title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: Sandusky has a tourism industry fueled by Cedar Point, the neighboring islands, boating, and more recently by its many indoor and outdoor water parks. It is also noted for being the location of the (fictional) "Callahan Auto Parts" in the movie "Tommy Boy".


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: Cedar Point is a major American amusement park located on Sandusky's coast on Lake Erie. One of America's oldest theme parks and popularly known as "America's Roller Coast", the park has the second largest collection of roller coasters at 17, behind only Six Flags Magic Mountain. Additionally, Cedar Point is the only park in the world to have six roller coasters with heights of over , and numerous Cedar Point roller coasters have set world records; the most notable of these being Magnum XL-200, Millennium Force, and Top Thrill Dragster each setting the record for the tallest full-circuit roller coaster at one point, and GateKeeper having the highest (from ground level) inversion of any roller coaster from 2013 to 2019, and today having the fourth highest inversion.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: May through August every year, Sandusky residents and incoming tourists flock to the neighboring islands north of the city, with many transportation options leaving right from downtown. The islands include Kelleys Island, South Bass Island (host of the popular village known as Put-in-Bay), Middle Bass Island and North Bass Island.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: Themed parties are a common occurrence in the summer season throughout Sandusky and on the neighboring islands, such as "Island Fest", "Rock on the Dock", and "Christmas in July"; thousands of residents and tourists join in the festivities annually. In 2008, the residents of Sandusky hosted their first annual "Barge Party", where boats from as far as Toledo and Cleveland came to dock up their boats together at the sandbar, just inside Sandusky Bay. The barge party ensues twice every year, typically in late June and late July.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: The tourist draw produced by Cedar Point has attracted resort businesses and waterparks to the area. Major waterparks in and near Sandusky are:


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: Sandusky is home to several museums and historic homes. These include the Cooke-Dorn House historic site which was the home of Eleutheros Cooke, the Follett House Museum which was the home of Oran Follett, the Maritime Museum of Sandusky, the Merry-Go Round Museum, and the Ohio Veterans Home Museum.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: Sandusky Transit System (STS) runs a full-service transit system across the Greater Sandusky Area. Its located at 1230 N. Depot St.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Sandusky. There are four trains daily, all arriving in the late night/early morning hours: the "Capitol Limited" between Chicago and Washington, D.C., via Pittsburgh; and the "Lake Shore Limited" between Chicago and New York/Boston via Buffalo. The Sandusky Amtrak Station is also home to a Greyhound Lines bus station. Into the 1930s, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad operated a passenger train from Willard in north-central Ohio, as a section of a Wheeling, WV-Chicago train.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: Several ferry boats and routes serve Sandusky. These depart from the Jackson Street Pier, except Jet Express which departs from an adjacent pier.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: The city was previously served by Griffing Sandusky Airport until its closure in 2013. The community is currently served by Erie–Ottawa International Airport in nearby Port Clinton for general aviation and limited commercial service to the Lake Erie Islands. Today, flights from Detroit Metropolitan Airport, John Glenn Columbus International Airport, Cleveland Hopkins International Airport serve Sandusky.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: In terms of road access, Sandusky is a short drive off the Ohio Turnpike (Interstate 90 and Interstate 80), enabling easy transportation to Sandusky from cities like Toledo, Cleveland, and Erie, Pennsylvania via those roads. U.S. Route 6 runs through Sandusky, and both Ohio State Route 4 and U.S. Route 250 converge on Sandusky.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: • Sandusky Public Schools enroll 3,775 students in public primary and secondary schools. The district operates 10 public schools including five elementary schools, one middle school, one traditional high school, an alternative high school, a school for gifted students in grades 3–12, and a career center with programs for adults.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: • St. Mary Central Catholic High School/SCCS is a private Roman Catholic school associated with Holy Angels Church, St. Mary's Church, and Sts. Peter & Paul Church, all located in downtown Sandusky. SCCS is focused on giving students a faith-centered learning environment.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: •Monroe Prep Academy is a private charter school in downtown Sandusky. It is located on E. Monroe St. on Sandusky's East Side.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: Sandusky (along with nearby Port Clinton and the Lake Erie Islands - known in the region collectively as "Vacationland") is served by a daily newspaper, the "Sandusky Register".


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: Twelve local radio stations serve the Sandusky/Vacationland market. BAS Broadcasting, based in nearby Fremont, owns and operates WCPZ (hot AC), WMJK (country), WOHF (classic hits), WFRO-FM (AC), and WLEC / (oldies/sports). Elyria-Lorain Broadcasting Co. operates three stations serving the "Vacationland" region, including WKFM (country), WLKR-FM 95.3 (adult hits/sports) and WLKR / (classic hits). Ideastream Public Media also operates Kent State University-owned WNRK (NPR news/information), a repeater of WKSU in Kent.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: Religious stations include WVMS (run by the Moody Bible Institute as a repeater of WCRF in Cleveland), WGGN (Contemporary Christian) and WHRQ (carrying Toledo-based Annunciation Radio, an EWTN Radio affiliate).


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: Sandusky has one local television station, religiously oriented WGGN-TV channel 52 (DTV 3). Sandusky's location between Toledo and Cleveland means that the city is also served by stations (albeit at a fringe level) in both of those markets as well.


title: Sandusky, Ohio

text: According to Sandusky's 2017 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Nyaya

text: Nyaya school's epistemology accepts four out of six "Pramanas" as reliable means of gaining knowledge – "Pratyakṣa" (perception), "Anumāṇa" (inference), "Upamāṇa" (comparison and analogy) and "Śabda" (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). In its metaphysics, Nyaya school is closer to the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism than others. It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance). Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyaya to concern itself with epistemology, that is the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyyayikas, it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding true nature of soul, self and reality.


title: Nyaya

text: Naiyyayika scholars approached philosophy as a form of direct realism, stating that anything that really exists is in principle humanly knowable. To them, correct knowledge and understanding is different from simple, reflexive cognition; it requires "Anuvyavasaya" (अनुव्यवसाय, cross-examination of cognition, reflective cognition of what one thinks one knows). An influential collection of texts on logic and reason is the "Nyāya Sūtras", attributed to Aksapada Gautama, variously estimated to have been composed between 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE.


title: Nyaya

text: Nyaya school shares some of its methodology and human suffering foundations with Buddhism; however, a key difference between the two is that Buddhism believes that there is neither a soul nor self; Nyaya school like other schools of Hinduism believes that there is a soul and self, with liberation (moksha) as a state of removal of ignorance, wrong knowledge, the gain of correct knowledge and unimpeded continuation of self.


title: Nyaya

text: "Nyaya" (न्याय) is a Sanskrit word which means justice, equality for all being, specially a collection of general or universal rules. In some contexts, it means model, axiom, plan, legal proceeding, judicial sentence, or judgment. Nyaya could also mean, "that which shows the way" tracing its Sanskrit etymology. In the theory of logic, and Indian texts discussing it, the term also refers to an argument consisting of an enthymeme or sometimes for any syllogism. In philosophical context, "Nyaya" encompasses propriety, logic and method.


title: Nyaya

text: Panini, revered Sanskrit grammarian, derives the "Nyaya" from the root "i" which conveys the same meaning as "gam" - to go. "Nyaya" signifying logic is there etymologically identical with "nigama" the conclusion of a syllogism.


title: Nyaya

text: "Nyaya" is related to several other concepts and words used in Indian philosophies: "Hetu-vidya" (science of causes), "Anviksiki" (science of inquiry, systematic philosophy), "Pramana-sastra" (epistemology, science of correct knowledge), "Tattva-sastra" (science of categories), "Tarka-vidya" (science of reasoning, innovation, synthesis), "Vadartha" (science of discussion) and "Phakkika-sastra" (science of uncovering sophism, fraud, error, finding fakes). Some of these subsume or deploy the tools of "Nyaya".


title: Nyaya

text: The Nyaya of logic is said to have been founded by a sage named Gautama. He is also known as Gautama, Aksapada and Dirghatapas.The names Gotama and Gautama points to the family to which he belonged while the names Aksapada and Dirghatapas refer respectively to his meditative habit and practice of long penance. The people of Mithila (modern Darbhanga in North Bihar) ascribe the foundation of Nyaya philosophy to Gautama, husband of Ahalya, and point out as the place of his birth a village named Gautamasthana where a fair is held every year on the 9th day of the lunar month of Chaitra (March-April). It is situated 28 miles north-east of Darbhanga.


title: Nyaya

text: The historical development of Nyaya school is unclear, although "Nasadiya" hymns of Book 10 Chapter 129 of Rigveda recite its spiritual questions in logical propositions. In early centuries BCE, states Clooney, the early Nyaya scholars began compiling the science of rational, coherent inquiry and pursuit of knowledge. By 2nd century CE, Aksapada Gautama had composed "Nyāya Sūtras", a foundational text for Nyaya school, that primarily discusses logic, methodology and epistemology. The Nyaya scholars that followed refined it, expanded it, and applied it to spiritual questions. While the early Nyaya scholars published little to no analysis on whether supernatural power or God exists, they did apply their insights into reason and reliable means to knowledge to the questions of nature of existence, spirituality, happiness and moksha. Later Nyaya scholars, such as Udayana, examined various arguments on theism and attempted to prove existence of God. Other Nyaya scholars offered arguments to disprove the existence of God.


title: Nyaya

text: The most important contribution made by the Nyaya school to Hindu thought has been its treatises on epistemology and system of logic that, subsequently, has been adopted by the majority of the other Indian schools.


title: Nyaya

text: The Nyaya metaphysics recognizes sixteen "padarthas" or categories "Type theory" and includes all six (or seven) categories of the Vaisheshika in the second one of them, called "prameya".


title: Nyaya

text: According to Matthew Dasti and Stephen Phillips, it may be useful to interpret the word "jnana" as cognition rather than knowledge when studying the Nyaya system.


