title: Mnet (TV channel)

text: On February 5, 2020, it was revealed that CJ ENM had begun restructuring Mnet's "We Are K-Pop" slogan and brand after the controversy behind "Produce 101" damaged the network's image.


title: Mnet (TV channel)

text: On February 24, 2020, Mnet unveiled their new brand logo along with its 25th anniversary., Their new logo design is based on their old logo from 1995 with the addition of their current Mnet shape and colour. M2, Mwave, and the Mnet Production logo have stuck to the former design.


title: Mnet (TV channel)

text: Mnet Digital Studio launched "STUDIO CHOOM" in May 2019, a YouTube channel which features notable Kpop acts performing dances in front of the studio's white background and colored lights. The sets often feature backup dancers and usually lack any background props.


title: Mnet (TV channel)

text: On August 24, 2021, Mnet's new dance survival show "Street Woman Fighter" premiered. The opening music was a remix of Adhan, the Islamic call to prayer, and many found this offensive. On September 9, the "Street Woman Fighter" production team apologized and said they would re-upload the video with replacement music. They promised to be more careful and continue to listen to viewers' opinions in the future.


title: Boilerplate code

text: In computer programming, boilerplate code, or simply boilerplate, are sections of code that are repeated in multiple places with little to no variation. When using languages that are considered "verbose", the programmer must write a lot of boilerplate code to accomplish only minor functionality.


title: Boilerplate code

text: The need for boilerplate can be reduced through high-level mechanisms such as metaprogramming (which has the computer automatically write the needed boilerplate code or insert it at compile time), convention over configuration (which provides good default values, reducing the need to specify program details in every project) and model-driven engineering (which uses models and model-to-code generators, eliminating the need for manual boilerplate code).


title: Boilerplate code

text: The term arose from the newspaper business. Columns and other pieces that were distributed by print syndicates were sent to subscribing newspapers in the form of prepared printing plates. Because of their resemblance to the metal plates used in the making of boilers, they became known as "boiler plates", and their resulting text—"boilerplate text". As the stories that were distributed by boiler plates were usually "fillers" rather than "serious" news, the term became synonymous with unoriginal, repeated text.


title: Boilerplate code

text: A related term is "bookkeeping code", referring to code that is not part of the business logic but is interleaved with it in order to keep data structures updated or handle secondary aspects of the program.


title: Boilerplate code

text: One form of boilerplate consists of declarations which, while not part of the program logic or the language's essential syntax, are added to the start of a source file as a matter of custom. The following Perl example demonstrates boilerplate:


title: Boilerplate code

text: The first line is a shebang, which identifies the file as a Perl script that can be executed directly on the command line on Unix/Linux systems. The other two are pragmas turning on warnings and strict mode, which are mandated by fashionable Perl programming style.


title: Boilerplate code

text: This checks, and sets up, a global flag to tell the compiler whether the file myinterface.h has already been included. As many interdepending files may be involved in the compilation of a module, this avoids processing the same header multiple times (which would lead to errors due to multiple definitions with the same name).


title: Boilerplate code

text: In Java programs, DTO classes are often provided with methods for getting and setting instance variables. The definitions of these methods can frequently be regarded as boilerplate. Although the code will vary from one class to another, it is sufficiently stereotypical in structure that it would be better generated automatically than written by hand. For example, in the following Java class representing a pet, almost all the code is boilerplate except for the declarations of "Pet", "name", and "owner":


title: Boilerplate code

text: Most of the boilerplate in this example exists to fulfill requirements of JavaBeans. If the variables name and owner were declared as public, the accessor and mutator methods would not be needed.


title: Boilerplate code

text: To reduce the amount of boilerplate, many frameworks have been developed, e.g. Lombok for Java. The same code as above is auto-generated by Lombok using Java annotations, which is a form of metaprogramming:


title: Boilerplate code

text: In some other programming languages it may be possible to achieve the same thing with less boilerplate, when the language has built-in support for such common constructs. For example, the equivalent of the above Java code can be expressed in Scala using just one line of code:


title: Boilerplate code

text: Starting with C# 9.0 there is an opportunity to use Records which generate classes with Properties automatically:


title: Boilerplate code

text: In addition to declarations, methods in OOP languages also contribute to the amount of boilerplate. A 2015 study on popular Java projects shows that 60% of methods can be uniquely identified by the occurrence of 4.6% of its tokens, making the remaining 95.4% boilerplate irrelevant to logic. The researchers believe this result would translate to subroutines in procedural languages in general.


title: Boilerplate code

text: In HTML, the following boilerplate is used as a basic empty template and is present in most web pages:


title: Boilerplate code

text: The WHATWG HTML Living Standard defines that the codice_2, codice_3 and codice_4 tags may be safely omitted under most circumstances. The codice_5 tag is technically redundant when coming directly from a web server configured to send the character encoding in an HTTP header, though it becomes useful when the HTML response is saved in an codice_6 file, cache, or web archive. Google's HTML/CSS style guide recommends that all optional tags be omitted, resulting in much less boilerplate. The World Wide Web Consortium states that element codice_7 must not be empty:


title: Boilerplate code

text: In Python, the following boilerplate code can be used to modify if code can only be executed in or out of a module context.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Onchocerciasis, also known as river blindness, is a disease caused by infection with the parasitic worm "Onchocerca volvulus". Symptoms include severe itching, bumps under the skin, and blindness. It is the second-most common cause of blindness due to infection, after trachoma.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: The parasite worm is spread by the bites of a black fly of the "Simulium" type. Usually, many bites are required before infection occurs. These flies live near rivers, hence the common name of the disease. Once inside a person, the worms create larvae that make their way out to the skin, where they can infect the next black fly that bites the person. There are a number of ways to make the diagnosis, including: placing a biopsy of the skin in normal saline and watching for the larva to come out; looking in the eye for larvae; and looking within the bumps under the skin for adult worms.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: A vaccine against the disease does not exist. Prevention is by avoiding being bitten by flies. This may include the use of insect repellent and proper clothing. Other efforts include those to decrease the fly population by spraying insecticides. Efforts to eradicate the disease by treating entire groups of people twice a year are ongoing in a number of areas of the world. Treatment of those infected is with the medication ivermectin every six to twelve months. This treatment kills the larvae but not the adult worms. The antibiotic doxycycline weakens the worms by killing an associated bacterium called "Wolbachia", and is recommended by some as well. The lumps under the skin may also be removed by surgery.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: About 15.5 million people are infected with river blindness. Approximately 0.8 million have some amount of loss of vision from the infection. Most infections occur in sub-Saharan Africa, although cases have also been reported in Yemen and isolated areas of Central and South America. In 1915, the physician Rodolfo Robles first linked the worm to eye disease. It is listed by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a neglected tropical disease. In 2013 Colombia became first country to eradicate this disease.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Adult worms remain in subcutaneous nodules, limiting access to the host's immune system. Microfilariae, in contrast, are able to induce intense inflammatory responses, especially upon their death. "Wolbachia" species have been found to be endosymbionts of "O. volvulus" adults and microfilariae, and are thought to be the driving force behind most of "O. volvulus" morbidity. Dying microfilariae have been recently discovered to release "Wolbachia" surface protein that activates TLR2 and TLR4, triggering innate immune responses and producing the inflammation and its associated morbidity. The severity of illness is directly proportional to the number of infected microfilariae and the power of the resultant inflammatory response.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Skin involvement typically consists of intense itching, swelling, and inflammation. A grading system has been developed to categorize the degree of skin involvement:


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Ocular involvement provides the common name associated with onchocerciasis, river blindness, and may involve any part of the eye from conjunctiva and cornea to uvea and posterior segment, including the retina and optic nerve. The microfilariae migrate to the surface of the cornea. Punctate keratitis occurs in the infected area. This clears up as the inflammation subsides. However, if the infection is chronic, sclerosing keratitis can occur, making the affected area become opaque. Over time, the entire cornea may become opaque, thus leading to blindness. Some evidence suggests the effect on the cornea is caused by an immune response to bacteria present in the worms.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: The Mazzotti reaction, first described in 1948, is a symptom complex seen in patients after undergoing treatment of onchocerciasis with the medication diethylcarbamazine (DEC). Mazzotti reactions can be life-threatening, and are characterized by fever, urticaria, swollen and tender lymph nodes, tachycardia, hypotension, arthralgias, oedema, and abdominal pain that occur within seven days of treatment of microfilariasis.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: The phenomenon is so common when DEC is used that this drug is the basis of a skin patch test used to confirm that diagnosis. The drug patch is placed on the skin, and if the patient is infected with "O. volvulus" microfilaria, localized pruritus and urticaria are seen at the application site.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: This is an unusual form of epidemic epilepsy associated with onchocerciasis although definitive link has not been established. This syndrome was first described in Tanzania by Louise Jilek-Aall, a Norwegian psychiatric doctor in Tanzanian practice, during the 1960s. It occurs most commonly in Uganda and South Sudan. It manifests itself in previously healthy 5–15-year-old children, is often triggered by eating or low temperatures and is accompanied by cognitive impairment. Seizures occur frequently and may be difficult to control. The electroencephalogram is abnormal but cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are normal or show non-specific changes. If there are abnormalities on the MRI they are usually present in the hippocampus. Polymerase chain reaction testing of the CSF does not show the presence of the parasite.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: The life of the parasite can be traced through the black fly and the human hosts in the following steps:


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Diagnosis can be made by skin biopsy (with or without PCR) or antibody testing.A skin biopsy removes approximately 2 mg of skin tissue by sclerocorneal biospy punch or shaving a cone of skin with a scalpel. The skin tissue sample is analyzed for the parasite larvae using a microscope. Nodulectomy can be used to analyze skin nodules for the presence of parasites. Slit lamp eye exams are used to identify signs of the parasites in and around the eyes of patients whose eyes are effected. Antibody tests when available can aid in the diagnosis of Onchocerciasis.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Onchocerciasis causes different kinds of skin changes, which vary in different geographic regions; it may be divided into the following phases or types:


