title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: occupying power and adapted by the Central Intelligence Group (CIG), a predecessor of the CIA, as Operation Ossavakim.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: Another predecessor organization of the CIA, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) used the term Operation


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: The Osoaviakhim campaign served to secure the transfer of know-how and is described in Russia as "Foreign Experts in the USSR" (). In some cases, the families of those affected and their furniture were also relocated. The years in the Soviet Union passed without employment contracts and legitimization through personal documents.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: The operation has parallels with other Allied operations such as Alsos Mission, Operation Paperclip and Russian Alsos, in which the Allies brought military specialists and scientists from Germany.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: At the end of World War II the Soviet Union had been devastated by Nazi Germany, with 27 million people killed, 1,700 cities destroyed and agriculture production reduced to famine proportions.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: At the Yalta Conference Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin agreed that war reparations were payable by Nazi Germany in the form of equipment, goods and German labour, with Roosevelt and Stalin agreeing to an amount of $20 Billion, with 50% ($10 Billion) going to the Soviet Union. The Soviets, United States and to a lesser extent British and France all seized "intellectual" repatriations from Germany. The dismantling of German industry also ensured the complete disarmanent of its war potential, as agreed at the Potsdam Conference.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: A race between the Allies developed to acquire as many scientists and engineers as possible, particularly nuclear physicists needed for the development of nuclear weapons, followed by Rocket Technology, such as the V2 Missile ('Retaliation Weapon 2') and the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet. Expertise in Gyroscopic instrumentation for inertial guidance and modern advances


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: Hiring or abduction of these skilled workers was one of the objectives of the so-called 'Trophy commissions'.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: Among these, the "abduction of German nuclear physicists to Farm Hall" as a part of Operation Epsilon


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: resolution No. 1017-419 by the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union with the objective to accomplish


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: October 22, 1946, employees of facilities within the entire Soviet zone of occupation were drafted within half


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: Public transport in Dessau had been suspended as well. – A designer at Zeiss suffered a fatal heart attack when he was informed that he would be transported away.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: Different institutions were responsible for the handling of respective sectors in Operation Osoaviakhim:


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: specialists, ordering them to pack their belongings. Trucks and trains had been prepared and were standing


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: ready for the immediate transport of those affected and their families to a destination unknown to them.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: Altogether it is assumed that around 6,500 people were brought to the Soviet Union, the majority of them


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: On October 22, the Berlin branch of the Social Democratic Party of Germany protested against the deportation.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: On October 24, the Allied Control Council received a complaint from the British representative of the Allied Kommandatura,


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: along with the consent of the American and French Representatives, condemining the transfer of 400 Berlin specialists,


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: including residents of the British sector of Berlin, to the Soviet Union as a violation of valid labor laws


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: "strong differences about the voluntary or involuntary character of the transports" between the Soviet and


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: In the following years, equipment from numerous high-tech companies, including those from Carl Zeiss (Jena),


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: The above-mentioned deportation secured the specialists needed for operation and continuation for the


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: After this period of intellectual quarantine had passed, the specialists returned to Germany between 1951


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: Initially, so-called experimental design offices (OKBs) were set up in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, which were under Soviet-German management. By the middle of 1946, some of these had developed into extensive development companies, such as the central works (Zentralwerke) in Bleicherode which had several thousand employees. In this respect, the Control Council regulations on the restriction of German research were


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: handled extremely laxly by the SMAD up to the fall of 1946. Such institutions were transformed into Soviet joint-stock companies (SAGs).


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: The military strategic importance of these institutions led to conflicts with the Allied treaties which had been agreed upon in the Soviet Zone, which is why certain Soviet leadership considered transferring these institutions to their motherland. This decision was in turn rejected by an opposition in Soviet leadership on the grounds that competitors should not be brought into one's own country. Following these complications, Stalin decided to move specialist personnel and material to the Soviet Union on April 2, 1946.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: Rocket designer Sergei Korolev was a technical adviser on the part of the Soviet Union with the rank of colonel, which had been seconded to the Zentralwerke in Bleicherode and involved in this campaign.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: On April 19, 1946, secret order No. 228ss was issued by the USSR Ministry of Aviation Industry under Mikhail Khrunichev concerning the details of relocating the German engine and aircraft industry, particularly the relocation of people and material.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: of production personnel to train Soviet specialists and the extensive deportation of production equipment.


title: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: mission and even more important parts of the works had been transferred to the American occupation zone.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: A referendum on the future of the Soviet Union was held on 17 March 1991 across the Soviet Union. It was the only national referendum in the history of the Soviet Union, although it was only held in nine of fifteen Soviet republics.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: The referendum asked whether to approve a new Union Treaty between the republics, to replace the 1922 treaty that created the USSR. The question put to most voters was:


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: Do you consider necessary the preservation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics in which the rights and freedom of an individual of any ethnicity will be fully guaranteed?


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: In Kazakhstan, the wording of the referendum was changed by substituting "equal sovereign states" for "equal sovereign republics".


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: In Uzbekistan, Ukraine and Kyrgizia additional questions were asked about sovereignty and independence of these republics.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: While the vote was boycotted by the authorities in Armenia, Estonia, Georgia (though not in the breakaway provinces of Abkhazia and South Ossetia), Latvia, Lithuania, and Moldova (though not in Transnistria or Gagauzia), turnout was 80% across the rest of the Soviet Union.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: The referendum's question was approved by nearly 80% of voters in all nine other republics that took part. But the August coup attempt by hardliners of the Communist Party prevented the anticipated signing of the new Union Treaty a day later. Although it failed, the coup attempt reduced confidence in Gorbachev's central government. It was followed by a series of in individual republics and led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: On December 24, 1990, deputies of the 4th Congress of People's Deputies, having voted by name, decided to consider it necessary to preserve the USSR as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics, which will be fully ensured human rights and freedoms of any nationality. The referendum considered five questions:


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: On the same day, at the initiative and insistence of General Secretary and President Mikhail Gorbachev, the Congress adopted two decisions on holding a referendum on the private ownership of land [6] and on the preservation of the Union as a renewed federation of equal sovereign of Soviet Socialist Republics [7]. For the adoption of the first resolution voted in 1553 deputies, against - 84, abstained - 70. For the adoption of the second resolution voted in 1677 deputies, against - 32, abstained - 66.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: However, concerning the first decision the Chairman YH Kalmykov later explained at a session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR Supreme Council Committee for Legislation, the president asked to refrain from holding a referendum on the issue of private property.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: Second course was given to the decree. It said that "due to numerous appeals of workers expressed concern about the fate of the USSR, and given that the preservation of a single union state is the most important issue of public life, affects the interests of each person, all the Soviet Union's population", the Congress of People's Deputies USSR decided:


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: 1. Conduct a referendum of the USSR to address the issue of maintaining the Union as a renewed federation of equal sovereign Soviet Socialist Republics, taking into account the results of voting for each country separately.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: On 27 December 1990, Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR decided to enact it adopted on the day the Law of the USSR "On the popular vote (Soviet Union referendum)".


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: According to Art. 5 of the Law of the USSR "On the popular vote (Soviet Union referendum)" Law of the USSR referendum destination belonged to the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, and on matters not related to the exclusive jurisdiction of the USSR Congress of People's Deputies, in the period between congresses – the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: "Based on the fact that no one, except the people can not take the historical responsibility for the fate of the USSR, pursuant to the decision of the fourth Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in accordance with the law on the referendum of the USSR" On January 16, 1991 the Supreme Council USSR decided that to:


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: An official referendum had been held in Estonia on 3 March 1991 on whether to restore the Estonian republic that had been occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940. The result was 77.8% in favour of restoring the Estonian republic. Latvia also held an official referendum on 3 March 1991, when the overwhelming majority voted to restore the independent Latvian republic. Lithuania had held a referendum on 9 February 1991, in which 93% of voters had approved independence.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: Consequently, in these republics, pro-Soviet front-organisations organised voluntary referendums without official sanction. Turnout of voting here was considerably less than 50% of the franchised voters of these countries, but this information was not included in the official statement of the Central Commission of the Referendum of USSR.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: In several of the republics, additional questions were added to the ballot. In Russia, an additional question was asked on whether an elective post of the president of Russia should be created. In Kirghizia, Ukraine and Uzbekistan the additional question was on the sovereignty of their republics as part of a new union.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: In Kirghizia, voters were also asked "Do you agree that the Republic of Kirghizistan should be in the renewed Union as a sovereign republic with equal rights?" It was approved by 62.2% of voters, although turnout was lower at 81.7%, compared to 92.9% in the Union-wide referendum.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: In Ukraine, voters were also asked "Do you agree that Ukraine should be part of a Union of Soviet sovereign states on the basis on the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine?" The proposal was approved by 81.7% of voters. Ukraine later held its own referendum on 1 December, in which 92% voted for independence.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: At the same day a referendum in the Galician provinces Ivano-Frankivsk, Lviv, and Ternopil asked the three regions of the USSR about the creation of independent state of Ukraine. 88% of the voters in this referendum supported Ukraine's independence.


title: 1991 Soviet Union referendum

text: In Uzbekistan, voters were also asked "Do you agree that Uzbekistan should remain part of a renewed Union (federation) as a sovereign republic with equal rights?" It was approved by 94.9% of voters, with a turnout of 95.5%. On 29 December, 98% of Uzbeks would vote for full independence.


title: Slavic names

text: A number of names from Slavic roots appeared as translations of Greek names, for example, Vera, Nadezhda and Lubov' ("Pistis, Elpis, and Agape"), or Lev ("Leon").


title: Slavic names

text: In pre-Christian traditions, a child less than 7–10 years old would bear a "substitutional name", the purpose of which was to deflect attention from the child and thereby to protect it from the curiosity of evil powers. The practice was largely the effect of the high mortality rate for young children at the time. A child who survived to 7–10 years was considered worthy of care and was granted adult status and a new adult name during a ritual first haircut.


title: Slavic names

text: Traditional names remained dominant until the Slavic nations converted to Christianity. Since then, however, baptismal names came into use, which were given after the patron saint of the newly baptized. Even after that, the traditional names persisted in everyday use, while in religious matters baptismal name was involved; thus, many persons had and used two names simultaneously. This is exemplified by how the Slavic saints of that time are referred to up to nowadays: e.g. St. Boris and Gleb, in holy baptism Roman and David. As the Slavic saints became more numerous, more traditional names entered the Church calendar; but more prominent was the overall decline in the number of people bearing traditional names. Finally, in 16th–17th century the traditional Slavic names which did not enter the calendar of either Orthodox or Catholic Church generally fell out of use. For Catholic Slavs, the decisive event was the Council of Trent (1545–63) decreed that every Catholic should have a Christian name instead of a native one.


