title: Caveat emptor

text: In the UK, consumer law has moved away from the "caveat emptor" model, with laws passed that have enhanced consumer rights and allow greater leeway to return goods that do not meet legal standards of acceptance. Consumer purchases are regulated by the Consumer Rights Act 2015, whilst business-to-business purchases are regulated by the Sale of Goods Act 1979.


title: Caveat emptor

text: In the UK, consumers have the right to a full refund for faulty goods. However, traditionally, many retailers allow customers to return goods within a specified period (typically two weeks to two months) for a full refund or an exchange, even if there is no fault with the product. Exceptions may apply for goods sold as damaged or to clear.


title: Caveat emptor

text: Goods bought through "distance selling," for example online or by phone, also have a statutory "cooling off" period of fourteen calendar days during which the purchase contract can be cancelled and treated as if not done.


title: Caveat emptor

text: Although no longer applied in consumer law, the principle of "caveat emptor" is generally held to apply to transactions between businesses unless it can be shown that the seller had a clear information advantage over the buyer that could not have been removed by carrying out reasonable due diligence.


title: Caveat emptor

text: In the landmark case of "MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co." (1916), New York Court Appeals Judge Benjamin N. Cardozo established that privity of duty is no longer required in regard to a lawsuit for product liability against the seller. This case is widely regarded as the origin of "caveat venditor" as it pertains to modern tort law in US.


title: Caveat emptor

text: "Caveat lector" is a Latin phrase meaning "let the reader beware". It means that when reading something, the reader should take careful note of the contents, and undertake due diligence on whether the contents are accurate, relevant, reliable and so forth.


title: Caveat emptor

text: Another variant is "Caveat Auditor", or "let the listener beware", where caution is urged regarding all messages, in particular spoken messages, such as a radio advertisement.


title: Muktinath

text: Muktinath is a Vishnu temple, sacred to both Hindus and Buddhists. It is located in Muktinath Valley at the foot of the Thorong La mountain pass in Mustang, Nepal. It is one of the world's highest temples (altitude 3,800 m). Within Hinduism, it is one of the 108 Divya Desams, and is the only Divya Desam located outside India. It known as "Mukti Kshetra", which literally means the 'liberation arena' ("moksh") and is one of the "Char Dham" in Nepal.


title: Muktinath

text: This temple is considered to be 106th among the available 108 Divya Desam considered sacred by the Sri Vaishnava sect. Its ancient name in Sri Vaishnava literature is "Thiru Saligramam". The Gandaki river near by is considered the only source of the Saligram shila, considered to be the naturally available form of Sriman.


title: Muktinath

text: Buddhists call it Chumig Gyatsa, which in Tibetan means "Hundred Waters". For Tibetan Buddhists, Muktinath is an important place of "dakinis", goddesses known as Sky Dancers, and one of the 24 Tantric places. They understand the "murti" to be a manifestation of Avalokiteśvara, who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas.


title: Muktinath

text: The central shrine of Sri Muktinath is considered by Hindu Vaishnavas to be one of the eight most-sacred shrines, known as Svayam Vyakta Ksetras. The others are Srirangam, Srimushnam, Tirupati, Naimisharanya, Thotadri, Pushkar and Badrinath. The temple is small. The "murti" is made of gold and has the size of a man.


title: Muktinath

text: The "prakaram" (outer courtyard) has 108 bull faces through which water is poured. The sacred water that flows in 108 pipes around the temple complex denotes the sacred Pushkarini waters (Temple Tanks) from the 108 Sri Vaishnava Divya Desams, where devotees take their sacred bath even in freezing temperatures.


title: Muktinath

text: Worship is conducted by Buddhists, with a Buddhist monk present. A local nun manages the "pujas" (prayer rituals) in the temple. Pilgrims are expected to offer a "prasad" (religious offering of food) to the deity.


title: Muktinath

text: The Muktinath Temple is considered to be a Shakti Peetha for a "yatra". It is one of the 108 Siddhpeeth and is named Mahadevi [Devibhagwat 7.14]. Shakti Peethas are sacred abodes of Shakti (primordial cosmic energy), formed by the falling body parts of the corpse of Sati Devi, when Lord Shiva carried it as he wandered. 51 Shakti Peethas are revered by Shaktism, connecting them to the 51 alphabets in Sanskrit. Each Shakti Peetha has a Shakti shrine and a Bhairav shrine in its temple. The Shakti of Muktinath is addressed as "Gandaki Chandi", and the Bhairava as "Chakrapani". Sati Devi's temple on the forehead is believed to have fallen there.


title: Muktinath

text: The Tibetan Buddhist tradition states that Guru Rinpoche, also known as Padmasambhava, the founder of Tibetan Buddhism, meditated at Muktinath on his way to Tibet. This temple is praised by many saints of the Hindu tradition. Scripts narrating the temple's importance are available in Vishnu Purana with the Gandaki Mahathmya.


title: Muktinath

text: The waterway downstream from Muktinath along Kali Gandaki is the source of the Silas or Shaligrams that are required to establish a temple of Vishnu. It is considered to be one of the holiest places of pilgrimage for Hindus and Buddhists.


title: Muktinath

text: It has 108 water springs, a number that carries great significance in Hindu philosophy. As an example of the mystery surrounding the number 108, Hindu astrology mentions 12 zodiacs (or Rashi) and 9 planets (or Graha), giving a total of 108 combinations. 27 lunar mansions (or Nakshatras) are divided into four quarters (or Padas) each giving a combination of 108 Padas in total.


title: Muktinath

text: Hindu and Buddhist traditions claim this site to be the only place on Earth to host all five elements (fire, water, sky, earth and air) from which all material things in the universe are made. Along with the ambient earth, air, and sky, there is a water spring co-located with a flame fueled by naturally occurring gas outflow -- giving the appearance of the water itself burning. No other co-located water source and burning gas is known to exist.


title: Muktinath

text: According to Sri Vaishnava philosophy, it is considered to be one of the most-sacred places of worship of Lord Vishnu, praised by Thirumangai Alwar in the compilation of Nalayira Divya Prabandha 10 Pasurams in Mudal pathu Iyndham thirumozhi.


title: Muktinath

text: It is said that one has to be gifted to get the "darśan" (divine presence). Lord Sri Vishnu "murthi" and Goddess Sri Devi and Bhoo Devi are believed to give Jeevan Mukthi, hence it is called Mukthinath.


title: Muktinath

text: Sri Vaishnava tradition is a sub-sect of Hinduism, predominant in present-day Tamil Nadu in southern India. The river Gandaki, flowing adjacent to the temple has a kind of stone called Salagram. The different patterns of the stone are worshiped as different forms of Vishnu. The colour white is considered Vasudeva, black as Vishnu, green as Narayana, blue as Krishna, golden yellow & reddish yellow as Narasimha and Vamana in yellow. The stones are found in various shapes with even shapes of conch and Chakra, the symbols of Vishnu.


title: Muktinath

text: The temple is revered in "Nalayira Divya Prabandham", the 7th–9th century Vaishnava canon, by Kulasekhara Alvar in one hymn. The temple is classified as a "Divyadesam", one of the 108 Vishnu temples that are mentioned in the book. Many devotees have contributed to it, most prominently the Alvars. Thirumangai Alvar could not reach Muktinath, but sang 10 pashurams from the nearest place, in praise of Lord Sri Murthy. Periy Alvar sang in praise of Sri Murthi as "Salagramamudaiya Nambi".


title: Muktinath

text: The pontiff of Srivilliputtur (the most venerated Srivaishnava pilgrim centre in Tamil Nadu), Sri Manavala Mamunigal Mutt 23rd peetam Sri Sri Sri Satakopa Ramanuja Jeeyar Swamiji installed the idols of Andal (Sri Gotha Devi), Ramanuja, and Manavala Mamunigal there during the "yagna" performed between 3 and 6 August 2009. This is considered by devotees to be a milestone in the history of Muktinath. A large crowd of devotees visit this shrine, where the Lord resides in the form of Sri Paramapatha Nathan with his divine consorts of Sri, Bhoomi, Neela and Gotha Devis.


title: Muktinath

text: Muktinath, being one of the world's most famous religious and tourism locations, receives thousands of visitors every year. According to the data provided by the Jomsom-based information centre of the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), 9,105 foreigners visited Muktinath in April 2018 alone, among which Indian tourists were counted at 4,537. ACAP's data show that the number of Indian tourists visiting Muktinath temple has been increasing every year. International tourists visit Muktinath mainly en route to the Annapurna Circuit Trek. The route to Muktinath is also popular among the biking community throughout the year.


title: Archipelagic state

text: An archipelagic state is an island country that consists of an archipelago. The designation is legally defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). In various conferences, The Bahamas, Fiji, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines are the five original sovereign states that obtained approval in the UNCLOS signed in Montego Bay, Jamaica on 10 December 1982 and qualified as the archipelagic states.


title: Archipelagic state

text: Archipelagic states are composed of groups of islands forming a state as a single unit, with the islands and the waters within the baselines as internal waters. Under this concept ("archipelagic doctrine"), an archipelago shall be regarded as a single unit, so that the waters around, between, and connecting the islands of the archipelago, irrespective of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal waters of the state, and are subject to its exclusive sovereignty. The baselines must enclose the main islands of the archipelago and the enclosed water to land ratio must be "between 1:1 and 9:1".


title: Archipelagic state

text: The approval of the United Nations (UN) for the five sovereign states as archipelagic states respect existing agreements with other countries and shall recognize traditional fishing rights and other legitimate activities of the immediately adjacent neighboring countries in certain areas falling within archipelagic waters. The terms and conditions for the exercise of such rights and activities, including the nature, the extent and the areas to which they apply, shall, at the request of any of the countries concerned, be regulated by bilateral agreements between them. Such rights shall not be transferred to or shared with third countries or their nationals.


title: Archipelagic state

text: This is a list of the current archipelagic states in the world. These 22 island countries have sought to claim archipelagic status by utilising the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea provisions.


