title: Albany, Georgia

text: While integral to the economic life of the town, the Flint River has flooded regularly. It caused extensive property damage in 1841 and 1925. The city has also been subject to tornadoes. On February 10, 1940, a severe tornado hit Albany, killing eighteen people and causing large-scale damage.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: On April 11, 1906, the Carnegie Library, created by matching funds from the philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, was opened downtown. Originally a segregated facility under Jim Crow laws, it was not open to African Americans until after the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It functioned as a library through 1985. In 1992, after renovation, the building was reopened as the headquarters of the Albany Area Arts Council.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: In 1912, the downtown U.S. Post Office and courthouse building opened. Other federal projects have been important to the city and region. In 1937, Chehaw Park was constructed as a part of a New Deal program under the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Major changes came with the expansion of military facilities in the city, secured by the powerful Southern Block in Congress. A U.S. Army Air Corps training base was built near Albany on land owned by the city and leased to the Air Corps for $1 a year. Construction of the base and airfield by the Army Corps of Engineers began on March 25, 1941. After being used during World War II, the airfield was temporarily deactivated between August 15, 1946, and September 1, 1947.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: After the beginning of the Cold War and the founding of the U.S. Air Force in late 1947, the airfield was reactivated and upgraded with runways for a U.S. Air Force base. It was named Turner Air Force Base. The Air Force used this base for heavy bomber jets, such as the B-52 Stratofortress. A number of other Air Force units were also housed at this base.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: In 1951, the U.S. Marine Corps established a logistics base on the eastern outskirts of Albany. During the 1950s and 1960s, so many white servicemen and associated workers arrived that the city briefly became majority white for the first time since 1870.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: In 1960, the population of Albany reached 50,000 people. During 1961–1962, African Americans in Albany played a prominent role in the Civil Rights Movement (see the Albany Movement). They led protests and non-violent demonstrations to end segregation of public facilities, gain the right to vote, and advance social justice. Assisted by activists from SCLC, CORE, SNCC, and the NAACP, African Americans and supporters took a stand to fight segregation through nonviolence. The city repealed its Jim Crow laws in 1963, but African Americans did not recover the ability to exercise their voting rights until Congress passed enforcement authority with the Voting Rights Act of 1965.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: In 1967, the Air Force closed all its operations at the base, which was transferred to the U.S. Navy and renamed Naval Air Station Albany. NAS Albany was used as the shore base of nearly all the Navy's RA-5C Vigilante twin-jet, carrier-based reconnaissance aircraft. In 1974, the base was closed and the property was returned to the city.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: In 1979, the Miller Brewing Company purchased part of the old naval base's property to build a new brewery.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The decline in military bases and railroad restructuring nationwide both led to job losses in the Albany area. Much of the remaining white population moved to suburbs and newer housing out of the city, which became majority African American in the 1970s. Struggling with a poor economy, in 1988 Albany made national headlines as the "Murder Capital of America," with the highest murder rate per capita in the United States. Other cities have since taken that title.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Some late twentieth-century floods have been extreme. In 1994, a severe flood was caused by rainfall from Tropical Storm Alberto; it killed 14 people and displaced 22,000. The state supported a $150 million renovation of the Albany State University campus to repair storm damage and complete upgrades. New housing was built on the south side of town to replace what had been destroyed. In 1998, the Flint River crested at above its bed and flooded parts of the city.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Because of such flooding, the city has decided against redeveloping areas along the riverfront floodplain for commercial or residential purposes. This area is being improved for other uses, with a riverfront walkway and a new aquarium built over a tributary creek.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: On January 2 and 22, 2017, violent tornadoes passed through the area, claiming several lives and destroying mobile home parks in the process.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: On October 10, 2018 Hurricane Michael, the first major hurricane (Category 3+) to directly impact Georgia since the 1890s, plowed through South Georgia leaving widespread devastation in its path.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany is located at (31.582273, −84.165557). It lies in a belt of historically rich farmland in the East Gulf coastal plain, on the banks of the Flint River.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany is located in southwestern Georgia, southeast of Columbus, south of Atlanta, south of Americus, southwest of Macon, west of Tifton, northwest of Valdosta, north of Tallahassee, Florida, east of Eufaula, Alabama, and east of Dothan, Alabama.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: , the City of Albany had been a member of the Arbor Day Foundation's Tree City USA Program for 23 years. Tree-lined streets are common, with large, mature oaks and other native trees. The city has a Tree Ordinance and a certified arborist on staff.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The City of Albany Government's Recreation and Parks Department provides a diverse and comprehensive system of 77 park facilities throughout the City of Albany.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany's Garden Club was established in 1996 and is located on the northeast side of Hillsman Park in the Palmyra Heights neighborhood.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany's Riverfront Trail is a paved trail along the Flint River that connects Riverfront Park in downtown Albany to the Cox Landing Boat Ramp in northeast Albany, near Chehaw Park. The Oxford Environmental Park Nature Trail is an offshoot of the trail, which provides information about the ecological features of the area.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Albany has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps. Albany receives well above the national average amount of precipitation. Much of this comes in the form of heavy showers and thunderstorms. According to "Cities Ranked and Rated" (Bert Sperling and Peter Sander), Albany reports thunder on 86 days per year. This is more than twice the national average.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the Albany, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) had an estimated population of 157,308 and ranked 252nd in the U.S. in 2010. The MSA consists of Dougherty, Terrell, Lee, Worth, and Baker Counties.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 69,647 people, 25,640 households, and 13,815 families residing in the city.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 77,434 people, 29,781 households, and 18,515 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 33,436 housing units at an average density of .