title: Nyaya

text: The Nyaya school of Hinduism developed and refined many treatises on epistemology that widely influenced other schools of Hinduism. Nyaya treated it as theory of knowledge, and its scholars developed it as "Pramana-sastras". "Pramana", a Sanskrit word, literally is "means of knowledge". It encompasses one or more reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge. The focus of Pramana is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one doesn't, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.


title: Nyaya

text: The Naiyayikas (the Nyaya scholars) accepted four valid means ("pramaṇa") of obtaining valid knowledge ("pramana") - perception ("pratyakṣa"), inference ("anumāna"), comparison ("upamāna") and word/testimony of reliable sources ("śabda"). The Nyaya scholars, along with those from other schools of Hinduism, also developed a theory of error, to methodically establish means to identify errors and the process by which errors are made in human pursuit of knowledge. These include "Saṁśaya" (समस्या, problems, inconsistencies, doubts) and "Viparyaya" (विपर्यय, contrariness, errors) which can be corrected or resolved by a systematic process of "Tarka" (तर्क, reasoning, technique).


title: Nyaya

text: "Pratyakṣa" (perception) occupies the foremost position in the Nyaya epistemology. Perception can be of two types, "laukika" (ordinary) and "alaukika" (extraordinary). Ordinary perception is defined by Akṣapāda Gautama in his "Nyaya Sutra" (I,i.4) as a 'non-erroneous cognition which is produced by the intercourse of sense-organs with the objects'.


title: Nyaya

text: Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception: "Indriyarthasannikarsa" (direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being studied), "Avyapadesya" (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), "Avyabhicara" (does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and "Vyavasayatmaka" (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).


title: Nyaya

text: Ordinary perception to Nyaya scholars was based on direct experience of reality by eyes, ears, nose, touch and taste. Extraordinary perception included "yogaja" or "pratibha" (intuition), "samanyalaksanapratyaksa" (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and "jnanalaksanapratyaksa" (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).


title: Nyaya

text: The Naiyyayika maintains two modes or stages in perception. The first is called "nirvikalpa" (indeterminate), when one just perceives an object without being able to know its features, and the second "savikalpa" (determinate), when one is able to clearly know an object. All laukika and alaukika pratyakshas are "savikalpa", but it is necessarily preceded by an earlier stage when it is indeterminate. Vātsāyana says that if an object is perceived with its name we have determinate perception but if it is perceived without a name, we have indeterminate perception. Jayanta Bhatta says that indeterminate perception apprehends substance, qualities and actions and universals as separate and indistinct, without any association with any names, whereas determinate perception apprehends them all together with a name. There is yet another stage called "Pratyabhijñā", when one is able to re-recognise something on the basis of memory.


title: Nyaya

text: "Anumāna" (inference) is one of the most important contributions of the Nyaya. It can be of two types: inference for oneself ("Svarthanumana", where one does not need any formal procedure, and at the most the last three of their 5 steps), and inference for others ("Parathanumana", which requires a systematic methodology of 5 steps). Inference can also be classified into 3 types: "Purvavat" (inferring an unperceived effect from a perceived cause), "Sheshavat" (inferring an unperceived cause from a perceived effect) and "Samanyatodrishta" (when inference is not based on causation but on uniformity of co-existence). A detailed analysis of error is also given, explaining when anumana could be false.


title: Nyaya

text: The methodology of inference involves a combination of induction and deduction by moving from particular to particular via generality. It has five steps, as in the example shown:


title: Nyaya

text: In Nyāya terminology for this example, the hill would be called as "paksha" (minor term), the fire is called as "sādhya" (major term), the smoke is called as "hetu", and the relationship between the smoke and the fire is called as "vyapti"(middle term).


title: Nyaya

text: "Upamāna" (उपमान) means comparison and analogy. "Upamana", states Lochtefeld, may be explained with the example of a traveller who has never visited lands or islands with endemic population of wildlife. He or she is told, by someone who has been there, that in those lands you see an animal that sort of looks like a cow, grazes like cow but is different from a cow in such and such way. Such use of analogy and comparison is, state the Indian epistemologists, a valid means of conditional knowledge, as it helps the traveller identify the new animal later. The subject of comparison is formally called "upameyam", the object of comparison is called "upamānam", while the attribute(s) are identified as "sāmānya". Thus, explains Monier Williams, if a boy says "her face is like the moon in charmingness", "her face" is "upameyam", the moon is "upamānam", and charmingness is "sāmānya". The 7th century text Bhaṭṭikāvya in verses 10.28 through 10.63 discusses many types of comparisons and analogies, identifying when this epistemic method is more useful and reliable, and when it is not. In various ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism, 32 types of "Upamāna" and their value in epistemology are debated.


title: Nyaya

text: "Śabda" (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts. Hiriyanna explains "Sabda-pramana" as a concept which means testimony of a reliable and trustworthy person ("āptavākya"). The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly. He must rely on others, his parent, family, friends, teachers, ancestors and kindred members of society to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written, but through "Sabda" (words). The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the "Sabda" of reliable sources. The disagreement between the schools of Hinduism has been on how to establish reliability. Some schools, such as Carvaka, state that this is never possible, and therefore "Sabda" is not a proper pramana. Other schools debate means to establish reliability.


title: Nyaya

text: Testimony can be of two types, "Vaidika" (Vedic), which are the words of the four sacred Vedas, and "Laukika", or words and writings of trustworthy human beings. "Vaidika" testimony is preferred over "Laukika" testimony. Laukika-sourced knowledge must be questioned and revised as more trustworthy knowledge becomes available.


title: Nyaya

text: Each school of Hinduism has its own treatises on epistemology, with different number of "Pramanas". For example, compared to Nyaya school's four "pramanas", Carvaka school has just one (perception), while Advaita Vedanta school recognizes six means to reliable knowledge.


title: Nyaya

text: A "cause" is defined as an unconditional and invariable antecedent of an "effect" and an effect as an unconditional and invariable consequent of a cause. The same cause produces the same effect; and the same effect is produced by the same cause. The cause is "not" present in any hidden form whatsoever in its effect.


title: Nyaya

text: The Nyaya theory of error is similar to that of Kumarila's Viparita-khyati (see Mimamsa). The Naiyyayikas also believe like Kumarila that error is due to a wrong synthesis of the presented and the represented objects. The represented object is confused with the presented one. The word 'anyatha' means 'elsewise' and 'elsewhere' and both these meanings are brought out in error. The presented object is perceived elsewise and the represented object exists elsewhere. They further maintain that knowledge is not intrinsically valid but becomes so on account of extraneous conditions ("paratah pramana" during both validity and invalidity).


title: Nyaya

text: Early Naiyyayikas wrote very little about Ishvara (literally, the Supreme Soul). Evidence available so far suggests that early Nyaya scholars were non-theistic or atheists. Later, and over time, Nyaya scholars tried to apply some of their epistemological insights and methodology to the question: does God exist? Some offered arguments against and some in favor.


title: Nyaya

text: In Nyāya Sūtra's Book 4, Chapter 1, verses 19–21, postulates God exists, states a consequence, then presents contrary evidence, and from contradiction concludes that the postulate must be invalid.


title: Nyaya

text: A literal interpretation of the three verses suggests that Nyaya school rejected the need for a God for the efficacy of human activity. Since human action and results do not require assumption or need of the existence of God, sutra IV.1.21 is seen as a criticism of the "existence of God and theism postulate". The context of the above verses includes various efficient causes. Nyāya Sūtra verses IV.1.22 to IV.1.24, for example, examine the hypothesis that "random chance" explains the world, after these Indian scholars had rejected God as the efficient cause.


title: Nyaya

text: Udayana's "Nyayakusumanjali" gave the following nine arguments to prove the existence of creative God and also tried to refute the existing objections and questions by atheistic systems of charvaka, mimamsa, buddhists, jains and samkhya:


title: Nyaya

text: The Naiyyayikas believe that the bondage of the world is due to false knowledge, which can be removed by constantly thinking of its opposite ("pratipakshabhavana"), namely, the true knowledge. So the opening aphorism of the "" states that only the true knowledge lead to "niḥśreyasa" (liberation). But the Nyaya school also maintains that the God's grace is essential for obtaining true knowledge. Jayanta, in his "Nyayamanjari" describes salvation as a passive stage of self in its natural purity, unassociated with pleasure, pain, knowledge and willingness.


title: Nyaya

text: The earliest text of the Nyāya School is the ' of . The text is divided into five books, each having two sections. 's ' is a classic commentary on the '. Udyotakara's ' (6th century CE) is written to defend against the attacks made by Dignāga. 's ' (9th century CE) is the next major exposition of this school. Two other texts, ' and ' are also attributed to him. Udayana's (984 CE) ' is an important commentary on 's treatise. His ' is the first systematic account of theistic '. His other works include ', ' and '. Jayanta Bhatta's ' (10th century CE) is basically an independent work. 's ' (10th century CE) is a survey of ' philosophy.


title: Nyaya

text: The later works on ' accepted the "" categories and 's ' (12th century CE) is a notable treatise of this syncretist school. 's "" (13th century CE) is another important work of this school.


title: Nyaya

text: 's ' (14th century CE) is the first major treatise of the new school of '. His son, 's ', though a commentary on Udayana's ', incorporated his father's views. Jayadeva wrote a commentary on "" known as ' (14th century CE). 's ' (16th century CE) is first great work of Navadvipa school of . 's ' and ' are the next important works of this school. 's ' (17th century CE) is also a notable work. The Commentaries on ' by Jagadish Tarkalankar (17th century CE) and Gadadhar Bhattacharya (17th century CE) are the last two notable works of this school.