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Various control programs aim to stop onchocerciasis from being a public health problem. The first was the Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP), which was launched in 1974, and at its peak, covered 30 million people in 11 countries. Through the use of larvicide spraying of fast-flowing rivers to control black fly populations, and from 1988 onwards, the use of ivermectin to treat infected people, the OCP eliminated onchocerciasis as a public health problem. The OCP, a joint effort of the World Health Organization, the World Bank, the United Nations Development Programme, and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, was considered to be a success, and came to an end in 2002. Continued monitoring ensures onchocerciasis cannot reinvade the area of the OCP.Effective prevention efforts include personal protection from black fly bites. Recommended protection measures include using insect repellents and wearing long sleeves and pants to eliminate exposed skin.Using insect repellent that contains N,N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET) as well as clothing treated with permethrin, an insecticide, can provide additional protection from black fly bites.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: In 1995, the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) began covering another 19 countries, mainly relying upon the use of the drug ivermectin. Its goal was to set up community-directed treatment with ivermectin for those at risk of infection. In these ways, transmission has declined. APOC closed in 2015 and aspects of its work taken over by the WHO Expanded Special Programme for the Elimination of Neglected Tropical Diseases (ESPEN). As in the Americas, the objective of ESPEN working with Government Health Ministries and partner NGDOs, is the elimination of transmission of onchocerciasis. This requires consistent annual treatment of 80% of the population in endemic areas for at least 10–12 years – the life span of the adult worm. No African country has so far verified elimination of onchocerciasis, but treatment has stopped in some areas (e.g. Nigeria), following epidemiological and entomological assessments that indicated that no ongoing transmission could be detected. In 2015, WHO facilitated the launch of an elimination program in Yemen which was subsequently put on hold due to conflict.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: In 1992, the Onchocerciasis Elimination Programme for the Americas, which also relies on ivermectin, was launched. On July 29, 2013, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) announced that after 16 years of efforts, Colombia had become the first country in the world to eliminate onchocerciasis. In September 2015, the Onchocerciasis Elimination Program for the Americas announced that onchocerciasis only remained in a remote region on the border of Brazil and Venezuela. The area is home to the Yanomami indigenous people. The first countries to receive verification of elimination were Colombia in 2013, Ecuador in 2014, Mexico in 2015 and Guatemala in 2016. The key factor in elimination is mass administration of the antiparasitic drug ivermectin. The initial projection was that the disease would be eliminated from remaining foci in the Americas by 2012.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: No vaccine to prevent onchocerciasis infection in humans is available. A vaccine to prevent onchocerciasis infection for cattle is in phase three trials. Cattle injected with a modified and weakened form of "O. ochengi" larvae have developed very high levels of protection against infection. The findings suggest that it could be possible to develop a vaccine that protects people against river blindness using a similar approach. Unfortunately, a vaccine to protect humans is still many years off.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: In mass drug administration (MDA) programmes, the treatment for onchocerciasis is ivermectin (trade name: Mectizan); infected people can be treated with two doses of ivermectin, six months apart, repeated every three years. The drug paralyses and kills the microfilariae causing fever, itching, and possibly oedema, arthritis and lymphadenopathy. Intense skin itching is eventually relieved, and the progression towards blindness is halted. In addition, while the drug does not kill the adult worms, it does prevent them for a limited time from producing additional offspring. However the drug does not prevent transmission of Onchocerciasis.It however reduces morbidity and has shown promising results to elliminate in some endemic areas of Africa


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Ivermectin treatment is particularly effective because it only needs to be taken once or twice a year, needs no refrigeration, and has a wide margin of safety, with the result that it has been widely given by minimally trained community health workers.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: For the treatment of individuals, doxycycline is used to kill the "Wolbachia" bacteria that live in adult worms. This adjunct therapy has been shown to significantly lower microfilarial loads in the host, and may kill the adult worms, due to the symbiotic relationship between "Wolbachia" and the worm. In four separate trials over ten years with various dosing regimens of doxycycline for individualized treatment, doxycycline was found to be effective in sterilizing the female worms and reducing their numbers over a period of four to six weeks. Research on other antibiotics, such as rifampicin, has shown it to be effective in animal models at reducing "Wolbachia" both as an alternative and as an adjunct to doxycycline. However, doxycycline treatment requires daily dosing for at least four to six weeks, making it more difficult to administer in the affected areas.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Ivermectin kills the parasite by interfering with the nervous system and muscle function, in particular, by enhancing inhibitory neurotransmission. The drug binds to and activates glutamate-gated chloride channels. These channels, present in neurons and myocytes, are not invertebrate-specific, but are protected in vertebrates from the action of ivermectin by the blood–brain barrier. Ivermectin is thought to irreversibly activate these channel receptors in the worm, eventually causing an inhibitory postsynaptic potential. The chance of a future action potential occurring in synapses between neurons decreases and the nematodes experience flaccid paralysis followed by death.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Ivermectin is directly effective against the larval stage microfilariae of "O. volvulus"; they are paralyzed and can be killed by eosinophils and macrophages. It does not kill adult females (macrofilariae), but does cause them to cease releasing microfilariae, perhaps by paralyzing the reproductive tract. Ivermectin is very effective in reducing microfilarial load and reducing number of punctate opacities in individuals with onchocerciasis.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: After two decades of research, moxidectin was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2018 for use in ages 12 and older. Ongoing studies are looking to identify doses that will be safe for children ages 4-11. The oral dosage for moxidectin in adults and children 12 and up is 8 mg in a single dose. Moxidectin has been found to more strongly suppress the "O." "volvulus" microfilariae for longer than ivermectin treatments, with peak clearance of microfilariae in the skin at one month after treatment. At six months post treatment, many individuals treated with moxidectin have no detectable microfilariae present in their skin.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: About 21 million people were infected with this parasite in 2017; about 1.2 million of those had vision loss. As of 2017, about 99% of onchocerciasis cases occurred in Africa. Onchocerciasis is currently relatively common in 31 African countries, Yemen, and isolated regions of South America. Over 85 million people live in endemic areas, and half of these reside in Nigeria. Another 120 million people are at risk for contracting the disease. The "Onchocerca volvulus" main habitat is fast flowing rivers, Onchocerciasis is more commonly found along the large rivers in northern and central regions of the Africa. With a decrease in cases as you move farther away from those rivers. Multiple exposure to "simulium blackflies" raise the number of adult worms and microfilariae that are present in the host. Risk of contracting Onchocerciasis for causal travelers is low, since it often takes several exposures, while travelers that stay for longer visits such as missionaries or long-term volunteers have a greater risk of contracting Onchocerciasis. Onchocerciasis was eliminated in the northern focus in Chiapas, Mexico, and the focus in Oaxaca, Mexico, where "Onchocerca volvulus" existed, was determined, after several years of treatment with ivermectin, as free of the transmission of the parasite.In April of 2013, Colombia became the first country to achieve elimination of Onchocerciasis, verified by the World Health Organization. In the following three years, Ecuador and Guatemala, along with Mexico have been verified to have eliminated Onchocerciasis, with the use of ivermectin.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: According to a 2002 WHO report, onchocerciasis has not caused a single death, but its global burden is 987,000 disability adjusted life years (DALYs). The severe pruritus alone accounts for 60% of the DALYs. Infection reduces the host's immunity and resistance to other diseases, which results in an estimated reduction in life expectancy of 13 years.In 2017, the Global Burden of Disease study said that an estimated 220 million people needed preventive chemotherapy for onchocerciasis. Of those infected, 14.6 million had skin disease and 1.15 million were experiencing vision loss.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Onchocerciasis is the second leading cause of blindness from infectious causes. Main disease symptoms, such as blindness and itching, contribute to disease burden by limiting the infected individuals ability to live and work. Individuals most at risk are those who live or work in areas where "simulium blackflies" are most common, mostly near rivers and streams. Rural agricultural areas in sub-Saharan Africa see the most disease burden by blackfly bites. Onchocerciasis common to tropical environments, like that of sub-Saharan Africa, where more than 99% percent of infected individuals occupy the 31 countries. Onchocerciasis can be linked to impoverished remote areas, as residents who experience symptoms can no longer tend to land or navigate the area. Areas with high infection rates may experience up to one-third of residents affected by onchocerciasis symptoms. The age group most impacted by the disease are individuals age 61+ years.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Onchocerca originated in Africa and was exported to the Americas by the slave trade, as part of the Columbian exchange that introduced other old world diseases such as yellow fever into the New World. Findings of a phylogenetic study in the mid-90s are consistent with an introduction to the New World in this manner. DNA sequences of savannah and rainforest strains in Africa differ, while American strains are identical to savannah strains in western Africa. The microfilarial parasite that causes the disease was first identified in 1874 by an Irish naval surgeon, John O'Neill, who was seeking to identify the cause of a common skin disease along the west coast of Africa, known as "craw-craw". Rudolf Leuckart, a German zoologist, later examined specimens of the same filarial worm sent from Africa by a German missionary doctor in 1890 and named the organism "Filaria volvulus".