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The racial makeup of the city was 71.6% black, 25.2% white, 0.2% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.9% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.1% of the population.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Of the 29,781 total households, 29.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.7% were married couples living together, 27.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.8% were non-families. Households of individuals living alone made up 31.8% of the total, and 9.4% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.11.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 27.8% under the age of 18, 13.0% from 18 to 24, 27.7% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.6 males. For every 100 males age 18 and over, there were 116.7 females.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The median household income in the city was $25,191, and the median income for a family was $35,067. Males had a median income of $31,104 versus $27,407 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,117. About 31.9% of families and 39.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 55.4% of those under age 18 and 13.8% of those persons age 65 and over.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Today, although the city is surrounded by pecan groves, pine trees, farms and plantations, almost none of the population is employed in agriculture. It has become heavily industrialized, and most business is conducted on a multinational scale. The city developed on both sides of the Flint River.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Health care, education and the Marine Corps Logistics Base Albany are the largest employers. Manufacturing, transportation, and retail trade are also important foundations of Albany's economy, and the city acts as a hub for commerce in southwest Georgia.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: On December 17, 2008, Cooper Tire and Rubber, one of Albany's largest employers, announced plans to close the local manufacturing facility. Approximately 1,400 employees at the plant were projected to lose their jobs.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: As a result of the Great Recession, unemployment remained higher in Albany than the country average. But in 2012 Albany continued to add more new jobs while other portions of the state were trying to stem the tide of joblessness.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany has a skilled workforce, makes continual upgrades to its infrastructure, and has improvements in public safety, such as its ISO fire rating of 2. It has numerous economic development initiatives, such as an Opportunity Zone, which offers a $3,500 tax credit per job created.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: City races include a full marathon or a half marathon. The full race is ranked as one of the top Boston Marathon qualifiers in the country, with almost 20% of all marathon finishers qualifying.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The annual Mardi Gras Street Festival takes place in downtown Albany the first weekend of March. Starting at noon and running until midnight, the festival coincides with the marathon and half marathon.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Elected officials include a mayor and six city commissioners, each of whom serves a four-year term. The commissioners are elected from single-member districts. An appointed city manager acts as the chief administrative officer. The city has been governed by a city commission and city manager since January 14, 1924.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The Dougherty County School System operates a system of five learning centers, fourteen public elementary schools, four public middle schools, three public high schools, and one alternative school. All schools are accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) and the Georgia Accrediting Commission (GAC). The system had an enrollment in 2009–2010 of 15,838 students being taught by 1,070 teachers and 198 support and administrative personnel.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The city is the location of Albany State University, founded as a pre-collegiate school in 1903. African Americans in the South had been intent since emancipation in gaining education and, by the turn of the 20th century, most were literate, as documented by W. E. B. Du Bois in his history, "Black Reconstruction" (1930). Albany State is notable as one of the few historically black colleges and universities to be part of the University System of Georgia.