title: Nyaya

text: Numerous commentaries have been written on Nyaya-Sutra since its composition. Some of these commentaries are available on www.archive.org for reference. A few of the commentaries are mentioned below:


title: Nyaya

text: The essential features of logic in the Western tradition are well captured in the following statement by a famous logician Alonzo Church:


title: Nyaya

text: Thus, the basic features of Western logic are: It deals with a study of ‘propositions’, specially their ‘logical form’ as abstracted from their ‘content’ or ‘matter’. It deals with ‘general conditions of valid inference’, wherein the truth or otherwise of the premises have no bearing on the ‘logical soundness or validity’ of an inference. It achieves this by taking recourse to a symbolic language that has little to do with natural languages. The main concern of Western logic, in its entire course of development, has been one of systematising patterns of mathematical reasoning, with the mathematical objects being thought of as existing either in an independent ideal world or in a formal domain. Indian logic however, does not deal with ideal entities, such as propositions, logical truth as distinguished from material truth, or with purely symbolic languages that apparently have nothing to do with natural languages.


title: Nyaya

text: The central concern of Indian logic as founded in Nyāya is epistemology, or the theory of knowledge. Thus Indian logic is not concerned merely with making arguments in formal mathematics rigorous and precise, but attends to the much larger issue of providing rigour to the arguments encountered in natural sciences (including mathematics, which in Indian tradition has the attributes of a natural science and not that of a collection of context free formal statements), and in philosophical discourse. Inference in Indian logic is ‘deductive and inductive’, ‘formal as well as material’. In essence, it is the method of scientific enquiry. Indian ‘formal logic’ is thus not ‘formal’, in the sense generally understood: in Indian logic ‘form’ cannot be entirely separated from ‘content’. In fact, great care is exercised to exclude from logical discourse terms, which have no referential content. No statement, which is known to be false, is admitted as a premise in a valid argument. Thus, the ‘method of indirect proof’ (reductio ad absurdum) is not accepted as a valid method−neither in Indian philosophy nor in Indian mathematics−for proving the existence of an entity whose existence is not demonstrable (even in principle) by other (direct) means of proof.


title: Nyaya

text: Indian logic does not make any attempt to develop a purely symbolic and content independent or ‘formal language’ as the vehicle of logical analysis. Instead, what Indian logic, especially in its later phase of Navya-Nyāya starting with the work of Gāngeśa Upādhyāya of 14th century, has developed is a technical language, which is based on the natural language Sanskrit, yet avoids ‘inexactness’ and ‘misleading irregularities’ by various technical devices. This technical language, being based on the natural language Sanskrit, inherits a certain natural structure and interpretation, and sensitivity to the context of enquiry. On the other hand, the symbolic formal systems of Western logic, though considerably influenced in their structure (say, in quantification, etc.) by the basic patterns discernible in European languages, are professedly purely symbolic, carrying no interpretation whatsoever−such interpretations are supposed to be supplied separately in the specific context of the particular field of enquiry ‘employing’ the symbolic formal system.


title: Cheap Trick discography

text: The discography of American rock band Cheap Trick includes 20 studio albums, 8 live albums, 17 compilation albums, 4 extended plays, and 65 singles.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: Total War: Warhammer II is a turn-based strategy and real-time tactics video game developed by Creative Assembly and published by Sega. It is part of the "Total War" series and the sequel to 2016's "". The game is set in Games Workshop's "Warhammer Fantasy" fictional universe. The game was released for Microsoft Windows-based PCs on 28 September 2017. Feral Interactive released the game on macOS and Linux on 20 November 2018. "Total War: Warhammer II" was succeeded by "," which was released in February 2022. The game requires a Steam account to play.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: "Total War: Warhammer II" features turn-based strategy and real-time tactics gameplay similar to other games in the "Total War" series.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: In the campaign, players move armies around the map and manage settlements in a turn-based manner. Players engage in diplomacy with, and fight against, AI-controlled factions. When armies meet, they battle in real-time. The game also has a custom battles mode where players can create customised real-time battles, as well as online multiplayer battles. Those who own races from the first game will have the same races unlocked for multiplayer in the second game.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: The game's announced races in the campaign include the Lizardmen, High Elves, Dark Elves and Skaven. The Tomb Kings and Vampire Coast (a faction of undead pirates) debuted later as paid downloadable content factions, along with The Huntsmarshal's Expedition, the Chevaliers de Lyonesse (a knightly order), and the Sisters of Twilight (a faction of Wood Elves).


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: The main campaign of the game is called "Eye of the Vortex". It is a narrative-focused campaign where each of the playable races has its own story and cutscenes. In addition, players who own both Total War: Warhammer and Total War: Warhammer II have access to a huge combined campaign called "Mortal Empires", which is more of a sandbox experience. Mortal Empires must be downloaded manually from Steam, but is free for players who own both games.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: The Old Ones, powerful godlike beings, created races in the Warhammer world to fight the forces of Chaos. The stellar gates which the Old Ones used to enter the world collapsed, leading to a flood of Chaos that was held at bay by the Lizardmen. Two High Elf heroes in Ulthuan responded to this threat. Aenarion "the Defender" mustered armies whilst Caledor Dragontamer planned to drain magical energy from the world, thus stopping the Chaos invasion. This manifested itself as the Great Vortex, accomplished with the help of the Lizardmen leaders, the Slann. It drained Chaos energy at the expense of locking Caledor and his mages in time, eternally casting spells to maintain the vortex.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: Millennia later, in the time when the game is set, a Skaven rocket disguised as a twin-tailed comet disrupts the Great Vortex. The four main playable factions respond to this in different ways. The High Elves and Lizardmen seek to stabilize the Vortex, while the Skaven and Dark Elves seek to use its power for world conquest. The Skaven launched this rocket to provoke rituals from these four major factions. The Skaven could then harness this ritual energy to allow the Skaven god, the Great Horned Rat, to enter the world and thus conquer it. When the player completes the fifth ritual, their race fights a 'final battle' on the Isle of the Dead to determine the fate of the Vortex and thus the world. Winning the 'final battle' results in winning the race's objectives. The High Elves and Lizardmen stabilize the Vortex. The Dark Elves use the Vortex's power to transform their leader Malekith into a god. The Skaven summon the Horned Rat and conquer the world.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: Five thousand years ago, the desert kingdom of Nehekhara was the greatest human civilization in the world. However, Nehekhara was destroyed by Nagash, the first necromancer. Through the power of his Black Pyramid, Nagash enacted a great spell that would kill all that lived in Nehekhara and raise them as his undead servants. Before the spell could be completed, Nagash was slain by Alcadizaar the Conqueror, the last king of Nehekhara, with the aid of the Skaven (who had initially allied with the Great Necromancer, but betrayed him after they realized how great a threat Nagash was). The Nehekharan dead returned as the Tomb Kings, but because Nagash's ritual was incomplete, many of the Tomb Kings retained their free will and intellect.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: In the current day, the false twin-tailed comet has stirred the Black Pyramid from its slumber and courses with power. It is discovered that five of the nine books of Nagash are needed to control the Black Pyramid. Four Tomb King factions battle to control it: Khemri, led by Settra the Imperishable; the Exiles of Nehek, led by Grand Hierophant Khatep; the Court of Lybaras, led by High Queen Khalida; and the Followers of Nagash, led by Arkhan the Black. Settra, the first and greatest king of Nehekhara, seeks the pyramid's power to regain control over his domain and begin global conquest. Khatep, the oldest of the Liche Priests, seeks to end his exile by using the pyramid to fulfill the promise he made to Settra to transform him and the Nehekharan nobility into immortal golden beings. Khalida, the champion of the Asp Goddess, seeks the pyramid's power to take vengeance on her cousin Neferata, the first vampire, and to destroy all of vampire-kind. Arkhan, the Liche King and Nagash's second-in-command, seeks to use the power of the Black Pyramid to resurrect his master; as Nagash's servant, Arkhan already has one of the books, the Liber Mortis, and thus only needs to obtain four more to unlock the Black Pyramid.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: Once all five of the books of Nagash are recovered, the final mission involves the player's chosen faction battling for the Black Pyramid. Should the player choose either Settra, Khalida, or Khatep, they will be on offense and join forces with the other two factions to fight against Arkhan as he guards the Black Pyramid. Should the player choose Arkhan, he will be on defense as he faces off against the combined forces of the former three.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: Long ago, Captain Jacob Wulfhart, brother of the famous Imperial Huntsmarshall, Markus Wulfhart, hunted the Merwyrm known as Amanar. Amanar is the oldest and mightiest of the Merwyrms and the guardian beast of the High Elf city of Lothern. Jacob created a weapon known as the Star-Metal Harpoon that would be used to slay the creature. During the climactic battle, Amanar destroyed Jacob's ship, the "Vengeance", killing the captain and his crew, save for one survivor. The survivor created a map that would lead to the Vengeance's resting place, and within its confines, the Star-Metal Harpoon.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: In the present the disturbance of the Great Vortex has riled Amanar from its slumber, driving the ancient Merwyrm mad, causing it to rampage across the seas and destroying many ships and coastal settlements in its fury. Four factions of the Vampire Coast seek to slay Amanar and resurrect it as their mighty undead servant, thus becoming the dominant power of the seas: Luthor Harkon, ruler of the Vampire Coast and Arch-Grand Commodore of the Awakened; Count Noctilus, the master of the Dreadfleet; Aranessa Saltspite, the Pirate-Queen of Sartosa; Madame-Captain Cylostra Direfin, the spectral leader of the Drowned.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: Once the Star-Metal Harpoon has been recovered, and its power restored through three sea-shanties, the player's faction is then confronted by Lokhir Fellheart, the Dark Elf Krakenlord of Karond Kar. Fellheart and his army battles the player's faction, intending to take the Harpoon to slay Amanar and gain glory. Once Fellheart is defeated, the campaign ends with the player's faction shooting the Star-Metal Harpoon at Amanar, killing it and is then resurrected as an undead minion.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: The Empire of Man sends colonists to establish settlements along the coast of Lustria. Disturbed by the Imperials' plundering of their gold, the Lizardmen attack the settlements, led by Nakai the Wanderer. To respond to Nakai's attacks, the Empire sends Markus Wulfhart, one of the greatest hunters in the whole Empire, to defeat Nakai.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: If Nakai wins, the Empire has to abandon its colonies as they were overrun by the Lizardmen. If Markus wins, more Lustrian cities will be plundered and their wealth will be sent back to the Old World.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: Repanse de Lyonesse leads a crusade in the coast of Araby to purify the evils blighting its landscape. Her final mission involves facing off against three Tomb King legendary lords: Settra the Imperishable, High Queen Khalida and Grand Hierophant Khatep.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: Driven by his painful hunger induced by his mutations, Throt the Unclean musters his armies to invade the Witchwood, a magical forest in northern Naggaroth. He is opposed by Naestra and Arahan, two sisters who defend the forest. The two sisters, known as the Sisters of Twilight, also fight more enemies to heal the Witchwood and other magical forests, and in the process awaken Queen Ariel, who conducts a magical ritual to seal the forest from Daemon infestation.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: Once Ariel has been awakened, Throt the Unclean leads his invasion to attack the Witchwood. If he wins, he kills Ariel and eats her, and more Daemons are unleashed. If the Sisters of Twilight win, Ariel's ritual succeeds and the magical forests are saved from Daemonic invasion.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: The mighty doombull Taurox, blessed by the Ruinous Powers with a body of near-impervious brass, is visited in visions by the Lords of Ruin, promising him an even greater reward if he can locate the Heart of the Dark, where a most ancient and foul Herdstone stands, and perform a dark ritual that will unleash Chaos into the world. Sensing the incoming catastrophe, the Lizardmen summon their deadliest assassin, Oxyotl, to hunt down Taurox.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: Eventually, the Brass Bull and the Silent Slayer clash in the Heart of the Dark. If Oxyotl wins, the Herdstone is sundered and its vile energies are dispersed, saving the world from Chaos, at least for now. If Taurox wins, the ritual of Chaos is successfully completed, unleashing an age of nightmares and slaughter upon the world.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: "Total War: Warhammer II" was developed by UK-based video game studio Creative Assembly. The game was announced in London at EGX Rezzed in March 2017. It is the second installment in a planned trilogy of "Total War: Warhammer" games. The game was released for Microsoft Windows-based PCs on 28 September 2017, with Sega publishing.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: Creative Assembly has released several paid and free DLC packs for the game, which expand its content. "Mortal Empires", a massive combined campaign for players who own both "Total War: Warhammer" and "Total War: Warhammer II", was released in October 2017.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: "Total War: Warhammer II" received "generally favorable" reviews upon release, according to review aggregator Metacritic.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: "Destructoid" and "Eurogamer" called the game one of the best titles in the "Total War" series and cited the variety of factions, locations, gameplay, and campaign size as the game's positives while taking minor issue with the battle AI, inconsistent diplomacy, and amount of CPU power needed to run the game. "Game Informer" praised the variety of races and Creative Assembly's ability to remove some, if not all, of the endgame monotony. "IGN" and "PC Gamer" praised the Skaven race, faction mechanics, Great Vortex campaign, endgame, and improvements made to the UI while finding minor grievances with the wonky diplomacy system and high system requirements. "GameSpot" gave the game a 9 out of 10, and praised the fantasy combat, tight pacing, new races, introduction of different tactical options, diverse map types, and visuals, while criticizing the zoomed-in camera and lack of several multiplayer factions in competitive multiplayer modes.


