawks, helping the Raptors record a 50-win season for the first time in franchise history. In the Raptors' regular season finale on April 13, Ross recorded his first double-double of the season with 24 points and 10 rebounds off the bench in a 103–96 win over the Brooklyn Nets.


title: Terrence Ross

text: The Raptors finished the regular season as the second seed in the East with a 56–26 record. After defeating the Indiana Pacers 4–3 in the first round of the playoffs, the Raptors moved on to the second round for the first time since 2001. In Game 1 of the conference semi-finals against the Miami Heat, Ross set a career playoff high with 19 points in a 102–96 loss.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On November 28, 2016, Ross scored a season-high 22 points in a 122–95 win over the Philadelphia 76ers. He set a new season high on December 12, scoring 25 points in a 122–100 win over the Milwaukee Bucks.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On February 14, 2017, Ross was traded, along with a 2017 first-round draft pick, to the Orlando Magic in exchange for Serge Ibaka. He made his debut for the Magic on February 23, 2017, recording 13 points on four of 17 shooting, which included a two for eight showing from three-point range, in a 112–103 loss to the Portland Trail Blazers. Two days later, he scored a game-high 24 points in a 105–86 win over the Atlanta Hawks. On April 8, 2017, he scored a season-high 29 points in a 127–112 loss to the Indiana Pacers.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On November 22, 2017, Ross scored a season-high 22 points in a 124–118 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves. On November 30, 2017, he was ruled out indefinitely after being diagnosed with a sprained right medial collateral ligament (MCL) and a non-displaced fracture of his right tibial plateau. He suffered the injury the night before against the Oklahoma City Thunder. Ross returned to action on April 8, 2018, after missing more than four months. He scored three points in 10 minutes in the Magic's 112–101 loss to the Raptors.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On February 7, 2019, Ross scored 32 points and hit six 3-pointers in a 122–112 win over the Timberwolves. On March 22, he scored a game-high 31 points and made a season-high eight 3-pointers in a 123–119 overtime win over the Memphis Grizzlies. On April 10, in the Magic's regular-season finale, Ross scored a season-high 35 points in a 122–114 win over the Charlotte Hornets. On June 30, 2019, it was announced that Ross was resigned by the Magic for a four-year $54 million dollar deal.


title: Terrence Ross

text: During the 2018/19 regular season Ross became the first player to score 200 three point baskets without starting one game during the season.


title: Terrence Ross

text: On March 4, 2020, in a 116–113 loss to the Miami Heat, Ross scored 35 points behind 8 three-pointers, both season-highs, while not recording a single rebound, assist, block or steal.


title: Terrence Ross

text: Ross is the son of Terry Ross and Marcine Parker. His father played in the defunct Continental Basketball Association and won the slam-dunk title while with the Tri-City Chinook in 1995. His sister, Taelor, played college basketball for Seattle University.


title: Terrence Ross

text: Married to Matijana whom he has 2 children with, Tristan and Zoey. https://playerswiki.com/terrence-ross


title: Per capita

text: Per capita is a Latin phrase literally meaning "by heads" or "for each head", and idiomatically used to mean "per person". The term is used in a wide variety of social sciences and statistical research contexts, including government statistics, economic indicators, and built environment studies.


title: Per capita

text: It is commonly used in the field of statistics in place of saying "per person" (although "per caput" is the Latin for "per head").


title: Per capita

text: It is also used in wills to indicate that each of the named beneficiaries should receive, by devise or bequest, equal shares of the estate. This is in contrast to a "per stirpes" division, in which each branch (Latin "stirps", plural "stirpes") of the inheriting family inherits an equal share of the estate. This is often used with the ‘2-0 rule’, a statistical principle that determines which group is larger per capita. Under the 2-0 rule, a group is the largest per capita if it has both the biggest total size and size of the group of the objects in question, therefore resulting in a 2-0 score.


title: Director-General of the World Health Organization

text: The director-general of the World Health Organization (WHO) is the chief executive officer of WHO and the principal advisor to the United Nations on matters pertaining global health. The director general is elected by and answers to the World Health Assembly (WHA). The current director-general is Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, who was appointed on 1 July 2017, and re-appointed on 24 May 2022. The Director-General also leads the WHO Secretariat and is also the ex-officio Secretary of the World Health Assembly, the WHO Executive Board, and of all commissions and committees, and conferences convened by the Organization.