title: Christopher Rice

text: Christopher Travis Rice (born March 11, 1978) is an American author. Rice made his fiction debut in 2000 with the bestselling "A Density of Souls", going on to write many more novels, including "The Snow Garden", "The Heavens Rise", "The Vines", as well as the "Burning Girl" series. His work spans multiple genres, including suspense, crime, supernatural thriller, and erotic romance. With his mother Anne Rice, he is the co-author of the historical-horror novels "" and its sequel, "Ramses the Damned: The Reign of Osiris".


title: Christopher Rice

text: Christopher Rice comes from a family of authors. His parents were renowned horror novelist Anne Rice and poet Stan Rice; his aunt, Alice Borchardt, was a noted writer of fantasy and historical fiction. Rice had an older sister named Michele, who he never met as she died of leukemia in 1972 when she was five years old. Rice was born in the San Francisco Bay Area and spent the first ten years of his childhood in the Castro District. In an interview with The Advocate after the publication of his first novel, "A Density of Souls", Rice describes the culture shock that resulted from his family's move to New Orleans when he was ten years old. "...being dropped in New Orleans, it was completely different. I went from a school in San Francisco where we called our lesbian teachers by their first names to this uptown, private elementary school where we all had to go to chapel in the morning."


title: Christopher Rice

text: Rice has lived in New Orleans, Louisiana and is a 1996 graduate of the Isidore Newman School, which he attended during the same time period as future NFL stars Peyton Manning and Eli Manning. He has stated that while he was never physically threatened during high school, his knowledge of his own sexuality and his failure to play athletics made him feel like an outcast. Of this time in his life, Rice said, "I had money, had a nice car, was white. I could have fit in, but I knew I didn't belong. I knew I didn't share their dreams and ambitions and their values". These experiences ultimately inspired his first novel, "A Density of Souls". Rice began visiting gay bars and clubs during his senior year of high school, but he did not come out to his parents until he met his first boyfriend. His father had no trouble accepting Rice's sexuality, but his mother believed he was bisexual based on the number of intimate relationships he had enjoyed with the opposite sex during high school. Rice went on to attend Brown University, an experience which inspired his second novel, "The Snow Garden". At Brown, he was not cast in a single theatrical production his freshman year despite his extensive high school theater experience and his determination to be an actor. He transferred to Tisch School of the Arts where he completed a semester in their Dramatic Writing Program. He did not graduate from either school; instead, he moved to Los Angeles to explore writing screenplays.


title: Christopher Rice

text: Rice is gay and his works consist of descriptions of contemporary American life for the gay male. When asked in 2002 about "being pegged a 'gay writer, he replied:


title: Christopher Rice

text: Nonetheless, Rice is proud of the reaction of the gay community to his writing, explaining "it was incredibly rewarding when I got a huge positive response from the character Stephen in "A Density of Souls." More than a thousand young gay men contacted me and said that I captured what it was like for them going through those years. That means everything to me."


title: Christopher Rice

text: In December 1998, Anne Rice had a medical crisis and nearly died when she fell into a diabetic coma. Her son Christopher wrote his first novel, "A Density of Souls", upon returning home to New Orleans during her recuperation. Published the following year, "Souls" generated buzz in the gay and mainstream press, and became a "New York Times" Best Seller. His second novel, "The Snow Garden" received a Lambda Literary Award for Best Gay Men's Mystery. For many years, Rice wrote a regular column for the LGBT-related biweekly news magazine "The Advocate" called "Coastal Disturbances," in which he discussed various topics.


title: Christopher Rice

text: Early in his career, Rice distinguished himself by saying that unlike his famous mother, he did not write horror novels, instead considering his books to be thrillers. However, as years went by, Rice became more comfortable experimenting in different genres, exploring his own version of the supernatural with works such as "The Heavens Rise", published in 2013, and "The Vines". Both of these novels met with critical acclaim, and each were nominated for the Bram Stoker Award for Superior Achievement in a Novel but lost to "Dr. Sleep" by Stephen King and "Blood Kin" by Steve Rasnic Tem, in their respective years. On the publication of "The Heavens Rise" in 2013, Rice told The Advocate magazine that part of his motivation for writing the novel came from a desire to tell a New Orleans-set story with a more sympathetic ensemble of characters than the one featured in his debut, "A Density of Souls". "I said my first novel put the city through such hell, both figuratively and literally, at least certain neighborhoods. But honestly, what happened to me is that I grew up. And I saw my perspective on the city and some of its communities in "A Density of Souls" to be youthful and unforgiving. And I had a desire to back and write a kinder, gentler New Orleans story, which, because I'm a Rice, turned into a horror novel."


title: Christopher Rice

text: In 2012, Rice launched a streaming Internet radio show called "The Dinner Party Show" with Eric Shaw Quinn, his producing partner and co-host, who was known for having ghost written two books by celebrity Pamela Anderson and a 1992 novel about gay adoption called "Say Uncle". The show describes itself as "the Internet's first live comedy variety show" and became known for its hard-hitting satire and celebrity interviews Guests have included Patricia Cornwell, Dan Savage, transgender activist Chaz Bono and "Tales of the City" author Armistead Maupin. In 2019, after placing the show on hiatus to begin development of The Vampire Chronicles television series, Rice and Quinn returned with a new podcast entitled "TDPS Presents CHRISTOPHER & ERIC", which included a regular series focused on true crime television documentaries they called Christopher & Eric's True Crime TV Club.


title: Christopher Rice

text: In 2014, Rice announced through his social media channels that he was scheduled to publish several works of erotic romance. The first of them, "The Flame", was published in November 2014 as part of the 1,001 Dark Nights series.


title: Christopher Rice

text: On November 26, 2016, Anne Rice announced that the film and television rights to her entire Vampire Chronicles franchise had reverted to her after unsuccessful attempts to launch them as a film franchise with Universal Pictures and Imagine Entertainment. Her announcement included the detail that she and Christopher would be executive producers on a planned TV series based on the franchise.


title: Christopher Rice

text: On February 28, 2017, the Rices announced their first novel written in collaboration, "". It was published on November 21, 2017. Of the collaboration with his mother, Christopher said, "I had to be taught how to write...scenes from an immortal's point of view in a way that fits with an Anne Rice book because immortals don't engage or interact with everyday ordinary stimuli the way we would. They have an absence of fear and an absence or reactivity, and that's something Mom really counseled me on." Anne would publicly state that Christopher was largely responsible for inventing the origin story for The Elixir of Life, first introduced in the first novel in the series and responsible for giving Ramses and Cleopatra their immortality. Anne would also reveal that Bektaten, an ancient African queen responsible for inventing the elixir, was almost entirely Christopher's invention. Publishers Weekly called "Ramses The Damned: The Passion of Cleopatra" a "slick sequel" to The Mummy, noting that its "immortals gifted with virtual indestructibility scheme as nastily against one another as the similarly endowed characters in Anne Rice's celebrated Vampire Chronicles." The publication added, "In their first literary collaboration, the Rices, mother and son, configure these subplots into an entertaining soap opera replete with romantic alliances, betrayals, and ends left tantalizingly loose as grist for sequels."


title: Christopher Rice

text: In early 2020, Anne revealed she had sold the studio rights to both The Vampire Chronicles book series as well as her Lives of the Mayfair Witches series to AMC Studios, the home of such shows as "The Walking Dead" and "Killing Eve", with her and Christopher as executive producers on all films and television series produced under the deal. In a May 13, 2020 announcement of the deal Christopher Rice said, ""AMC Studios is responsible for creating some of the most iconic television series of the modern era and has, at times, single-handedly defined this era we call 'peak TV'. All the members of Team Anne, including my long-term producing partner, New York Times Bestselling novelist Eric Shaw Quinn, are both thrilled and comforted to know that some of our most cherished kin, from the vampire Lestat and the witch Rowan Mayfair, to the paranormal investigators at the Order of the Talamasca and the powerful spirit Lasher, are now safely in the hands of these vastly accomplished innovators who possess both global reach and deep reservoirs of experience."


title: Rotation

text: Rotation, or spin, is the circular movement of an object around a "central axis". A two-dimensional rotating object has only one possible central axis and can rotate in either a clockwise or counterclockwise direction. A three-dimensional object has an infinite number of possible central axes and rotational directions.


title: Rotation

text: If the rotation axis passes internally through the body's own center of mass, then the body is said to be "autorotating" or "spinning", and the surface intersection of the axis can be called a "pole". A rotation around a completely external axis, e.g. the planet Earth around the Sun, is called "revolving" or "orbiting", typically when it is produced by gravity, and the ends of the rotation axis can be called the "orbital poles".


title: Rotation

text: Mathematically, a rotation is a rigid body movement which, unlike a translation, keeps a point fixed. This definition applies to rotations within both two and three dimensions (in a plane and in space, respectively.)


title: Rotation

text: A rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common point. That common point lies within the axis of that motion. The axis is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion.


title: Rotation

text: If a rotation around a point or axis is followed by a second rotation around the same point/axis, a third rotation results. The reverse (inverse) of a rotation is also a rotation. Thus, the rotations around a point/axis form a group. However, a rotation around a point or axis and a rotation around a different point/axis may result in something other than a rotation, e.g. a translation.


title: Rotation

text: Rotations around the "x", "y" and "z" axes are called "principal rotations". Rotation around any axis can be performed by taking a rotation around the "x" axis, followed by a rotation around the "y" axis, and followed by a rotation around the "z" axis. That is to say, any spatial rotation can be decomposed into a combination of principal rotations.


title: Rotation

text: In flight dynamics, the principal rotations are known as "yaw", "pitch", and "roll" (known as Tait–Bryan angles). This terminology is also used in computer graphics.


title: Rotation

text: In astronomy, rotation is a commonly observed phenomenon. Stars, planets and similar bodies all spin around on their axes. The rotation rate of planets in the solar system was first measured by tracking visual features. Stellar rotation is measured through Doppler shift or by tracking active surface features.


title: Rotation

text: This rotation induces a centrifugal acceleration in the reference frame of the Earth which slightly counteracts the effect of gravitation the closer one is to the equator. Earth's gravity combines both mass effects such that an object weighs slightly less at the equator than at the poles. Another is that over time the Earth is slightly deformed into an oblate spheroid; a similar equatorial bulge develops for other planets.