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany Technical College is part of the Technical College System of Georgia and teaches post-secondary vocational and occupational training subjects.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany is a site location of Troy University, one of many satellites which Troy has established throughout the Southeastern United States. For more than 20 years, Troy University, a public non-profit institution of Alabama, has taught classes both in-class and online in Albany. Troy's Albany site has classes in criminal justice, psychology and various general studies, along with offering other undergraduate and master's degree programs online.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Southwest Georgia Regional Airport (ABY) is a non-hub commercial service airport with service to Atlanta by Endeavor Air, a regional carrier for Delta. Both UPS and DHL use the airport as a sorting facility. In 2010, a master plan was completed. It recommended moving forward with the Replacement Terminal Project.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Freight rail service is provided by Georgia Southwestern Railroad, Georgia and Florida Railway/Omnitrax, and Norfolk Southern Railway. Georgia and Florida Railway has its headquarters in Albany.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Several passenger trains from St. Louis, Chicago and Cincinnati in the Midwest, heading to Florida, made stops in Albany Union Station. The last of these, the Illinois Central's "City of Miami" made its final stop there in 1971.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany Transit System (ATS) has been operated by the city since 1974 and provides fixed-route and para-transit services in Albany and Dougherty County, including service to the airport. All buses are wheelchair accessible and are equipped with bicycle racks. The main transfer station is in downtown Albany, at the corner of Oglethorpe and Jackson.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: In addition, a Greyhound bus station is located in downtown Albany, with connections to interstate service.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: While Albany is one of the largest cities in Georgia to not be served by an interstate, U.S. Route 19 and U.S. Route 82 provide thoroughfares through the city. The two join together north of the city for a short freeway known as the Liberty Expressway. Other major highways that run through the city include Georgia State Route 91, Georgia State Route 133, Georgia State Route 234, and Georgia State Route 520. Albany is located on Georgia State Route 300 (Georgia-Florida Parkway), which provides easy access to Cordele, and Interstate 75 to the northeast and south to Camilla, and Thomasville. The Liberty Expressway spans serves as a bypass on Albany's north and east sides. Other highways that pass through Albany include US 19, US 82, and State Routes 3, 62, 91, 133, 234, and 520.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany's Broad Avenue Memorial bridge, constructed in 1920 and comprising three open-spandrel concrete deck arch main spans and eight closed-spandrel deck arch spans, was closed in February 2009 after examination found it to be in unsafe condition. Deconstruction began in 2015 and the replacement segmental concrete box girder bridge was dedicated to veterans and opened on November 11, 2015.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: In the early 1970s, construction of the Liberty-bypass bridges began. Construction of the bridges over the Flint River was completed much before the highway itself. They became known as the bridges to nowhere.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Portions of Albany are serviced by Georgia Power, which operates two electrical power plants within Dougherty County: coal-fired Plant Mitchell and the hydroelectric dam at Lake Worth, also known as Lake Chehaw.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The Albany Water, Gas & Light Commission (WG&L) is a municipally-owned and operated utility system furnishing water, gas, and electricity to its broad–based customers. Albany WG&L, was founded in 1892 as the Albany Water Works, as the largest municipal user in Georgia.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The public water supply source for Albany-Dougherty County is groundwater obtained from four aquifers:


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The water quality is considered to be excellent, needing only chlorination and fluoridation treatment.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany is served by the Dougherty County Landfill located at 900 Gaissert Road, approximately southeast of the City of Albany.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany is the home of a not-for-profit regional health system with a 26-county cachement area with Phoebe Putney Memorial Hospital at its hub.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Albany is serviced by the Albany Police Department (APD) which is divided into three districts, each having its own police center. The Dougherty County Police Department is responsible for the unincorporated area of Dougherty County. The Dougherty County Sheriff's Department is a law enforcement agency under the direction of the County Sheriff, an elected official.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: The Albany Fire Department consists of more than 150 assigned personnel operating 11 fire stations in Dougherty County, seven of which are within the city limits.


title: Albany, Georgia

text: Dougherty County EMS has over 60 employees and services the county through one headquarters and five satellite stations.


title: Church Missions House

text: Church Missions House (also known as 281 Park Avenue South) is a historic building at Park Avenue South and East 22nd Street in the Gramercy Park neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. Part of an area once known as "Charity Row", the building was designed by Robert W. Gibson and Edward J. Neville Stent, with a steel structure and medieval-inspired facade. The design was inspired by the town halls of Haarlem and medieval Amsterdam. Church Missions House is so named because it was the headquarters of the Episcopal Church's Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society for much of the 20th century.


title: Church Missions House

text: The facade is made of granite at the ground story and Indiana Limestone on the other stories. The facade's composition is based on the arrangement of the superstructure, which is arranged as a grid of rectangles. The main entrance is through a porch at the center of the Park Avenue facade. Inside, the building contains at least of space. , all six floors of the building are occupied by Fotografiska New York, an offshoot of the Swedish photography museum Fotografiska.


title: Church Missions House

text: The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society sought to develop a dedicated headquarters for much of the 19th century. The Church Missions House building was built between 1892 and 1894. The building was sold in 1963 to the Federation of Protestant Welfare Agencies (FPWA). The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated Church Missions House as a landmark in 1979, and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. The FPWA moved out of the building in 2015, and Fotografiska New York opened there in 2019.


title: Church Missions House

text: Church Missions House is at 281 Park Avenue South in the Gramercy Park neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. The rectangular land lot is on the southeast corner of 22nd Street and Park Avenue South, covering approximately . The lot has a frontage of on 22nd Street to the north and on Park Avenue to the west. Church Missions House is adjacent to Calvary Church to the south and is directly across from the United Charities Building to the north and 300 Park Avenue South to the northwest. Other nearby buildings include Gramercy Park Hotel to the southeast, the Russell Sage Foundation Building to the east, 121 East 22nd to the northeast, and Madison Square Park Tower and 304 Park Avenue South to the northwest. Right outside the building is an entrance to the New York City Subway's 23rd Street station, served by the .


title: Church Missions House

text: Many of the surrounding buildings are commercial loft structures similar in design to Church Missions House. During the late 19th and 20th centuries, Church Missions House was part of "Charity Row", a three-block area around Park Avenue and 22nd Street with the headquarters of charitable institutions. The New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, the Xavier Society for the Blind, United Cerebral Palsy of New York City, and the Russell Sage Foundation were among the groups headquartered in Charity Row. When Church Missions House was built, the United Charities Building, the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), and the Bank for Savings were all being developed on nearby sites.


title: Church Missions House

text: The six-story building was designed by Robert W. Gibson and Edward J. Neville Stent for the Episcopal Church's Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society. The extent to which either man was involved in the project is unclear, but Gibson was known as an architect of Episcopal churches in New York state during the 1890s, while Stent specialized in interior designs of churches around the same time. The design was inspired by the town halls of Haarlem and Medieval Amsterdam.