title: Slavic names

text: After the ban on native non-Christian names imposed by the Council of Trent, the Polish nobility (especially Protestants) attempted to preserve traditional names, such as Zbigniew and Jarosław. Ordinary people, however, tended to choose names solely from the Christian calendar, which contained only a handful of Slavic saints' names, in particular: Kazimierz (St. Casimir), Stanisław (St. Stanislaus), Wacław (St. Wenceslaus) and Władysław (St. Ladislaus). Slavic names that referred to God (e.g., Bogdan, Bogumił) were also permitted.


title: Slavic names

text: Rus' names were based on common Slavic names such as Volodiměrŭ ("Володимѣръ -" "great ruler"), Svętopŭlkŭ ("Свѧтопълкъ - ""holy regiment"), Jęropŭlkŭ ("Ѩропълкъ -" "furious regiment"), Voislavŭ ("Воиславъ - ""glorious warrior"), Boryslavŭ ("Бориславъ" - "glorious fighter"), Borisŭ ("Борисъ - ""fighter"), Liubomirŭ ("Любомиръ" - "loves the peace"), Ratibor ("war fighter"), Vadim ("Вадимъ" from the Persian Badim (mendal), or Badan (belonging to the wind spirit "Badan", Yaroslav, Izyaslav ("The one who took the glory"), Mstislav ("glorious revenge"), Vsevolod ("lord of everything"). In the 11th century, after the growing influence of the Christian Church, the tendency to use the names of saints of the Greek Church has increased and most of old Rus' names were displaced by Christian names.


title: Slavic names

text: Since national revivals during 19th and 20th centuries, traditional names, especially of historical rulers and heroes, regained popularity. For example, in Poland many forgotten names were resurrected, such as Bronisław, Bolesław, Dobiesław, Dobrosław, Jarosław, Mirosław, Przemysław, Radosław, Sławomir, Wiesław, Zdzisław, and Zbigniew; and new ones created, such as Lechosław and Wieńczysław. Today, traditional Slavic names are accepted by the Christian Church and are given at a child's baptism.


title: Slavic names

text: Single-lexeme names were derived from ordinary or adjectival words and were usually, though not always, borne by peasants, e.g.: Baran (ram), Szydło (awl), Kąkol (cockle), Broda (beard, chin), Żyła (vein), Uchacz (ear-man), Łopata (shovel), Żaba (frog), Rus (Ruthenian/Russian man), Cich (silent man), etc. Many names of this kind are used today, for example:


title: Slavic names

text: Dithematic names are built with two lexemes. Kaleta 1995 notes that "In the case of Old Germanic and Old Slavic personal names, the dithematic name form contained a wish for the new-born child. These wishes pertained to the values that obtained in these early times". In Poland alone, over 600 masculine names, 120 feminine names and 150 different affixes (lexemes) are known. These have been reconstructed from place names and the (scarce) written sources such as the Bull of Gniezno. Certain names were reserved for monarchs (e.g. in Poland: Kazimierz, Władysław, Bolesław). Examples are listed below. As an example of the pattern: Władysław contains the prefix "wład" (to rule, ruler) and the suffix "sław" (fame, glory). Note that feminine equivalents usually end in "a" (e.g. Bogusław - Bogusław"a").


title: Slavic names

text: These are derived either from the past participle (in the passive voice), e.g.: Bojan, Chocian, Kochan, Miłowan, Pomian, Stator, Wygnan, or the present participle (in the active voice), e.g.: Cieszym, Myślim, Radzim, Borzym. Such names are repositories of perhaps the largest source of sociological data about the ancient Slavic people.


title: Slavic names

text: Other examples: Poznan ('known', 'recognized'), Goszczon (being a guest at someone's place), Krszczon ('baptized'), Radovan, Dragan, Željan, Dejan, Nayden, Mirjana.


title: Slavic names

text: Diminutive and hypocoristic (endearing) names deriving from the above-mentioned dithematic names are created by using different diminutive suffixes. Such names are very popular in everyday usage, and usually are created by replacing part of the name with the suffix "-ek" (masculine, predominantly West Slavic; e.g. Polish Włodzi"mierz" – Włod"ek"), "-ko" (masculine, predominantly South Slavic and Ukrainian), "-ka" (feminine; also masculine in Russian), or "-a": Mila, Luba, Staszek, Radek, Władek, Zlatko, Zlata, Volodya, Bronek, Leszek, Dobrusia, Slavko, Wojtek, Mirka, Bogusia, Slava, Zdravko, Zbyszko, Miłosz, Staś, Przemek, Bolko, Draho, Željko, Borya (fight), Boško, Božica, Božana, Branko, Branka, Braniša, Borko, Budimka, Hvališa, Dobar, Dobra, Dragoš, Dragica, Dragi, Draga, Dragoş, Miloš, Slavko, Slavica, Slavisa, Svetlana, Wít, Zdenka, Bratko, Braco, Braca, Bato, Bata, Batica, etc.


title: Slavic names

text: Some Slavic names have gained popularity in other (non-Slavic) countries, e.g.: Natasha, Vera, Mila, Svante, Susan (Suzana), Boris, Vladimir, Mirko, Laszlo, Casimir, Wenzel, Milena, Estanislao, Vlad, Nadia, Mircea, Bronislovas, Radu, Vesna, Wanda, Ladislao, Bogdan, etc.


title: Slavic names

text: The following list contains only canonized Saints. Beatified Saints with Slavic names (e.g. Saint Ceslaus, Saint Radim) are not included.


title: Slavic names

text: Bohdan, Bohumyl, Bozhydar, Bazhan, Boryslav, Borys, Boryslav, Bronyslav, Volodymyr, Volodyslav (Vladyslav), Viacheslav, Vseslav, Vsevolod, Vadym, Myloslav, Myroslav, Mstyslav, Mechyslav, Radym Radymyr/Radomir, Radoslav, Rostyslav, Stanyslav, Sviatopolk, Sviatoslav, Zhadan, Zorian, Tykhomyr, Liubomyr, Yaroslav, Yaromyr.


title: Slavic names

text: Bohdana, Bazhana, Boleslava, Boryslava, Boronyslava, Liubomyra, Liubov, Liubava, Liudmyla/Liudmylla, Myloslava, Myroslava, Mechyslava, Nadiia, Slava, Zoriana, Zoreslava, Snizhana, Stanyslava, Svitlana, Volodymyra, Vira, Volodyslava, Yaroslava


title: Slavic names

text: Bogdan, Boleslav, Borislav, Bronislav, Kazimir, Iziaslav, Miloslav, Miroslav, Mstislav, Radimir/Radomir, Radoslav, Rostislav, Stanislav, Svyatopolk, Svyatoslav, Vadim, Vlad, Vladimir, Vladislav, Vsevolod, Vyacheslav, Yaroslav


title: Slavic names

text: Bogdana, Boleslava, Borislava, Bronislava, Lyubov, Lyudmila, Miloslava, Miroslava, Nadezhda, Rada, Radoslava, Slava, Snezhana, Stanislava, Svetlana, Vera, Vladislava, Yaroslava


title: Slavic names

text: Albena, Beloslava, Bilyana, Bisera, Bistra, Blaga, Blagorodna, Blagovesta, Blaguna, Bogdana, Boryana, Borislava, Boyana, Boyka, Bozhana, Bozhidara, Branimira, Darina, Denitsa, Desislava, Dobra, Dobryana, Dobrinka, Dobromira, Dragana, Elka, Grozda, Grozdana, Iskra, Iva, Ivayla, Ivelina, Kalina, Krasimira, Kosara, Lyuba, Lyubomira, Lyudmila, Lyubka, Lyubov, Malina, Miglena, Mila, Militsa, Milka , Milanka, Milena, Mira, Miriana, Mirolyuba, Miroslava, Nadezhda, Nadia, Neda, Nedelya, Nedyalka, Nevena, Ognyana, Plamena, Preslava, Prolet, Rada, Radina, Radka, Radost, Radostina, Radoslava, Radosveta, Ralitsa, Rositsa, Rostislava, Rumena, Rumyana, Slavena, Slavina, Slavka, Snezha, Snezhana, Snezhanka, Snezhina, Spasena, Spaska, Stanimira, Stanislava, Stanka, Stilyana, Stoyanka, Stoyna, Svetla, Svetlana, Svetoslava, Svetozara, Svilena, Tsveta, Tsvetanka, Tsvetelina, Tsvetomira, Tsviata, Velika, Velislava, Velizara, Velmira, Vera, Vesela, Veselina, Vyara, Vihra, Vladislava, Zdravka, Vyara, Zhivka, Zlata, Zlatina, Zora, Zorka, Zornitsa


title: Slavic names

text: Biser, Blago, Blagoy, Blagovest, Blagun, Bogdan, Bogomil, Bojidar, Boril, Boris, Borislav, Borko, Boyan, Boyko, Bozhidar, Bozhil, Bozhin, Branimir, Darin, Darko, Delcho, Delyan, Denislav, Desislav, Deyan, Dragan, Dragomir, Dobri, Dobrin, Dobrolyub, Dobromir, Dobroslav, Goran, Grozdan, Iskren, Ivaylo, Kalin, Kamen, Kliment, Krasimir, Krastan, Krastyo, Lachezar, Lyuben, Lyubomir, Lyuboslav, Lyudmil, Malin, Milan, Milcho, Milen, Milko, Mirko, Miro, Miroslav, Mladen, Momchil, Naum, Nayden, Nedelcho, Nedyalko, Ognian, Ognyan, Orlin, Parvan, Plamen, Preslav, Radi, Radko, Radomir, Radoslav, Radosvet, Radoy, Raicho, Rayko, Razvigor, Rosen, Rostislav, Rumen, Sneg, Slav, Slavcho, Slavi, Slavyan, Slavko, Slavomir, Spas, Stanimir, Stanislav, Stanko, Stoil, Stoyan, Stoycho, Stoyko, Strahil, Svetlin, Svetoslav, Svetozar, Svilen, Tihomir, Tomislav, Traicho, Traiko, Tsvetan, Tsvetomir, Tsvetozar, Valko, Varban, Velichko, Veliko, Velin, Velislav, Velizar, Velko, Ventseslav, Ventsislav, Veselin, Vesselin, Vihren, Vitomir, Vladimir, Vladislav, Volen, Yasen, Yavor, Zdravko, Zhelyazko, Zhivko, Zlatan, Zlatko, Zlatomir, Zvezdelin