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Rodolfo Robles and Rafael Pacheco in Guatemala first mentioned the ocular form of the disease in the Americas about 1915. They described a tropical worm infection with adult Onchocerca that included inflammation of the skin, especially the face ('erisipela de la costa'), and eyes. The disease, commonly called the "filarial blinding disease", and later referred to as "Robles disease", was common among coffee plantation workers. Manifestations included subcutaneous nodules, anterior eye lesions, and dermatitis. Robles sent specimens to Émile Brumpt, a French parasitologist, who named it "O. caecutiens" in 1919, indicating the parasite caused blindness (Latin "caecus" meaning blind). The disease was also reported as being common in Mexico. By the early 1920s, it was generally agreed that the filaria in Africa and Central America were morphologically indistinguishable and the same as that described by O'Neill 50 years earlier.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Robles hypothesized that the vector of the disease was the day-biting black fly, "Simulium". Scottish physician Donald Blacklock of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine confirmed this mode of transmission in studies in Sierra Leone. Blacklock's experiments included the re-infection of Simulium flies exposed to portions of the skin of infected subjects on which nodules were present, which led to elucidation of the life cycle of the Onchocerca parasite. Blacklock and others could find no evidence of eye disease in Africa. Jean Hissette, a Belgian ophthalmologist, discovered in 1930 that the organism was the cause of a "river blindness" in the Belgian Congo. Some of the patients reported seeing tangled threads or worms in their vision, which were microfilariae moving freely in the aqueous humor of the anterior chamber of the eye. Blacklock and Strong had thought the African worm did not affect the eyes, but Hissette reported that 50% of patients with onchocerciasis near the Sankuru river in the Belgian Congo had eye disease and 20% were blind. Hisette Isolated the microfilariae from an enucleated eye and described the typical chorioretinal scarring, later called the "Hissette-Ridley fundus" after another ophthalmologist, Harold Ridley, who also made extensive observations on onchocerciasis patients in north west Ghana, publishing his findings in 1945. Ridley first postulated that the disease was brought by the slave trade. The international scientific community was initially skeptical of Hisette's findings, but they were confirmed by the Harvard African Expedition of 1934, led by Richard P. Strong, an American physician of tropical medicine.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Since 1987, ivermectin has been provided free of charge for use in humans by Merck through the Mectizan donation program (MDP). The MDP works together with ministries of health and nongovernmental development organisations, such as the World Health Organization, to provide free ivermectin to those who need it in endemic areas. Due to the joint efforts of NGOs and WHO, onchocerciasis is no longer an obstacle in socio-economic development.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: In 2015 William C. Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura were co-awarded half of that year's Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the avermectin family of compounds, the forerunner of ivermectin. The latter has come to decrease the occurrence of lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Uganda's government, working with the Carter Center river blindness program since 1996, switched strategies for distribution of Mectizan. The male-dominated volunteer distribution system had failed to take advantage of traditional kinship structures and roles. The program switched in 2014 from village health teams to community distributors, primarily selecting women with the goal of assuring that everyone in the circle of their family and friends received river blindness information and Mectizan.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: In 2021, Nigeria had the greatest prevalence of onchocerciasis infections globally, and attributed the infection to 30.2% of blindness cases in the country. A study from western Nigeria found that residents believed that the parasitic effects of the disease was necessary to stimulate fertility, and that the disease was thought to be carried by all residents.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: Animal models for the disease are somewhat limited, as the parasite only lives in primates, but there are close parallels. "Litomosoides sigmodontis ", which will naturally infect cotton rats, has been found to fully develop in BALB/c mice. "Onchocerca ochengi", the closest relative of "O. volvulus", lives in intradermal cavities in cattle, and is also spread by black flies. Both systems are useful, but not exact, animal models.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: A study of 2501 people in Ghana showed the prevalence rate doubled between 2000 and 2005 despite treatment, suggesting the parasite is developing resistance to the drug. A clinical trial of another anti-parasitic agent, moxidectin (manufactured by Wyeth), began on July 1, 2009 (NCT00790998).


title: Onchocerciasis

text: A Cochrane review compared outcomes of people treated with ivermectin alone versus doxycycline plus ivermectin. While there were no differences in most vision-related outcomes between the two treatments, there was low quality evidence suggesting treatment with doxycycline plus ivermectin showed improvement in iridocyclitis and punctate keratitis, over those treated with ivermectin alone.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: In 2017 the WHO set up the Onchocerciasis Technical Advisory Subgroup (OTS) to further research and establish areas that require drug administration. The OTS also identifies co-endemic areas with lymphatic filariasis to properly treat Onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis.


title: Onchocerciasis

text: The WHO priorities research to achieve elimination of onchocerciasis. Research approaches include: improving outreach efforts to marginalized populations, expanding mapping of endemic areas of onchocerciasis, improve and standardize information on mass drug administration, develop diagnostic approaches, surveillance strategies, and therapeutic approaches


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: The series is published by Kodansha in Japan and by Kodansha Comics in the United States. A two part OVA was released in 2014 and 2015.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: The story is a prequel to "Attack on Titan", and follows Levi during his days as a criminal in the underground city, when he was with his two best friends Isabel Magnolia and Farlan Church before Erwin Smith recruits him into the Survey Corps.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: Before Suruga began the manga, her editor-in-chief suggested that she visit the Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel so she could better visualize the Underground where Levi and the others live at the beginning of the story. It was while there that Suruga was first able to picture how large an 18-meter tall Titan actually would be.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: While drawing Levi, Suruga attempted to make him appear younger than he does in "Attack on Titan". She noted that his lack of emotiveness made it difficult to choose which expressions to give him while drawing. With Isabel, Suruga attempted to convey a "lively, energetic" character who, while "very cute", was just as capable at fighting Titans as anyone else. Suruga had difficulty drawing Farlan's face, as she wanted to give him characteristics that would clearly distinguish him from the other two main characters. Despite that, she found it surprisingly easy to copy the character's hairstyle from Namaniku ATK's original design.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: Two visual novels written by of Nitroplus, titled and , were released with the third and sixth Blu-ray sets of the "Attack on Titan" anime, on September 18, 2013, and December 18, 2013, respectively. The character designs were provided by Namaniku ATK, also of Nitroplus.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: The series was written by Gun Snark and illustrated by . A prologue chapter was published in the November 2013 issue of Kodansha's "shōjo" manga magazine "Aria" on September 28, 2013. The prologue was republished in the December issue on October 28, 2013 after the first issue to contain it quickly sold out. The series regular began in the January 2014 issue on November 28, 2013. Kodansha made the decision to increase the magazine's print run 5-fold (500%) due to the series' popularity, starting with the January 2014 issue. When they reprinted the issue on December 16, 2013, they increased the number of copies again, making the total print run a 10-fold (1000%) increase over the previously recorded monthly sales of 13,667 copies. A special chapter was published in the May 2014 issue of Kodansha's "Monthly Shōnen Sirius" magazine on March 25, 2014. The series ended in the August 2014 issue on June 28, 2014.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: After the first volume was released, the decision to reprint it came on the same day. A booklet containing a set of character sketches and the prologue chapter was bundled with a special edition of the volume.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: Kodansha Comics announced their license to the series at their New York Comic Con panel on October 11, 2013.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: A two-episode anime OVA adaptation was announced in the 14th volume of "Attack on Titan". The OVAs were produced by the same staff that produced the "Attack on Titan" television series. The episodes were directed by Tetsurō Araki and written by Yasuko Kobayashi, with animation by Wit Studio. Character designs were provided by Kyoji Asano. The insert song is "So ist es immer" (Just Like it Always is) by Hiroyuki Sawano. The OVAs starred Hiroshi Kamiya as Levi, Daisuke Ono as Erwin, Kōji Yusa as Furlan, and Mariya Ise as Isabel. The first episode was included with the 15th volume of "Attack on Titan" on December 9, 2014, and the second episode was included with the 16th volume on April 9, 2015.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: On January 15, 2016, Kodansha Comics announced that they would release the two episodes with the special editions of the 18th and 19th English volumes of the manga, on April 5, 2016 and August 2, 2016, respectively. On May 2, 2022, it was announced that "Attack on Titan's" eight OVAs would be dubbed and released by Funimation and Crunchyroll weekly starting on May 8, 2022. The "No Regrets" OVAs were released from May 29 to June 5.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: The manga has over 1.5 million copies in print in Japan. The first volume of the manga had 500,000 copies in print as of April 2014, having sold 140,186 copies within the first five days of its release. The volume was also the 57th best-selling manga volume in Japan in 2014.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: The first volume of the English translation appeared on the "New York Times" Manga Best Sellers list for 18 nonconsecutive weeks, while the second volume was on the list for 12 weeks.


title: Attack on Titan: No Regrets

text: Reviewing the first volume for The Fandom Post, Kate O’Neil gave it a grade of B. Noting Levi's status as a fan-favorite character, she wrote: "I often wonder at how much of the backstory in these spinoffs was the result of the original author's notes or the spinoff writer responding to the desires of the fanbase." She also commented that the art is "handled by someone other than Hajime Isayama, which means that characters are actually well proportioned and the perspective is solid." She was mildly critical of the series' plot, saying that the "motivation of the players is shaky", and criticized the "simplicity" of the backstory.


title: Nahnatchka Khan

text: Nahnatchka Khan (born June 17, 1973) is an American television writer and producer. She created and executive produced the ABC comedy series "Don't Trust the B---- in Apartment 23" (2012–2013) and "Fresh Off the Boat" (2015–2020), and the NBC comedy series "Young Rock" (2021– ). She also directed the 2019 Netflix film "Always Be My Maybe".


title: Nahnatchka Khan

text: Khan's parents immigrated to the United States from Iran. She was born in Las Vegas and grew up in Hawaii. She attended the University of Southern California's School of Cinematic Arts. While in college, she interned at "National Lampoon" and Fox.


title: Nahnatchka Khan

text: Khan started her writing career on 20th Century Fox's "Malcolm in the Middle". She also worked for Disney Television Animation, including Disney's 1990s animated sitcom, "Pepper Ann", the division's first series created by a woman. According to Khan, "Pepper Ann's" "Sue Rose wanted to do this show about this 12-year-old girl raised by a single mom and who had this really active fantasy life," something that had not been done before. Khan also worked on "American Dad!" and on the children's series "Unfabulous."


title: Nahnatchka Khan

text: In 2012, Khan created the ABC comedy series "Don't Trust the B---- in Apartment 23". The series debuted on April 11, 2012, and ran for two seasons until January 15, 2013.


title: Nahnatchka Khan

text: In 2015, Khan created the TV show "Fresh Off the Boat" which also aired on ABC. The show was lauded for being "the first network sitcom to feature an Asian family since 1994's "All-American Girl"." Khan was honored for her contributions to the Asian Pacific American community, specifically through this show, by East West Players during their 50th Anniversary Visionary Awards Dinner & Silent Auction. The series ran for six seasons and concluded on February 21, 2020.