title: Church Missions House

text: The facade is made of granite at the ground story and Indiana Limestone on the other stories. The original plans had called for granite on the first two stories and terracotta on the other stories. The facade's composition is based on the arrangement of the superstructure, which is arranged as a grid of rectangles. At each corner of the building is a tourelle that extends the height of the building. The rest of the facade is subdivided by vertical columns, which separate the facade into bays of openings, and horizontal spandrels, which separate windows on each story. The Park Avenue facade is divided into eight bays while the 22nd Street facade is divided into seven bays. The bays on the lowest two stories are paired; the 22nd Street facade is asymmetrical due to the arrangement of bays there. According to the "AIA Guide to New York City", the Medieval-inspired facade was "equal to buildings of the Flemish and Dutch Renaissance."


title: Church Missions House

text: The main entrance is through a porch at the center of the Park Avenue facade. It consists of an archway, above which is a triangular pediment with a tympanum inside a bas-relief. The bas-relief is based on a scene from "Christus Consolator", in which the ill are blessed by Christ. On the tympanum itself, the left side shows Augustine of Canterbury preaching to British people in the sixth century, while the right side shows Samuel Seabury, the first American bishop of the Episcopal Church. Edward J. N. Stent carved the tympanum. The spandrels at the top corners of the arch are decorated with icons inspired by 16th-century motifs. Originally, a screen with large wrought-iron gates was at the Park Avenue entrance. The remainder of the ground floor contains storefront windows, which are flanked by piers of rock-faced granite.


title: Church Missions House

text: The second story consists of an arcade with double-width arches that mostly correspond to the storefront windows below. At the top corners of the windows are spandrels with foliate carvings. The third and fourth stories are composed of rectangular window openings. The fifth floor has round-arched openings that represent part of a triforium in a medieval church. The sixth floor has a tiled mansard roof with dormer windows. The central dormer on Park Avenue has a gable with a stone cross; it is flanked by a pair of smaller dormers. The center gable has a statue of St. Paul. A copper cresting and skylights run above the roof.


title: Church Missions House

text: Sources disagree on the amount of space Church Missions House contains. According to the New York City Department of City Planning, the building has a gross floor area of . "The Wall Street Journal" cites the building as having of usable space, while other sources describe the building as having . Church Missions House has several features that were used in the early skyscrapers of New York City during the late 19th century. The building has a self-supporting steel superstructure filled with brick, and it had an elevator and architectural terracotta fireproofing from the outset. It predated the American Surety Building, the first skyscraper in New York City with a superstructure made entirely of steel, by two years. , all six floors of the building are occupied by Fotografiska New York, a Swedish photography museum. The ground floor has a cafe and a gift shop.


title: Church Missions House

text: The storefronts facing the streets were initially rented to publishers of religious media. Originally, the second story had a hallway made of polished Florentine mosaic as well as offices with parquet floors. The second floor also had rooms for the board, library, Women's Auxiliary, and chapel. The chapel, connected to the board room and library, had a chancel, altar, reredos, organ loft, robing room, and stained-glass window. The space has a ceiling Since 2019, the second story has been occupied by Veronika, a 150-seat restaurant operated by Stephen Starr. The restaurant incorporates some of the historic stained-glass windows that were previously mounted on the facade. The space also contains a mural by Dean Barger, brass chandeliers, wood doorways and floors, and mohair chairs.


title: Church Missions House

text: As designed, the upper stories were intended for offices and studios. The halls were wainscoted in marble and tiled with mosaic, while passageways were made of stone and iron. Fotografiska New York operates galleries on the third through fifth stories. The sixth story has an event space with a skylight and a vaulted ceiling. When the building was renovated for Fotografiska New York, some low-height ceilings were removed and the original steel beams were revealed. Walls were built behind the facade's stained-glass windows so the natural light did not interfere with the exhibits.