title: Slavic names

text: Berislava, Biserka, Blaga, Blagica, Blaženka, Bogdana, Bogomila, Bogumila, Borka, Borislava, Božena, Božica, Božidarka, Branimira, Branka, Buga, Cvita, Cvijeta, Čedna, Danica, Davorka, Divna, Dragana, Dragica, Draženka, Dubravka, Dunja, Hrvatina, Hrvoja, Hrvojka, Jasenka, Jasna, Ljuba, Ljubica, Mila, Milica, Miljenka, Mislava, Mira, Mirka, Mirna, Mojmira, Morana, Nada, Neda, Nediljka, Nevenka, Ognjenka, Ranka, Rašeljka, Ratka, Ruža, Ružica, Sanja, Slava, Slavica, Slavenka, Smiljana, Spomenka, Srebrenka, Stanislava, Stana, Stanka, Snješka, Snježana, Sunčana, Sunčica, Svitlana, Svjetlana, Tjeha, Tihana, Tihomila, Tuga, Vedrana, Vera, Verica, Vjera, Vesna, Vjekoslava, Vlasta, Vlatka, Zdenka, Zlata, Zora, Zorica, Zorka, Zrinka, Zrina, Zvjezdana, Zvonimira, Zvonka, Željka, Živka


title: Slavic names

text: Berislav, Berivoj, Blago, Bogdan, Bogumil, Bogoljub, Bogomil, Boris, Borislav, Borna, Božetjeh, Božidar, Božo, Bratislav, Budimir, Branimir, Brajko, Branko, Braslav, Bratoljub, Cvitko, Cvjetko, Časlav, Častimir, Čedomir, Dalibor, Damir, Darko, Davor, Davorin, Davorko, Desimir, Dobroslav, Dobrovit, Domagoj, Dragan, Drago, Dragoslav, Dragutin, Dražan, Dražen, Draženko, Držiha, Držislav, Godemir, Gojko, Gojislav, Gojslav, Goran, Grubiša, Hrvatin, Hrvoj, Hrvoje, Hrvoslav, Kazimir, Kažimir, Jasenko, Klonimir, Krešimir, Krešo, Krševan, Lavoslav, Ljubomir, Ljudevit, Milan, Mile, Milivoj, Milovan, Miljenko, Mirko, Miro, Miroslav, Miroš, Mislav, Mladen, Mojmir, Mutimir, Nediljko, Nedjeljko, Nenad, Neven, Njegomir, Njegovan, Ognjen, Ostoja, Ozren, Predrag, Pribislav, Prvan, Prvoslav, Prvoš, Radimir, Radomir, Radoš, Rajko, Ranko, Ratimir, Ratko, Rato, Radovan, Radoslav, Siniša, Slaven, Slaviša, Slavoljub, Snješko, Slavomir, Smiljan, Spomenko, Srebrenko, Srećko, Stanislav, Stanko, Strahimir, Svetoslav, Tihomil, Tihomir, Tješimir, Tomislav, Tomo, Tugomir, Tvrtko, Trpimir, Vatroslav, Većeslav, Vedran, Velimir, Veselko, Vidoslav, Vjekoslav, Vjenceslav, Višeslav, Vitomir, Vjeran, Vladimir, Vlado, Vlatko, Vojmil, Vojmir, Vojnomir, Vuk, Zdenko, Zdeslav, Zdravko, Zorislav, Zoran, Zrinko, Zrinoslav, Zlatko, Zvonimir, Zvonko, Želimir, Željko, Živko


title: Slavic names

text: Angela, Angelina, Angja, Ankica, Biljana, Bisera, Bistra, Blaga, Blagica, Blagorodna, Verka, Vladica, Denica, Živka, Zlata, Jagoda, Letka, Ljupka, Mila, Mirjana, Mirka, Rada, Radmila, Slavica, Slavka, Snežana, Stojna, Ubavka


title: Slavic names

text: Blagoj, Boban, Čedomir Cvetan, Dragan, Dragi, Duško, Goran, Ljupčo, Slavčo, Milan, Mile, Miroslav, Vladimir, Vlatko, Zlatko, Živko, Stojan, Zlate, Mirko, Ljuben, Zoran, Ognen, Rade


title: Slavic names

text: Blagica, Biljana, Biserka, Bojana, Bogdana, Borislava, Boža, Božana, Božena, Božica, Božidarka, Branimira, Branka, Brankica, Branislava, Budislavka, Daliborka, Dana, Danka, Danica, Dara, Darina, Darka, Davorka, Dejana, Divna, Draga, Dragana, Dragica, Dragoslava, Draženka, Dubravka, Dunja, Dušana, Goranka, Gorana, Jasna, Jadranka, Jadrana, Jasenka, Jugoslava, Krešimira, Ljubica, Kalina, Malina, Mila, Milena, Milana, Milica, Milja, Miljana, Milka, Mira, Miroslava, Mirna, Mladenka, Nada, Nadežda, Neda, Nevena, Nevenka, Navenka, Nedeljka, Rada, Radmila, Ranka, Raja, Rajana, Rajka, Radomira, Radoslava, Ružica, Ruža, Sana, Snežana, Slava, Slavica, Slavka, Stana, Senka, Stanka, Stojana, Smiljana, Stanislava, Svetlana, Lana, Ljubica, Tara, Tija, Tijana, Tomislava, Vida, Vedrana, Vera, Verica, Vjera, Vesna, Vesela, Višnja, Zvezdana, Zlata, Zorana, Zorica, Željka


title: Slavic names

text: Bajko, Beloš, Beriša, Biljan, Boban, Blagoje, Bogdan, Bogomil, Bogoljub, Bojan, Borislav, Bora, Boris, Borisav, Boško, Branimir, Branislav, Branko, Brajko, Božidar, Budimir, Čedomir, Cvijetin, Gojko, Darko, Dare, Darin, Daro, Dalibor, Damir, Dane, Danko, Davor, Davorin, Dejan, Divan, Dobrica, Dobroslav, Dragan, Dragiša, Drago, Dragoljub, Dragomir, Dragoslav, Dragutin, Draža, Dražen, Draženko, Dubravko, Dušan, Duško, Gojko, Goran, Gradimir, Gvozden, Jakša, Jadranko, Jadran, Javor, Jasen, Jasenko, Jug, Jugoslav, Ljuba, Ljubo, Ljubomir, Ljubodrag, Kalin, Miladin, Milan, Milen, Miljan, Milivoje, Mile, Milenko, Milanko, Milo, Miloje, Milorad, Miloš, Milovan, Milutin, Mijomir, Miodrag, Miro, Miroslav, Mirko, Mislav, Miša, Mladen, Momčilo, Momir, Nado, Nebojša, Neven, Nedeljko, Novak, Nemanja, Nenad, Njegomir, Obren, Obrad, Ognjen, Ostoja, Ozren, Predrag, Rade, Radoš, Radič, Radivoje, Rado, Radoje, Radomir, Radonja, Ratomir, Radiša, Radmilo, Radoslav, Radosav, Radovan, Rajan, Rajko, Rajke, Rajo, Ranko, Ratko, Spas, Spasoje, Sava, Savo, Svetlan, Senko, Siniša, Srećko, Smiljan, Slava, Slaven, Slavko, Slavimir, Slaviša, Slobodan, Srđan, Srećko, Sredoje, Sreten, Stanko, Stanislav, Strahinja, Stracimir, Svetozar, Sokol, Tihomir, Tijan, Tomislav, Toplica, Vedran, Velibor, Velimir, Veljko, Veran, Veselin, Veselko, Vladimir, Vladislav, Vlastimir, Vitomir, Vlade, Vlado, Vlatko, Vojislav, Vojkan, Vojmir, Vidak, Vid, Vuk, Vukan, Vukašin, Vujadin, Vujasin, Vukosav, Vukota, Vuksan, Zvezdan, Zdravko, Zoran, Zvonko, Žarko, Željko, Želimir, Zlatan, Zlatko, Živadin, Živko, Živojin, Živorad, Života


title: Slavic names

text: Bogdana, Branka, Cvetka, Danica, Draga, Dragica, Dunja, Janina, Jasna, Ljuba, Ljubica, Milena, Milica, Mira, Morana, Mora, Nada, Neda, Nedeljka, Neva, Nevenka, Slava, Slavica, Spomenka, Stanislava, Stana, Stanka, Svetlana, Vedrana, Vera, Vesna, Vlasta, Vojka, Zdenka, Zdravka, Zlatka, Zora, Zorica, Zorka, Zvonka, Živa


title: Slavic names

text: Bogdan, Boris, Borut, Bojan, Božidar, Božo, Branko, Ciril, Cvetko, Črtomir, Dejan, Dragan, Drago, Dragotin, Dušan, Gojmir, Gorazd, Gregor, Jaroslav, Kresnik, Lado, Milan, Miran, Mirko, Miroslav, Miško, Perun, Radivoj, Rajko, Srečko, Slavko, Stanislav, Stanko, Stane, Vekoslav, Venceslav, Vitan, Vitomir, Vladimir, Vlado, Vojteh, Zdenko, Zdravko, Zoran, Žarko, Željko, Živko


title: Slavic names

text: Milena, Milada, Milady, Miladena, Milana, Mlada, Mladena, Mladěna, Miladka, Milanka, Milenka, Milka, Miluše, Miluša, Miluška, Mlaška, Mladuška,


title: Slavic names

text: Pribislav, Priba, Pribik, Pribišek, Radoslav (house form: Radek, Radik, Radeček, Radan, Radko, Radoš, Radoušek, slovak form: Radko), Radomír/Radimír, Radim,


title: Slavic names

text: Bohuměr, Bronisław, Česćiměr, Dobysław, Horisław, Jaroměr, Milan, Mirko, Mirosław, Mječisław, Radoměr, Stanij, Stanisław, Wjeleměr, Wójsław