title: Nahnatchka Khan

text: In 2016, Khan signed a multiyear deal to create, write, develop, and supervise projects for Twentieth Century Fox, under her company, Fierce Baby Productions. As of 2013, she had a television pilot in development titled "Fatrick", slated to star Zach Cregger, with Fox.


title: Nahnatchka Khan

text: In 2018, it was announced that Khan would make her directorial debut with "Always Be My Maybe" which was released on Netflix in May 2019. The film went on to be positively received. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 89% based on 94 reviews, with an average rating of 7.00/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Carried by the infectious charms of Ali Wong and Randall Park, "Always Be My Maybe" takes familiar rom-com beats and cleverly layers in smart social commentary to find its own sweet groove."


title: Nahnatchka Khan

text: Then in 2021, she co-created the series "Young Rock" with Jeff Chiang which premiered on NBC on February 16, 2021. The series has received generally positive reviews from critics. In April 2021, the series was renewed for a second season.


title: Nahnatchka Khan

text: As an Iranian-American, Khan remembered growing up with few representations of herself on television. "There was really no representation of any Middle Eastern culture, so [for me and my brother] growing up, our hero was Iron Sheik—a character in WWF wrestling…. He was from Iran, and he was always the underdog to, like, Hulk Hogan. Everybody was booing, but we were super cheering for him!" Like many women in the television industry, Khan reported feeling "pigeon-holed" as a writer. "I was the only woman in the room a lot of times, so I felt like people looked at me for the wife joke or the daughter joke," she said. "For me it was just the female voice."


title: Nahnatchka Khan

text: From the beginning of her career, Khan has created diverse images that work to subvert television stereotypes. She is best known for creating the ABC sitcoms "Don't Trust the B---- in Apartment 23" and "Fresh Off the Boat. Fresh Off the Boat," based on restaurateur Eddie Huang's memoir, made television history by centering the experiences of a Taiwanese-American family in Florida. One critic commented on its additional significance that, "It was the first show to feature an Asian American cast since "All American Girl" in 1994. In at least one show, Asian-Americans would not be desexualized, hypersexualized, caricatured or stereotyped."


title: Nahnatchka Khan

text: A lesbian herself, Khan routinely features queer themes in "Fresh Off the Boat": Eddie's mom, Jessica (Constance Wu), regularly visits the local lesbian bar, The Denim Turtle. Eddie's former love interest, Nicole, struggles to come out to her father and family.


title: London Zoo

text: London Zoo, also known as ZSL London Zoo or London Zoological Gardens is the world's oldest scientific zoo. It was opened in London on 27 April 1828, and was originally intended to be used as a collection for scientific study. In 1831 or 1832, the animals of the Tower of London menagerie were transferred to the zoo's collection. It was opened to the public in 1847. Today, it houses a collection of 673 species of animals, with 19,289 individuals, making it one of the largest collections in the United Kingdom. The zoo is sometimes called Regent's Park Zoo.


title: London Zoo

text: It is managed under the aegis of the Zoological Society of London (established in 1826), and is situated at the northern edge of Regent's Park, on the boundary line between the City of Westminster and the borough of Camden (the Regent's Canal runs through it). The Society also has a more spacious site at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo in Bedfordshire to which the larger animals such as elephants and rhinos have been moved.


title: London Zoo

text: As well as being the first scientific zoo, ZSL London Zoo also opened the first reptile house (1849), first public aquarium (1853), first insect house (1881) and the first children's zoo (1938).


title: London Zoo

text: ZSL receives no state funding and relies on 'Fellows' and 'Friends' memberships, entrance fees and sponsorship to generate income.


title: London Zoo

text: The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) was established by Sir Stamford Raffles and Sir Humphry Davy in 1826, who obtained the land for the zoo and saw the plans before Raffles died of apoplexy (what would now be called a stroke) later that year on 5 July – his birthday. After his death, the third Marquis of Lansdowne took over the project and supervised the building of the first animal houses. The zoo opened in April 1828 to fellows of the Society, providing access to species such as Arabian oryx, greater kudus, orangutan and the now extinct quagga and thylacine. The Society was granted a Royal Charter in 1829 by King George IV, and in 1847 the zoo opened to the public to aid funding.


title: London Zoo

text: It was believed that tropical animals could not survive outside in London's cold weather and so they were all kept indoors until 1902, when Dr Peter Chalmers Mitchell was appointed secretary of the Society. He set about a major reorganisation of the buildings and enclosures of the zoo, bringing many of the animals out into the open, where many thrived. This was an idea inspired by Hamburg Zoo, and led to newer designs to many of the buildings. Mitchell also envisaged a new park to the north of London, and in 1926 Hall Farm, near to Whipsnade village, was bought. In 1931, Whipsnade Wild Animal Park opened, becoming the world's first open zoological park. The first woman to be a curator at the London Zoo was Evelyn Cheesman, in 1920.


title: London Zoo

text: In 1962, 'Caroline', an Arabian oryx, was lent to Phoenix Zoo, Arizona in the world's first international co-operative breeding programme. Today, the zoo participates in breeding programmes for over 130 species.


title: London Zoo

text: In the 1980s, London Zoo housed 8,000 animals of more than 900 species, and in the 1990s the zoo possessed 7,000 animals of 850 species; the next biggest collection in Britain was Chester Zoo, with just under 3,500 animals. Many of the species in London Zoo could not be seen anywhere else in the country, such as the wombat, Tasmanian devil or long-nosed potoroo. Although this vast collection was part of the zoo's appeal, it may also have been one of the main causes of its financial problems. This contributed to the zoo being faced with closure in the 1980s. Due to the public change of attitude to animals kept in captivity and unsuitably cramped space, the zoo also suffered dwindling visitor numbers. However, when it was announced that London Zoo would close in 1991, a swell of public support in visitors and donations allowed the zoo to continue its work, attempt to balance its books, and take on the huge task of restoring its buildings and creating environments more suitable for animal behaviour in the late 20th century.


title: London Zoo

text: One benefit of the 'swell of public support' was the development of volunteer staff. Employed by both Education and Animal care, these volunteers give one day a week to assist the running of London Zoo and can be recognised by their red pullovers.


title: London Zoo

text: After the start of the Second World War, the London Zoo was closed multiple times for over a week at a time starting 11:00am on 3 September 1939, when all Zoological Places were closed by order of the Government. On 27 September 1940, high explosive bombs damaged the Rodent house, the Civet house, the gardener's office, the propagating sheds, the North Gate and the Zebra house. Later, in January 1941, the Camel House was also hit, and the aquarium could not open until May 1943 due to extensive bombings. No animals were harmed during the incidents, although a zebra, a female ass, and her foal escaped from the zoo during the bombings.


title: London Zoo

text: For safety reasons, all venomous animals were killed at the London Zoo. Throughout the duration of the war, wounded men were reportedly let into the London Zoo for free.


title: London Zoo

text: The Snowdon Aviary was designed by Cedric Price, Frank Newby and Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon, and first built in 1964. It was Britain's first public, walk-through aviary, and primarily housed shorebirds such as gulls and ibis. In 2021, the aviary was re-developed into a walkthrough enclosure called "Monkey Valley", which opened to the public in August 2022 and houses a troop of eastern black and white colobus monkeys.


title: London Zoo

text: Land of the Lions is London Zoo's Asiatic lion enclosure. It covers 2,500 square metres, and is designed to resemble an Indian town on the edge of the Gir Forest National Park, intended to demonstrate how the lion's natural habitat overlaps with local urban environments. Hanuman langurs, common dwarf mongooses and Rüppell's vultures are also dislayed in this area.


title: London Zoo

text: Tiger Territory is London Zoo's Sumatran tiger enclosure, designed by architect Michael Kozdon and officially opened by the Duke of Edinburgh in March 2013. The zoo currently owns five tigers, a male named Asim, a female named Gaysha, and their three cubs born in June 2022. The enclosure is 2,500 square metres (27,000 square feet) in size, and features authentic Indonesian plant life, as well as a net canopy of 3mm steel cable supported by four metal poles. Reeves's muntjacs, northern white-cheeked gibbons and babirusas are also displayed in this area.


title: London Zoo

text: Opened by the Duke of Edinburgh in March 2007, Gorilla Kingdom consists of a moated island, home to a group of western lowland gorillas. The zoo currently owns four gorillas: two adult females named Mjuuku and Effie, an infant female named Alika (the daughter of Mjuuku and former silverback Kumbuka) born in December 2014, and an infant male named Gernot born in November 2015. The Gorilla Kingdom area also features smaller enclosures housing white-naped mangabeys and Celebes crested macaques.


title: London Zoo

text: Into Africa is an Africa-themed area opened in April 2006. Animals on display in this area include Chapman's zebras, common warthogs, okapis, Rothschild's giraffes, pygmy hippos and African wild dogs. London Zoo's Giraffe House was first built in 1837, and is the world's oldest zoo building that is still used for its original purpose. The current giraffe enclosure features a high-level viewing platform to give the public face-to-face contact with the giraffes.


title: London Zoo

text: Rainforest Life is a walk-through indoor exhibit that houses many species of rainforest animals. Among the species in the main forest walk-through are Linnaeus's two-toed sloths, golden lion tamarins, red titi monkeys, red-faced spider monkeys, big hairy armadillos, Goeldi's marmosets, southern tamandua and Rodrigues flying foxes. The building also has a darkened area called "Nightlife", which houses nocturnal animals such as Mohol bushbaby, slender lorises, West African pottos, Malagasy giant rats and blind cave fish.


title: London Zoo

text: The Mappin Terraces was first opened in 1913, and features an artificial rocky cliff made of concrete blocks for animal enrichment. This was the zoo's first major attempt at recreating natural environments, and many different species have been kept in this enclosure during its lifetime, including bears, penguins, sheep, goats and wild boar. The Mappin Terraces is currently an Australia-themed exhibit called "The Outback", housing emus and red-necked wallabies.