title: Rotation

text: Another consequence of the rotation of a planet is the phenomenon of precession. Like a gyroscope, the overall effect is a slight "wobble" in the movement of the axis of a planet. Currently the tilt of the Earth's axis to its orbital plane (obliquity of the ecliptic) is 23.44 degrees, but this angle changes slowly (over thousands of years). (See also Precession of the equinoxes and Pole star.)


title: Rotation

text: While revolution is often used as a synonym for rotation, in many fields, particularly astronomy and related fields, revolution, often referred to as orbital revolution for clarity, is used when one body moves around another while rotation is used to mean the movement around an axis. Moons revolve around their planet, planets revolve about their star (such as the Earth around the Sun); and stars slowly revolve about their galaxial center. The motion of the components of galaxies is complex, but it usually includes a rotation component.


title: Rotation

text: Most planets in the Solar System, including Earth, spin in the same direction as they orbit the Sun. The exceptions are Venus and Uranus. Venus may be thought of as rotating slowly backward (or being "upside down"). Uranus rotates nearly on its side relative to its orbit. Current speculation is that Uranus started off with a typical prograde orientation and was knocked on its side by a large impact early in its history. The dwarf planet Pluto (formerly considered a planet) is anomalous in several ways, including that it also rotates on its side.


title: Rotation

text: The speed of rotation is given by the angular frequency (rad/s) or frequency (turns per time), or period (seconds, days, etc.). The time-rate of change of angular frequency is angular acceleration (rad/s²), caused by torque. The ratio of the two (how heavy is it to start, stop, or otherwise change rotation) is given by the moment of inertia.


title: Rotation

text: The angular velocity vector (an "axial vector") also describes the direction of the axis of rotation. Similarly the torque is an axial vector.


title: Rotation

text: The physics of the rotation around a fixed axis is mathematically described with the axis–angle representation of rotations. According to the right-hand rule, the direction away from the observer is associated with clockwise rotation and the direction towards the observer with counterclockwise rotation, like a screw.


title: Rotation

text: The laws of physics are currently believed to be invariant under any fixed rotation. (Although they do appear to change when viewed from a rotating viewpoint: see rotating frame of reference.)


title: Rotation

text: In modern physical cosmology, the cosmological principle is the notion that the distribution of matter in the universe is homogeneous and isotropic when viewed on a large enough scale, since the forces are expected to act uniformly throughout the universe and have no preferred direction, and should, therefore, produce no observable irregularities in the large scale structuring over the course of evolution of the matter field that was initially laid down by the Big Bang.


title: Rotation

text: In particular, for a system which behaves the same regardless of how it is oriented in space, its Lagrangian is rotationally invariant. According to Noether's theorem, if the action (the integral over time of its Lagrangian) of a physical system is invariant under rotation, then angular momentum is conserved.


title: Rotation

text: Euler rotations provide an alternative description of a rotation. It is a composition of three rotations defined as the movement obtained by changing one of the Euler angles while leaving the other two constant. Euler rotations are never expressed in terms of the external frame, or in terms of the co-moving rotated body frame, but in a mixture. They constitute a mixed axes of rotation system, where the first angle moves the line of nodes around the external axis "z", the second rotates around the line of nodes and the third one is an intrinsic rotation around an axis fixed in the body that moves.


title: Rotation

text: In flight dynamics, the principal rotations described with Euler angles above are known as "pitch", "roll" and "yaw". The term rotation is also used in aviation to refer to the upward pitch (nose moves up) of an aircraft, particularly when starting the climb after takeoff.


title: Rotation

text: Principal rotations have the advantage of modelling a number of physical systems such as gimbals, and joysticks, so are easily visualised, and are a very compact way of storing a rotation. But they are difficult to use in calculations as even simple operations like combining rotations are expensive to do, and suffer from a form of gimbal lock where the angles cannot be uniquely calculated for certain rotations.


title: Rotation

text: Many amusement rides provide rotation. A Ferris wheel has a horizontal central axis, and parallel axes for each gondola, where the rotation is opposite, by gravity or mechanically. As a result, at any time the orientation of the gondola is upright (not rotated), just translated. The tip of the translation vector describes a circle. A carousel provides rotation about a vertical axis. Many rides provide a combination of rotations about several axes. In Chair-O-Planes the rotation about the vertical axis is provided mechanically, while the rotation about the horizontal axis is due to the centripetal force. In roller coaster inversions the rotation about the horizontal axis is one or more full cycles, where inertia keeps people in their seats.


title: Rotation

text: Rotation of a ball or other object, usually called "spin", plays a role in many sports, including topspin and backspin in tennis, "English", "follow" and "draw" in billiards and pool, curve balls in baseball, spin bowling in cricket, flying disc sports, etc. Table tennis paddles are manufactured with different surface characteristics to allow the player to impart a greater or lesser amount of spin to the ball.


title: Rotation

text: Rotation of a player one or more times around a vertical axis may be called "spin" in figure skating, "twirling" (of the baton or the performer) in baton twirling, or "360", "540", "720", etc. in snowboarding, etc. Rotation of a player or performer one or more times around a horizontal axis may be called a flip, roll, somersault, "heli", etc. in gymnastics, waterskiing, or many other sports, or a "one-and-a-half", "two-and-a-half", "gainer" (starting facing away from the water), etc. in diving, etc. A combination of vertical and horizontal rotation (back flip with 360°) is called a "möbius" in waterskiing freestyle jumping.


title: Rotation

text: Rotation of a player around a vertical axis, generally between 180 and 360 degrees, may be called a "spin move" and is used as a deceptive or avoidance maneuver, or in an attempt to play, pass, or receive a ball or puck, etc., or to afford a player a view of the goal or other players. It is often seen in hockey, basketball, football of various codes, tennis, etc.


title: Rotation

text: The "end result" of any sequence of rotations of any object in 3D about a fixed point is always equivalent to a rotation about an axis. However, an object may "physically" rotate in 3D about a fixed point on more than one axis simultaneously, in which case there is no single fixed axis of rotation - just the fixed point. However, these two descriptions can be reconciled - such a physical motion can always be re-described in terms of a single axis of rotation, provided the orientation of that axis relative to the object is allowed to change moment by moment.


title: Rotation

text: 2 dimensional rotations, unlike the 3 dimensional ones, possess no axis of rotation. This is equivalent, for linear transformations, with saying that there is no direction in the plane which is kept unchanged by a 2 dimensional rotation, except, of course, the identity.


title: Rotation

text: The question of the existence of such a direction is the question of existence of an eigenvector for the matrix A representing the rotation. Every 2D rotation around the origin through an angle formula_1 in counterclockwise direction can be quite simply represented by the following matrix:


title: Rotation

text: as its eigenvalues. Therefore, there is no real eigenvalue whenever formula_5, meaning that no real vector in the plane is kept unchanged by A.


title: Rotation

text: Knowing that the trace is an invariant, the rotation angle formula_6 for a proper orthogonal 3x3 rotation matrix formula_7 is found by


title: Rotation

text: Using the principal arc-cosine, this formula gives a rotation angle satisfying formula_9. The corresponding rotation axis must be defined to point in a direction that limits the rotation angle to not exceed 180 degrees. (This can always be done because any rotation of more than 180 degrees about an axis formula_10 can always be written as a rotation having formula_9 if the axis is replaced with formula_12.)


title: Rotation

text: Every proper rotation formula_7 in 3D space has an axis of rotation, which is defined such that any vector formula_14 that is aligned with the rotation axis will not be affected by rotation. Accordingly, formula_15, and the rotation axis therefore corresponds to an eigenvector of the rotation matrix associated with an eigenvalue of 1. As long as the rotation angle formula_6 is nonzero (i.e., the rotation is not the identity tensor), there is one and only one such direction. Because A has only real components, there is at least one real eigenvalue, and the remaining two eigenvalues must be complex conjugates of each other (see Eigenvalues and eigenvectors#Eigenvalues and the characteristic polynomial). Knowing that 1 is an eigenvalue, it follows that the remaining two eigenvalues are complex conjugates of each other, but this does not imply that they are complex—they could be real with double multiplicity. In the degenerate case of a rotation angle formula_17, the remaining two eigenvalues are both equal to -1. In the degenerate case of a zero rotation angle, the rotation matrix is the identity, and all three eigenvalues are 1 (which is the only case for which the rotation axis is arbitrary).


title: Rotation

text: A spectral analysis is not required to find the rotation axis. If formula_18 denotes the unit eigenvector aligned with the rotation axis, and if formula_6 denotes the rotation angle, then it can be shown that formula_20. Consequently, the expense of an eigenvalue analysis can be avoided by simply normalizing this vector "if it has a nonzero magnitude." On the other hand, if this vector has a zero magnitude, it means that formula_21. In other words, this vector will be zero if and only if the rotation angle is 0 or 180 degrees, and the rotation axis may be assigned in this case by normalizing any column of formula_22 that has a nonzero magnitude.


title: Rotation

text: This discussion applies to a proper rotation, and hence formula_23. Any improper orthogonal 3x3 matrix formula_24 may be written as formula_25, in which formula_7 is proper orthogonal. That is, any improper orthogonal 3x3 matrix may be decomposed as a proper rotation (from which an axis of rotation can be found as described above) followed by an inversion (multiplication by -1). It follows that the rotation axis of formula_7 is also the eigenvector of formula_24 corresponding to an eigenvalue of -1.


title: Rotation

text: As much as every tridimensional rotation has a rotation axis, also every tridimensional rotation has a plane, which is perpendicular to the rotation axis, and which is left invariant by the rotation. The rotation, restricted to this plane, is an ordinary 2D rotation.


title: Rotation

text: The proof proceeds similarly to the above discussion. First, suppose that all eigenvalues of the 3D rotation matrix "A" are real. This means that there is an orthogonal basis, made by the corresponding eigenvectors (which are necessarily orthogonal), over which the effect of the rotation matrix is just stretching it. If we write "A" in this basis, it is diagonal; but a diagonal orthogonal matrix is made of just +1s and −1s in the diagonal entries. Therefore, we don't have a proper rotation, but either the identity or the result of a sequence of reflections.