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (; 18 July 1853 – 4 February 1928) was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pieter Zeeman for the discovery and theoretical explanation of the Zeeman effect. He also derived the Lorentz transformation underpinning Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity, as well as the Lorentz force, which describes the combined electric and magnetic forces acting on a charged particle in an electromagnetic field. Lorentz was also responsible for the Lorentz oscillator model, a classical model used to describe the anomalous dispersion observed in dielectric materials when the driving frequency of the electric field was near the resonant frequency, resulting in abnormal refractive indices.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: According to the biography published by the Nobel Foundation, "It may well be said that Lorentz was regarded by all theoretical physicists as the world's leading spirit, who completed what was left unfinished by his predecessors and prepared the ground for the fruitful reception of the new ideas based on the quantum theory." He received many other honours and distinctions, including a term as chairman of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, the forerunner of UNESCO, between 1925 and 1928.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Hendrik Lorentz was born in Arnhem, Gelderland, Netherlands, the son of Gerrit Frederik Lorentz (1822–1893), a well-off horticulturist, and Geertruida van Ginkel (1826–1861). In 1862, after his mother's death, his father married Luberta Hupkes. Despite being raised as a Protestant, he was a freethinker in religious matters. From 1866 to 1869, he attended the ""Hogere Burgerschool"" in Arnhem, a new type of public high school recently established by Johan Rudolph Thorbecke. His results in school were exemplary; not only did he excel in the physical sciences and mathematics, but also in English, French, and German. In 1870, he passed the exams in classical languages which were then required for admission to University.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Lorentz studied physics and mathematics at Leiden University, where he was strongly influenced by the teaching of astronomy professor Frederik Kaiser; it was his influence that led him to become a physicist. After earning a bachelor's degree, he returned to Arnhem in 1871 to teach night school classes in mathematics, but he continued his studies in Leiden in addition to his teaching position. In 1875, Lorentz earned a doctoral degree under Pieter Rijke on a thesis entitled """" (On the theory of reflection and refraction of light), in which he refined the electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: On 17 November 1877, only 24 years of age, Lorentz was appointed to the newly established chair in theoretical physics at the University of Leiden. The position had initially been offered to Johan van der Waals, but he accepted a position at the Universiteit van Amsterdam. On 25 January 1878, Lorentz delivered his inaugural lecture on """" (The molecular theories in physics). In 1881, he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: During the first twenty years in Leiden, Lorentz was primarily interested in the electromagnetic theory of electricity, magnetism, and light. After that, he extended his research to a much wider area while still focusing on theoretical physics. Lorentz made significant contributions to fields ranging from hydrodynamics to general relativity. His most important contributions were in the area of electromagnetism, the electron theory, and relativity.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Lorentz theorized that atoms might consist of charged particles and suggested that the oscillations of these charged particles were the source of light. When a colleague and former student of Lorentz's, Pieter Zeeman, discovered the Zeeman effect in 1896, Lorentz supplied its theoretical interpretation. The experimental and theoretical work was honored with the Nobel prize in physics in 1902. Lorentz' name is now associated with the Lorentz–Lorenz equation, the Lorentz force, the Lorentzian distribution, the Lorentz oscillator model and the Lorentz transformation.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: In 1892 and 1895, Lorentz worked on describing electromagnetic phenomena (the propagation of light) in reference frames that move relative to the postulated luminiferous aether. He discovered that the transition from one to another reference frame could be simplified by using a new time variable that he called "local time" and which depended on universal time and the location under consideration. Although Lorentz did not give a detailed interpretation of the physical significance of local time, with it, he could explain the aberration of light and the result of the Fizeau experiment. In 1900 and 1904, Henri Poincaré called local time Lorentz's "most ingenious idea" and illustrated it by showing that clocks in moving frames are synchronized by exchanging light signals that are assumed to travel at the same speed against and with the motion of the frame (see Einstein synchronisation and Relativity of simultaneity). In 1892, with the attempt to explain the Michelson–Morley experiment, Lorentz also proposed that moving bodies contract in the direction of motion (see length contraction; George FitzGerald had already arrived at this conclusion in 1889).


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: In 1899 and again in 1904, Lorentz added time dilation to his transformations and published what Poincaré in 1905 named Lorentz transformations.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: It was apparently unknown to Lorentz that Joseph Larmor had used identical transformations to describe orbiting electrons in 1897. Larmor's and Lorentz's equations look somewhat dissimilar, but they are algebraically equivalent to those presented by Poincaré and Einstein in 1905. Lorentz's 1904 paper includes the covariant formulation of electrodynamics, in which electrodynamic phenomena in different reference frames are described by identical equations with well defined transformation properties. The paper clearly recognizes the significance of this formulation, namely that the outcomes of electrodynamic experiments do not depend on the relative motion of the reference frame. The 1904 paper includes a detailed discussion of the increase of the inertial mass of rapidly moving objects in a useless attempt to make momentum look exactly like Newtonian momentum; it was also an attempt to explain the length contraction as the accumulation of "stuff" onto mass making it slow and contract.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: In 1905, Einstein would use many of the concepts, mathematical tools and results Lorentz discussed to write his paper entitled "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", known today as the special theory of relativity. Because Lorentz laid the fundamentals for the work by Einstein, this theory was originally called the "Lorentz–Einstein theory".


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: In 1906, Lorentz's electron theory received a full-fledged treatment in his lectures at Columbia University, published under the title The Theory of Electrons.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: The increase of mass was the first prediction of Lorentz and Einstein to be tested, but some experiments by Kaufmann appeared to show a slightly different mass increase; this led Lorentz to the famous remark that he was "au bout de mon latin" ("at the end of my [knowledge of] Latin" = at his wit's end) The confirmation of his prediction had to wait until 1908 and later (see Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments).


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Lorentz published a series of papers dealing with what he called "Einstein's principle of relativity". For instance, in 1909, 1910, 1914. In his 1906 lectures published with additions in 1909 in the book "The theory of electrons" (updated in 1915), he spoke affirmatively of Einstein's theory:


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Though Lorentz still maintained that there is an (undetectable) aether in which resting clocks indicate the "true time":


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Lorentz was one of few scientists who supported Einstein's search for general relativity from the beginning – he wrote several research papers and discussed with Einstein personally and by letter. For instance, he attempted to combine Einstein's formalism with Hamilton's principle (1915),


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Lorentz gave a series of lectures in the Fall of 1926 at Cornell University on the new quantum mechanics; in these he presented Erwin Schrödinger's wave mechanics.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Lorentz and Emil Wiechert had an interesting correspondence on the topics of electromagnetism and the theory of relativity, and Lorentz explained his ideas in letters to Wiechert.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Lorentz was chairman of the first Solvay Conference held in Brussels in the autumn of 1911. Shortly after the conference, Poincaré wrote an essay on quantum physics which gives an indication of Lorentz's status at the time:


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: In 1910, Lorentz decided to reorganize his life. His teaching and management duties at Leiden University were taking up too much of his time, leaving him little time for research. In 1912, he resigned from his chair of theoretical physics to become curator of the "Physics Cabinet" at Teylers Museum in Haarlem. He remained connected to Leiden University as an external professor, and his "Monday morning lectures" on new developments in theoretical physics soon became legendary.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Lorentz initially asked Einstein to succeed him as professor of theoretical physics at Leiden. However, Einstein could not accept because he had just accepted a position at ETH Zurich. Einstein had no regrets in this matter, since the prospect of having to fill Lorentz's shoes made him shiver. Instead Lorentz appointed Paul Ehrenfest as his successor in the chair of theoretical physics at the Leiden University, who would found the Institute for Theoretical Physics which would become known as the Lorentz Institute.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: After World War I, Lorentz was one of the driving forces behind the founding of the "Wetenschappelijke Commissie van Advies en Onderzoek in het Belang van Volkswelvaart en Weerbaarheid", a committee which was to harness the scientific potential united in the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) for solving civil problems such as food shortage which had resulted from the war. Lorentz was appointed chair of the committee. However, despite the best efforts of many of the participants the committee would harvest little success. The only exception being that it ultimately resulted in the founding of TNO, the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Lorentz was also asked by the Dutch government to chair a committee to calculate some of the effects of the proposed Afsluitdijk (Enclosure Dam) flood control dam on water levels in the Waddenzee. Hydraulic engineering was mainly an empirical science at that time, but the disturbance of the tidal flow caused by the Afsluitdijk was so unprecedented that the empirical rules could not be trusted. Originally Lorentz was only supposed to have a coordinating role in the committee, but it quickly became apparent that Lorentz was the only physicist to have any fundamental traction on the problem. In the period 1918 till 1926, Lorentz invested a large portion of his time in the problem. Lorentz proposed to start from the basic hydrodynamic equations of motion and solve the problem numerically. This was feasible for a "human computer", because of the quasi-one-dimensional nature of the water flow in the Waddenzee. The Afsluitdijk was completed in 1932, and the predictions of Lorentz and his committee turned out to be remarkably accurate. One of the two sets of locks in the Afsluitdijk was named after him.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: In 1881, Lorentz married Aletta Catharina Kaiser. Her father was J.W. Kaiser, a professor at the Academy of Fine Arts. He was the Director of the museum which later became the well-known Rijksmuseum (National Gallery). He also was the designer of the first postage stamps of The Netherlands.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Dr. Geertruida Luberta Lorentz, the eldest daughter, was a physicist. She married Professor Wander Johannes de Haas, who was the Director of the Cryogenic Laboratory at the University of Leiden.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: In January 1928, Lorentz became seriously ill, and died shortly after on 4 February. The respect in which he was held in the Netherlands is apparent from Owen Willans Richardson's description of his funeral:


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Unique 1928 film footage of the funeral procession with a lead carriage followed by ten mourners, followed by a carriage with the coffin, followed in turn by at least four more carriages, passing by a crowd at the Grote Markt, Haarlem, from the Zijlstraat to the Smedestraat, and then back again through the Grote Houtstraat towards the Barteljorisstraat, on the way to the "Algemene Begraafplaats" at the Kleverlaan (northern Haarlem cemetery), has been digitized on YouTube. Amongst others, the funeral was attended by Albert Einstein and Marie Curie.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: Lorentz is considered one of the prime representatives of the "Second Dutch Golden Age", a period of several decades surrounding 1900 in which the natural sciences flourished in the Netherlands.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: A man of remarkable intellectual powers. Although steeped in his own investigation of the moment, he always seemed to have in his immediate grasp its ramifications into every corner of the universe. The singular clearness of his writings provides a striking reflection of his wonderful powers in this respect. He possessed and successfully employed the mental vivacity which is necessary to follow the interplay of discussion, the insight which is required to extract those statements which illuminate the real difficulties, and the wisdom to lead the discussion among fruitful channels, and he did this so skillfully that the process was hardly perceptible.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: For many years physicists had always been eager "to hear what Lorentz will say about it" when a new theory was advanced, and, even at seventy-two, he did not disappoint them.