title: London Zoo

text: There was an aquarium at the zoo from 1853 until 2019. The zoo's first aquarium was also the world's first public aquarium, and was created and stocked by Philip Henry Gosse who coined the word "aquarium". The most recent aquarium was built in 1921 next to the Mappin Terraces, and was officially opened by King George V and his wife Queen Mary in April 1924.


title: London Zoo

text: The aquarium was separated into three halls, each home to different types of fish and other aquatic wildlife. The first hall primarily contained freshwater species such as rudd and European eels, as well as some saltwater species involved in various conservation projects and captive-breeding programmes, such as broad sea fans, uarus and seahorses. The second hall displayed various species of coral reef fish from around the world, such as clownfish, copperband butterflyfish and regal tangs, as well as real coral. The third hall housed species native to the Amazon River, including red-bellied piranhas, angelfish, arapaimas and ocellate river stingrays. As well as the three halls, the aquarium also featured the "Big Fish Tank", which contained large fish species that were all former pets, and had to be rescued because their owners did not have the proper equipment or understanding to look after them.


title: London Zoo

text: The aquarium closed on 22 October 2019; some animals were moved to a new aquarium at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo, while others were set to be housed in a new corals exhibit in the B.U.G.S building in 2020.


title: London Zoo

text: Animal Adventure (formerly called the Ambika Paul Children's Zoo) opened in 2009 and is an area aimed primarily at children, featuring playgrounds and a water fountain. It was built after a child who loved visiting the zoo with her family, Ambika Paul, passed away from cancer. Her parents donated £1,000,000 to the zoo to build a children’s zoo in her honor. Many of the animals in Animal Adventure are domestic animals, such as llamas, alpacas, and goats, as well as kunekune pigs. Exotic species on display include Cape porcupines, South American coatis and yellow mongooses.


title: London Zoo

text: At approximately 6am on Saturday 23 December 2017, a large fire started at Animal Adventure. It was brought under control by 9:30am after spreading to the cafe/shop there, three quarters of which was estimated to have been severely damaged. A nine-year-old aardvark named Misha was pronounced dead, and four meerkats were declared unaccounted for and presumed dead. The zoo reopened on Christmas Eve.


title: London Zoo

text: One of London Zoo's most well-known buildings, the Reptile House opened in 1927 and was designed by Joan Beauchamp Procter and Sir Edward Guy Dawber. It houses several species of reptile, including Jamaican boa, Philippine crocodiles, Annam leaf turtles, Fiji banded iguanas, northern caiman lizards, puff adders, king cobras and emerald tree boas. In December 2012, a refurbished amphibian section was opened to the public, displaying amphibians such as Chinese giant salamanders, axolotls, African bullfrogs, Lake Oku clawed frogs, White's tree frogs and various types of poison dart frog.


title: London Zoo

text: Giants of the Galápagos was opened in 2009 to coincide with the 200th birthday of Charles Darwin, and is home to three female Galápagos giant tortoises named Dolly, Polly and Priscilla. The exhibit features a large indoor area, with a heated pond and underfloor heating, while the outdoor paddock has been designed to mimic the tortoise's natural environment and features two heated pools, one of which is a naturalistic clay wallow.


title: London Zoo

text: London Zoo's Komodo dragon enclosure was opened by Sir David Attenborough in July 2004. The zoo used to own two Komodo dragons, a female named Rinka and a male named Raja. Raja was filmed in his exhibit for an action sequence in the 2012 James Bond film "Skyfall". A new male dragon called Ganas (one of the parthenogenic hatchlings from Chester Zoo) moved to London in 2015 after the previous dragons died. Their enclosure is designed to resemble the dragon's natural habitat of a dry river bed, and sounds of Indonesian birds are regularly played into the enclosure.


title: London Zoo

text: Tiny Giants, formerly called B.U.G.S.) is an exhibit featuring invertebrates and fish. It is held in a building called The Millennium Conservation Centre, and the building displays over 160 species, including western honey bees, leafcutter ants, emperor scorpions, golden orb weavers, Madagascar orb weavers, Mexican redknee tarantulas, bird-eating spiders, desert locusts, moon jellyfish, partula snails and many others. It also features a large coral reef aquarium with corals and over 200 reef fish. The Millennium Conservation Centre aims to be environmentally friendly, constructed from materials requiring little energy to produce, and generating its heating from the body heat of both the animals and visitors. In May 2015, an exhibit called In With the Spiders opened in the exhibit as Europe's first and only spider walkthrough exhibit. It houses many different types of spiders including one of the United Kingdom's most endangered animals, the fen raft spider. as well as golden orb weavers.


title: London Zoo

text: Penguin Beach opened on 26 May 2011 and 2019 and houses Humboldt penguins. Until March 2017, a single male northern rockhopper penguin named Ricky also lived here, before being moved to ZSL Whipsnade Zoo. The pool itself is currently the largest penguin pool with penguins in an English zoo. Penguin Beach is available on a public hire basis for events outside the zoo's normal opening hours.


title: London Zoo

text: Opened in March 2015, In with the Lemurs is a walk-through exhibit housing a group of ring-tailed lemurs and Lac Aloatra bamboo lemurs. It also has a family of aye-ayes living in the indoor section as well as lesser hedgehog tenrecs. The exhibit is designed to resemble a shrub forest in Madagascar, featuring plant life such as loquat and Chusan palm trees.


title: London Zoo

text: Opened by comedians Noel Fielding and Julian Barratt of The Mighty Boosh in 2005, Meet the Monkeys is a walk-through enclosure that houses a troop of black-capped squirrel monkeys. The exhibit has no roof, and there are no boundaries between the monkeys and the visitors. It is the southernmost enclosure in the zoo.


title: London Zoo

text: Opened in May 2006, Butterfly Paradise houses several different species of butterfly and moth from around the world, as well as plant species specially selected to provide nectar and breeding areas for the insects. Species on display include the clipper butterfly, blue morpho butterfly, atlas moth, zebra longwing, glasswing butterfly and postman butterfly. The exhibit also features a caterpillar hatchery and a pupa display cabinet, where visitors can witness different types of pupae and the development of new butterflies.


title: London Zoo

text: The Bird Safari opened in 2005 as a redevelopment of the old stork and ostrich house, replacing enclosures that were out of date by modern zoo-keeping standards. It is a walk-through exhibit housing various species of birds including waldrapp ibises, Abdim's storks, Fischer's turacos, hamerkops, white-faced whistling ducks and blue-bellied rollers.


title: London Zoo

text: The Blackburn Pavilion is a rainforest-themed tropical bird aviary that opened in March 2008, as a refurbishment of the zoo's out-of-date bird house. The building was originally constructed in 1883, as a reptile house. The pavilion houses fifty different species of exotic birds, among which include Socorro doves, red-crested turacos, splendid sunbirds and red-and-yellow barbets. Outside the entrance is one of the pavilion's prominent features, a large elaborate clock by Tim Hunkin. It gives a bird-themed display every thirty minutes throughout the day.


title: London Zoo

text: Other notable animals in London Zoo's collection include greater flamingos, Bactrian camels, red river hogs, military macaws, hyacinth macaws, blue-throated macaws, meerkats, Asian small-clawed otters and great white pelicans.


title: London Zoo

text: The zoo plans to create better accessibility, which will involve relocating the main entrance to the east, adjacent to the Broad Walk in Regent's Park.


title: London Zoo

text: In November 2016, Foster + Partners were appointed to redevelop and upgrade the Snowdon Aviary with a colobus monkey walkthrough.


title: London Zoo

text: Throughout its history, the zoo has had many well-known residents. These may have been scientifically important individuals or simply beloved by the public.


title: London Zoo

text: Old Martin was a large grizzly bear, the first in Britain, moved to the zoo with many other animals from the Royal Menagerie, Tower of London when it was closed in 1832.


title: London Zoo

text: The zoo was home to the only living quagga ever to be photographed, before the species became extinct in the wild due to hunting in southern Africa in about 1870. Another now extinct species the zoo held was a number of thylacines, or "Tasmanian tigers".


title: London Zoo

text: Obaysch was the first hippopotamus to be seen in Europe since the Roman Empire, and the first in England since prehistoric times. The hippo arrived at London Zoo in May 1850 as a gift from the Ottoman Viceroy of Egypt in exchange for some greyhounds and deerhounds. Obaysch led to a doubling of the zoo's visitors that year.


title: London Zoo

text: In 1865, Jumbo, the largest elephant known at the time, was transferred to the zoo from Jardin des Plantes in Paris. His name, possibly from "Jambo", Swahili for "hello", became an epithet for anything of large size, such as Boeing's 747 Jumbo jet. Jumbo became a crowd favourite due to his size, and would give rides to children on his back, including those of Queen Victoria. The sale of Jumbo sent the citizens of London into a panic, and 100,000 school children wrote to the Queen begging her to stop the sale. He was sold to Phineas Barnum's circus, the Barnum & Bailey Circus, in 1882, where he was later crushed by a locomotive and killed.


title: London Zoo

text: Winnipeg the Bear (or Winnie) was an American black bear given to the zoo in 1914 by a Canadian lieutenant, Harry Colebourn. A. A. Milne visited with his son Christopher Robin, and the boy was so enamoured with the bear Milne wrote the famous series of books for him entitled "Winnie-the-Pooh". A 2004 film "A Bear Named Winnie" is based on the story of Winnie the bear, with Michael Fassbender playing Harry Colebourn.


title: London Zoo

text: Mo Koundje ('Mok'), a western lowland gorilla, was purchased by the zoo in 1932. A new gorilla house was designed for him by Berthold Lubetkin. Mok died of Bright's disease in 1938. His skeleton and skin were purchased by Leeds Museums and Galleries and are on display in Leeds, UK at Leeds City Museum and Leeds Discovery Centre.