title: Rotation

text: It follows, then, that a proper rotation has some complex eigenvalue. Let "v" be the corresponding eigenvector. Then, as we showed in the previous topic, formula_29 is also an eigenvector, and formula_30 and formula_31 are such that their scalar product vanishes:


title: Rotation

text: because, since formula_33 is real, it equals its complex conjugate formula_34, and formula_35 and formula_36 are both representations of the same scalar product between formula_37 and formula_29.


title: Rotation

text: This means formula_30 and formula_31 are orthogonal vectors. Also, they are both real vectors by construction. These vectors span the same subspace as formula_37 and formula_29, which is an invariant subspace under the application of "A". Therefore, they span an invariant plane.


title: Rotation

text: This plane is orthogonal to the invariant axis, which corresponds to the remaining eigenvector of "A", with eigenvalue 1, because of the orthogonality of the eigenvectors of "A".


title: Osmoregulation

text: Osmoregulation is the active regulation of the osmotic pressure of an organism's body fluids, detected by osmoreceptors, to maintain the homeostasis of the organism's water content; that is, it maintains the fluid balance and the concentration of electrolytes (salts in solution which in this case is represented by body fluid) to keep the body fluids from becoming too diluted or concentrated. Osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency of water to move into one solution from another by osmosis. The higher the osmotic pressure of a solution, the more water tends to move into it. Pressure must be exerted on the hypertonic side of a selectively permeable membrane to prevent diffusion of water by osmosis from the side containing pure water.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Although there may be hourly and daily variations in osmotic balance, an animal is generally in an osmotic steady state over the long term. Organisms in aquatic and terrestrial environments must maintain the right concentration of solutes and amount of water in their body fluids; this involves excretion (getting rid of metabolic nitrogen wastes and other substances such as hormones that would be toxic if allowed to accumulate in the blood) through organs such as the skin and the kidneys.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Two major types of osmoregulation are "osmoconformers" and "osmoregulators". Osmoconformers match their body osmolarity to their environment actively or passively. Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers, although their ionic composition may be different from that of seawater. In a strictly osmoregulating animal, the amounts of internal salt and water are held relatively constant in the face of environmental changes. It requires that intake and outflow of water and salts be equal over an extended period of time.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Organisms that maintain an internal osmolarity different from the medium in which they are immersed have been termed osmoregulators. They tightly regulate their body osmolarity, maintaining constant internal conditions. They are more common in the animal kingdom. Osmoregulators actively control salt concentrations despite the salt concentrations in the environment. An example is freshwater fish. The gills actively uptake salt from the environment by the use of mitochondria-rich cells. Water will diffuse into the fish, so it excretes a very hypotonic (dilute) urine to expel all the excess water. A marine fish has an internal osmotic concentration lower than that of the surrounding seawater, so it tends to lose water and gain salt. It actively excretes salt out from the gills. Most fish are stenohaline, which means they are restricted to either salt or fresh water and cannot survive in water with a different salt concentration than they are adapted to. However, some fish show an ability to effectively osmoregulate across a broad range of salinities; fish with this ability are known as euryhaline species, e.g., flounder. Flounder have been observed to inhabit two disparate environments—marine and fresh water—and it is inherent to adapt to both by bringing in behavioral and physiological modifications.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Some marine fish, like sharks, have adopted a different, efficient mechanism to conserve water, i.e., osmoregulation. They retain urea in their blood in relatively higher concentration. Urea damages living tissues so, to cope with this problem, some fish retain trimethylamine oxide. This provides a better solution to urea's toxicity. Sharks, having slightly higher solute concentration (i.e., above 1000 mOsm which is sea solute concentration), do not drink water like fresh water fish.


title: Osmoregulation

text: While there are no specific osmoregulatory organs in higher plants, the stomata are important in regulating water loss through evapotranspiration, and on the cellular level the vacuole is crucial in regulating the concentration of solutes in the cytoplasm. Strong winds, low humidity and high temperatures all increase evapotranspiration from leaves. Abscisic acid is an important hormone in helping plants to conserve water—it causes stomata to close and stimulates root growth so that more water can be absorbed.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Plants share with animals the problems of obtaining water but, unlike in animals, the loss of water in plants is crucial to create a driving force to move nutrients from the soil to tissues. Certain plants have evolved methods of water conservation.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Xerophytes are plants that can survive in dry habitats, such as deserts, and are able to withstand prolonged periods of water shortage. Succulent plants such as the cacti store water in the vacuoles of large parenchyma tissues. Other plants have leaf modifications to reduce water loss, such as needle-shaped leaves, sunken stomata, and thick, waxy cuticles as in the pine. The sand-dune marram grass has rolled leaves with stomata on the inner surface.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Hydrophytes are plants that grow in aquatic habitats; they may be floating, submerged, or emergent, and may grow in seasonal (rather than permanent) wetlands. In these plants the water absorption may occur through the whole surface of the plant, e.g., the water lily, or solely through the roots, as in sedges. These plants do not face major osmoregulatory challenges from water scarcity, but aside from species adapted for seasonal wetlands, have few defenses against desiccation.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Halophytes are plants living in soils with high salt concentrations, such as salt marshes or alkaline soils in desert basins. They have to absorb water from such a soil which has higher salt concentration and therefore lower water potential(higher osmotic pressure). Halophytes cope with this situation by activating salts in their roots. As a consequence, the cells of the roots develop lower water potential which brings in water by osmosis. The excess salt can be stored in cells or excreted out from salt glands on leaves. The salt thus secreted by some species help them to trap water vapours from the air, which is absorbed in liquid by leaf cells. Therefore, this is another way of obtaining additional water from air, e.g., glasswort and cord-grass.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Mesophytes are plants living in lands of temperate zone, which grow in well-watered soil. They can easily compensate the water lost by transpiration through absorbing water from the soil. To prevent excessive transpiration they have developed a waterproof external covering called cuticle.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Kidneys play a very large role in human osmoregulation by regulating the amount of water reabsorbed from glomerular filtrate in kidney tubules, which is controlled by hormones such as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), aldosterone, and angiotensin II. For example, a decrease in water potential is detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus, which stimulates ADH release from the pituitary gland to increase the permeability of the walls of the collecting ducts in the kidneys. Therefore, a large proportion of water is reabsorbed from fluid in the kidneys to prevent too much water from being excreted.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Drinking is not common behavior in pinnipeds and cetaceans. Water balance is maintained in marine mammals by metabolic and dietary water, while accidental ingestion and dietary salt may help maintain homeostasis of electrolytes. The kidneys of pinnipeds and cetaceans are lobed in structure, unlike those of non-bears among terrestrial mammals, but this specific adaptation does not confer any greater concentrating ability. Unlike most other aquatic mammals, manatees frequently drink fresh water and sea otters frequently drink saltwater.


title: Osmoregulation

text: In teleost (advanced ray-finned) fishes, the gills, kidney and digestive tract are involved in maintenance of body fluid balance, as the main osmoregulatory organs. Gills in particular are considered the primary organ by which ionic concentration is controlled in marine teleosts.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Unusually, the catfishes in the eeltail family Plotosidae have an extra-branchial salt-secreting dendritic organ. The dendritic organ is likely a product of convergent evolution with other vertebrate salt-secreting organs. The role of this organ was discovered by its high NKA and NKCC activity in response to increasing salinity. However, the Plotosidae dendritic organ may be of limited use under extreme salinity conditions, compared to more typical gill-based ionoregulation.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Amoeba makes use of contractile vacuoles to collect excretory wastes, such as ammonia, from the intracellular fluid by diffusion and active transport. As osmotic action pushes water from the environment into the cytoplasm, the vacuole moves to the surface and pumps the contents into the environment.


title: Osmoregulation

text: Bacteria respond to osmotic stress by rapidly accumulating electrolytes or small organic solutes via transporters whose activities are stimulated by increases in osmolarity. The bacteria may also turn on genes encoding transporters of osmolytes and enzymes that synthesize osmoprotectants. The EnvZ/OmpR two-component system, which regulates the expression of porins, is well characterized in the model organism "E. coli".


title: Osmoregulation

text: Ammonia is a toxic by-product of protein metabolism and is generally converted to less toxic substances after it is produced then excreted; mammals convert ammonia to urea, whereas birds and reptiles form uric acid to be excreted with other wastes via their cloacas.


title: Sea goat

text: The constellation Capricornus was commonly imagined as a type of sea goat. This has been done since the Bronze Age within Mesopotamia. Then the Babylonians used , 'the goat fish', to symbolize the god Enki.


title: Sea goat

text: The Greek interpretation of the sea goat comes from the introduction of the Babylonian zodiac. In an attempt to codify the constellation Capricorn within the Greek pantheon, two myths were used as an explanation. One being that the constellation is Amalthea, the goat that raised Zeus. As thanks for caring for him as a child, Zeus places her amongst the stars. The other being that the sea goat is the wilderness god Pan. The myth goes that Zeus jumped into the river to escape the monster Typhon. He tries to turn himself into a fish while jumping into the river, but he moves too quickly and only his lower half becomes that of a fish. Zeus then engages in combat with the monster. Zeus defeats him, but not without Typhon pulling the muscles out of Zeus’ legs. With the help of Hermes, Pan replaces the damaged muscles. As a reward for healing him, Zeus placed Pan in the sky as Capricorn. The god Aegipan is also depicted in Greek art as a sea goat.


title: Sea goat

text: In Jewish oral history, sea goats are mentioned. The story goes that one day all the creatures of the sea must offer themselves to the monster Leviathan. In another, a sailor encountered a sea goat while far at sea. On its horns was carved the sentence, translated as "I am a little sea-animal, yet I traversed three hundred parasangs to offer myself as food to the leviathan."