title: Hendrik Lorentz

text: In addition to the Nobel prize, Lorentz received a great many honours for his outstanding work. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1905. The Society awarded him their Rumford Medal in 1908 and their Copley Medal in 1918. He was elected an Honorary Member of the Netherlands Chemical Society in 1912.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: In statistics, the multiple comparisons, multiplicity or multiple testing problem occurs when one considers a set of statistical inferences simultaneously or infers a subset of parameters selected based on the observed values.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: The more inferences are made, the more likely erroneous inferences become. Several statistical techniques have been developed to address that problem, typically by requiring a stricter significance threshold for individual comparisons, so as to compensate for the number of inferences being made.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: The problem of multiple comparisons received increased attention in the 1950s with the work of statisticians such as Tukey and Scheffé. Over the ensuing decades, many procedures were developed to address the problem. In 1996, the first international conference on multiple comparison procedures took place in Israel.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: Multiple comparisons arise when a statistical analysis involves multiple simultaneous statistical tests, each of which has a potential to produce a "discovery." A stated confidence level generally applies only to each test considered individually, but often it is desirable to have a confidence level for the whole family of simultaneous tests. Failure to compensate for multiple comparisons can have important real-world consequences, as illustrated by the following examples:


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: In both examples, as the number of comparisons increases, it becomes more likely that the groups being compared will appear to differ in terms of at least one attribute. Our confidence that a result will generalize to independent data should generally be weaker if it is observed as part of an analysis that involves multiple comparisons, rather than an analysis that involves only a single comparison.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: For example, if one test is performed at the 5% level and the corresponding null hypothesis is true, there is only a 5% risk of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis. However, if 100 tests are each conducted at the 5% level and all corresponding null hypotheses are true, the expected number of incorrect rejections (also known as false positives or Type I errors) is 5. If the tests are statistically independent from each other, the probability of at least one incorrect rejection is approximately 99.4%.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: The multiple comparisons problem also applies to confidence intervals. A single confidence interval with a 95% coverage probability level will contain the true value of the parameter in 95% of samples. However, if one considers 100 confidence intervals simultaneously, each with 95% coverage probability, the expected number of non-covering intervals is 5. If the intervals are statistically independent from each other, the probability that at least one interval does not contain the population parameter is 99.4%.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: Techniques have been developed to prevent the inflation of false positive rates and non-coverage rates that occur with multiple statistical tests.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: Hence, unless the tests are perfectly positively dependent (i.e., identical), formula_2 increases as the number of comparisons increases.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: There are different ways to assure that the family-wise error rate is at most formula_2. The most conservative method, which is free of dependence and distributional assumptions, is the Bonferroni correction formula_6. A marginally less conservative correction can be obtained by solving the equation for the family-wise error rate of formula_7 independent comparisons for formula_8. This yields formula_9, which is known as the Šidák correction. Another procedure is the Holm–Bonferroni method, which uniformly delivers more power than the simple Bonferroni correction, by testing only the lowest p-value (formula_10) against the strictest criterion, and the higher p-values (formula_11) against progressively less strict criteria.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: For continuous problems, one can employ Bayesian logic to compute formula_7 from the prior-to-posterior volume ratio. Continuous generalizations of the Bonferroni and Šidák correction are presented in.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: Multiple testing correction refers to making statistical tests more stringent in order to counteract the problem of multiple testing. The best known such adjustment is the Bonferroni correction, but other methods have been developed. Such methods are typically designed to control the family-wise error rate or the false discovery rate.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: Traditional methods for multiple comparisons adjustments focus on correcting for modest numbers of comparisons, often in an analysis of variance. A different set of techniques have been developed for "large-scale multiple testing", in which thousands or even greater numbers of tests are performed. For example, in genomics, when using technologies such as microarrays, expression levels of tens of thousands of genes can be measured, and genotypes for millions of genetic markers can be measured. Particularly in the field of genetic association studies, there has been a serious problem with non-replication — a result being strongly statistically significant in one study but failing to be replicated in a follow-up study. Such non-replication can have many causes, but it is widely considered that failure to fully account for the consequences of making multiple comparisons is one of the causes. It has been argued that advances in measurement and information technology have made it far easier to generate large datasets for exploratory analysis, often leading to the testing of large numbers of hypotheses with no prior basis for expecting many of the hypotheses to be true. In this situation, very high false positive rates are expected unless multiple comparisons adjustments are made.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: For large-scale testing problems where the goal is to provide definitive results, the family-wise error rate remains the most accepted parameter for ascribing significance levels to statistical tests. Alternatively, if a study is viewed as exploratory, or if significant results can be easily re-tested in an independent study, control of the false discovery rate (FDR) is often preferred. The FDR, loosely defined as the expected proportion of false positives among all significant tests, allows researchers to identify a set of "candidate positives" that can be more rigorously evaluated in a follow-up study.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: The practice of trying many unadjusted comparisons in the hope of finding a significant one is a known problem, whether applied unintentionally or deliberately, is sometimes called "p-hacking."


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: A basic question faced at the outset of analyzing a large set of testing results is whether there is evidence that any of the alternative hypotheses are true. One simple meta-test that can be applied when it is assumed that the tests are independent of each other is to use the Poisson distribution as a model for the number of significant results at a given level α that would be found when all null hypotheses are true. If the observed number of positives is substantially greater than what should be expected, this suggests that there are likely to be some true positives among the significant results. For example, if 1000 independent tests are performed, each at level α = 0.05, we expect 0.05 × 1000 = 50 significant tests to occur when all null hypotheses are true. Based on the Poisson distribution with mean 50, the probability of observing more than 61 significant tests is less than 0.05, so if more than 61 significant results are observed, it is very likely that some of them correspond to situations where the alternative hypothesis holds. A drawback of this approach is that it overstates the evidence that some of the alternative hypotheses are true when the test statistics are positively correlated, which commonly occurs in practice. . On the other hand, the approach remains valid even in the presence of correlation among the test statistics, as long as the Poisson distribution can be shown to provide a good approximation for the number of significant results. This scenario arises, for instance, when mining significant frequent itemsets from transactional datasets. Furthermore, a careful two stage analysis can bound the FDR at a pre-specified level.


title: Multiple comparisons problem

text: Another common approach that can be used in situations where the test statistics can be standardized to Z-scores is to make a normal quantile plot of the test statistics. If the observed quantiles are markedly more dispersed than the normal quantiles, this suggests that some of the significant results may be true positives.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: The Buffalo nickel or Indian Head nickel is a copper-nickel five-cent piece that was struck by the United States Mint from 1913 to 1938. It was designed by sculptor James Earle Fraser.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: As part of a drive to beautify the coinage, five denominations of US coins had received new designs between 1907 and 1909. In 1911, Taft administration officials decided to replace Charles E. Barber's Liberty Head design for the nickel, and commissioned Fraser to do the work. They were impressed by Fraser's designs showing a Native American and an American bison. The designs were approved in 1912, but were delayed several months because of objections from the Hobbs Manufacturing Company, which made mechanisms to detect slugs in nickel-operated machines. The company was not satisfied by changes made in the coin by Fraser, and in February 1913, Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh decided to issue the coins despite the objections.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: Despite attempts by the Mint to adjust the design, the coins proved to strike indistinctly, and to be subject to wear—the dates were easily worn away in circulation. In 1938, after the expiration of the minimum 25-year period during which the design could not be replaced without congressional authorization, it was replaced by the Jefferson nickel, designed by Felix Schlag. Fraser's design is admired today, and has been used on commemorative coins and the gold American Buffalo series.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: In 1883, the Liberty Head nickel was issued, featuring designs by Mint Engraver Charles E. Barber. After the coin was released, it was modified to add the word "CENTS" to the reverse because the similarity in size with the half eagle allowed criminals to gild the new nickels and pass them as five dollar coins. An Act of Congress, passed into law on September 26, 1890 required that coinage designs not be changed until they had been in use 25 years, unless Congress authorized the change. The act made the current five-cent piece and silver dollar exceptions to the twenty-five year rule; they were made eligible for immediate redesign. However, the Mint continued to strike the Liberty Head nickel in large numbers through the first decade of the 20th century.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 expressed his dissatisfaction with the artistic state of the American coinage, and hoped to hire sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens to redesign all the coins. Constrained by the 1890 act, the Mint only hired Saint-Gaudens to redesign the cent and the four gold pieces. Saint-Gaudens, before his 1907 death, designed the eagle and double eagle, which entered circulation that year; the cent, quarter eagle, and half eagle were designed by other artists and released into circulation by 1909. By that time, the Liberty Head nickel had been in circulation for more than 25 years and was eligible for redesign regardless of the special provision. In 1909, Mint Director Frank Leach instructed Barber to make pattern coins for new nickels. Most of these coins featured the first president, George Washington. The press found out about the pieces, and speculated they would be released into circulation by the end of the year. The Mint received orders from banks in anticipation of the "Washington nickel". However, the project was discontinued when Leach left office on November 1, 1909, to be replaced by Abram Andrew.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: Andrew was dissatisfied with the just-issued Lincoln cent, and considered seeking congressional authorization to replace the cent with a design by sculptor James Earle Fraser. While the change in the cent did not occur, according to numismatic historian Roger Burdette, "Fraser's enthusiasm eventually led to adoption of the Buffalo nickel in December 1912."