title: London Zoo

text: Guy, a western lowland gorilla, arrived at the zoo on Guy Fawkes Night (hence the name) 1947 from Paris Zoo, and lived at the zoo until his death in 1978. Over his 32-year life, he became one of the zoo's best-loved residents. After years of trying to find a mate, in 1969 five-year-old Lomie arrived from Chessington Zoo. They were kept separated for a year to adjust to each other, until they were finally united. Although they got on well together they never produced any offspring. In 1982 Guy was commemorated by a bronze statue in Barclay Court, sculpted by William Timym.


title: London Zoo

text: Dumbo (born 1948) was a female Indian elephant who lived at London Zoo during the 1950s and was well known for her fondness for sweets. Her parents were killed by hunters, and she was transported from India to England by air, where she spent her adult life giving rides to the children. Dumbo was named after the eponymous Disney character because she was the first elephant to travel by airplane. In 1958 she was transferred to Moscow Zoo in return for four endangered snow leopards. At some point between 1962 and 1971, Dumbo was acquired by circus performer Dolly Jacobs, but by 1978 she had been sold to Hollywood circus producer Paul V. Kaye and was living in California with three other elephants.


title: London Zoo

text: On 27 November 1949, Brumas became the first polar bear to be successfully bred at the zoo, and immediately became a major attraction with the public. This led to the zoo's annual attendance to rise to over 3 million in 1950 - a figure that has yet to be topped. Although a female, the press reported that she was a 'he' and this was not corrected at the time, leading the public to believe the bear was a male. Eighteen years later, on 1 December 1967 the second polar bear bred at the zoo, this time a male, was born. He was named Pipaluk (a Greenlandic Inuit feminine given name meaning "little one" or "sweet little thing") but, in 1985, had to leave the zoo when the Mappin Terraces closed.


title: London Zoo

text: One of the zoo's most famous giant pandas, Chi Chi, arrived in 1958. Although originally destined for an American zoo, Washington, D.C. had ceased all trade with communist China and so Chi Chi was refused entry to the United States. In the interests of conservation, ZSL had stated they would not encourage the collection of wild pandas. However, when it was pointed out that Chi Chi had already been collected, her purchase was approved, and she immediately become the star attraction at London Zoo. As the only giant panda in the west she was the inspiration of Peter Scott's design for the World Wildlife Fund logo. In July 1972, Chi Chi died and was publicly mourned.


title: London Zoo

text: The zoo's last giant panda was Ming Ming. She arrived in 1991 on a breeding loan from China. After unsuccessful breeding attempts with Berlin's Zoo giant panda Bao Bao it had been decided to return Ming Ming to China, leaving the London Zoo without a giant panda since the end of October 1994. Zoo staff later suggested that Chinese zookeepers knew that she was infertile and lent her in order to hide how much more advanced Western husbandry techniques were compared to theirs.


title: London Zoo

text: For four days in late August 2005, the zoo ran an exhibit entitled the Human zoo, which put eight humans on display in the Mappin Terraces. The idea behind the exhibit was to demonstrate the basic nature of man as an animal and examine the impact we have on the animal kingdom.


title: London Zoo

text: Since its earliest days, the zoo has prided itself on appointing leading architects to design its buildings. Today, it holds two Grade I and eight Grade II listed structures.


title: London Zoo

text: The initial grounds were laid out in 1828 by Decimus Burton, the zoo's first official architect from 1826 to 1841, made famous for his work on the London Colosseum and Marble Arch. Burton's work began with the Clock Tower in 1828 above what was then the llama house, which today is the first aid kiosk. In 1830 the East Tunnel, which linked the north and south parts of the zoo together for the first time, was completed, which also acted as a bomb shelter during the Second World War. Burton concluded his work in 1837 with the Giraffe House, which, due to its functional design, still remains in use as the zoo's giraffe enclosure in the "Into Africa" exhibit.


title: London Zoo

text: After Burton, Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell and John James Joass were appointed to design the Mappin Terraces. Completed in 1914, the Mappin Terraces imitates a mountain landscape to provide a naturalistic habitat for bears and other mountain wildlife. In 1933 the Round House, designed by Berthold Lubetkin's Tecton Architectural Group to house gorillas, was one of the first modernist style buildings to be built in Britain. The following year the Penguin Pool also designed by Tecton, was opened; both now grade I listed. The Modernist dual concrete spiral ramps of the Penguin Pool have made it famous as a piece of modern architecture, but in 2004 the African penguins were moved out of the pool permanently following 'bumblefoot' infections in the birds caused by micro-abrasions from walking on the concrete.


title: London Zoo

text: The Snowdon Aviary, built-in 1964 by Cedric Price, Lord Snowdon and Frank Newby, made pioneering use of aluminium and tension for support. A year later the Casson Pavilion, designed by Sir Hugh Casson and Neville Conder, was opened as an elephant and rhinoceros house. The Pavilion was commissioned "to display these massive animals in the most dramatic way" and designed to evoke a herd of elephants gathered around a watering hole.