title: Total War: Warhammer II

text: "Eurogamer" ranked the game tenth on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017". It won the award for "Best Strategy Game" in "PC Gamer"s 2017 Game of the Year Awards, and was nominated for "Game of the Year". It was also nominated for "Best PC Game" and "Best Strategy Game" in "IGN"'s Best of 2017 Awards.


title: H-bridge

text: A H-bridge is an electronic circuit that switches the polarity of a voltage applied to a load. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to run forwards or backwards. The name is derived from its common schematic diagram representation, with four switching elements configured as the branches of a letter "H" and the load connected as the cross-bar.


title: H-bridge

text: In particular, a bipolar stepper motor is almost always driven by a motor controller containing two H bridges.


title: H-bridge

text: The term "H-bridge" is derived from the typical graphical representation of such a circuit. An H-bridge is built with four switches (solid-state or mechanical). When the switches S1 and S4 (according to the first figure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are open) a positive voltage is applied across the motor. By opening S1 and S4 switches and closing S2 and S3 switches, this voltage is reversed, allowing reverse operation of the motor.


title: H-bridge

text: Using the nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at the same time, as this would cause a short circuit on the input voltage source. The same applies to the switches S3 and S4. This condition is known as shoot-through.


title: H-bridge

text: H bridge is used to supply power to a two terminal device. By proper arrangement of the switches, the polarity of the power to the device can be changed. Two examples are discussed below, DC motor Driver and transformer of switching regulator. Note that, not all of the case of switching condition is safe. The "short"(see below in "DC motor driver" section) cases are dangerous to the power source and to the switches.


title: H-bridge

text: Changing the polarity of the power supply to DC motor is used to change the direction of rotation. Apart from changing the rotation direction, the H-bridge can provide additional operation mode, "brake" and "free run until frictional stop".


title: H-bridge

text: The H-bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity/direction of the motor, but can also be used to 'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the motor's terminals are shorted. In shorted case, the kinetic energy of a rotating motor consumed rapidly in form of electrical current in the shorted circuit. The other case, to let the motor 'free run' to a stop, as the motor is effectively disconnected from the circuit. The following table summarizes operation, with S1-S4 corresponding to the diagram above. In the table below, "1" is used to represent "on" state of the switch, "0" to represent the "off" state.


title: H-bridge

text: Typical primary coil driver is to simply replace the two terminals of the DC motor by the two terminals of the primary coil. The switching current in the primary coil turn electrical energy into magnetic energy and transfer back to ac electrical energy in the secondary coil.


title: H-bridge

text: A "double pole double throw" (DPDT) relay can generally achieve the same electrical functionality as an H-bridge (considering the usual function of the device). However a semiconductor-based H-bridge would be preferable to the relay where a smaller physical size, high speed switching, or low driving voltage (or low driving power) is needed, or where the wearing out of mechanical parts is undesirable.


title: H-bridge

text: Another configuration is to have a DPDT relay to set the direction of current flow and a transistor to enable the current flow. This can extend the relay life, as the relay will be switched while the transistor is off and thereby there is no current flow. It also enables the use of PWM switching to control the current level.


title: H-bridge

text: A solid-state H-bridge is typically constructed using opposite polarity devices, such as PNP bipolar junction transistors (BJT) or P-channel MOSFETs connected to the high voltage bus and NPN BJTs or N-channel MOSFETs connected to the low voltage bus.


title: H-bridge

text: The most efficient MOSFET designs use N-channel MOSFETs on both the high side and low side because they typically have a third of the ON resistance of P-channel MOSFETs. This requires a more complex design since the gates of the high side MOSFETs must be driven positive with respect to the DC supply rail. Many integrated circuit MOSFET gate drivers include a charge pump within the device to achieve this.


title: H-bridge

text: Alternatively, a switched-mode power supply DC–DC converter can be used to provide isolated ('floating') supplies to the gate drive circuitry. A multiple-output flyback converter is well-suited to this application.


title: H-bridge

text: Another method for driving MOSFET-bridges is the use of a specialised transformer known as a GDT (gate drive transformer), which gives the isolated outputs for driving the upper FETs gates. The transformer core is usually a ferrite toroid, with 1:1 or 4:9 winding ratio. However, this method can only be used with high frequency signals. The design of the transformer is also very important, as the leakage inductance should be minimized, or cross conduction may occur. The outputs of the transformer are usually clamped by Zener diodes, because high voltage spikes could destroy the MOSFET gates.


title: H-bridge

text: A common variation of this circuit uses just the two transistors on one side of the load, similar to a class AB amplifier. Such a configuration is called a "half bridge". It acts as an electronic toggle switch, the half bridge is not able to switch polarity of the voltage applied to the load. The half bridge is used in some switched-mode power supplies that use synchronous rectifiers and in switching amplifiers. The half-H bridge type is commonly abbreviated to "Half-H" to distinguish it from full ("Full-H") H-bridges. Another common variation, adding a third 'leg' to the bridge, creates a three-phase inverter. The three-phase inverter is the core of any AC motor drive.


title: H-bridge

text: A further variation is the half-controlled bridge, where the low-side switching device on one side of the bridge, and the high-side switching device on the opposite side of the bridge, are each replaced with diodes. This eliminates the shoot-through failure mode, and is commonly used to drive variable or switched reluctance machines and actuators where bi-directional current flow is not required.


title: H-bridge

text: There are many commercially available inexpensive single and dual H-bridge packages, of which the L293x series includes the most common ones. Few packages, like L9110, have built-in flyback diodes for back EMF protection.


title: H-bridge

text: A common use of the H-bridge is an inverter. The arrangement is sometimes known as a single-phase bridge inverter.