title: Buffalo nickel

text: Soon after the MacVeagh letter, Andrew announced that the Mint would be soliciting new designs for the nickel. Fraser, who had been an assistant to Saint-Gaudens, approached the Mint and rapidly produced concepts and designs. The new Mint director, George Roberts, who had replaced Andrew, initially favored a design featuring assassinated President Abraham Lincoln, but Fraser soon developed a design featuring a Native American on one side and a bison on the other. Andrew and Roberts recommended Fraser to MacVeagh, and in July 1911 the Secretary approved hiring Fraser to design a new nickel. Official approval was slow in coming; it was not until January 1912 that MacVeagh asked Roberts to inform Fraser that he had been commissioned. MacVeagh wrote, "Tell him that of the three sketches which he submitted we would like to use the sketch of the head of the Indian and the sketch of the buffalo." Roberts transmitted the news, then followed up with a long list of instructions to the sculptor, in which he noted, "The motto, 'In God We Trust', is not required upon this coin and I presume we are agreed that nothing should be upon it that is not required." Fraser completed the models by June 1912, and prepared coin-size electrotypes. He brought the models and electrotypes to Washington on July 10, where they met with the enthusiastic agreement of Secretary MacVeagh.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: In July 1912, word of the new design became publicly known, and coin-operated machine manufacturers sought information. Replying to the inquiries, MacVeagh wrote that there would be no change in the diameter, thickness, or weight of the nickel. This satisfied most firms. However, Clarence Hobbs of the Hobbs Manufacturing Company, of Worcester, Massachusetts requested further information. According to Hobbs, his firm was the manufacturer of a device which would detect counterfeit nickels inserted into vending machines with complete accuracy. Discussions continued for most of the rest of 1912, with Hobbs demanding various changes to the design, to which the artist was reluctant to agree. When in December 1912, the Hobbs Company submitted a modified design for the nickel, MacVeagh strongly opposed it. On December 18, Roberts officially approved Fraser's design, and the sculptor was authorized to complete and perfect the design, after which he would be paid $2,500 (US$ with inflation) for his work.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: On January 7, 1913, Fraser's approved design was used to strike experimental pieces; the sculptor later wrote that he remembered several of the workmen commenting that the new piece struck more easily than the old. Afterwards, Roberts asked Fraser if the Hobbs Company was content with the design. The sculptor told the Mint director that the firm wanted changes made, and Fraser agreed to meet with them further. Over the following two weeks, Fraser worked with George Reith, the Hobbs Company's mechanic who had invented the anti-slug device, in an attempt to satisfy the firm's concerns. On January 20, Fraser wired the Mint from his studio in New York, announcing that he was submitting a modified design, and explained that the delay was "caused by working with inventor until he was satisfied". The next day, Philadelphia Mint Superintendent John Landis sent Roberts a sample striking of the revised design, stating, "the only change is in the border, which has been made round and true".


title: Buffalo nickel

text: Despite the apparent agreement, the Hobbs Company continued to interpose objections. Engraver Barber was asked for his view; he stated that Reith, who had attended the trial striking, had been given all the time and facilities he had asked for in testing the new pieces, and the mechanic had pronounced himself satisfied. Hobbs Company agent C. U. Carpenter suggested that Reith had been intimidated by the preparations that had already gone into the issue of the modified nickel, "and, instead of pointing out clearly just what the situation demanded, agreed to adapt our device to the coin more readily that he was warranted in doing". On February 3, Hobbs sent Roberts a lengthy list of changes that he wanted in the coin, and the sculptor was required to attend a conference with Hobbs and Reith. On the fifth, following the conference, which ended with no agreement, Fraser sent MacVeagh a ten-page letter, complaining that his time was being wasted by the Hobbs Company and appealing to the Secretary to bring the situation to a close. MacVeagh agreed to hold a meeting at his office in Washington on February 14. When the Hobbs Company requested permission to bring a lawyer, Fraser announced he would be doing the same. The Hobbs Company sought letters of support from the business community, with little success; Fraser's efforts to secure support from artists for his position were more fruitful. Barber prepared patterns showing what the nickel would look like if the changes demanded by Hobbs were made. MacVeagh conducted the meeting much like a legal hearing, and issued a letter the following day.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: The Secretary noted that no other firm had complained, that the Hobbs mechanism had not been widely sold, and that the changes demanded—a clear space around the rim and the flattening of the Indian's cheekbone—would affect the artistic merit of the piece.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: After he issued his decision, MacVeagh learned that the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad Company, which Hobbs claimed had enthusiastically received his device, was actually removing it from service as unsatisfactory. The Secretary's decision did not end the Hobbs Company efforts, as the firm appealed to President Taft. With only two weeks remaining in his term, the President was not minded to stop the new nickel (production of which had started on February 18) and MacVeagh wrote to Taft's secretary, Charles D. Hilles, "Certainly Hobbs got all the time and attention out of this administration that any administration could afford to give to one manufacturing corporation." Numismatic historian and coin dealer Q. David Bowers describes the Hobbs matter as "much ado about nothing from a company whose devices did not work well even with the Liberty Head nickels".


title: Buffalo nickel

text: The first coins to be distributed were given out on February 22, 1913, when Taft presided at groundbreaking ceremonies for the National American Indian Memorial at Fort Wadsworth, Staten Island, New York. The memorial, a project of department store magnate Rodman Wanamaker, was never built, and today the site is occupied by an abutment for the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge. Forty nickels were sent by the Mint for the ceremony; most were distributed to the Native American chiefs who participated. Payment for Fraser's work was approved on March 3, 1913, the final full day of the Taft administration. In addition to the $2,500 agreed upon, Fraser received $666.15 (US$ with inflation) for extra work and expenses through February 14.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: The coins were officially released to circulation on March 4, 1913, and quickly gained positive comments as depicting truly American themes. However, "The New York Times" stated in an editorial that "The new 'nickel' is a striking example of what a coin intended for wide circulation should not be ...<nowiki>[it]</nowiki> is not pleasing to look at when new and shiny, and will be an abomination when old and dull." "The Numismatist", in March and May 1913 editorials, gave the new coin a lukewarm review, suggesting that the Indian's head be reduced in size and the bison be eliminated from the reverse.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: With the coin now in production, Barber monitored the rate at which dies were expended, as it was the responsibility of his Engraver's Department to supply all three mints with working dies. On March 11, 1913, he wrote to Landis that the dies were being used up three times faster than with the Liberty Head nickel. His department was straining to produce enough new dies to meet production. In addition, the date and denomination were the points on the coin most subject to wear, and Landis feared the value on the coin would be worn away. Barber made proposed revisions, which Fraser approved after being sent samples. These changes enlarged the legend "FIVE CENTS" and changed the ground on which the bison stands from a hill to flat ground. According to data compiled by numismatic historian David Lange from the National Archives, the changes to what are known as Type II nickels (with the originals Type I) actually decreased the die life. The new Treasury Secretary, William G. McAdoo, wanted further changes in the coin, but Fraser had moved on to other projects and was uninterested in revisiting the nickel. The thickness of the numerals in the date was gradually increased, making them more durable; however the problem was never addressed with complete success, and even many later-date Buffalo nickels have the date worn away.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: The Buffalo nickel saw minor changes to the design in 1916. The word "LIBERTY" was given more emphasis and moved slightly; however many Denver and San Francisco issues of the 1920s exhibit weak striking of the word, the Denver issue of 1926 especially; Bowers questions whether any change was made to the portrait of the Indian, though Walter Breen in his reference work on United States coins states that Barber made the Indian's nose slightly longer. According to Breen, however, none of these modifications helped, with the coin rarely found well-struck and with the design subject to considerable wear throughout the remainder of its run. The bison's horn and tail also posed striking problems, again with the Denver and San Francisco issues of the 1920s in general, and 1926-D in particular, showing the greatest propensity for these deficiencies.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: The piece was struck by the tens of millions, at all three mints (Philadelphia, Denver and San Francisco), through the remainder of the 1910s. In 1921, a recession began, and no nickels at all were struck the following year. The low mintage for the series was the 1926-S, at 970,000 — the only date-mint combination with a mintage of less than 1 million. The second lowest mintage for the series came with the 1931 nickel struck at the San Francisco Mint. The 1931-S was minted in a quantity of 194,000 early in the year. There was no need for more to be struck, but Acting Mint Director Mary Margaret O'Reilly asked the San Francisco Mint to strike more so that the pieces would not be hoarded. Using materials on hand, including the melting down of worn-out nickels, San Francisco found enough metal to strike 1,000,000 more pieces. Large quantities were saved in the hope they would become valuable, and the coin is not particularly rare today despite the low mintage.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: A well-known variety in the series is the 1937–D "three-legged" nickel, on which one of the buffalo's legs is missing. Breen relates that this variety was caused by a pressman, Mr. Young, at the Denver Mint, who in seeking to remove marks from a reverse die (caused by the dies making contact with each other), accidentally removed or greatly weakened one of the animal's legs. By the time Mint inspectors discovered and condemned the die, thousands of pieces had been struck and mixed with other coins.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: Another variety is the 1938-D/S, caused by dies bearing an "S" mintmark being repunched with a "D" and used to strike coins at Denver. While the actual course of events is uncertain, Bowers is convinced that the variety was created because Buffalo nickel dies intended for the San Francisco mint were repunched with the "D" and sent to Denver so they would not be wasted—no San Francisco Buffalo nickels were struck in 1938, but they were produced at Denver, and it was already known that a new design would be introduced. The 1938-D/S was the first repunched mintmark of any US coin to be discovered, causing great excitement among numismatists when the variety came to light in 1962.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: When the Buffalo nickel had been in circulation for the minimum 25 years, it was replaced with little discussion or protest. The problems of die life and weak striking had never been solved, and Mint officials advocated its replacement. In January 1938, the Mint announced an open competition for a new nickel design, to feature early President Thomas Jefferson on the obverse, and Jefferson's home, Monticello on the reverse. In April, Felix Schlag was announced as the winner. The last Buffalo nickels were struck in April 1938, at the Denver Mint, the only mint to strike them that year. On October 3, 1938, production of the Jefferson nickel began, and they were released into circulation on November 15.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: The visage of the Indian which dominates Fraser's obverse design was a composite of several Native Americans. Breen noted (before the advent of the Sacagawea dollar) that Fraser's design was the second and last US coin design to feature a realistic portrait of an Indian, after Bela Pratt's 1908 design for the half eagle and quarter eagle.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: The identity of the Indians whom Fraser used as models is somewhat uncertain, as Fraser told various and not always consistent stories during the forty years he lived after designing the nickel. In December 1913, he wrote to Mint Director Roberts that "<nowiki>[b]</nowiki>efore the nickel was made I had done several portraits of Indians, among them Iron Tail, Two Moons, and one or two others, and probably got characteristics from those men in the head on the coins, but my purpose was not to make a portrait but a type."


title: Buffalo nickel

text: By 1931, Two Guns White Calf, son of the last Blackfoot tribal chief, was capitalizing off his claim to be the model for the coin. To try to put an end to the claim, Fraser wrote that he had used three Indians for the piece, including "Iron Tail, the best Indian head I can remember. The other one was Two Moons, the other I cannot recall." In 1938, Fraser stated that the three Indians had been "Iron Tail, a Sioux, Big Tree, a Kiowa, and Two Moons, a Cheyenne". Despite the sculptor's efforts, he (and the Mint) continued to receive inquiries about the identity of the Indian model until his 1953 death.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: Nevertheless, John Big Tree, a Seneca, claimed to be a model for Fraser's coin, and made many public appearances as the "nickel Indian" until his 1967 death at the age of 90 (though he sometimes alleged he was over 100 years of age). Big Tree was identified as the model for the nickel in wire service reports about his death, and he had appeared in that capacity at the Texas Numismatic Association convention in 1966. After Big Tree's death, the Mint stated that he most likely was not one of the models for the nickel. There have been other claimants: in 1964, Montana Senator Mike Mansfield wrote to Mint Director Eva B. Adams, enquiring if Sam Resurrection, a Choctaw was a model for the nickel. Adams wrote in reply, "According to our records, the portrait is a composite. There have been many claimants for this honor, all of whom are undoubtedly sincere in the belief that theirs is the one that adorns the nickel."