text: Candidates for Director-General can be proposed by Member States, then nominated by the Executive Board and appointed by the World Health Assembly.


text: The appointment process begins more than one year prior to the May vote, when the WHO sends out a letter informing Member States that the nomination process has begun. The nomination period ends in mid-September, and candidates are announced at the end of October. If there are multiple candidates, the executive board of the WHO — a panel of members from 34 member countries representing the various WHO regions — interviews the nominees.


text: The term of the Director-General lasts for five years. Office holders can be and have been appointed for multiple subsequent terms, such as Marcolino Gomes Candau who served for four consecutive terms. The Director-General is typically appointed in May, when the WHA meets.


title: Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt

text: Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt Cecil Bulkely-Johnson Goodsir (August 22, 1900 – February 7, 1976) was an American born heiress and member of the Vanderbilt family who inherited the Biltmore Estate. She was known for her eccentric behavior.


title: Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt

text: Cornelia was born at the Biltmore Estate in North Carolina on August 22, 1900. She was the daughter, and only child, of George Washington Vanderbilt II (1862–1914) and Edith Stuyvesant Dresser (1873–1958). Her father, the youngest child of William Henry Vanderbilt and Maria Louisa (née Kissam) Vanderbilt, built a 250-room mansion, the largest privately owned home in the United States, which he named Biltmore Estate. The estate, designed by architect Richard Morris Hunt, was modeled on the Chateau de Blois among other chateaux of the Loire Valley. She was the great-granddaughter of Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt, and, on her mother’s side, she was a descendant of Peter Stuyvesant.


title: Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt

text: After her father's death in 1914, Cornelia inherited the Biltmore estate. Her mother sold approximately of the Biltmore property to the United States Forest Service to create the core of Pisgah National Forest. Her mother later married Peter Goelet Gerry (1879–1957), a United States senator from Rhode Island.


title: Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt

text: Cornelia attended the Madeira School for high school. She was privately tutored and attended the University of North Carolina for approximately a year. When she reached 21 years old, she received an annuity of $2,000,000 and at the age of 25, she received her full inheritance of $50,000,000 from her father.


title: Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt

text: On April 29, 1924, Cornelia was married to a British aristocrat who was then the first secretary of the British Embassy in Washington, Hon. John Francis Amherst Cecil (1890–1954), the son of Lord William Cecil and Mary Cecil, Baroness Amherst of Hackney. The Cecils were descendants of William Cecil. The nationally renowned organist from St. Louis Charles Henry Galloway played organ at the wedding. They divorced in 1934.


title: Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt

text: Around 1932, reportedly finding life at Biltmore too dull, she moved to New York City to briefly study art, leaving her husband to manage Biltmore. A few months later, she moved to Paris where she divorced her husband in 1934, dyed her hair bright pink, and changed her name to Nilcha. After her 1934 move abroad, she never returned to Biltmore or the United States again. After Paris, she moved to London, where she met and married Captain Vivian Francis Bulkeley-Johnson (1891–1968) in October 1949. Bulkeley-Johnson, the aide-de-camp to the 9th Duke of Devonshire when he was the Governor General of Canada from 1916 to 1918, served in the offices of the Imperial War Cabinet in World War I and in the Air Ministry. They remained married until his death in 1968.


title: Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt

text: One evening as she was having dinner with Edward Adamson in London, Cornelia met William Robert "Bill" Goodsir, their waiter with whom she fell in love. In 1972, Cornelia married for the third and final time to Goodsir (1926–1984), who was 26 years younger than she was. She was a friend and supporter of Adamson, the pioneer of Art Therapy, and tried unsuccessfully to fund his post at Netherne Hospital, and the Adamson Collection through her Mrs Smith Trust (correspondence in Edward Adamson Archive at the Wellcome Library).


title: Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt

text: Cornelia died on February 7, 1976, aged 75, in Oxford, England. Her ashes were buried at a church near her home, The Mount, a farm in the village of Churchill in Oxfordshire, near Kingham.