title: H-bridge

text: The H-bridge with a DC supply will generate a square wave voltage waveform across the load. For a purely inductive load, the current waveform would be a triangle wave, with its peak depending on the inductance, switching frequency, and input voltage.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Radio masts and towers are typically tall structures designed to support antennas for telecommunications and broadcasting, including television. There are two main types: guyed and self-supporting structures. They are among the tallest human-made structures. Masts are often named after the broadcasting organizations that originally built them or currently use them.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: In the case of a mast radiator or radiating tower, the whole mast or tower is itself the transmitting antenna.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: The terms "mast" and "tower" are often used interchangeably. However, in structural engineering terms, a tower is a self-supporting or cantilevered structure, while a mast is held up by stays or guys. Broadcast engineers in the UK use the same terminology. A mast is a ground-based or rooftop structure that supports antennas at a height where they can satisfactorily send or receive radio waves. Typical masts are of steel lattice or tubular steel construction. Masts themselves play no part in the transmission of mobile telecommunications.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Masts (to use the civil engineering terminology) tend to be cheaper to build but require an extended area surrounding them to accommodate the guy wires. Towers are more commonly used in cities where land is in short supply.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: There are a few borderline designs that are partly free-standing and partly guyed, called additionally guyed towers. For example:


title: Radio masts and towers

text: The first experiments in radio communication were conducted by Guglielmo Marconi beginning in 1894. In 1895–1896 he invented the vertical monopole or Marconi antenna, which was initially a wire suspended from a tall wooden pole. He found that the higher the antenna was suspended, the further he could transmit, the first recognition of the need for height in antennas. Radio began to be used commercially for radiotelegraphic communication around 1900. During the first 20 years of radio, long distance radio stations used long wavelengths in the very low frequency band, so even the tallest antennas were electrically short and had very low radiation resistance of 5-25 Ohms, causing excessive power losses in the ground system. Radiotelegraphy stations used huge capacitively-toploaded flattop antennas consisting of horizontal wires strung between multiple steel towers to increase efficiency.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: AM radio broadcasting began around 1920. The allocation of the medium wave frequencies for broadcasting raised the possibility of using single vertical masts without top loading. The antenna used for broadcasting through the 1920s was the T-antenna, which consisted of two masts with a wire topload strung between them, requiring twice the construction costs and land area of a single mast. In 1924 Stuart Ballantine published two historic papers which led to the development of the single mast antenna. In the first he derived the radiation resistance of a vertical conductor over a ground plane. He found that the radiation resistance increased to a maximum at a length of  wavelength, so a mast around that length had an input resistance that was much higher than the ground resistance, reducing the fraction of transmitter power that was lost in the ground system without using a capacitive top-load. In a second paper the same year he showed that the amount of power radiated horizontally in ground waves reached a maximum at a mast height of  wavelength.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: By 1930 the expense of the T-antenna led broadcasters to adopt the mast radiator antenna, in which the metal structure of the mast itself functions as the antenna. One of the first types used was the diamond cantilever or Blaw-Knox tower. This had a diamond (rhombohedral) shape which made it rigid, so only one set of guy lines was needed, at its wide waist. The pointed lower end of the antenna ended in a large ceramic insulator in the form of a ball-and-socket joint on a concrete base, relieving bending moments on the structure. The first, a half-wave mast was installed at radio station WABC's 50 kW Wayne, New Jersey transmitter in 1931. During the 1930s it was found that the diamond shape of the Blaw-Knox tower had an unfavorable current distribution which increased the power emitted at high angles, causing multipath fading in the listening area. By the 1940s the AM broadcast industry had abandoned the Blaw-Knox design for the narrow, uniform cross section lattice mast used today, which had a better radiation pattern.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: The rise of FM radio and television broadcasting in the 1940s and 50s created a need for even taller masts. The earlier AM broadcasting used LF and MF bands, where radio waves propagate as ground waves which follow the contour of the Earth. The ground-hugging waves allowed the signals to travel beyond the horizon, out to hundreds of kilometers. However the newer FM and TV transmitters used the VHF band, in which radio waves travel by line-of-sight, so they are limited by the visual horizon. The only way to cover larger areas is to raise the antenna high enough so it has a line-of-sight path to them.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Until August 8, 1991, the Warsaw radio mast was the world's tallest supported structure on land; its collapse left the KVLY/KTHI-TV mast as the tallest. There are over 50 radio structures in the United States that are 600 m (1968.5 ft) or taller.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: The steel lattice is the most widespread form of construction. It provides great strength, low weight and wind resistance, and economy in the use of materials. Lattices of triangular cross-section are most common, and square lattices are also widely used. Guyed masts are often used; the supporting guy lines carry lateral forces such as wind loads, allowing the mast to be very narrow and simply constructed.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: When built as a tower, the structure may be parallel-sided or taper over part or all of its height. When constructed of several sections which taper exponentially with height, in the manner of the Eiffel Tower, the tower is said to be an Eiffelized one. The Crystal Palace tower in London is an example.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Guyed masts are sometimes also constructed out of steel tubes. This construction type has the advantage that cables and other components can be protected from weather inside the tube and consequently the structure may look cleaner.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: These masts are mainly used for FM-/TV-broadcasting, but sometimes also as mast radiator. The big mast of Mühlacker transmitting station is a good example of this.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: A disadvantage of this mast type is that it is much more affected by winds than masts with open bodies. Several tubular guyed masts have collapsed. In the UK, the Emley Moor and Waltham TV stations masts collapsed in the 1960s. In Germany the Bielstein transmitter collapsed in 1985.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Tubular masts were not built in all countries. In Germany, France, UK, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Japan and the Soviet Union, many tubular guyed masts were built, while there are nearly none in Poland or North America.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Several tubular guyed masts were built in cities in Russia and Ukraine. These masts featured horizontal crossbars running from the central mast structure to the guys and were built in the 1960s. The crossbars of these masts are equipped with a gangway that holds smaller antennas, though their main purpose is oscillation damping. The design designation of these masts is 30107 KM and they are exclusively used for FM and TV and are between tall with one exception. The exception being the mast in Vinnytsia which has height of 354 m (1161 ft) and is currently the tallest guyed tubular mast in the world after the Belmont transmitting station was reduced in height in 2010.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Reinforced concrete towers are relatively expensive to build but provide a high degree of mechanical rigidity in strong winds. This can be important when antennas with narrow beamwidths are used, such as those used for microwave point-to-point links, and when the structure is to be occupied by people.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: In the 1950s, AT&T built numerous concrete towers, more resembling silos than towers, for its first transcontinental microwave route.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: In Germany and the Netherlands most towers constructed for point-to-point microwave links are built of reinforced concrete, while in the UK most are lattice towers.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Concrete towers can form prestigious landmarks, such as the CN Tower in Toronto, Canada. In addition to accommodating technical staff, these buildings may have public areas such as observation decks or restaurants.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: The Katanga TV Tower in Central India host's a High Power Transmitter for DoorDarshan and Prasar Bharti, which are the Public Broadcaster in India.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: The Stuttgart TV tower was the first tower in the world to be built in reinforced concrete. It was designed in 1956 by the local civil engineer Fritz Leonhardt.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Fiberglass poles are occasionally used for low-power non-directional beacons or medium-wave broadcast transmitters.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Carbon fibre monopoles and towers have traditionally been too expensive but recent developments in the way the carbon fibre tow is spun have resulted in solutions that offer strengths exceeding steel (10 times) for a fraction of the weight (70% less) which has allowed monopoles and towers to be built in locations that were too expensive or difficult to access with the heavy lifting equipment that is needed for a steel structure.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Overall a carbon fiber structure is 40 - 50% faster to be erected compared to traditional building materials.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: , wood, previously a common material for telecommunications tower construction, has started to become increasingly common. In 2022, a wood telecommunications tower – the first of its kind in Italy – replaced a previously-existing steel structure to blend in with its wooded surroundings. One of the most commonly cited reasons telecom companies opt for wood is because it's the only material in the industry that is climate positive. For this reason, some utility pole distributors started to offer wood towers to meet the growing demands of 5G infrastructure. In the United States, for example, wood utility pole distributor Bell Lumber & Pole began developing products for the telecommunications industry.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Shorter masts may consist of a self-supporting or guyed wooden pole, similar to a telegraph pole. Sometimes self-supporting tubular galvanized steel poles are used: these may be termed monopoles.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: In some cases, it is possible to install transmitting antennas on the roofs of tall buildings. In North America, for instance, there are transmitting antennas on the Empire State Building, the Willis Tower, Prudential Tower, 4 Times Square, and One World Trade Center. The North Tower of the original World Trade Center also had a telecommunications antenna atop its roof, constructed in 1978–1979, and began transmission in 1980. When the buildings collapsed, several local TV and radio stations were knocked off the air until backup transmitters could be put into service. Such facilities also exist in Europe, particularly for portable radio services and low-power FM radio stations. In London, the BBC erected in 1936 a mast for broadcasting early television on one of the towers of a Victorian building, the Alexandra Palace. It is still in use.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Disguised cell sites sometimes can be introduced into environments that require a low-impact visual outcome, by being made to look like trees, chimneys or other common structures.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Many people view bare cellphone towers as ugly and an intrusion into their neighbourhoods. Even though people increasingly depend upon cellular communications, they are opposed to the bare towers spoiling otherwise scenic views. Many companies offer to 'hide' cellphone towers in, or as, trees, church towers, flag poles, water tanks and other features. There are many providers that offer these services as part of the normal tower installation and maintenance service. These are generally called "stealth towers" or "stealth installations", or simply concealed cell sites.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: The level of detail and realism achieved by disguised cellphone towers is remarkably high; for example, such towers disguised as trees are nearly indistinguishable from the real thing. Such towers can be placed unobtrusively in national parks and other such protected places, such as towers disguised as cacti in United States' Coronado National Forest.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Even when disguised, however, such towers can create controversy; a tower doubling as a flagpole attracted controversy in 2004 in relation to the U.S. Presidential campaign of that year, and highlighted the sentiment that such disguises serve more to allow the installation of such towers in subterfuge away from public scrutiny rather than to serve towards the beautification of the landscape.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: A mast radiator or mast antenna is a radio tower or mast in which the "whole structure" is an antenna. Mast antennas are the transmitting antennas typical for long or medium wave broadcasting.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Structurally, the only difference is that some mast radiators require the mast base to be insulated from the ground. In the case of an insulated tower, there will usually be one insulator supporting each leg. Some mast antenna designs do not require insulation, however, so base insulation is not an essential feature.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: A special form of the radio tower is the "telescopic mast". These can be erected very quickly. Telescopic masts are used predominantly in setting up temporary radio links for reporting on major news events, and for temporary communications in emergencies. They are also used in tactical military networks. They can save money by needing to withstand high winds only when raised, and as such are widely used in amateur radio.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: A tethered balloon or a kite can serve as a temporary support. It can carry an antenna or a wire (for VLF, LW or MW) up to an appropriate height. Such an arrangement is used occasionally by military agencies or radio amateurs. The American broadcasters TV Martí broadcast a television program to Cuba by means of such a balloon.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: For two VLF transmitters wire antennas spun across deep valleys are used. The wires are supported by small masts or towers or rock anchors. The same technique was also used at Criggion radio station.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: For ELF transmitters ground dipole antennas are used. Such structures require no tall masts. They consist of two electrodes buried deep in the ground at least a few dozen kilometres apart. From the transmitter building to the electrodes, overhead feeder lines run. These lines look like power lines of the 10 kV level, and are installed on similar pylons.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: For transmissions in the shortwave range, there is little to be gained by raising the antenna more than a few wavelengths above ground level. Shortwave transmitters rarely use masts taller than about 100 metres.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Because masts, towers and the antennas mounted on them require maintenance, access to the whole of the structure is necessary. Small structures are typically accessed with a ladder. Larger structures, which tend to require more frequent maintenance, may have stairs and sometimes a lift, also called a service elevator.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Tall structures in excess of certain legislated heights are often equipped with aircraft warning lamps, usually red, to warn pilots of the structure's existence. In the past, ruggedized and under-run filament lamps were used to maximize the bulb life. Alternatively, neon lamps were used. Nowadays such lamps tend to use LED arrays.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Height requirements vary across states and countries, and may include additional rules such as requiring a white flashing strobe in the daytime and pulsating red fixtures at night. Structures over a certain height may also be required to be painted with contrasting color schemes such as white and orange or white and red to make them more visible against the sky.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: In some countries where light pollution is a concern, tower heights may be restricted so as to reduce or eliminate the need for aircraft warning lights. For example, in the United States the 1996 Telecommunications Act allows local jurisdictions to set maximum heights for towers, such as limiting tower height to below and therefore not requiring aircraft illumination under US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) rules.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: One problem with radio masts is the danger of wind-induced oscillations. This is particularly a concern with steel tube construction. One can reduce this by building cylindrical shock-mounts into the construction. One finds such shock-mounts, which look like cylinders thicker than the mast, for example, at the radio masts of DHO38 in Saterland. There are also constructions, which consist of a free-standing tower, usually from reinforced concrete, onto which a guyed radio mast is installed. One example is the Gerbrandy Tower in Lopik, Netherlands. Further towers of this building method can be found near Smilde, Netherlands and the in Waldenburg, Germany.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: Radio, television and cell towers have been documented to pose a hazard to birds. Reports have been issued documenting known bird fatalities and calling for research to find ways to minimize the hazard that communications towers can pose to birds.