title: SAR 21

text: The SAR 21 ("Singapore Assault Rifle - 21st Century") is a bullpup assault rifle designed and manufactured in Singapore, chambered for the 5.56x45mm cartridge. First revealed and subsequently adopted by the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) as its standard service weapon in 1999, it was designed and developed over a four-year period to replace the locally license-built M16S1 by the Ministry of Defence (MINDEF), Singapore Army and the former Chartered Industries of Singapore (CIS), presently ST Engineering Land Systems. Many of its design features are directly intended to address the weaknesses of the M16S1 as encountered operationally by some infantrymen. The rifle is being sold for export use aside from domestic use. In the United States, it was marketed by ST Kinetics via its American subsidiary, VT Systems. The SAR 21 is set to be replaced by the BR18 in the Singapore Armed Forces in the near future.


title: SAR 21

text: Since the mid-80s, the SAF had an outstanding requirement to replace the M16S1, in use since 1973, in part due to licensing limitations that prevented Singapore from exporting the M16S1 or making new assault rifles based on it. In 1994, a proposal by the SAF was submitted to MINDEF for options to either procure new weapons (thought was given to purchase the M16A2) or to develop an indigenous rifle. On 19 November 2002, a patent was filed with the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Tuck Wah Chee and Felix Tsai with the patent number 6,481,144 B1.


title: SAR 21

text: MINDEF officials, after consultations with the SAF, decided against buying weapons off the shelf as it would require soldiers to adjust to the new weapon, choosing instead to develop a weapon, designed and made specifically for ease of use by conscript soldiers of the SAF, who are mostly of slighter physiques. Coupled with the rising costs of maintaining the M16S1s, this made it more justifiable to develop a low-maintenance weapon.


title: SAR 21

text: In 2009, criminal charges were filed against former Indian Ordnance Factory Board director Sudipta Ghosh for corruption, among the allegations were an improper partnership with STK over supplying Indian law enforcement with the SAR 21 Modular Mounting System. STK and several foreign firms involved were blacklisted by the Indian Defence Ministry.


title: SAR 21

text: The SAR 21's furniture is made of a rugged, high impact polymer, much of the manufacturing is done utilising CNC machines, with ultrasonic welding for the steel-reinforced receiver halves and the gun barrel being cold hammer forged. Inspired by the Kalashnikov and Stoner operating systems; it has a long stroke gas system and a two-lug AR-style bolt, boasting high reliability. The translucent magazine allows precise assessment of its current ammo load.


title: SAR 21

text: The SAR 21 has a built-in Laser Aiming Device (powered by a single "AA-size" battery) which has a 5 position switch that emits a visible or infrared beam at high or low power. It can be set to a steady beam or a momentary beam that is triggered by a pressure switch activated with the user's left thumb. The rifle incorporates various patented safety features, such as a Kevlar cheek plate and a high pressure vent that protects the shooter in the event of a chamber explosion or catastrophic failure.


title: SAR 21

text: The integral 1.5x optical scope that is built into its carrying handle aids in target acquisition, particularly under low light conditions. The scope is factory-zeroed, and requires minimal further zeroing to suit different users, shortening non-training range time.


title: SAR 21

text: Early users of the weapon in the Singapore Armed Forces experienced many problems due to their unfamiliarity with the bullpup design. Their criticisms (usually compared to the M16S1 rifles they were trained with) include:


title: SAR 21

text: Some of these criticisms were addressed with design modifications to the later production models. New weapon handling procedures were also introduced.


title: SAR 21

text: The Kevlar plating on the left side of the weapon butt (where a right-handed user's face would typically be) is effective in protecting the user from any internal chamber explosion by directing the resulting force to the right. However, that resultant force would also seriously injure anyone unfortunate enough to be on the right side of the weapon. In the case of a user firing from their left shoulder, this could cause severe injury to their face. As a result, all left-handed SAF soldiers are taught to fire from their right shoulder as a safety measure. The SAR 21 was designed with a small built-in brass deflector to eject spent bullet casings forward, thus reducing the chances of the spent casings hitting a left-handed user's face. The rifle is not completely ambidextrous but may, in a pinch, be fired from the left shoulder.


title: SAR 21

text: Like the M16 rifle, the bolt locks open on an empty magazine. When the magazine is exhausted, it is removed by depressing the AK-style lever. Clearing the weapon is accomplished by removing the magazine, pulling the charging handle to the rear, and observing the chamber. After loading a magazine into the housing, the weapon is made "ready" by cocking the weapon, and engaging the FN MAG-type safety button forward of the trigger guard. The position of the fire selector button (SEMI or AUTO) on the stock may also be adjusted.


title: SAR 21

text: The on/off switch for the laser aiming device is located on the left handguard; when holding the weapon at ready, the left thumb rests naturally on it. With sluggish operation due to fouling, the gas regulator setting may be adjusted by turning it with a coin, screwdriver, or any other thin flat object. Alternatively, the gas regulator can be unlatched and turned by hand with aid of its knurled surface.


title: Diana Hart

text: Diana Joyce Hart (born 8 October 1963) is a Canadian-American writer, model, valet and wrestling personality. She is the youngest daughter of Canadian wrestling promoter Stu Hart and was the second to last child born to Stu and his wife Helen. She is best known for her several appearances for Stampede Wrestling and WWE often with her brothers Bret and Owen Hart as well as her husband Davey Boy Smith, and for her book, "Under the Mat".


title: Diana Hart

text: Hart is of Greek descent through her maternal grandmother and Irish through her maternal grandfather. Her father was mainly of Scots-Irish descent but also had Scottish and English ancestry. Hart is a dual citizen of Canada and the United States thanks to her mother Helen, who was born in New York.


title: Diana Hart

text: Hart grew up with eleven siblings; Smith, Bruce, Keith, Wayne, Dean, Ellie, Georgia, Bret, Alison, Ross and Owen.


title: Diana Hart

text: One of Hart's first wrestling appearances was in her father's promotion, Stampede Wrestling, in August 1989, during a heated rivalry between her husband Davey Boy Smith and his storyline brother Johnny Smith, in which her brother Owen Hart also got involved after Johnny's disrespect towards the Hart family.


title: Diana Hart

text: She was also involved in the 1999 incarnation of Stampede Wrestling. In a storyline where she refused to put the belt around the waist of a wrestler who had insulted her family, she was then attacked but her son Harry intervened and chased the attackers off.


title: Diana Hart

text: Hart was in attendance at SummerSlam in August 1992 where her husband won the WWF Intercontinental Championship from her brother, Bret Hart, in the night's main event at Wembley Stadium.<ref name="Review: WWF/WWE Summerslam 1992 DVD"></ref> At the end of the match, Hart embraced both her brother and her husband to signify the family's unification. Two years later at the 1994 SummerSlam, she sat at ringside beside her husband, who had just returned to the WWF, to watch her brothers Bret and Owen wrestle each other inside a steel cage for the WWF Championship. In 1995, she accompanied her husband to the ring for his WWF Championship match against Bret at In Your House: Season's Beatings, which Davey lost.


title: Diana Hart

text: In April 1996, the WWF began a storyline where Hart claimed that she was sexually assaulted by Shawn Michaels backstage at in an attempt to play mind games with Michaels as her husband prepared to challenge him for the WWF Championship at . The angle culminated with an in-ring promo on an episode "Monday Night Raw" where Hart slapped Michaels, leading to a brawl between Michaels and Bulldog. When their match at In Your House led to a draw, a rematch was signed for King of the Ring 1996, which the Bulldog ultimately lost. After that, the storyline was dropped.


title: Diana Hart

text: In July 1997, Diana accompanied The Hart Foundation in their match at , who defeated Stone Cold Steve Austin, Ken Shamrock, Goldust, and The Legion of Doom in the main event. Two months later, she was at ringside for the WWF One Night Only British pay-per-view, where her husband lost the WWF European Championship to Shawn Michaels in the main event.


title: Diana Hart

text: She later appeared on WWE television in May 2002, when she was interviewed for a WWE Confidential piece on the recent death of her ex-husband. At WrestleMania XXVI, Hart returned as a lumberjack for the No Holds Barred Match between Bret Hart and Mr. McMahon. McMahon had paid the Hart Family to screw Bret in their match. However, the tables were turned and the Hart Family sided with Bret and helped him win the match. She also appeared at her father Stu's Hall of Fame induction in 2010 together with all her living siblings. She also appeared alongside her children to accept the posthumous Hall of Fame induction of her ex-husband as part of the class of 2020 (ceremony held in 2021).


title: Diana Hart

text: Hart has also worked for Hart Legacy Wrestling, which is managed by her relatives and their associates, she appeared on the first ever HLW event in 2013 together with all her living siblings except Bret and the Hopes & Ropes charity fundraiser in 2016 where she signed copies of her book "Cauliflower Heart: A Romantic Wrestler". She also works with gym training for younger students and promotional work for the shows.


title: Diana Hart

text: After the death of her younger brother, Owen Hart, in a wrestling accident, Hart became very outspoken about the wrestling industry and wrote a controversial book entitled "Under the Mat: Inside Wrestling's Greatest Family", which discussed alleged secrets of the Hart family. Owen's widow, Martha, intended to sue Hart over the book, which caused the book to be removed from publication. It was later claimed by Hart that the stories that were printed in the book were completely twisted and changed from how she had written them originally, and she was deeply hurt by the controversy that it caused her family because of it. Her brother Bret has questioned her claim that she was not aware of the book's content before publication. Hart has disowned the book and stated that she wishes it had never been written.


title: Diana Hart

text: In 2015 Hart stated that she was intending to write a trilogy of romance novels. The book series is entitled "Cauliflower Heart" and revolves around a woman born into a wrestling family. The first book entitled "Cauliflower Heart: A Romantic Wrestler", which was released in 2014. Hart received a silver medal award by the Reader's Favorite in the category Sports Fiction for the book. It was also a runner-up at the Hollywood Book Festival in the category genre-based books. The second part of the series is entitled "Cauliflower Heart: Wrestling With Life" and was released on October 7, 2016. The third and final part was released on February 17 in 2017 and is called "Cauliflower Heart: She Who Laughs Last".


title: Diana Hart

text: Hart has appeared in several documentaries, including "", "Surviving the Dungeon: The Legacy of Stu Hart" and "". In 2015 Hart appeared alongside her brother Ross on Shaw TV to speak about their father Stu's hundredth birthday. Hart appears in the documentary "Hart Still Beating", which is about her brother Smith and nephew Matt. Hart is the subject of the 2017 shoot documentary "Queen of Harts: The Diana Hart Story".