title: Buffalo nickel

text: According to Fraser, the animal that appears on the reverse is the American bison Black Diamond. In an interview published in the "New York Herald" on January 27, 1913, Fraser was quoted as saying that the animal, which he did not name, was a "typical and shaggy specimen" which he found at the Bronx Zoo. Fraser later wrote that the model "was not a plains buffalo, but none other than Black Diamond, the contrariest animal in the Bronx Zoo. I stood for hours ... He refused point blank to permit me to get side views of him, and stubbornly showed his front face most of the time." However, Black Diamond was never at the Bronx Zoo, but instead lived at the Central Park Zoo until he was sold and slaughtered in 1915. Black Diamond's mounted head is still extant and has been exhibited at coin conventions. The placement of Black Diamond's horns differs considerably from that of the animal on the nickel, leading to doubts that Black Diamond was Fraser's model. One candidate cited by Bowers is Bronx, a bison who was for many years the herd leader of the bison at the Bronx Zoo.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: During an "oral history" interview with the sculptor Beniamino Bufano recorded in 1965, he stated that he "made" and "designed the buffalo" for the coin, when he was Fraser's apprentice.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: From its inception, the coin was referred to as the "Buffalo nickel", reflecting the American colloquialism for the North American bison. As the piece is 75% copper and 25% nickel, prominent numismatist Stuart Mosher objected to the nomenclature in the 1940s, writing that he was "uncertain why it is called a 'Buffalo nickel' although the name is preferable to 'Bison copper'". The numismatic publication with the greatest circulation, "Coin World", calls it an Indian head nickel, while R.S. Yeoman's "Red Book" refers to it as an "Indian Head or Buffalo type".


title: Buffalo nickel

text: In 2001, the design was adopted for use on a commemorative silver dollar. Photographer Mitchell Simon, inspired by an encounter with a buffalo, launched a post card campaign. Colorado Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell in 2001 successfully sponsored a bill for the minting of 500,000 commemorative silver dollars reproducing Fraser's design. The entire mintage sold out in the span of just weeks and raised 5 million dollars to help in the building of The Smithsonian Museum of The American Indian in Washington, D.C.


title: Buffalo nickel

text: In 2006, the Mint began striking American Buffalo gold bullion pieces, using a modification of Fraser's Type I design.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Peter Grant (5 April 1935 – 21 November 1995) was an English music manager, best known as the manager of Led Zeppelin from their creation in 1968 to their breakup in 1980. With his intimidating size and weight, confrontational manner, and knowledge and experience, he procured strong, and unprecedented, deals for his band, and is widely credited with improving pay and conditions for all musicians in dealings with concert promoters. Grant has been described as "one of the shrewdest and most ruthless managers in rock history".


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Born and largely brought up in the south London suburb of South Norwood, England by his mother, he worked variously as a stagehand, bouncer, wrestler, bit-part actor, and UK tour manager for acts such as Chuck Berry, Gene Vincent and the Animals, before getting involved briefly in band management with the Nashville Teens and the Yardbirds.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Grant was born in the south London suburb of South Norwood, England. His mother Dorothy worked as a secretary. He attended Sir Walter St John School in Grayshott before the Second World War, and completed his schooling at Charterhouse School in Godalming after the evacuation. After the war, Grant returned to Norwood until leaving at the age of 13, when he became a sheet metal factory worker in Croydon. He left that job after a few weeks, and then obtained employment on Fleet Street delivering photographs for Reuters.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Grant was soon attracted to the entertainment industry, and worked as a stagehand for the Croydon Empire Theatre until 1953, when he was called up for national service in the RAOC, reaching the rank of corporal. He worked briefly as an entertainment manager at a hotel in Jersey before being employed as a bouncer and doorman at London's famous 2i's Coffee Bar, where Cliff Richard, Adam Faith, Tommy Steele and others got their start. Co-owner of the 2i's bar, professional wrestler Paul Lincoln, suggested and assisted Grant appear on television as a wrestler under the titles "Count Massimo" and "Count Bruno Alassio of Milan," using his 6 ft 2 in frame to good effect. This kindled his enthusiasm for acting, and he was hired by film studios as a bit part actor, stuntman and body double.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Between 1958 and 1963, Grant appeared in a number of films, including "A Night to Remember "(1958), playing a crew member on the "Titanic"; "The Guns of Navarone" (1961), playing a British commando; and "Cleopatra" (1963), playing a palace guard. He also appeared in television shows such as "The Saint", "Crackerjack", "Dixon of Dock Green", and "The Benny Hill Show". He was Robert Morley's double on many of the actor's films. The money he made from these ventures was invested in his own entertainment transport business. As the acting roles dried up, Grant made more money taking groups such as the Shadows to their concerts.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: In 1963, Grant was hired by promoter Don Arden along with John Schatt to be the British tour manager for artists such as Bo Diddley, the Everly Brothers, Little Richard, Brian Hyland, Chuck Berry, Gene Vincent and the Animals. By 1964, Grant had started to manage his own acts including the Nashville Teens, an all-girl group called She Trinity, the New Vaudeville Band, The Jeff Beck Group, Terry Reid and Stone the Crows. His management was established in the same 155 Oxford Street office used by his friend, record producer Mickie Most, who had previously worked with Grant at the 2i's Coffee Bar. Most and Grant together set up RAK Music Management, an offshoot of Most's Rak Records.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: In late 1966, Simon Napier-Bell asked Grant to take over management of the Yardbirds, who were constantly touring yet struggling financially. Mickie Most had suggested to Napier-Bell that Grant would be an asset to the Yardbirds, but as it happened his arrival was too late to save the band. The experience, however, did give him ideas which were put to good use later with Led Zeppelin. As he explained:


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Grant's no-nonsense approach to promoters, and his persuasive presence, were influential in the Yardbirds making money from concerts for the first time. Grant travelled closely with the Yardbirds, ensuring that all costs were kept to a minimum, that members were paid on time, and that the band retained artistic control. Unlike most other managers at the time who rarely set foot in a music venue, Grant's approach was hands-on.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: The Yardbirds dissolved in 1968, all band members departing except guitarist Jimmy Page, who constructed a new group consisting of himself, Robert Plant, John Bonham and John Paul Jones to fulfil a contractual agreement to tour Europe, and were allowed by the other Yardbird members to use the name "The New Yardbirds". After the tour, the agreement to use the name expired, and Chris Dreja wrote Page a "cease and desist" notice, so the group chose the name Led Zeppelin, with Grant assuming the role of their manager. His trust in and loyalty to Led Zeppelin was such that his managerial arrangement with the band was via a gentlemen's agreement.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: It is doubtful whether Led Zeppelin would have been as successful without Grant as their manager. He negotiated the group's sizeable five-year record contract with Atlantic Records, and his business philosophy would eventually pay off for the label. Grant strongly believed that bands could make more money, and have more artistic merit, by focusing their efforts on albums rather than singles. Live performances were deemed more important than television appearances – if one wanted to see Led Zeppelin, one had to experience their performances in person.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Led Zeppelin's particular success in the United States can partly be credited to Grant's keen sense of US audiences and the vast underground movement that was sweeping the country. It was his knowledge of the American touring scene that thrust Led Zeppelin into the forefront of the burgeoning American rock market, and under his stewardship the great majority of Led Zeppelin concerts were performed in the United States, resulting in massive profits for the group. He ensured that the vast bulk of ticket profits wound up in the hands of the band rather than in the hands of promoters and booking agents, and is reported to have secured 90% of gate money from concerts performed by the band, an unprecedented feat. By taking this approach he set a new standard for artist management, "single-handedly pioneer[ing] the shift of power from the agents and promoters to the artists and management themselves."


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Grant's determination to protect the financial interests of Led Zeppelin was also reflected by the sometimes extraordinary measures he took to combat the practice of unauthorized live bootleg recordings. He is reported to have visited record stores in London that were selling Led Zeppelin bootlegs and demanded all copies be handed over. He also monitored the crowd at Led Zeppelin concerts in order to locate anything which resembled bootleg recording equipment. At one concert at Vancouver in 1971, he saw what he thought was such equipment on the floor of the venue and ensured that it was destroyed, only to later learn that it was a noise pollution unit being operated by city officials to test the volume of the concert. On another occasion, at the Bath Festival in 1970, he threw a bucket of water over unauthorised recording equipment. Grant's famous dressing room scene in the film "The Song Remains the Same" (1976), where he demands an explanation from concert staff about the sale of illegal posters, was typical of his no-nonsense dealings with people who tried to profit at the band's expense.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Grant had complete and unwavering faith in Led Zeppelin. Unlike some other managers of the era, he never compromised his clients by exploiting them for short-term profit, instead always putting their interests first, and being a manager that split the profits five ways, between Grant and the other members of the band. This was demonstrated by his decision to never release the popular songs from Led Zeppelin's albums as singles in the UK, out of respect for the band's desire to develop the concept of album-oriented rock. As was explained by Jones:


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Grant's past experience in handling stars such as Jerry Lee Lewis and Gene Vincent also provided him with an excellent grounding in managing the pandemonium which frequently surrounded Led Zeppelin, particularly whilst the band was on tour. Grant himself said that "Led Zeppelin looks after the music and I do everything else – and if it takes some strong measures to get our way, then so be it." According to rock journalist Steven Rosen:


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Although there were media reports of his heavy-handed, intimidating tactics, Grant was respected in the business. Jones said, "Peter was a very sensitive man. He was a very, very smart man. People just think of his size and his reputation, but actually he never had to use his size. He could out-talk anybody ..."