title: Radio masts and towers

text: There have also been instances of rare birds nesting in cell towers and thereby preventing repair work due to legislation intended to protect them.


title: Norwich University

text: Norwich University – The Military College of Vermont is a private senior military college in Northfield, Vermont. It is the oldest private and senior military college in the United States and offers bachelor's and master's degrees on-campus and online. The university was founded in 1819 in Norwich, Vermont, as the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy. It is the oldest of six senior military colleges and is recognized by the United States Department of Defense as the "Birthplace of ROTC" (Reserve Officers' Training Corps).


title: Norwich University

text: The university was founded in 1819 in Norwich, Vermont by Captain Alden Partridge, military educator and former superintendent of West Point. Partridge believed in the "American System of Education," a traditional liberal arts curriculum with instruction in civil engineering and military science. After leaving West Point because of congressional disapproval of his system, he returned to his native state of Vermont to create the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy. Partridge, in founding the academy, rebelled against the reforms of Sylvanus Thayer to prevent the rise of what he saw as the greatest threat to the security of the young republic: an aristocratic and careerist officer class.


title: Norwich University

text: He believed that a well-trained militia was an urgent necessity and developed the American system around that idea. His academy inspired a number of military colleges throughout the nation, including The Citadel. It also was a model for the land grant colleges created through the Morrill Act of 1862. Today, Norwich offers substantial online distance graduate programs. It is similar in many regards to The Citadel in mission, online offerings, student body composition, and size.


title: Norwich University

text: All entering freshmen aspiring to the Corps of Cadets are called "Rooks", and their first year at Norwich is called "Rookdom". The institution of "Rookdom" consists of two three-month processes that mold civilians into Norwich Cadets: Rook Basic Training and Basic Leadership Training. Culmination of Rook Basic Training marks the halfway point toward Recognition and occurs before Thanksgiving break, after which Rooks are awarded privileges. Recognition for acceptance into the Corps of Cadets typically occurs around the eighteenth week.


title: Norwich University

text: Partridge's educational beliefs were considered radical at the time. His views conflicted with Army officials in the federal government while he was the superintendent of West Point. When he established his own academy, he immediately incorporated classes of agriculture and modern languages in addition to the sciences, liberal arts, and various military subjects. Field exercises, for which Partridge borrowed cannon and muskets from the federal and state governments, supplemented classroom instruction. They also required students to practice with authentic weapons to support the college’s program of well-rounded military education.


title: Norwich University

text: Partridge founded 16 other military institutions during his quest to reform the fledgling United States military, including the Virginia Literary, Scientific and Military Academy at Portsmouth, Virginia (1839–1846); Pennsylvania Literary, Scientific, and Military Academy at Bristol, Pennsylvania (1842–1845); Pennsylvania Military Institute at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (1845–1848); Wilmington Literary, Scientific and Military Academy at Wilmington, Delaware (1846–1848); the Scientific and Military Collegiate Institute at Reading, Pennsylvania (1850–1854); Gymnasium and Military Institute at Pembroke, New Hampshire (1850–1853); and the National Scientific and Military Academy at Brandywine Springs, Delaware (1853).


title: Norwich University

text: In 1825 the academy moved to Middletown, Connecticut, to provide better naval training to the school's growing Corps of Cadets. Beginning in 1826, the academy offered the first program of courses in civil engineering in the US.


title: Norwich University

text: In 1829, the state of Connecticut declined to grant Captain Partridge a charter, and he moved the school back to Norwich. (The Middletown campus was adapted in as Wesleyan College). In 1834, Vermont granted a charter to Partridge and recognized his institution as Norwich University.


title: Norwich University

text: During the 1856 academic year, the first chapter of the Theta Chi Fraternity was founded by cadets Frederick Norton Freeman and Arthur Chase. With the beginning of the Civil War in 1861, Norwich cadets served as instructors of state militias throughout the Northeast. The entire class of 1862 enlisted in the military upon its graduation.


title: Norwich University

text: Norwich turned out hundreds of officers and soldiers who served with the federal armies in the American Civil War, including four recipients of the Medal of Honor. One graduate led a corps, seven more headed divisions, 21 commanded brigades, 38 led regiments, and various alumni served in 131 different regimental organizations. In addition, these men were eyewitnesses to some of the war's most dramatic events, including the bloodiest day of the conflict at Antietam, the attack up Marye's Heights at Fredericksburg, and the repulse of Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg. Seven hundred and fifty Norwich men served in the Civil War, of whom an estimated fifty-six fought for the Confederacy. Because of the university's high rate of participation in the war, the number of students dwindled: only seven were in the class of 1864.


title: Norwich University

text: The Confederate raid on St. Albans, Vermont precipitated fear that Newport, Vermont was an imminent target. The Corps of Cadets quickly boarded an express train for Newport the same day, October 19, 1864, and were greeted with great relief by residents when they arrived.


title: Norwich University

text: After a catastrophic fire in 1866, which devastated the Old South Barracks and the entire Military Academy, the town of Northfield welcomed the struggling school. The Civil War, the fire, and uncertainty whether the university would continue adversely affected continuing students and new admissions. The school opened in fall 1866 with only 19 students. During the 1870s and 1880s the institution struggled financially, affected by national economic crises. It was renamed as Lewis College in 1880. In 1881, the student body consisted of only a dozen men.


title: Norwich University

text: By 1884, the Vermont Legislature changed the name of the school back to Norwich. In the 1890s, the United States Army and Norwich expanded their collaboration. Career officer Jesse McI. Carter received a two-year appointment as an instructor and Commandant of Cadets. In 1898 the university was designated by the legislature as the Military College of the State of Vermont.


title: Norwich University

text: As part of the Vermont National Guard, the school's Corps of Cadets was mobilized as a squadron of cavalry in the First Vermont Regiment to assist in General John J. Pershing's Mexican Expedition on the southern border. This greatly disrupted the academic year. In 1916, after the outbreak of war in Europe, the War Department designated Norwich as the first site for a Senior ROTC cavalry unit. Also that year, Harold "Doc" Martin (NU 1920), matriculate: the first African American to attend the university.


title: Norwich University

text: Classes graduated early for both the First and Second World Wars. Many Norwich-made officers participated, serving in all theaters of both conflicts. Professional education offered at Norwich changed and adapted with the advance of technology. Military flight training began in 1939. From 1946 to 1947, horse cavalry was completely phased out in favor of armored cavalry.


title: Norwich University

text: Graduates returning from European and Pacific fields of battle after World War II found a university very different from the one they had left. From the late 1940s to the 1960s, Norwich was greatly expanded and added a number of new opportunities. In 1947, the Army Department created a new program uniquely suited to Vermont's harsh climate: a mountain and cold weather warfare unit. Air Force and Navy ROTC programs were established in 1972 and 1984, respectively. During the 1974 school year, the university admitted women into the Corps of Cadets, two years before the federal service academies did. The 1972 merger and 1993 integration with Vermont College added two groups to "the Hill," women and civilian students.