title: Diana Hart

text: Hart met Davey Boy Smith when he was training under her father in 1981. They married on October 7, 1984, a day before her 21st birthday. The couple had two children together, Harry (born on August 2, 1985) and Georgia (born September 26, 1987). They remained married until 2000, when the couple filed for divorce, and her son Harry followed his father and mother into professional wrestling. At the time of their split in 2000 they were not yet formally divorced, even though they both had begun new relationships with other people.


title: Karen Zerby

text: Karen Elva Zerby (born July 31, 1946) is the leader of The Family International, originally known as the Children of God. She is also called Maria, Mama Maria, Maria David, Maria Fontaine, and Queen Maria.


title: Karen Zerby

text: Zerby was raised in evangelical Pentecostalism. Her father was a Nazarene minister, and she is credited with bringing the "fundamental Pentecostal principle of being 'Spirit-led'" into the movement she eventually came to lead.


title: Karen Zerby

text: She joined the group, then called "Teens for Christ", in 1969. Trained as a stenographer, she became the personal secretary to David Berg, the group's founder, and was instrumental in transcribing his classes. He later separated from his first wife, Jane, and Zerby became his wife. Berg openly explained this to his followers via a missive called "The Old Church and the New Church".


title: Karen Zerby

text: By the mid-1980s, Zerby began to issue religious edicts of her own: following allegations of sexual abuse within the organization, she forbade sexual activity in 1984 for new members until they had been in the group for six months and in that same year began the taping of cassettes with music, which provided an additional source of income. In 1986, she forbade sexual contact between adults and minors; later, it became an offense that could lead to excommunication. Throughout the 1980s, she dictated and enforced elements of discipline, ending, for instance, a training program for children she deemed too harsh. With David Berg's health declining in the late 1980s, Zerby essentially took over the leadership position in 1988. After Berg's death in 1994, she married Steven Kelly, another group leader, and assumed the spiritual leadership of the group.


title: Karen Zerby

text: In 1975, while living in Tenerife, Spain, Zerby had a son, Ricky Rodriguez, who was to "guide them all when the End Times came". Rodriguez's childhood (Berg was his stepfather) was recorded in a book called "The Story of Davidito", which was meant to be an example to other members on how to raise their children. The book is controversial for its encouragement of child sexual abuse. According to the book, Zerby participated in the alleged sexual abuse of her son, alongside David Berg, from the time he was 18 months old, and allowed her seven-year-old daughter Christina to be raised in a similar manner. During this period, the group's leadership, including Zerby, were highly secretive, living in remote locations and being barely seen by anyone. Zerby was known to the group's followers mostly from cartoons in the group's internal publications until 2005 when recent photos of her were released online.


title: Karen Zerby

text: In January 2005, Rodriguez murdered former group member Angela Smith, a former nanny; hours later, Rodriguez committed suicide. In a video recorded the night before, "he said he saw himself as a vigilante avenging children like him and his sisters who had been subject to rapes and beatings". Apparently, he had been looking for his mother and sister: "He wanted to see his mother prosecuted for child abuse, and to free Techi from the group".


title: Mike Rianda

text: Michael "Mike" Rianda (born December 25, 1984) is an American writer, director, and voice actor. He is known for his work on "Gravity Falls" as a creative director and writer for season 1, and creative consultant for season 2. He is also known for directing, co-writing, and co-starring his feature directorial debut "The Mitchells vs. the Machines" (2021), for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.


title: Mike Rianda

text: Rianda was born on December 25, 1984, in Salinas, California. He attended the California Institute of the Arts after he "drew and said amusing things" in school, studying character animation. Rianda also started writing and directing two short films at the animation school titled "Everybody Dies in 90 Seconds" (2008) and "Work" (2010).


title: Mike Rianda

text: He became a creative director and writer on the Emmy Award-winning Disney Channel animated television series "Gravity Falls", until his departure in 2013. Mike also voiced Lee, Thompson, Mr. Poolcheck, and the additional voices. Rianda later returned and served as a creative consultant for its second season.


title: Mike Rianda

text: In 2021, he directed and co-wrote, along with Jeff Rowe, "The Mitchells vs. the Machines", in which he also voiced Aaron Mitchell. The film was released on Netflix on April 30, 2021.


title: Greg Lansky

text: Greg Lansky (born December 12, 1982) is a French entrepreneur and investor based in the United States. He has directed and produced a number of adult films he describes as art. Lansky was a founder of Vixen Media Group in 2014, one of the largest companies in the adult entertainment business, and was its chief executive officer until January 2020 when he sold his full stake in the business. Under Vixen Media Group, he has created adult studios such as Blacked, Tushy and Vixen.


title: Greg Lansky

text: Lansky was born on December 12, 1982 in Paris, France. He was raised Jewish. Lansky attended marketing school in Paris and worked for various TV networks. After dropping out of school, he briefly worked in television production in Paris and interned with a production company that produced reality TV shows. Shortly after he moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career.


title: Greg Lansky

text: In 2005, Lansky moved from Paris to Los Angeles and started working in adult entertainment industry. In 2006, Lansky was given a directorial contract. Lansky went on to direct many titles for New Sensations/Digital Sin until 2007. Lansky opened his production company and began directing and producing for the web-based adult network Reality Kings. Lansky stopped working for Reality Kings in 2014 to concentrate on creating his own company.


title: Greg Lansky

text: In 2014, Lansky founded Vixen Media Group and established its suite of award-winning studios: Vixen, Blacked, and Tushy. In 2018, Lansky transitioned into running his company and producing rather than directing.


title: Greg Lansky

text: "Rolling Stone" profiled Lansky and his "adult entertainment empire," and "Ad Age" called him "a master of SFW marketing." Kanye West revealed on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" that his favorite porn website was Lansky's Blacked. Lansky offered West the opportunity to direct an adult film, and the pair were photographed together backstage at the 2018 Pornhub Awards. Several hip hop artists have showed association with Lansky and his brands including Post Malone, Lil Pump and Trippie Redd.


title: Greg Lansky

text: Lansky has been compared to Hugh Hefner and is credited with having "elevated the [adult] business as a whole." He was called "the most-pirated man in porn," and the movies his company produced are "some of the most-watched adult film content in the world." Lansky has been referred to as "The Spielberg of Porn" and his Instagram was called "the most NSFW" profile of all time by "GQ" France.


title: Greg Lansky

text: During the 2018 AVN Awards, Lansky became the second man in history to ever win AVN Director of the Year three consecutive times.


title: Rack unit

text: A rack unit (abbreviated U or RU) is a unit of measure defined as . It is most frequently used as a measurement of the overall height of 19-inch and 23-inch rack frames, as well as the height of equipment that mounts in these frames, whereby the height of the frame or equipment is expressed as multiples of rack units. For example, a typical full-size rack cage is 42U high, while equipment is typically 1U, 2U, 3U, or 4U high.


title: Rack unit

text: The rack unit size is based on a standard rack specification as defined in EIA-310. The Eurocard specifies a standard rack unit as the unit of height; it also defines a similar unit, horizontal pitch (HP), used to measure the width of rack-mounted equipment. The standard was adopted worldwide as "IEC 60297 Mechanical structures for electronic equipment – Dimensions of mechanical structures of the series", and defines the sizes for rack, subrack (a shelf-like chassis in which cards can be inserted), and the pitch of printed circuit boards/cards providing physical compatibility of technological equipment, typically in telecommunications.


title: Rack unit

text: While a rack unit is defined as , a front panel or filler panel in a rack is not an exact multiple of this height. To allow space between adjacent rack-mounted components, a panel is inch () less in height than the full number of rack units would imply. Thus, a 1U front panel would be 1 inch () tall. If "n" is number of rack units, the ideal formula for panel height is for calculating in inches, and for calculating in millimetres. Manufacturing allows for dimensions with less precision.


title: Rack unit

text: The mounting-hole distance (as shown to the right) differs for 19-inch racks and 23-inch racks: The 19-inch racks uses uneven spacings (as shown to the right) while the 23-inch racks uses evenly spaced mounting holes. Although it is called a 19-inch rack unit, the actual mounting dimensions of a 19-inch rack unit are 18 inches () wide, center to center.


title: Rack unit

text: The 19-inch rack format with rack-units of was established as a standard by AT&T around 1922 in order to reduce the space required for repeater and termination equipment in a telephone company central office.


title: Rack unit

text: A typical full size rack is 42U, which means it holds just over of equipment, and a typical "half-height" rack is 18–22U, which is around high.


title: Rack unit

text: Whereas there is no formal specification for "half rack", the term "half-rack" can have different separate meanings: It can describe equipment that fits in a certain number of rack units, but occupy only "half the width" of a 19-inch rack (). These are commonly used when a piece of equipment does not require full rack width, but may require more than 1U of height. For example, a "4U half-rack" DVCAM deck occupies 4U (7 in) height × 9.5 in width, and in theory, two 4U half-rack decks could be mounted side by side and occupy the 4U space. It can also describe a unit that is 1U high and "half the depth" of a 4-post rack (such as a network switch, router, KVM switch, or server), such that two units can be mounted in 1U of space (one mounted at the front of the rack and one at the rear). When used to describe the rack enclosure itself, the term "half-rack" typically means a rack enclosure that is "half the height" (22U tall). There is also a "half rack width" size being used in IT applications where a device conforms to a smaller than 9.5" width so that these "half rack width" appliances may be used in a chassis system that fits the traditional 19" rack space, but allows for these 8.4 inch wide "half rack width" appliances to be inserted and removed easily without tools or the need to remove adjacent hardware. This "half rack width" concept is popular in applications where IT equipment is being used by military who are unable to use traditional 1U full depth IT appliances due to their large size.


title: Rack unit

text: Rack units are universally the same, but the type of thread can vary depending on the rack. Mounting rails can be No. 10-32 tapped (Unified Thread Standard), No. 12-24 tapped, metric M6 threaded or universal square holes. Universal square holes are becoming the most common as these allow the insertion of replaceable cage nuts for the type of thread needed. This prevents stripping of the threading on the rails and allows for more flexibility.