title: London Zoo

text: Many of these buildings are available on a private hire basis for events, as well as a number of the animal houses. The profits from use of spaces at the zoo are re-invested directly back into the society.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: The Port Chicago disaster was a deadly munitions explosion of the ship SS "E. A. Bryan" that occurred on July 17, 1944, at the Port Chicago Naval Magazine in Port Chicago, California, United States. Munitions detonated while being loaded onto a cargo vessel bound for the Pacific Theater of Operations, killing 320 sailors and civilians and injuring 390 others. Approximately two-thirds of the dead and injured were enlisted African American sailors.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: A month later, unsafe conditions inspired hundreds of servicemen to refuse to load munitions, an act known as the Port Chicago Mutiny. Fifty mencalled the "Port Chicago 50"were convicted of mutiny and sentenced to 15 years of prison and hard labor, as well as a dishonorable discharge. Forty-seven of the 50 were released in January 1946; the remaining three served additional months in prison.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: During and after the trial, questions were raised about the fairness and legality of the court-martial proceedings. Owing to public pressure, the United States Navy reconvened the courts-martial board in 1945; the court affirmed the guilt of the convicted men. Widespread publicity surrounding the case turned it into a "cause célèbre" among Americans opposing discrimination targeting African Americans; it and other race-related Navy protests of 1944–45 led the Navy to change its practices and initiate the desegregation of its forces beginning in February 1946. In 1994, the Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial was dedicated to the lives lost in the disaster.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: On June 11, 2019, a concurrent resolution sponsored by U.S. Representative Mark DeSaulnier was introduced in the 116th United States Congress. The resolution recognizes the victims of the explosion and officially exonerates the 50 men court-martialed by the Navy.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: The town of Port Chicago was located on Suisun Bay in the estuary of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. Suisun Bay is connected to the Pacific Ocean by San Francisco Bay. In 1944, the town was a little more than a mile from a U.S. Navy munitions depot, the Port Chicago Naval Magazine, which was later expanded and renamed the Concord Naval Weapons Station but is now called the Military Ocean Terminal Concord. The original magazine was planned in 1941 with construction beginning shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor. The first ship to dock at Port Chicago was loaded on December 8, 1942.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Munitions transported through the magazine included bombs, shells, naval mines, torpedoes, and small arms ammunition. The munitions, destined for the Pacific Theater of Operations, were delivered to the Port Chicago facility by rail then individually loaded by hand, crane and winch onto cargo ships for transport to the war zones. From the beginning, all the enlisted men employed as loaders at Port Chicago were African-American; all their commanding officers were white. All of the enlisted men had been specifically trained for one of the naval ratings during their stay at Naval Station Great Lakes (NSGL) but the men were instead put to work as stevedores. None of the new recruits had been instructed in ammunition loading.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: At NSGL, the enlisted African Americans who tested in the top 30 to 40% were selected for non-labor battalion assignments. Port Chicago was manned by workers drawn from those remaining. The Navy determined that the quality of African American petty officers at Port Chicago suffered because of the absence of high-scoring black men, and that overall levels of competence were further reduced by the occasional requirement for Port Chicago to supply drafts of men with clear records for transfer to other stations. The Navy's General Classification Test (GCT) results for the enlisted men at Port Chicago averaged 31, putting them in the lowest twelfth of the Navy. Officers at Port Chicago considered the enlisted men unreliable, emotional, and lacking the capacity to understand or remember orders or instructions.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Black laborers at Port Chicago were led by black petty officers who were regarded by some workers as incompetent and ineffective in voicing their men's concerns to higher authority. Petty officers were seen as having aims fundamentally different from those of their menthey were described later as "slave drivers" and "Uncle Toms". They and their men sometimes had an antagonistic relationship.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Captain Merrill T. Kinnecommander of the Port Chicago facility at the time of the explosionhad served in the Navy from 1915 to 1922 and had returned to the Navy from civilian life in 1941 to be posted aboard a general cargo ship. Prior to his being sent to command Port Chicago, Kinne had no training in the loading of munitions and very little experience in handling them. White loading officers serving underneath Kinne had not been trained in supervising enlisted personnel or in handling munitions until they had been posted to Mare Island Navy Yard, after which they were considered adequate to the task by the Navy.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Since April 1944 when Captain Kinne assumed command of Port Chicago, the loading officers had been pushing the enlisted men to load the explosive cargoes very quickly; per hatch per hour had been set as the desired level by Captain Nelson Goss, Commander Mare Island Navy Yard, whose jurisdiction included Port Chicago Naval Magazine. Most loading officers considered this goal too high. On a prominent chalkboard, Kinne tallied each crew's average tonnage per hour. The junior officers placed bets with each other in support of their own 100-man crewscalled "divisions" at Port Chicagoand coaxed their crews to load more than the others. The enlisted men were aware of the unsanctioned nature of the bets and knew to slow down to a more reasonable pace whenever a senior officer appeared. The average rate achieved at Port Chicago in the months leading up to July 1944 was per hatch per hour; commercial stevedores at Mare Island performed only slightly better at per hatch per hour.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: There was no system at Port Chicago for making sure officers and men were familiar with safety regulations. Two formal lectures and several informal lectures were given to the enlisted men by commanding officers, but follow-up confirmation of retained knowledge did not take place. Safety regulations were posted at a single location at the pier but not within each of the barracksKinne did not think the enlisted men would be able to comprehend such a list. The International Longshore and Warehouse Union (ILWU) responded to word of unsafe practices by offering to bring in experienced men to train the battalion but Navy leadership declined the offer, fearing higher costs, slower pace, and possible sabotage from civilian longshoremen. No enlisted man stationed at Port Chicago had ever received formal training in the handling and loading of explosives into ships. Even the officers did not receive training: Lieutenant Commander Alexander Holman, loading officer at Port Chicago whose duties included officer training, had initiated a search for training materials and samples but failed to organize a training class before disaster struck.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Powered winches were used on cargo ships to speed the handling of heavy loads. One winch was operated at each of the ship's five cargo holds. During loading operations, the winches were worked hard, requiring steady maintenance to remain operable. Winch brakesa safety feature provided for stopping the load from falling if the winch's main power was lostwere not often used by a skilled winch operator, as the load could be more quickly maneuvered using various power settings than by application of the brakes. Disused brakes sometimes seized up and stopped working. The winches on the SS "E. A. Bryan" were steam-powered and showed signs of wear, even though the ship was only five months old.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: On July 13, 1944, the day that the "E. A. Bryan", operated by Oliver J. Olson & Company for War Shipping Administration, docked at Port Chicago, the ship's winch brakes were found stuck in the "off" position, meaning that the winch could be operated freely, but lacked critical stopping capability if steam pressure was interrupted. The ship's chief mate and chief engineer were called to examine the winch but it was never determined whether the brake was made operational. During loading operations on July 15 the winch at hold began making a hammering noise. A steady application of grease quieted it through the night until its main bearing could be replaced the next morning on July 16. On the afternoon of July 17, a bleeder valve on winch required immediate repair. Albert Carr, a civil service plumber from Pittsburg, California, was called to replace it; it was his first day at Port Chicago. Carr pulled a broken nipple out of the bleeder valve and replaced both the nipple and the valve from new stock taken from Port Chicago's shop. While at work he witnessed a man accidentally drop a naval artillery shell two feet onto the wooden pier but there was no detonation. Carr waited until the African-American winch operator tested the newly repaired winch then hurriedly left the pier, thinking that the whole operation appeared unsafe.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: The enlisted men were leery of working with deadly explosives but were told by officers that the larger munitions were not active and could not explodethat they would be armed with their fuzes upon arrival at the combat theater. Handling of larger munitions, such as bombs and shells, involved using levers and crowbars from boxcars, in which they were packed tightly with dunnagelifting the heavy, grease-coated cylinders, rolling them along the wooden pier, packing them into nets, lifting them by winch and boom, lowering the bundle into the hold, then dropping individual munitions by hand a short distance into place. This series of actions was rough enough that damaged naval shells sometimes leaked identification dye from their ballistic caps.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Commander Paul B. Cronk, head of a Coast Guard explosives-loading detail tasked with supervision of the working dock, warned the Navy that conditions were unsafe and ripe for disaster. The Navy refused to change its procedures and Cronk withdrew the detail.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: The Liberty ship SS "E. A. Bryan" docked at the inboard, landward side of Port Chicago's single pier at 8:15 a.m. on July 13, 1944. The ship arrived at the dock with empty cargo holds but was carrying a full load of 5,292 barrels (841,360 liters) of bunker C heavy fuel oil for its intended trip across the Pacific Ocean. At 10 a.m. that same day, seamen from the ordnance battalion began loading the ship with munitions. After four days of around-the-clock loading, about 4,600 tons (4,173 tonnes) of explosives had been stored in its holds. The ship was about 40% full by the evening of July 17.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: At 10 p.m. on July 17, Division Three's 98 men were loading "E. A. Bryan" with bombs into hold, 40 mm shells into hold and fragmentation cluster bombs into hold. Incendiary bombs were being loaded as well; these bombs weighed each and were "live"they had their fuzes installed. The incendiary bombs were being loaded carefully one at a time into holdthe hold with a winch brake that might still have been inoperative.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: A boxcar delivery containing a new airborne anti-submarine depth charge design, the Mark 47 armed with of torpex, was being loaded into hold. The torpex charges were more sensitive than TNT to external shock and container dents. On the pier, resting on three parallel rail spurs, were sixteen rail cars holding about of explosives. In all, the munitions on the pier and in the ship contained the equivalent of approximately of TNT.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: One hundred and two men of the Sixth Division, many fresh from training at NSGL, were busy rigging the newly built Victory ship (also spelled "Quinalt Victory") in preparation for loading it with explosives, a task that was to begin at midnight. The "Quinault Victory" contained a partial load of fuel oil, some of which was of a type that released flammable fumes as it sat, or upon agitation. The fuel, taken aboard at Shell Oil Company's Martinez refinery mid-day on July 17, would normally be sluiced to other fuel tanks in the following 24 hours.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Sixty-seven officers and crew of the two ships were at their stations, and various support personnel were present such as the three-man civilian train crew and a Marine sentry. Nine Navy officers and 29 armed guards watched over the procedure. A Coast Guard fire barge with a crew of five was docked at the pier. An officer who left the docks shortly after 10 p.m. noticed that the "Quinault Victory"′s propeller was slowly turning over and that the men of Division Three were having trouble pulling munitions from the rail cars because they had been packed so tightly.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: At 10:18 p.m., witnesses reported hearing a noise described as "a metallic sound and rending timbers, such as made by a falling boom." Immediately afterward, an explosion occurred on the pier and a fire started. Five to seven seconds later a more powerful explosion took place as the majority of the ordnance within and near the SS "E. A. Bryan" detonated in a fireball seen for miles. An Army Air Forces pilot flying in the area reported that the fireball was in diameter. Chunks of glowing hot metal and burning ordnance were flung over into the air. The "E. A. Bryan" was completely destroyed and the "Quinault Victory" was blown out of the water, torn into sections and thrown in several directions; the stern landed upside down in the water away. The Coast Guard fire boat CG-60014-F was thrown upriver, where it sank. The pier, along with its boxcars, locomotive, rails, cargo, and men, was blasted into pieces. Nearby boxcarswaiting within their revetments to be unloaded at midnightwere bent inward and crumpled by the force of the shock. The port's barracks and other buildings and much of the surrounding town were severely damaged. Shattered glass and a rain of jagged metal and undetonated munitions caused many more injuries among military personnel and civilians, although no one outside the immediate pier area was killed. Nearly $9.9 million worth of damage ($ million in ) was caused to U.S. government property. Seismographs at the University of California, Berkeley sensed the two shock waves traveling through the ground, determining the second, larger event to be equivalent to an earthquake measuring 3.4 on the Richter magnitude scale.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: All 320 of the men on duty at the pier died instantly, and 390 civilians and military personnel were injured, many seriously. Among the dead were all five Coast Guard personnel posted aboard the fire barge. African-American casualties totaled 202 dead and 233 injured, which accounted for 15% of all African-American casualties during World War II. Naval personnel worked quickly to contain the fires and to prevent other explosions. Injuries were treated, those seriously injured were hospitalized, and uninjured servicemen were evacuated to nearby stations.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: After the fires had been contained there remained the task of cleaning upbody parts and corpses littered the bay and port. Of the 320 dead, only 51 could be identified. Most of the uninjured sailors volunteered to help clean up and rebuild the base; Division Two was separated into a group that would stay and clean up and a group that would be moved out. This section of Division Two and all of Divisions Four and Eight were transferred to Camp Shoemaker, about south, where they were assigned barracks duty until July 31, 1944. The men of Divisions One, Five and Seven were reassigned other duty in distant locations and shipped out. The cleanup detail from Division Two dug into the wreckage of the pier and began tearing out the damaged portions. Beginning in August, Divisions Four and Eight and both sections of Division Two moved to the Ryder Street Naval Barracks in Vallejo, California, across a short channel from Mare Island, where they were assigned barracks duties with no ship-loading. The men were in a state of shock; all were nervous. Many of them inquired about obtaining a 30-day "survivor's leave" sometimes given by the Navy to sailors who had survived a serious incident where their friends or shipmates had died, but no 30-day leaves were granted, not even to those who had been hospitalized with injuries. White officers, however, received the leave, causing a major grievance among the enlisted men.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: A Naval Board of Inquiry was convened on July 21, 1944, to find out what had happened. The official proceeding lasted for 39 days and included interviews with witnesses who were officers, civilians and enlisted men. Ordnance experts were questioned as well as inspectors who had overseen previous loading procedures. Five African Americans were questioned, none of whom later refused to load ammunition. Captain Kinne's posted division tonnage results came to light in the inquiry but Kinne stated that the competition to load the most tonnage did not make for unsafe conditions; he implied that any junior officers who said so did not know what they were talking about.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: The inquiry covered possible explosion scenarios involving sabotage, faulty fueling procedures, failure of the moorings of the "Quinault Victory", defects in munitions, the presence of a super sensitive element in the ordnance, problems with steam winches and rigging, rough handling by loaders and organizational problems within the base. The Navy determined that the tonnage contest between divisions was not at fault, although the Judge Advocate warned that "the loading of explosives should never be a matter of competition." The officers in charge were cleared of guilt. The report stated that the cause of the explosion could not be determined, but implied that a mistake made by the enlisted men in the handling of the ordnance was most likely at root. No mention was made of the men's lack of training in the handling of explosives.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: The Navy asked Congress to give each victim's family $5,000. Representative John E. Rankin (D-Miss.) insisted the amount be reduced to $2,000 when he learned most of the dead were black men. Congress settled on $3,000 in compensation. Years later, on March 4, 1949, the heirs of eighteen merchant seamen killed in the explosion were granted a total of $390,000 after gaining approval of their consent decrees in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: The Government announced on August 23, 1951, that it had settled the last in a series of lawsuits relating to the disaster, when it awarded Mrs. Sirvat Arsenian of Fresno, California, $9,700 for the death of her 26-year-old son, a merchant marine crewman killed in the blast. She had sought $50,000.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: A memorial ceremony was held for the victims on July 31, 1944, at Port Chicago. Admiral Carleton H. Wright, Commander, 12th Naval District, spoke of the unfortunate deaths and the need to keep the base operating during a time of war. He gave Navy and Marine Corps Medals for bravery to four officers and men who had successfully fought a fire in a rail car parked within a revetment near the pier. The remains of 44 of the victims were interred at Golden Gate National Cemetery.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Wright soon began implementing a plan to have two groups of white sailors load ammunition in rotation with black sailors: one division of 100 men at Mare Island and another at Port Chicago. No plan was forwarded to use black officers to command the black sailors, and no plan included any form of desegregation. This was the start of the Port Chicago Mutiny. Wright sent an incident report of this mutiny to Washington, D.C., telling his superior officers that the men's "refusal to perform the required work arises from a mass fear arising out of the Port Chicago explosion." Wright's report was passed to President Franklin D. Roosevelt by Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal who added his opinion that it was "mass fear" motivating the work stoppage. Forrestal told Roosevelt that white units of munitions loaders were to be added to the rotation "...to avoid any semblance of discrimination against ." Roosevelt forwarded a copy to his wife Eleanor, knowing of her ongoing advocacy of civil rights for African Americans.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Divisions Two, Four and Eightreinforced with replacement sailors fresh from training at NSGLwere taken to Mare Island Navy Yard, where there was an ammunition depot and loading piers. On August 8, 1944, the docked to be loaded with naval mines and other munitions. The next day, 328 men were assembled and marched off. When they heard the orders "Column left" and "Forward March" to march toward the ammunition loading dock, the entire group stopped and would not continue. All said they were afraid and that they would not load munitions under the same officers and conditions as before. It was a mass work stoppage, which would have been called a strike if the workers had been civilians.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: The Navy would not countenance such conduct, especially in time of war. Seventy of the men changed their minds after their superior officers made it clear that loading ammunition was their duty. The 258 African-American sailors in the ordnance battalion who continued to refuse to load ammunition were taken under guard to a barge that was used as a temporary military prison or "brig", despite having been built to accommodate only 75 men. Most of the men in the brig had not been given a direct orderthey had simply been asked if they were going to load ships or not, and to step to one side if not. All said they were afraid of another explosion. Civilian stevedore contractors were called to replace the imprisoned men in loading the "Sangay".