title: Norwich University

text: In the nineteenth century, hazing of undergraduates by upperclassmen was normal in all military schools and many non-military ones as well. Hazing diminished in the early 20th century. By the late 20th century, it was prohibited by university rules and illegal by state law. But, there were several reported instances of hazing in 1990, 1995, and 2022.


title: Norwich University

text: In 2001, Norwich sold its Vermont College campus and non-traditional degree programs to the Union Institute and University. In 2008 Vermont College's arts programs were spun off to establish the independent Vermont College of Fine Arts.


title: Norwich University

text: Prior to the 2009–2010 school year, companies consisted of one upperclassmen platoon and one freshmen platoon, with each platoon consisting of three squads. The companies in the original system were Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Kilo, Lima, Mike, Band, Drill Team, Military Police, and Artillery. The companies Alpha through Mike were known as "line companies", and were part of Battalions 1, 2, 3 and 4. Band, Drill Team, Military Police and Artillery were placed in Provisional Battalion.


title: Norwich University

text: Under this traditional system a cadet could serve in one company his entire time at the school, building strong camaraderie and connections. While this had the benefit of creating unique cultures and traditions in each company, and strengthened the bond each cadet had with his/her fellow "Rook Buddies" and the Corps and school at large, sometimes long-standing company traditions led to fraternity-like hazing and eventually challenged the authority of the Corps chain of command.


title: Norwich University

text: In 1910 Ainsworth Hall was constructed for the United States Weather Bureau as its central Vermont station. Returned to the university in 1948, it served as the administrative headquarters of the campus. By 1955, growth of the university forced the relocation of the administration to Dewey Hall. When construction began on Webb Hall that year to the immediate west of Ainsworth Hall, the infirmary moved into the now empty structure. As the university expanded in the 1960s and 1970s, the Hall was adapted for use by the Division of Social Sciences. The building is named for Mrs. Laura Ainsworth, widow of Captain James E. Ainsworth (NU 1853). In 1915 he had worked to bring an infirmary to campus.


title: Norwich University

text: Chaplin Hall, originally Carnegie Hall, was built in 1907. The School of Architecture + Art is located there. Paid for by Andrew Carnegie, the building served as the university's library until 1993 with the construction of Kreitzberg Library. When the library was renovated in 1952, from the contributions of trustee Henry P. Chaplin, it was rededicated as the Henry Prescott Chaplin Memorial Library. Until 1941 and the addition of Partridge Hall to the growing campus, Chaplin Hall also provided the classrooms and offices for the Department of Electrical Engineering.


title: Norwich University

text: This building, on the site of the first building in Northfield Center, contains the offices and classrooms of the Communications Department. The offices for the school newspaper "The Guidon" and the studios for the university's radio station WNUB-FM are also located in this building. The building was purchased by the university in 1973 and restored in 1988.


title: Norwich University

text: Named for Admiral of the Navy George Dewey (NU 1852–1854), and completed in 1902, Dewey Hall is one of the oldest buildings in the Northfield campus. It was originally two stories high with the lower floor occupied by offices of the university's administration, the library and museum. Office space for trustees and faculty, a chapel with a seating of five hundred and the United States Weather Bureau were located on the second floor. With the departure of the Weather Bureau in 1909 and the completion of the then new Carnegie Library in 1907, the Hall was primarily used by the Military Department. In October 1925 a fire gutted the building which led to its reconstruction as a three-story structure.


title: Norwich University

text: Hollis House is today the location of a number of classrooms and offices of the College of Liberal Arts. Built in 1852, the building was until 1909 the house of a number of prominent residents of Northfield. When sold that year to the university, it became part of the US Weather Bureau's station collocated on campus. The building was later named for David B. "Dixie" Hollis (NU 1922) who upon his death in 1993 gave what was then the largest donation in the university's history: $7 million.


title: Norwich University

text: The Engineering, Math and Science Complex houses the David Crawford School of Engineering as well as the departments of Geology, Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Mathematics and Sports Medicine. An addition of Nursing was completed in 2011. The complex (known as the "U" building) is composed of six sections: Juckett, Partridge and Tompkins Halls, the Science Building, Bartolleto Hall and the Cabot Annex. The complex was completed in 1997 and replaced a previous set of 1940s- and 1950s-era facilities. The Engineering, Math and Science Complex also contains the university's Information Technology Services office.


title: Norwich University

text: Kreitzberg Library is named in recognition of Barbara and Chairman of the Board of Trustees Fred Kreitzberg (NU 1957). The library has a catalog of more than 240,000 books, about 45,000 electronic journals, and a collection of federal government publications. The Norwich University Archives and Special Collections has rare books and unique source materials relating to military history, the history of Vermont, and the history of the university. The library was designed by Perry Dean Rogers Architects. It was completed in 1993 at a cost of $8.1 million. In 2015, a renovation project brought the library into the twenty-first century with enhancements including new workstations, group-study and collaborative-learning areas, new technology-enabled classrooms, and a café. Additional improvements include two new conference rooms, a 77 percent increase in the number of seats, and an increase in data speeds.


title: Norwich University

text: Webb Hall was completed in 1960 and originally housed the English, Modern Languages, Social Sciences, Business Administration and the Psychology and Education departments. Dole Auditorium, which seated over four hundred people, was located in Webb Hall. The building is named after J. Watson Webb, a Norwich trustee. The auditorium honored Charles Dole (NU 1869), who served in his career at the university as an instructor in mathematics and Latin, a professor of history and rhetoric, the commandant of cadets and acting president of the university from 1895 to 1896. In 2017, Webb Hall underwent a major renovation that included the dismantling of Dole Auditorium. Following the commencement of the spring semester in 2019, Norwich University completed renovations on Webb Hall, which was briefly renamed North Hall. In 2020, North Hall became Schneider Hall, in honor of retiring Norwich University President Richard W. Schneider.


title: Norwich University

text: Andrews Hall, built in 1980, houses the Department of Athletics. In addition, it has basketball and racquetball courts and the equipment and athletic training rooms for the university's varsity and intramural teams. The Athletic Hall of Fame is also located in Andrews Hall. The facility honors trustee Paul R. Andrews (NU 1930).


title: Norwich University

text: Kreitzberg Arena is home to the men’s and women’s varsity ice hockey teams, as well as the school’s club team.


title: Norwich University

text: The armory, built in 1928, is named to honor a notable 1896 graduate of the university, Charles A. Plumley. Plumley served as the president of the university from 1930 to 1934 when he was elected to Congress as Vermont's sole representative from 1934 to 1951. The main floor of the building provides seating space for 4,000 in an area as large as three basketball courts. There is an elevated running track as well as locker rooms, training rooms, and Navy ROTC offices in the basement. Connected to the armory is Goodyear Pool. Built in 1962, the pool is a 25 x 14 yard 6 lane facility that is open to all university members.


title: Norwich University

text: Dedicated in 1921, Sabine Field was originally a venue for football, baseball, track, and outdoor ice hockey. Over time, as hockey moved indoors and baseball found its own home at Garrity Field, Sabine continued to serve the university football and cross country teams. Then in 2013, a renovation transformed Sabine Field into a multi-sport, multi-activity, lit stadium that can be used in most weather conditions. The improvements included synthetic turf field that meets NCAA regulations for football, soccer, and lacrosse, a 400-meter resilient urethane running track with 42-inch lanes, energy-efficient stadium lights, a new sound system, bleachers, and press box, and other upgrades. On October 4, 2013, Sabine Field was officially renamed to Sabine Field at Haynes Family Stadium. Sabine Field was dedicated in 1921 in honor of the memory of 1868 graduate Dr. George K. Sabine’s son, George K. Sabine Jr., who died shortly after returning from overseas.


title: Norwich University

text: Shapiro Field House, built in 1987 and named for trustee Jacob Shapiro (NU 1936), houses a multipurpose arena that has a 200-meter indoor running track, four tennis courts, and a climbing wall. It is also used for morning PT (Physical Training), athletic practices, Commencement, concerts and other university functions.


title: Norwich University

text: The Harmon Memorial is a tribute to Major General Ernest Harmon, who attended Norwich University from 1912 to 1913 and was later president from 1950 to 1968. Recorded on the memorial, by year of death, are the names of alumni, faculty, staff, and friends of Norwich University that have made a "significant contribution" to the university.


title: Norwich University

text: Harmon Hall opened in 1955 and later enlarged in 1958. Since then, it has served as the focal point for student life and activities. The campus mess hall, bookstore, post office, and The Mill (a snack bar open to Corps upperclassmen and civilians) are located on the lower two floors. The Foreign Student Office, Student Activities, Yearbook Office, Music Program offices, a game room, and a lounge were located on the top floor. This floor originally housed the departments of English, History, and Modern Languages until they were moved to Webb Hall in 1960. Harmon Hall was renovated in 2007. The addition onto Harmon Hall is named the Wise Campus Center.


title: Norwich University

text: Norwich University moved to Northfield from Norwich, Vermont, in 1866 when the South Barracks at the older location were destroyed by fire. Old Jackman Hall was the first building to be constructed at the new central Vermont site. The building was erected in 1868, and named Jackman Hall in 1907 to honor Brigadier General Alonzo Jackman (NU 1836) a faculty member, proponent of the Transatlantic telegraph cable and militia Brigadier General during the American Civil War. From its construction till 1905 the building served as housing for cadets. In the mid-1950s Jackman Hall was extensively remodeled and modernized, however, it became apparent that the almost century-old barracks were too costly to maintain. It was decided that rather than pay for near continual upkeep to build a new hall on the same site. As many newer barracks had been built since its original construction it was decided that the new Jackman Hall would serve as the primary administration building. Currently the Army and Air Force ROTC departments are also housed in Jackman Hall.