title: Church Missions House

text: The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society had been founded in Philadelphia in 1821. The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society moved to New York City in 1835. The Foreign Committee took space at 115 Franklin Street in lower Manhattan, while the Domestic Committee was housed nearby at White and Center Streets. The Episcopal Church sought to combine the offices of the two committees as early as 1836. The Society had rented office space at 281 Broadway near Chambers Street by 1840, and the committees both had several headquarters during the next decade and a half. By 1853, it had opened offices at the Bible House, where it remained for four decades. In 1864, the Society appointed the Committee on Church Missions House to research sites for a new headquarters. The effort stalled again through the 1880s.


title: Church Missions House

text: William S. Langford was elected to Society leadership in 1885. Langford visited the headquarters of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in London three years later. Upon his return to the United States, he wrote to the Society's Board of Managers that a church missions headquarters was needed. In October 1888, a bishop, two presbyters, and six laymen were appointed to a committee to select the site and raise money through subscriptions. Prominent businessmen William Bayard Cutting, William G. Low, and Cornelius Vanderbilt were all on the committee. By May 1889, the committee had identified a site near Fourth (now Park) Avenue and 22nd Street. The site was selected because it was on a major avenue; it was near 23rd Street, where a crosstown streetcar line operated; it was next to Calvary Church, a major Episcopal church; and Madison Square and Gramercy parks were both nearby.


title: Church Missions House

text: Four alternative plans for a seven-story Missions House were presented to the Society's Board of Missions in September 1889. Church architect Robert W. Gibson was asked to review the plans. The following month, the Board of Missions approved the project. The winning plan was likely Stent's entry, published in the journal "Spirit of Missions" in December 1889. Stent's design was narrower than what was ultimately built, but the general design was almost the same. The Society sought to raise $200,000 for the building's construction through subscription. Over half of the total amount, $110,000, was raised by March 1890. The subscription was completed with two $50,000 donations from the Edson family that May.


title: Church Missions House

text: The Board decided to approve the project in October 1891. Early the following year, the Society bought an adjacent lot from the ASPCA, directly at the corner of Fourth Avenue and 22nd Street. Afterward, Stent's plans were revised, allowing for the construction of a larger structure on the site. The cornerstone of the building was laid on October 3, 1892, a year after the project was approved. The firm of Robinson & Wallace did not start constructing the building until that December. By mid-1893, the cost of construction had risen to $500,000. The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society unceremoniously moved to its new headquarters on January 1, 1894. The Society did not wish to dedicate Church Missions House until all debts were settled. The building was officially dedicated three weeks later, on January 25.


title: Church Missions House

text: The building originally had an Episcopal Church bookstore on the ground floor. Office space was rented to the American Church Missionary Society, the American Church Building Fund, the Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, the Church Temperance Society, the Church Periodical Club, and the Brotherhood of Saint Andrew. Church Missions House started hosting the annual House of Bishops upon its completion. Church Missions House also hosted meetings of the city's Episcopal clergy, as well as elections of bishops. In 1898, a memorial altar was dedicated in Church Missions House's chapel in memory of W. S. Langford, who had long been a secretary for the Board of Missions. Four years later, Dean Hoffman willed $50,000 to the Board of Missions for real-estate investment. The money reportedly could have paid for an additional three or four stories, but these were not built.


title: Church Missions House

text: The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society celebrated its centennial at Church Missions House in 1921. The Episcopal Church's National Council was headquartered in the building by 1925. That year, it was tasked with studying the feasibility of relocating the Episcopal offices from Church Missions House to Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. It was around this time that the Episcopal Church nationally faced a deficit. In 1926, the council authorized the church's finance department to sell Church Missions House. The building was valued at $400,000, though it was not sold at the time. The church continued to experience financial difficulties through the 1930s. The National Council first invited women to its meetings at Church Missions House in 1935 after a ban on female council members was rescinded. Episcopalians across the United States nicknamed Church Missions House "281", for its address number, whenever they talked about the Episcopal headquarters in the building.