title: Right to keep and bear arms in the United States

text: The right to keep and bear arms in the United States is a fundamental right protected by the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution, part of the Bill of Rights, and by the constitutions of most U.S. states. The Second Amendment declares:


text: In the United States, which has an English common law tradition, the concept of a right to keep and bear arms was recognized prior to the creation of a written national constitution.


text: The American understanding of the right to keep and bear arms was influenced by the 1689 English Bill of Rights, an Act of Parliament, which also dealt with personal defence by Protestant English subjects.


text: The Bill of Rights did not create a new right to have arms but rather rescinded and deplored acts of the deposed King James II, a Roman Catholic, who had forced the disarming of Protestants, while arming and deploying armed Catholics contrary to Law (among other alleged violations of individual rights). The Bill of Rights provided that Protestants could bear arms for their defence as permitted by law. It also established that the power to regulate the right to bear arms belonged to Parliament, not the monarch.


text: Sir William Blackstone wrote in the eighteenth century about the right to have arms being auxiliary to the "natural right of resistance and self-preservation", but conceded that the right was subject to their suitability and allowance by law.


text: After the 1776 American Revolution, one of the first legislative acts undertaken by each of the newly independent states was to adopt a "reception statute" that gave legal effect to the existing body of English common law to the extent that the legislation or the constitution had not explicitly rejected English law.


text: Over time, as new states were formed from federal territories, the territorial reception statutes became obsolete and were re-enacted as state law. For example, a reception statute enacted by legislation in the state of Washington states:


text: Missouri's reception of the common law is codified under Missouri Revised Statutes Section 1.010 (2000). The statute reads:


text: In "United States v. Cruikshank" (1876), the U.S. Supreme Court recognized that the right to arms preexisted the Constitution and in that case and in "Presser v. Illinois" (1886) recognized that the Second Amendment protected the right from being infringed by Congress. In "United States v. Miller" (1939), the Court again recognized that the right to arms is individually held and, citing the Tennessee case of "Aymette v State", indicated that it protected the right to keep and bear arms that are "part of the ordinary military equipment" or the use of which could "contribute to the common defense." In its first opportunity to rule specifically on whose right the Second Amendment protects, "District of Columbia v. Heller" (2008), the Court ruled that the amendment protects an individual right "to keep and carry arms in case of confrontation," not contingent on service in a militia, while indicating, in dicta, that restrictions on the possession of firearms by felons and the mentally ill, on the carrying of arms in sensitive locations, and with respect to the conditions on the sale of firearms could pass constitutional muster. In the 2010 case of McDonald v. Chicago, the Court applied incorporation doctrine to extend the Second Amendment's protections nationwide


text: The people's right to have their own arms for their defense is described in the philosophical and political writings of Aristotle, Cicero, John Locke, Machiavelli, the English Whigs and others. Though possessing arms appears to be distinct from "bearing" them, the possession of arms is recognized as necessary for and a logical precursor to the bearing of arms. Don Kates, a civil liberties lawyer, cites historic English usage describing the "right to keep and bear "their private arms"."


text: Likewise, Sayoko Blodgett-Ford notes a non-military usage of the phrase in a pamphlet widely circulated by the dissenting minority dating from the time of the Pennsylvania ratifying convention for the U.S. Constitution:


text: [T]he people have a right to bear arms for the defense of themselves and their own state, or the United States, or the purpose of killing game; and no law shall be passed for disarming the people or any of them, unless for crimes committed ...


text: In commentary written by Judge Garwood in "United States v. Emerson", the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit concluded in 2001 that:


text: Similarly, in a released Senate report on the Right to Keep and Bear Arms, Senator Orrin Hatch, chairman, U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, Subcommittee on the Constitution, states:


text: Likewise, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in "District of Columbia v. Heller" (2008), No. 07-290, that "[t]he Second Amendment protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia, and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home."


text: Some historians have argued that prior to and through the 18th century, the expression "bear arms" appeared exclusively in military contexts, as opposed to the use of firearms by civilians.


text: In late-eighteenth-century parlance, "bearing arms" was a term of art with an obvious military and legal connotation. ... As a review of the Library of Congress's data base of congressional proceedings in the revolutionary and early national periods reveals, the thirty uses of 'bear arms' and 'bearing arms' in bills, statutes, and debates of the Continental, Confederation, and United States' Congresses between 1774 and 1821 invariably occur in a context exclusively focused on the army or the militia.


text: However, this conclusion is disputed and may be due to selection bias, which arises from the use of a limited selection of government documents that overwhelmingly refer to matters of military service. Commenting on this previous research, other historians note:


text: Searching more comprehensive collections of English language works published before 1820 shows that there are a number of uses that ... have nothing to do with military service ... [and] The common law was in agreement. Edward Christian's edition of Blackstone's Commentaries that appeared in 1790s described the rights of Englishmen (which every American colonist had been promised) in these terms 'everyone is at liberty to keep or carry a gun, if he does not use it for the [unlawful] destruction of game.' This right was separate from militia duties.


text: The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term "to bear arms" as: ""to serve as a soldier, do military service, fight,"" dating to about 1330.


text: Garry Wills, author and history professor at Northwestern University, has written of the origin of the term "bear arms":


text: By legal and other channels, the Latin ""arma ferre"" entered deeply into the European language of war. Bearing arms is such a synonym for waging war that Shakespeare can call a just war "" 'justborne arms"" and a civil war ""self-borne arms"." Even outside the special phrase ""bear arms"," much of the noun's use echoes Latin phrases: to be under arms ("sub armis"), the call to arms ("ad arma"), to follow arms ("arma sequi"), to take arms ("arma capere"), to lay down arms ("arma pœnere"). "Arms" is a profession that one brother chooses the way another choose law or the church. An issue undergoes the arbitrament of arms."..."One does not bear arms against a rabbit ...".


text: Historically, the right to keep and bear arms, whether considered an individual or a collective or a militia right, did not originate fully formed in the Bill of Rights in 1791; rather, the Second Amendment was the codification of the six-centuries-old responsibility to keep and bear arms for king and country that was inherited from the English Colonists that settled North America, tracing its origin back to the Assize of Arms of 1181 that occurred during the reign of Henry II. Through being codified in the United States Constitution, the common law right was continued and guaranteed for the People, and statutory law enacted subsequently by Congress cannot extinguish the pre-existing common law right to keep and bear arms.


text: The Second Amendment to the United States Constitution refers to a pre-existing right to keep and bear arms:


text: The right is often presented in the United States as being an unenumerated, pre-existing right, such as provided for by the Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution, interpreted by some as providing for unenumerated rights, and therefore implicitly a right to keep and bear arms:


text: Some have seen the Second Amendment as derivative of a common law right to keep and bear arms; Thomas B. McAffee & Michael J. Quinlan, writing in the North Carolina Law Review said ""... Madison did not invent the right to keep and bear arms when he drafted the Second Amendment – the right was pre-existing at both common law and in the early state constitutions.""


text: Akhil Reed Amar similarly notes the basis of Common Law for the first ten amendments of the U.S. Constitution, "following John Randolph Tucker's famous oral argument in the 1887 Chicago anarchist case, Spies v. Illinois":


text: Though originally the first ten Amendments were adopted as limitations on Federal power, yet insofar as they secure and recognize fundamental rights – common law rights – of the man, they make them privileges and immunities of the man as citizen of the United States ...


text: Uviller and Merkel hold that the right to bear arms was not reserved for the state, but rather was an individual and personal right for arms only to the extent needed to maintain a well regulated militia to support the state. They also hold that a militia recognizable to the framers of the Constitution has ceased to exist in the United States resulting from deliberate Congressional legislation and also societal neglect; nonetheless, "Technically, all males aged seventeen to forty-five are members of the unorganized militia, but that status has no practical legal significance."


text: From the text as well as a fair understanding of the contemporary ethic regarding arms and liberty, it seems to us overwhelmingly evident that the principal purpose of the Amendment was to secure a personal, individual entitlement to the possession and use of arms. We cannot, however, (as the individual rights contingent generally does) disregard entirely the first part of the text proclaiming a well regulated militia necessary to the security of a free state.


text: In the century following the ratification of the Bill of Rights, the intended meaning and application of the Second Amendment drew less interest than it does in modern times. The vast majority of regulation was done by states, and the first case law on weapons regulation dealt with state interpretations of the Second Amendment. A notable exception to this general rule was "Houston v. Moore", , where the Supreme Court mentioned the Second Amendment in an aside.


text: In the Nineteenth century considerable attention in public discourse and the courts was directed to the issue of arming of slaves (prior to the Civil War), and later to the right of slaves to belong to militia and the arming of these individuals. Most famously this is seen in the court arguments of the 1857 court case "Dred Scott v. Sandford", whether the slave Dred Scott could be a citizen with rights, including the right to bear arms. This debate about the rights of slaves and former slaves often included the usage of the term 'bear arms' with the meaning of individuals having or not having the right to possess firearms.


text: In the "Dred Scott" decision, the opinion of the court stated that if African Americans were considered U.S. citizens, "It would give to persons of the negro race, who were recognized as citizens in any one State of the Union, the right ... to keep and carry arms wherever they went."


text: The Second Amendment of the United States Constitution is a federal provision. In 2010, this "fundamental" and "individual" right was "fully incorporated" with the 14th Amendment per the SCOTUS ruling made in "McDonald v. City of Chicago", which upheld the prior opinion made in "District of Columbia v. Heller". Each of the fifty states also has its own state constitution. Forty-four states have chosen to explicitly embody a right to bear arms into their state constitutions. Each of the state constitutions, state laws, and state courts addresses the state-based right to bear arms distinctly within its respective jurisdictions. The degree and the nature of the protection, prohibition, and regulation at the state level varies from state to state. The District of Columbia, not being a state, falls within the federal jurisdiction.


text: Approximately thirty-one states have explicitly chosen to include the right to arms for "individual right", "defense of self", "defense of home" or similarly worded reasons. Approximately thirteen states, as with the U.S. Constitution, did not choose to explicitly include "individual", "self" or "home" wording associated with a right to bear arms for their specific states.