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Among the prisoners, Seaman First Class Joseph Randolph "Joe" Small, a winch operator in Division Four was asked by officers to assemble a handful of reliable men as a team of acting petty officers and to keep the other prisoners on good behavior. On August 10, there had been conflicts between the prisoners and their guards as the prisoners were marched to the mess hall for meals. There was also a brief fight in the mess hall, and some prisoners were seen sharpening spoons into makeshift knives. Small sensed a general air of rebelliousness among the prisoners. To counteract the rising tension and offset the disaster he saw coming, Small convened a short meeting that evening aboard the crowded barge and told the prisoners to "knock off the horseplay", stay out of trouble and obey the shore patrol guards (who were black) and the officers, because the alternative (white Marines as guards) would be worse. He said to the men, "We've got the officers by the ballsthey can do nothing to us if we don't do anything to them. If we stick together, they can't do anything to us."


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: On August 11, 1944, the 258 men from the prison barge were marched to a nearby sports field and lectured by Admiral Wright, who told them that troops fighting on Saipan desperately needed the ammunition they were supposed to be loading and that continued refusal to work would be treated as mutinous conduct, which carried the death penalty in times of war. Wright, who had seen nearly 400 of his men killed in 1942 in the Battle of Tassafaronga, said that although loading ammunition was risky, death by firing squad was the greater hazard.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: After the admiral departed, the men were ordered to separate themselves into two groups, one for those willing to obey all orders and one for those not willing. To a man, Division Eight chose to obey all orders. Divisions Two and Four were split by the decisions of their men: Small and 43 others chose to form a group unwilling to obey every order. These 44 were taken back to the brig and the remaining 214 were sent to barracks. On the morning of August 12, six men from Divisions Two and Four who had put themselves in the obey-all-orders group failed to show up for work call; these six were confined to the brig, making 50 prisoners in all. These 50 were identified by the Navy as mutineers.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Throughout August, all 258 sailors were taken to Camp Shoemaker and questioned. Forty-nine of the 50 "mutineers" were imprisoned in the camp's brig. Joe Small was placed in solitary confinement. Each of the men was interviewed by officers, sometimes in the presence of an armed guard. Questions focused on identifying "ringleaders" of the work-stoppage and on what was said by whom at the meeting on the prison barge. The men were asked to sign statements summarizing the interrogation, but the officer's version rarely matched the enlisted man's recollection of the interview. Some men, upon seeing that the written statements did not reflect what they had said, refused to sign. Others felt they had no choice but to signthey were being ordered to do so by an officer. Several men refused to give any statement at all. Others spoke freely, thinking that the officer was their defense counsel.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: After all the interviews concluded, the group of 208 men were convicted in summary courts-martial of disobeying orders, Article 4 of the Articles for the Government of the United States Navy (Rocks and Shoals). Each man was subject to forfeiture of three months' pay. A few of them were held as witnesses in the upcoming mutiny trial. The rest were split into smaller groups and shipped out to various places in the Pacific Theater. Carl Tuggle, one of the 208, said in 1998 that a group of prisoners including himself were assigned menial tasks such as cleaning latrines and picking up cigarette butts at a series of Pacific islands. After returning from active duty, they each received bad conduct discharges, which meant the loss of virtually all veterans' benefits.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: The 50 remaining mensoon to be known as the "Port Chicago 50"were formally charged in early September 1944 with disobeying orders and making a mutiny "with a deliberate purpose and intent to override superior military authority". This was a crime punishable by death since the United States was at war. Even if the men were not given death sentences, they could get prison terms of 15 years.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: The Navy set up the court-martial in a disused Marine barracks building on Yerba Buena Island, part of Naval Training and Distribution Center (later "Naval Station") Treasure Island, halfway between Oakland and San Francisco. Reporters from the major and local newspapers were invited to watch the proceedings; Navy public relations officers gave reporters copies of photographs and press statements describing the trial as the first mutiny trial in World War II and the largest mass trial the Navy had ever convened. Chosen to head the seven-man court was Rear Admiral Hugo Wilson Osterhaus, United States Naval Academy, class of 1900. The prosecution team was led by Lieutenant Commander James F. Coakley who had recently served as deputy chief prosecutor in Alameda County under district attorney Earl Warren. Defending the accused men were six Navy lawyers, one as leader of the team and one attorney for every 10 men. Lieutenant Gerald E. Veltmann headed the defense.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Veltmann and his team talked to the accused men prior to the trial to prepare their defense. They discovered that not all of the 50 were experienced ship loaders. Two of the men taken to the brig had never before loaded ammunitionthey were permanently assigned as cooks because of physical conditions making them unsuited to loading. The two cooks had responded "no" when asked if they would load munitions. Another of the 50, who had a broken wrist in a sling was also asked if he would load ammunition, to which he replied that he would not. More importantly, Veltmann sensed that the men had not conspired to seize command from their superior officers. In a pre-trial brief, Veltmann cited the definition of mutiny from "Winthrop's Military Law and Precedents" and asked that the mutiny charges be dismissed as the formal charges against the 50 men failed to allege that they conspired together deliberately to "usurp, subvert or override superior military authority". Coakley opposed with a brief stating that, under military law, a persistent refusal to work by two or more mensomething that might be called a "strike" among civilianswas sufficient proof of a conspiracy to override superior military authority and was equivalent to mutiny. Osterhaus agreed with Coakley and refused Veltmann's motion; the trial would proceed as planned.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: The trial started on September 14 with each of the 50 men pleading "not guilty". Coakley began his prosecution by calling officers from Port Chicago and Mare Island as witnesses. Commander Joseph R. Tobin of Ryder Street Naval Barracks said that he personally ordered six or seven of the men to load munitions on August 9 but was unable to verify if any others were so ordered. He said that the men he had spoken with were willing to follow any order except to load munitions; that each man expressed fear of another explosion. Tobin verified that the men were not aggressive or disrespectful. Lieutenant Ernest Delucchi, Commander of Division Four at Port Chicago, testified that he personally ordered only four of the 50 defendants to load munitions. Delucchi described overhearing men of Division Eight say to his men, "Don't go to work for the white motherfuckers" but, under cross-examination, was unable to identify who said it. Veltmann objected to this hearsay but was overruled after Coakley explained it was evidence toward conspiracy.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: On September 15, Delucchi continued his testimony, saying that some of his men told him they would obey all orders and perform all work except loading ammunition because they were afraid of it. Delucchi confirmed that a cook and a man with a broken wrist were among the 25 men in his division that now sat among the 50 accused. Delucchi added that the cook and a second man were sailors he did not consider "up to par"; the cook in particular was prone to nervous attacks and was seen as a liability at the pier.


title: Port Chicago disaster

text: Later in the trial, Lieutenant Carleton MorehouseCommander of Division Eight at Port Chicagotook the stand to say that at the first sign of problems on August 9, he assembled his men and read their names off alphabetically, ordering each man to work. Ninety-six of 104 refused and were sent to the prison barge, but all of these men agreed to work after hearing Admiral Wright's speech on August 11; none of Morehouse's men were on trial for mutiny. Morehouse confirmed to Veltmann that some of his men had said they were afraid to handle ammunition. Following Morehouse, Lieutenant James E. Tobin, Commander of Division Two, took the stand. Lieutenant Tobin (no relation to Commander Joseph R. Tobin) related that 87 of his men initially refused to work but that number was reduced to 22 after Admiral Wright talked about the firing squad. Tobin said he put three additional men in the brig the next morning when they, too, refused to work, saying they were afraid. Tobin affirmed that one of the accused men from Division Two was permanently assigned the job of cook because he weighed and was considered too small to safely load ammo.