title: Church Missions House

text: Relocation of the offices to D.C. was again proposed in October 1940. James E. Freeman, bishop of D.C., said at the time that he had been advocating for such a change since 1925. The Episcopal Church remained at Church Missions House. In 1947, it purchased the Herbert L. Satterlee estate in Greenwich, Connecticut, for a lodging center and presiding bishop's residence, though the Episcopal offices continued to be in Church Missions House. The presiding bishops of the Episcopal Church (including Arthur C. Lichtenberger from 1958) had their offices at Church Missions House and lived at the bishop's residence in Greenwich. Ultimately, in 1960, the Episcopal Church bought property on Second Avenue and 43rd Street. The church planned a new office building on that site to combine its offices at Church Missions House, the Greenwich estate, and a third structure at 317 East 23rd Street. By then, the church had long outgrown Church Missions House, and it had rejected several alternative office sites, including the then-new Interchurch Center in Morningside Heights, Manhattan.


title: Church Missions House

text: In February 1963, the Episcopal Church moved to its new offices at 815 Second Avenue. The same year, the Federation of Protestant Welfare Agencies (FPWA) bought the building for $350,000 and spent another $560,000 to renovate it. George C. Textor, the president of the Marine Midland Trust Company, held a fundraising drive to cover the cost of purchase and renovation. As part of the project, the exterior was cleaned, the original interior details were restored, and the building was upgraded with modern elevators and mechanical systems. Church Missions House reopened in December 1963 as the FPWA's first permanent headquarters; the organization had previously occupied rented space. At that time, the Municipal Art Society and New York Community Trust had already designated the building as a landmark.


title: Church Missions House

text: The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated Church Missions House as a city landmark on September 11, 1979. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 3, 1982. Church Missions House lies immediately outside the Gramercy Park Historic District, though a neighborhood group has proposed adding the building to the district. While the district was extended in 1988, the building was not part of the extension.


title: Church Missions House

text: Church Missions House was restored in the early 1990s by the firm of Kapell & Kastow. The FPWA received a $300,000 grant to restore the roof in June 1991. The roof, the stained-glass windows, and the wooden doors and wainscoting were renovated as part of the project. In addition, the mosaic-tile floors and plaster decorations were restored. The architects created rental space for other non-profit organizations on two floors and the Laura Parsons Pratt Conference Center on the ground floor. J.P. Morgan & Co. provided a letter of credit to the FPWA for the restoration. The New York Landmarks Conservancy granted its Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award in 1994 to Kapell & Kostow for their renovation of Church Missions House.


title: Church Missions House

text: By 2014, Church Missions House was for sale; at the time, it was the only remaining building in Charity Row that was still used by a nonprofit. The building was sold that July for approximately $50 million. "The Real Deal" magazine initially reported that the Garzoni family of Italy was the buyer, but it subsequently reported that Aby Rosen of RFR Realty was the true buyer. Rosen was acquiring several other structures across Manhattan at the time, saying that his firm was seeking "properties that are unique, with beautiful architecture". With the sale, the FPWA decided to move to the Financial District of Lower Manhattan. The joint venture of RFR Holding and HQ Capital Real Estate LP finalized their purchase in January 2015. The building was to be converted to condominiums, with shops on the ground floor and an office lobby on 22nd Street. The LPC approved the plans in March 2015.


title: Church Missions House

text: The building's varying ceiling heights and relatively small floor plates also made the building unwieldy for office use. By August 2015, RFR was looking to lease the building to a single tenant instead of converting it to office use. The same year, Jan Broman, cofounder of Swedish photography museum Fotografiska, decided to lease the building after his wife had pointed it out during a taxicab ride. Broman was looking to expand the museum to New York City, and he contacted the building's leasing agent the day after his taxicab ride. Another contender for the building during this time was Anna Sorokin, who was looking to lease Church Missions House for the Anna Delvey Foundation, a private members' club and art foundation that she hoped to create. Sorokin was subsequently indicted for fraud in 2018, having pretended to be a wealthy heiress. Several statues of naked men were displayed in the building's storefronts in 2016.