text: Approximately twenty-eight states have explicitly chosen to include the right to bear arms for "security of a free state", "defense of state", "common defense" or similarly worded reasons, as with the U.S. Constitution. Approximately sixteen states did not choose to include explicitly "free state", "defense of state" or "common defense" wording for their specific state. Whether the inclusion of these kinds of wording in state constitutions has relevance to the issue of whether implicit "individual" rights exist, or whether such rights (if any) are implicitly protected by the states' constitutions or by the U.S. Constitution's Second Amendment, remains a matter of dispute. However, since the SCOTUS has "fully incorporated" the 2nd and 14th Amendments in their 2010 opinion and order in "McDonald v. City of Chicago", the right to keep and bear arms is "fully applicable" to the states and limits the states on any and all regulations and restrictions they choose to take, and federal Constitutional rights take precedence over state, local and other laws that regulate to "Right of Lawful Citizens to keep and bear Arms for self-defense, a 'central component' of the 2nd Amendment" (see "McDonald v. City of Chicago" (SC 2010)).


text: Regarding the state interpretations of these state and the federal constitutional rights to bear arms, state courts have addressed the meaning of these specific rights in considerable detail. Two different models have emerged from state jurisprudence: an individual right (defense of self or home) and a collective (defense of the state) right. The states cannot lessen or restrict any Bill of Rights guarantee that has been "fully incorporated" (American jurisprudence) and that the right that is "fully incorporated" also applies to the respective State Constitutions; again, the states can only "add to" these rights but can never "diminish" these rights by state and local laws.


text: "Bliss v. Commonwealth" (1822, KY) addressed the right to bear arms pursuant to Art. 10, Sec. 23 of the Second Constitution of Kentucky (1799): "That the rights of the citizens to bear arms in defense of themselves and the State shall not be questioned." This was interpreted to include the right to carry a concealed sword in a cane. This case has been described as about "a statute prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons [that] was violative of the Second Amendment." Others, however, have seen no conflict with the Second Amendment by the Commonwealth of Kentucky's statute under consideration in "Bliss" since "The Kentucky law was aimed at concealed weapons. No one saw any conflict with the Second Amendment. As a matter of fact, most of the few people who considered the question at all believed amendments to the U.S. Constitution did not apply to state laws."


text: The Kentucky High Court stated in "Bliss", "But it should not be forgotten, that it is not only a part of the right that is secured by the constitution; it is the right entire and complete, as it existed at the adoption of the constitution; and if any portion of that right be impaired, immaterial how small the part may be, and immaterial the order of time at which it be done, it is equally forbidden by the constitution." The "constitution" mentioned in this quote refers to Kentucky's Constitution.


text: The case prompted outrage in the Kentucky House, all the while recognizing that Section 23 of the Second Constitution of Kentucky (1799) did guarantee individuals the right to bear arms. The "Bliss" ruling, to the extent that it dealt with concealed weapons, was overturned by constitutional amendment with Section 26 in Kentucky's Third Constitution (1850) banning the future carrying of concealed weapons, while still asserting that the bearing of arms in defense of themselves and the state was an individual and collective right in the Commonwealth of Kentucky. This recognition has remained to the present day in the Commonwealth of Kentucky's Fourth Constitution, enacted in 1891, in Section 1, Article 7, that guarantees "The right to bear arms in defense of themselves and of the State, subject to the power of the General Assembly to enact laws to prevent persons from carrying concealed weapons." As noted in the Northern Kentucky Law Review Second Amendment Symposium: Rights in Conflict in the 1980s, vol. 10, no. 1, 1982, p. 155, "The first state court decision resulting from the "right to bear arms" issue was "Bliss v. Commonwealth". The court held that "the right of citizens to bear arms in defense of themselves and the State must be preserved entire, ..." "This holding was unique because it stated that the right to bear arms is absolute and unqualified."


text: The importance of "Bliss" is also seen from the defense subsequently given against a murder charge in Kentucky against Mattews Ward, who in 1852 pulled out a concealed pistol and fatally wounded his brother's teacher over an accusation regarding eating chestnuts in class. Ward's defense team consisted of eighteen lawyers, including U.S. Senator John Crittenden, former Governor of Kentucky, and former United States Attorney General. The defense successfully defended Ward in 1854 through an assertion that "a man has a right to carry arms; I am aware of nothing in the laws of God or man, prohibiting it. The Constitution of Kentucky and our Bill of Rights guarantee it. The Legislature once passed an act forbidding it, but it was decided unconstitutional, and overruled by our highest tribunal, the Court of Appeals." As noted by Cornell, "Ward's lawyers took advantage of the doctrine advanced in "Bliss" and wrapped their client's action under the banner of a constitutional right to bear arms. Ward was acquitted."


text: In "Aymette v. State", 21 Tenn. 154, 156 (1840), the Tennessee Supreme Court construed the guarantee in Tennessee's 1834 Constitution that 'the free white men of this State have a right to Keep and bear arms for their common defence.' Explaining that the provision was adopted with the same goals as the Federal Constitution's Second Amendment, the court wrote: "The words 'bear arms' ... have reference to their military use, and were not employed to mean wearing them about the person as part of the dress. As the object for which the right to keep and bear arms is secured, is of general and public nature, to be exercised by the people in a body, for their common defense, so the arms, the right to keep which is secured, are such as are usually employed in civilized warfare, and that constitute the ordinary military equipment."


text: The Georgia Supreme Court ruled in "Nunn v. Georgia" (Nunn v. State, 1 Ga. (1 Kel.) 243 (1846)) that a state law banning handguns was an unconstitutional violation of the Second Amendment. This was the first gun control measure to be overturned on Second Amendment grounds. The Supreme Court in its ruling in "District of Columbia v. Heller" said "Nunn" "perfectly captured the way in which the operative clause of the Second Amendment furthers the purpose announced in the prefatory clause."


text: The right of the whole people, old and young, men, women and boys, and not militia only, to keep and bear "arms" of every description, and not "such" merely as are used by the "militia", shall not be "infringed", curtailed, or broken in upon, in the smallest degree; and all this for the important end to be attained: the rearing up and qualifying a well-regulated militia, so vitally necessary to the security of a free State. Our opinion is, that any law, State or Federal, is repugnant to the Constitution, and void, which contravenes this "right", originally belonging to our forefathers, trampled under foot by Charles I. and his two wicked sons and successors, re-established by the revolution of 1688, conveyed to this land of liberty by the colonists, and finally incorporated conspicuously in our own Magna Charta!


text: In "State v. Buzzard" (1842, Ark), the Arkansas high court adopted a militia-based, political interpretation, reading of the right to bear arms under state law, and upheld the 21st section of the second article of the Arkansas Constitution that declared, "that the free white men of this State shall have a right to keep and bear arms for their common defense", while rejecting a challenge to a statute prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons. Buzzard had carried a concealed weapon and stood "indicted by virtue of the authority of the 13th section of an act of the Legislature prohibiting any person wearing a pistol, dirk, large knife or sword-cane "concealed as a weapon", unless upon a journey, under the penalties of fine and imprisonment." Justice Lacy, in a dissenting opinion in "Buzzard", summarizing the majority viewpoint to which he disagreed, declared:


text: That the words "a well regulated militia being necessary for the security of a free State", and the words "common defense" clearly show the true intent and meaning of these Constitutions [i.e., Ark. and U.S.] and prove that it is a political and not an individual right, and, of course, that the State, in her legislative capacity, has the right to regulate and control it: This being the case, then the people, neither individually nor collectively, have the right to keep and bear arms."


text: Joel Prentiss Bishop's influential "Commentaries on the Law of Statutory Crimes" (1873) took Buzzard's militia-based interpretation, a view that Bishop characterized as the "Arkansas doctrine", as the orthodox view of the right to bear arms in American law.


text: Political scientist Earl Kruschke has categorized both "Bliss" and "Buzzard" as being "cases illustrating the individual view." Professor Eugene Volokh revealed, in the California Political Review, that a statement in a concurring opinion in "Buzzard" was the only support for a collective right view of the right to keep and bear arms in the 19th century.


text: In 1905, the Kansas Supreme Court in "Salina v. Blaksley" made the first collective right judicial interpretation. The Kansas high court declared: "That the provision in question applies only to the right to bear arms as a member of the state militia, or some other military organization provided for by law, is also apparent from the second amendment to the federal Constitution, which says: 'A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.'"


text: Three models of interpreting the right to bear arms in the United States commonly exist. These three models are founded on differing interpretations of the Second Amendment, ""A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.""


text: The first model, the individual-rights model, holds that a right of individuals is to own and possess firearms, much as the First Amendment protects a right of individuals to engage in free speech. This view was confirmed by the Supreme Court in "District of Columbia v. Heller" (2008) had previous interpretations by the Court. Prior to the Supreme Court's ruling in "Heller" there was a split among the federal courts, with nine of the federal circuit courts of appeal supporting a modified collective rights view, two of the federal circuits supporting an individual rights view, and one federal circuit court having not addressed the question.


text: The second two models focus on the preamble, or "purpose" clause, of the Amendment – the words ""A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State."" The second model, the collective model, holds that the right to bear arms belongs to the people collectively rather than to individuals, under the belief that the right's only purpose is to enable states to maintain a militia.


text: The third model, the modified collective model, holds that the right to keep and bear arms exists only for individuals actively serving in the militia, and then only pursuant to such regulations as may be prescribed.


text: Supreme Court justice Antonin Scalia in 2008 wrote that the right to bear arms is not unlimited and is subject to reasonable prohibitions and regulations and subsequently federal court rulings have upheld existing gun prohibitions and regulations.


text: Nadine Strossen, former president of the American Civil Liberties Union, has stated that the individual rights model must yield to reasonable regulation. Strossen said "it is no more absolute than freedom of speech or any other right in the Constitution. No right is absolute; the government is always allowed to restrict the right if it can satisfy Constitutional strict scrutiny and show the restriction is narrowly tailored to promote a goal of compelling importance."