title: Norwich University

text: Constructed by a gift from Eugene L. White (NU 1914), a trustee, the chapel was completed in 1941. Originally designed as a multi-purpose building, then White Hall has served as a mess hall with a dining room, lunch room, kitchen, a college store and a recreational room. White Hall was converted to the university's first single-purpose chapel after Harmon Hall was opened in 1955. There are two bronze plaques on the walls that honor the Norwich war dead. Weekly services include Catholic Mass on Wednesday and Sunday, non-denominational service on Sunday, and Islamic prayer on Friday.


title: Norwich University

text: One of the newer buildings on the campus, the Sullivan Museum was opened January 22, 2007. The building is named after General Gordon R. Sullivan (ret.), Norwich class of 1959 and former U.S. Army Chief of Staff. The Sullivan Museum houses state-of-the-art conservation, storage, and display facilities for the wide variety of Norwich University artifacts and memorabilia. Items currently displayed cover a wide spectrum of Norwich history, including uniforms worn by Alden Partridge and Alonzo Jackman to pieces from more recent history.


title: Norwich University

text: Norwich university has more than 4,000 students, including over 2,500 traditional undergraduate students and more than 1,500 in the university’s online programs, which includes nearly 800 graduate students and over 700 in undergraduate degree-completion programs. As of 2018, Norwich University has 162 full-time faculty and more than 200 part-time faculty. In attendance in 2018 are 81 international students and scholars and exchange students, representing 30 countries.


title: Norwich University

text: Concurrent service for cadets in reserve components is permitted. Some students serve with either the Vermont National Guard or the Vermont State Guard 3rd Battalion based out of the Vermont National Guard Armoury in nearby Berlin, Vermont.


title: Norwich University

text: Cadet officers and non-commissioned officers command the Corps of Cadets. As leaders, they are responsible for the day-to-day administration, operation, training and discipline of the Corps. Norwich is one of six senior military colleges in the country recognized by Title 10 of the U.S. Code, Section 2111a(f). This entitles eligible ROTC graduates to active duty service if they so choose. Until 2018, the Corps was structured as a regiment commanded by a cadet colonel (C/COL) with five battalions each commanded by a cadet lieutenant colonel (C/LTC) and a Headquarters company commanded by a cadet major. 1st, 2nd, and provisional battalions were composed of companies of upperclassmen commanded by a cadet captain with two or three platoons per company. 3rd and 4th Battalion were freshman training battalions and were composed of three companies of three platoons each. This structure was put in place for the 2009–2010 school year, replacing the more traditional "Original Company" system.


title: Norwich University

text: In fall of 2018, the Corps of Cadets was reorganized as a regiment, still commanded by a cadet colonel, having only three battalions (1st, 2nd, and Provisional), commanded each by a C/LTC (Headquarters Company now falls under the command of Provisional Battalion). In addition to having two upperclassmen companies (of three platoons each), both line battalions also contain freshman training companies (consisting of three platoons each). Provisional Battalion now houses Headquarters Company and one freshman training company (containing three platoons) which feeds into its original three specialty units (Band Company, Drill Company, and the Cavalry Troop).


title: Norwich University

text: This change creates a “sister company” partnership with upper-class companies and the Rook training companies (CTC 1 partnered with A Co etc.). This “sister company” construct creates a partnership between a Rook Training Company and an upper-class company. For instance, if a Rook is in CTC 1 his first year, he will matriculate to A Co. his second and subsequent years. A Co.supports CTC 1 in training and has a vested interest in CTC 1’s success because the Rooks in that Company will be members of A Co. the following year. Freshmen in CTC 5 who do not complete the specialty unit training required to be in Band Co, Drill Co, or the Cavalry troop will be assigned to a unit in a line battalion at the start of their second year in the corps.


title: Norwich University

text: Norwich University Corps of Cadets rank insignia follows West Point with the use of chevrons to show all cadet ranks in lieu of chevrons, disks, or lozenges. Any recognized cadet defaults to the rank of private if they hold no job responsibilities in the Corps of Cadets.


title: Norwich University

text: The college has several special units that are supervised by federal ROTC units. The Army Reserve Officers' Training Corps (AROTC) detachment contains the Norwich Artillery Battery, the Norwich Ranger Company, the Ranger Challenge team, and the Mountain Cold Weather Company. The NROTC detachment sponsors a chapter of the Semper Fidelis Society and Golden Anchor Society.


title: Norwich University

text: Norwich has 29 majors across six academic divisions with the most popular major being criminal justice.


title: Norwich University

text: The College of Graduate and Continuing Studies oversees the university's online graduate programs as well as six online bachelor's degree completion programs. The majority of the graduate programs are conducted on a distance learning platform, including a combined 5-year Master of Architecture program and a National Security Agency-sponsored Centers of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance Education.


title: Norwich University

text: Norwich was ranked by "U.S. News & World Report" in 2014 at 74th in the Regional Universities (North) category.


title: Norwich University

text: Norwich offers 20 varsity sports, including baseball, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's cross country, football, men's and women's ice hockey, men's and women's lacrosse, men's and women's rugby, men's and women's soccer, men's and women's swimming and diving, softball, men's tennis, wrestling, and women's volleyball. Golf was reinstated as a varsity sport for fall 2022. The Cadets compete at the NCAA Division III level and are affiliated in four conferences, mainly the Great Northeast Athletic Conference (GNAC) and the Eastern Collegiate Athletic Conference. The football team joined the New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference in 2017. The college also has a number of student clubs for sports such as paintball, fencing, horseback riding etc.


title: Norwich University

text: The Cadets first fielded a football team in 1893. Among early notable moments is a 28–6 loss to Boston College at Fenway Park in 1914, the first college football game ever played at that venue. Overall, the program has appeared in seven ECAC bowl games (1984, 2003, 2004, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014) and two NCAA tournaments (2011, 2015). Norwich has produced 16 All-Americans, and has won or shared four Eastern Collegiate Football Conference (ECFC) Championships (2009, 2011, 2013–shared with Gallaudet University, 2015). Six former Cadets have reached an NFL camp.


title: Norwich University

text: Norwich was a member of the ECFC from 2009 to 2016, and departed the league with a 46–10 record in conference games. In 2017, Norwich joined the NEWMAC as an affiliate member for football.


title: Norwich University

text: The Cadets' home field is Sabine Field at Haynes Family Stadium. The field underwent a massive renovation for the 2013 season, transitioning from grass to turf, and adding lights for night contests. Campus folklore includes a tale of a ghost of an old cavalry cadet who guards the gate to the stadium.


title: Norwich University

text: Norwich's most prominent football rivals include Middlebury College, Castleton University, and the United States Coast Guard Academy. Norwich also plays long-time opponent St. Lawrence University for an annual trophy. The series with Middlebury concluded after the 1991 season, after 99 contests, with the NESCAC's decision to eliminate non-conference football competition. Castleton founded their football program in 2009, and the Norwich game quickly became an intense rivalry. The Norwich/Coast Guard series (the Little Army/Navy Game) had been dormant after the 2005 game, but resumed again in 2017.


title: Norwich University

text: Women's rugby has existed at Norwich since 1985 and gained a varsity status in 2008. They won the inaugural USA Rugby Collegiate Division II National Championship in the spring of 2012 and a USA Rugby Collegiate Division 1 National Sevens Title in the fall of 2011.


title: Norwich University

text: Men's ice hockey began play in 1909 and has become a national powerhouse. The program has won regular season conference championships in 20 of the last 22 seasons. The Cadets have won four NCAA Division III Men's Ice Hockey Championship titles (2000, 2003, 2010, and 2017). The program has reached the NCAA Division III Frozen Four 13 times. Dozens of players have gone on to professional careers, and three alumni have reached the NHL (Frank Simonetti, Keith Aucoin, Kurtis McLean).


title: Norwich University

text: In 2007–08 Norwich women's ice hockey was elevated to varsity status. A year later, the Cadets won their first-ever ECAC East conference championship and advanced to the NCAA Division III Women's Ice Hockey tournament. They have won 8 conference championships, and have reached 7 final fours. Norwich won the program's first NCAA Division III title in 2011, and won again in 2018.


title: Norwich University

text: Women's lacrosse program gained varsity status in 2008. They won 3 consecutive Great Northeast Athletic Conference Titles (2010, 2011, 2012), advancing to the NCAA Division III Tournament each time.


title: Norwich University

text: Rifle team won the national intercollegiate rifle championship in 1916 and 1920. It is no longer a sport at the school.


title: Norwich University

text: 2011 Division I Sevens (USA Rugby), 2012 Division II 15s (USA Rugby), 2012 Division I Sevens (USA Rugby), 2013 Division I Sevens (USA Rugby), 2013 Division I 15s (ACRA), 2014 Division I Sevens (ACRA)


title: Norwich University

text: 138 graduates of Norwich University have served as general officers in the U.S. armed forces: 102 Army generals, 12 Air Force generals, 9 Marine Corps generals, and 16 Navy admirals. 26 graduates served as generals in foreign armies: 9 Royal Thai Army generals, 1 Royal Thai Air Force general, and 16 Republic of China Army generals.


title: Mnet (TV channel)

text: Mnet (acronym of Music Network) is a South Korean pay television music channel owned by CJ E&M, a division of CJ ENM, part of CJ Group.


title: Mnet (TV channel)

text: The CJ E&M Center Studio located in Sangam-dong, Mapo-gu, Seoul is the broadcast and recording centre of many Mnet programs with a studio audience, namely the live weekly music show "M Countdown". It is also the venue for live performances in survival shows such as "Superstar K", "Show Me The Money", "Unpretty Rapstar", "Produce 101" series, "High School Rapper", "Queendom", "Road to Kingdom", "" and "Girls Planet 999". Other shows are filmed in CJ E&M Studio in Ilsan and CJ E&M Contents World in Paju.


title: Mnet (TV channel)

text: The global website named for Mnet Global changed to MWave in April 2013. Other sites from Mnet are not affected with the change.