title: Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt

text: Vanderbilt's sons eventually inherited the Biltmore estate, with George Cecil, the older of the two sons, choosing to inherit the majority of the estate's land and the Biltmore Farms Company, which was more profitable than the house at the time. The younger son, William Cecil, was thus left with Biltmore House. He is credited with preserving the chateau, which is open to the public (although still privately owned). Through George, Vanderbilt was the grandmother of six, and through William, she was the grandmother of two more.


title: Greater Orlando

text: The Orlando metropolitan area, commonly referred to as Greater Orlando, Metro Orlando, Central Florida as well as for U.S. Census purposes as the Orlando–Kissimmee–Sanford, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area, is a metropolitan area in the central region of the U.S. state of Florida. Its principal cities are Orlando, Kissimmee and Sanford. The U.S. Office of Management and Budget defines it as consisting of the counties of Lake, Orange (including Orlando), Osceola, and Seminole.


title: Greater Orlando

text: According to the 2020 U.S. Census, the population of Greater Orlando is 2,673,376, an increase of nearly 540,000 new residents between 2010 and 2020.


title: Greater Orlando

text: By population, it is the third-largest metropolitan area in Florida, the seventh-largest in the southeastern United States, and the 23rd largest in the United States. The MSA encompasses of total area (both land and water areas).


title: Greater Orlando

text: The Orlando–Kissimmee–Sanford MSA is further listed by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget as part of the Orlando-Lakeland-Deltona, Florida Combined Statistical Area. This includes the Deltona–Daytona Beach–Ormond Beach Metropolitan Statistical Area (Volusia and Flagler counties) and Lakeland-Winter Haven, FL Metropolitan Statistical Area (Polk County), as well as the micropolitan areas of The Villages (Sumter County) and Wauchula (Hardee County). As of the 2010 census, the Combined Statistical Area population was 3,447,946, with a 2018 estimate at 4,096,575.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Principal cities (sometimes called primary cities) are defined by the OMB based on population size and employment. In general, a principal city has more non-residents commuting into the city to work than residents commuting out of the city to work.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Greater Orlando is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world thanks to the many theme parks in the area. Famous attractions include Walt Disney World, SeaWorld Orlando and Universal Orlando. Millions of tourists visit these and other attractions every year.


title: Greater Orlando

text: The citrus industry historically dominated the Orlando area economy, but has declined over the past 100 years. The Christmas 1989 impact freeze proved particularly damaging to commercial citrus farming within Greater Orlando. There are still three major orange juice plants remaining in the area: Cutrale Citrus Juices in Leesburg; Florida's Natural Growers in Umatilla; and Silver Springs Citrus in Howey-in-the-Hills. Minute Maid maintains a major juice flavoring plant in Apopka.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Other agricultural pursuits, particularly cattle farming, remain important parts of the Central Florida economy, but are now all located on the outer fringes of the metro area. Orlando is also a major food processing center.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Metro Orlando has served as a major military defense and aerospace center since World War II. The most prominent defense contractor in the area is Lockheed Martin, which operates both a laboratory and a manufacturing facility in Orlando. Military presence began in the 1940s, with the opening of McCoy Air Force Base and the Orlando Naval Training Center.


title: Greater Orlando

text: McCoy AFB was a major hub of B-52 Stratofortress operations. McCoy AFB was split between the city and NTC Orlando in 1974, and NTC Orlando closed in the mid-1990s. McCoy AFB is now the location of the Orlando International Airport. Farther north in Sanford, the Orlando Sanford International Airport was originally Naval Air Station Sanford.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Metro Orlando's economy has greatly diversified from tourism, and the area is now considered a primary city for the modeling, simulation and training (MS&T) industry. The University of Central Florida is home to more than 60,000 students, the second largest public university campus by enrollment, and established the UCF College of Medicine in 2006. The Central Florida Research Park is the seventh largest research park in the United States by number of employees, and fourth largest by number of companies. In addition to having a Lockheed Martin branch, it also hosts other major hi-tech companies such as Oracle Corporation, Electronic Arts, and Siemens.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Orlando is targeting the biotechnology and life sciences industries, with major new projects clustering in the Lake Nona Medical City. In addition to the UCF College of Medicine, a VA Hospital, a Sanford-Burnham Institute research center and a Nemours Foundation children's hospital are being constructed.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Tavistock Group, an investment firm that held of land immediately southeast of Orlando International Airport began formulating new possibilities for its land use after the decline in tourism to the state. Tavistock decided to use part of the land to establish a bio-sciences cluster.