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Grant was instrumental in setting up Led Zeppelin's publishing company, Superhype Music in 1968. He was also the driving force in establishing Swan Song Records in 1974, which gave Led Zeppelin further financial and artistic control over its products. Although initially he solely managed Led Zeppelin, in later years he additionally assumed management of other bands signed to Swan Song, such as Stone the Crows, Bad Company and Maggie Bell. In 1975 he turned down a lucrative offer to manage Queen. When he was once questioned on what was the single most important thing a manager could say, Grant's response was "Know when to say 'no'." In 1977, he was asked by Colonel Tom Parker to manage a proposed concert tour of Europe by Elvis Presley, but Elvis died on 16 August 1977, just as negotiations had commenced.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: In January 1972, Bernard Chevry, manager of the Midem music business festival wrote to Grant, asking for "Led Zeppelin and his backing group" to appear. Grant was annoyed that Chevry did not realise Led Zeppelin was a group, and in response took out a full-page advertisement in the trade paper "Record Retailer", showing the original Midem letter, captioned "Mr Zeppelin Regrets. ... ." The response was seen by most of the music industry, and humiliated Chevry. Grant later described Chevry as "a prat".


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: In 1977, Grant gave his approval for Led Zeppelin's tour manager Richard Cole to hire John Bindon to act as security co-ordinator for the band's concert tour of the United States. Bindon had previously provided security for actors Ryan and Tatum O'Neal.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Towards the end of the tour, a major incident occurred during their first concert at the Oakland Coliseum on 23 July 1977. Upon arrival at the stadium, it was alleged that Bindon pushed a member of promoter Bill Graham's stage crew out of the way as the band entered the stadium via a backstage ramp. Tension had been simmering between Graham's staff and Led Zeppelin's security team during the day, and as Grant and Bindon were walking down the ramp near the end of the concert, words were exchanged with stage crew chief Jim Downey, which resulted in Bindon knocking Downey unconscious.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Within minutes, a separate off-stage incident involving Graham's security man Jim Matzorkis, who allegedly slapped Grant's 11-year-old son Warren over the removal of a dressing room sign, escalated into an all-out brawl that resulted in Matzorkis being taken to hospital after being beaten by Grant and Bindon. The band, except John Bonham, were performing on stage and were unaware of what was transpiring backstage. Led Zeppelin's second Oakland show took place only after Bill Graham signed a letter of indemnification absolving Led Zeppelin from responsibility for the previous night's incident. However, Graham refused to honour the letter because, according to his legal advice, he was under no obligation to agree to its terms.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Members of the band returned to their hotel after the concert, and were woken the next morning by a surprise police raid after Graham had changed his mind and decided to press charges. Bindon, Cole, Grant and Bonham received bail and travelled to New Orleans on 26 July, but the remaining dates on the tour were subsequently cancelled due to the sudden death of Robert Plant's son, Karac, back home in the UK. As they returned to Britain, a suit was filed against them by Graham for $2 million.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: After months of legal wrangling, Led Zeppelin offered to settle and all four pleaded "nolo contendere", receiving suspended sentences and undisclosed fines. Bindon had already been dismissed by the band upon their return to Britain. Grant later stated that allowing Bindon to be hired was the biggest mistake he ever made as manager.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Marital problems, diabetes, cocaine addiction and the death of Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham all took their toll on Grant's health, and after the official breakup of Led Zeppelin in 1980, and the subsequent folding of the Swan Song label in 1983, he virtually retired from the music business to his private estate in Hellingly, East Sussex.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: However, towards the end of his life he conquered his addiction and lost a significant amount of weight. His first public appearance for many years was in 1989, when he and Jimmy Page both attended a Frank Sinatra concert at the Royal Albert Hall. Grant subsequently sold his estate and moved to nearby Eastbourne, where he was offered the civic position of local magistrate for the town council, but he turned it down. In 1992, he appeared in the film "Carry On Columbus" as a cardinal. In his remaining years, Grant became a keynote speaker at music management conferences such as In the City, where he was lauded by latter-day peers.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: On the afternoon of 21 November 1995, Grant suffered a fatal heart attack while driving to his home at Eastbourne with his daughter Helen. He was 60 years old.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Grant was buried on 4 December 1995 at the cemetery opposite his mansion, with the funeral service held at St Peter and St Paul's Church, Hailsham, East Sussex. His eulogy was read by longtime friend Alan Callan. Coincidentally, it was the 15th anniversary of Led Zeppelin's official breakup. His final public appearance had been at the final night of the Page and Plant tour at the Wembley Arena in July 1995.


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Grant has been widely recognised for improving pay and conditions for musicians in dealings with concert promoters. According to music journalist Mat Snow, "Peter Grant enjoys a proud position in the pantheon of legendary British rock managers." stated that "Peter Grant was the most colourful and influential manager in the history of rock." Phil Everly, from the Everly Brothers, noted: "Without his efforts, musicians had no careers. He was the first to make sure the artists came first and that we got paid and paid properly."


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: Similarly, Page has described Grant as groundbreaking in his style of management, explaining that "Peter had changed the dynamic that existed between bands, managers and promoters. He was a superb, canny manager."


title: Peter Grant (music manager)

text: In 1996, the MMF (Music Managers Forum) award for outstanding achievement in management was renamed the Peter Grant Award, in his honour.


title: Anton Du Beke

text: Anthony Paul Beke (born 20 July 1966), known professionally as Anton Du Beke (), is a British ballroom and Latin dancer, and television presenter, best known for being a professional dancer and later a judge on the BBC One celebrity dancing show, "Strictly Come Dancing", since the show began in 2004. His professional dance partner since 1997 has been Erin Boag.


title: Anton Du Beke

text: In 2009, he presented the United Kingdom version of "Hole in the Wall", for the BBC, replacing Dale Winton after being a team captain in 2008. In November 2017, Beke released his debut studio album, "From the Top", on Polydor Records. It reached number 21 on the UK Albums Chart.


title: Anton Du Beke

text: Beke was born in Sevenoaks, Kent, to a Hungarian father, Antal Xavier Beke (1939–2001), and a Spanish mother, Ascensión "Conchita" Lema. He has two younger siblings, brother Stephen and his sister Veronica. He attended Wildernesse School in Sevenoaks.


title: Anton Du Beke

text: Beke began dancing at 14, when he discovered his local dance school, the Holton School of Dancing in Sevenoaks. He had three partners during these formative years before the Holton School of Dancing closed in 1987 when Beryl and Stephen Turner moved with his banking career to Dorset. Du Beke left school at 16 to follow an amateur dancing career. At 17, he decided to specialise in ballroom. While he danced during the evenings and at weekends, he had a day job as a salesman in "The Bed Post" in Petts Wood, South London. He dated television presenter Caroline Feraday from 2007 to 2008.


title: Anton Du Beke

text: Du Beke lives in Buckinghamshire with his wife Hannah Summers. In November 2016 the couple announced they were expecting twins, due in spring 2017. On 30 March 2017, his son George and daughter Henrietta were born, announced with an Instagram post.


title: Anton Du Beke

text: Du Beke's regular professional partner is Erin Boag. They met in 1997, and won the 1998 and 1999 New Zealand Championships. They turned professional in 2002, competing mainly in the United Kingdom. Their best result on the competition circuit was in November 2003 when they won the IDTA Classic in Brighton.


title: Anton Du Beke

text: Du Beke has appeared in every series of the BBC's "Strictly Come Dancing" since its inception. In the first series, he danced with singer Lesley Garrett and finished in third place. For the second series, he partnered presenter Esther Rantzen; they were eliminated in the third week. He danced with actress Patsy Palmer for the third series and finished in fifth place. In the fourth series, he danced with actress and impressionist Jan Ravens but was eliminated in week 5 of the competition. His partner for the fifth series was TV presenter Kate Garraway; the couple were voted out in week 7. His partner for the sixth series was actress Gillian Taylforth; the couple were voted out in week 2. In series seven, he was partnered with Laila Rouass. Together, they made it to week 12.


title: Anton Du Beke

text: In series 8, he partnered Conservative politician Ann Widdecombe. Despite Widdecombe's poor dancing ability, they made it through to the quarter final. For its ninth series, Nancy Dell'Olio was Anton's partner, the couple were eliminated in week 5. His partner for the tenth series was model and actress Jerry Hall. They were eliminated in week 3. His partner for series 11 was actress Fiona Fullerton. They were eliminated in week 8 in Blackpool. For the show's twelfth series, his partner was tennis coach Judy Murray. They were also eliminated on week 8 in Blackpool. For series 13, Du Beke was partnered with newscaster and presenter Katie Derham they made it to Du Beke's first final in all 13 series and were eliminated in fourth place.


title: Anton Du Beke

text: In series 14, Du Beke was partnered with actress Lesley Joseph. They were eliminated in week 5. In series 15 in 2017, Du Beke was paired with television presenter Ruth Langsford. In 2018 Anton was partnered with Fashion Journalist Susannah Constantine. They finished last (the first time Du Beke had ever done this) with an average of 12.00 (Du Beke's lowest). For the 17th series, he was partnered with Emma Barton. In Week 9, Du Beke received his first 10s in all 17 series for their American Smooth; the couple received a total of fifteen 10s during the series. They finished joint runners-up alongside Karim Zeroual and Amy Dowden, but lost out to Kelvin Fletcher and Oti Mabuse. In 2020 Du Beke was partnered with former home secretary Jacqui Smith. They were eliminated in week 2 (first), Du Beke's second time finishing last.


title: Anton Du Beke

text: Du Beke has also appeared on a number of "Children in Need" and Christmas Specials of "Strictly Come Dancing." In 2008 he won the Children in Need 2008, special dancing an American Smooth with Tess Daly. He danced once again with Anne Widdecombe in the 2012 Children in Need special but lost out to Russell Grant and Flavia Cacace. He did however go on to win the Children in Need 2014 special where he and fellow dancer Natalie Lowe taught a group of children how to dance. Du Beke has also reprised his partnerships with Lesley Garret and Ann Widdecombe for the 2004 and 2018 Christmas specials, respectively. He has also danced with Ronni Ancona, Su Pollard, Katy Brand and Denise Lewis in the respective 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2016 Christmas specials. In 2015 Du Beke served as a judge on "The People's Strictly", a one off version of the show where non-celebrities compete for the charity Comic Relief. In 2020, he reprised his role as a judge for weeks 4 and 5 to fill in for Motsi Mabuse who needed to quarantine after travelling to Germany. On 24 June 2021, it was announced that Du Beke would become a permanent judge on "Strictly Come Dancing" for series 19, starting in September 2021, replacing Bruno Tonioli.


title: Anton Du Beke

text: In 2009, Du Beke said that his dance partner Laila Rouass "looked like a paki" after she had arrived at rehearsal with a spray tan. Du Beke denied being racist and said that the comment was made "in jest".


title: Anton Du Beke

text: In March 2007 Du Beke was a contestant on the BBC Two series "The Underdog Show" and was paired with homeless dog Ginger. They were eliminated in week three of the competition.