title: Greater Orlando

text: In 2005, the state of Florida along with Tavistock Group and the University of Central Florida agreed that Tavistock would donate and $12.5 million (which the state would match for a total of $25 Million) to start the UCF College of Medicine and the Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences. The UCF College of Medicine won approval from the State Board of Governors in 2006. That decision was key to attracting Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute to Central Florida. Tavistock then donated another and $17.5 million to Sanford-Burnham which allowed Sanford-Burnham's East Coast expansion.


title: Greater Orlando

text: In February and March 2007 respectively, Nemours and the United States Department of Veterans Affairs announced Lake Nona as the site of two new hospitals.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Other prospective tenants of the Lake Nona Medical City included MD Anderson Cancer Center Orlando, the University of Florida research center, and Valencia Community College.


title: Greater Orlando

text: It was determined in 2008 from a study done by Arduin, Laffer and Moore Econometrics that the Lake Nona Medical City cluster has in two years reached 80% of the Milken Numbers which were based on the commitments made by the economic development statements. The study then released new projections for the 10-year period which included 30,000 jobs created and a $7.6 billion economic impact.


title: Greater Orlando

text: In January 2020, KPMG completed construction of a $450 million, 55 acre, state-of-the-art training facility in the Lake Nona region of the Greater Orlando area. The site hosts KPMG professionals for training from across the United States, and provides direct shuttles from Orlando International Airport to the training facility. Only the firm's employees are permitted on the grounds.


title: Greater Orlando

text: The Beachline, Central Florida GreeneWay, East-West Expressway and Western Expressway are all run by the Central Florida Expressway Authority. Florida's Turnpike and portions of tollways not inside Orange County are run by Florida's Turnpike Enterprise, a special district of the Florida Department of Transportation.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Major surface highways include US 17, US 92 and US 441 (which overlap through Orlando as Orange Blossom Trail), US 27 (Claude Pepper Highway), US 192 (Irlo Bronson Highway), SR 50 (Colonial Drive and Cheney Highway), John Young Parkway, and International Drive.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Bus transportation in Orange, Osceola, and Seminole counties is provided by LYNX. LYNX operates 88 routes as of January 28, 2019. LYNX provides service on local, limited-stop (FastLink), and neighborhood, on-demand circulator routes (NeighborLink).


title: Greater Orlando

text: Lynx had express routes into Clermont and Volusia County, but these were eliminated in 2014 due to the opening of SunRail. Volusia County is primarily served locally by Votran and Lake County is primarily served locally by LakeXpress.


title: Greater Orlando

text: The SunRail opened for operation in 2014 and the second phase expansion into Osceola County opened on July 30, 2018, with terminal stations at Poinciana and DeBary. Studies are being conducted to extend SunRail to Orlando International Airport (OIA) and Deland.


title: Greater Orlando

text: SunRail (formerly referred to as Central Florida Commuter Rail) is a commuter rail system in the Greater Orlando, Florida area, linking Poinciana to DeBary through Downtown Orlando. Phase 1 opened in May 2014, and ran between DeBary and Sand Lake Station. Phase II opened in July 2018 and extended to Poinciana through Osceola County with the addition of four new stations.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Church Street Station, once a stop along the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, has since been redeveloped as an urban night life center, while the station itself will serve as Downtown Orlando's centerpiece SunRail stop.


title: Greater Orlando

text: Amtrak serves stations in the area in Kissimmee, Orlando, Winter Park, Sanford and DeLand. The Sanford station is the southern terminus for the "Auto Train", which transports people and their vehicles, without intermediate station stops, directly to Washington, D.C., via Lorton, Virginia.


title: Greater Orlando

text: The other stations are served by the "Silver Meteor" and "Silver Star", which both travel to New York City. The difference between the two lines is their paths through the states of South Carolina and North Carolina: "Silver Meteor" takes a coastal route through Charleston, South Carolina, and Fayetteville, North Carolina, while "Silver Star" moves inland through Columbia, South Carolina, and Raleigh, North Carolina.