title: Church Missions House

text: In 2017, Fotografiska leased the entire building from RFR. The transaction included an adjacent chapel, which would be connected to a restaurant in the building. CetraRuddy was hired to redesign the interior for the museum, while Roman and Williams was hired to design a second-story restaurant space with a bar. In addition, Higgins Quasebarth & Partners restored the building's historic design features and technology company Linq designed equipment for the museum. Fotografiska New York opened in December 2019. The same month, RFR bought out its partner's stake in the building for $56 million. The building's popularity increased in the early 2020s after Netflix released "Inventing Anna", a drama miniseries about Sorokin. RFR placed Church Missions House for sale in July 2022, seeking $135 million for the building; however, a change in the building's ownership would not affect Fotografiska's lease.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: Grenfell Tower is a derelict 24-storey residential tower block in North Kensington in London, England. The tower was completed in 1974 as part of the first phase of the Lancaster West Estate. The tower was named after Grenfell Road, which ran to the south of the building; the road itself was named after Field Marshal Lord Grenfell, a senior British Army officer. Most of the tower was destroyed in a severe fire on 14 June 2017.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: The building's top 20 storeys consisted of 120 flats, with six per floor – two flats with one bedroom each and four flats with two bedrooms each – with a total of 200 bedrooms. Its first four storeys were non-residential until its most recent refurbishment, from 2015 to 2016, when two of them were converted to residential use, bringing it up to 127 flats and 227 bedrooms; six of the new flats had four bedrooms each and one flat had three bedrooms. It also received new windows and new cladding with thermal insulation during this refurbishment.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: Prior to a fire, which began in the early hours of 14 June 2017, the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea and central UK government bodies "knew, or ought to have known", that their management of the tower was breaching the rights to life, and to adequate housing, of the tower's residents, according to a later enquiry by the UK Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC). The fire gutted the building and killed 72 people, including a stillbirth. In early 2018, it was announced that, following demolition of the tower, the site will likely become a memorial to those killed in the fire.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: In 2020, survivors of the fire stated that "nothing has changed" three years later and expressed feelings of being "left behind" and "disgusted" by a lack of progress in making similar buildings safe.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: The 24-storey tower block was designed in 1967 in the Brutalist style of the era by Clifford Wearden and Associates, with the Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council approving its construction in 1970, as part of phase one of the Lancaster West redevelopment project.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: The tall building contained 120 one- and two-bedroom flats (six dwellings per floor on 20 of the 24 storeys with the bottom four, the podium, being used for non-residential purposes). The floors were named ground, mezzanine, walkway and walkway+1, floor 1, floor 2 etc.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: The tower was built to the Parker Morris standards. Each floor was , giving an approximate usable area of . The layout of each floor was designed to be flexible as none of the partition walls were structural. The residential floors contained a two bedroom flat at each corner, in between which on the east and the west face was a one bedroomed flat. The core contained a stair column and the lift and service shafts. One-bedroom flats were in area and two-bedroom flats were .


title: Grenfell Tower

text: The building was innovative, as most LCC tower blocks used traditional brick work for infill whereas here precast insulated concrete blocks were used, giving the walls an unusual texture. The ten exterior concrete columns were also unusual. In addition, other tower blocks of this era had four flats per storey, rather than six.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: The original lead architect for the building, Nigel Whitbread, said in 2016 in an interview with Constantine Gras, which was later partially repeated in "The Guardian", that the tower had been designed with attention to strength, following the Ronan Point collapse of 1968, "and from what I can see could last another 100 years." He described it as a "very simple and straightforward concept. You have a central core containing the lift, staircase and the vertical risers for the services and then you have external perimeter columns. The services are connected to the central boiler and pump which powered the whole development and this is located in the basement of the tower block. This basement is approximately four metres deep [14'] and in addition has two metres [7'] of concrete at its base. This foundation holds up the tower block and in situ concrete columns and slabs and pre-cast beams all tie the building together".


title: Grenfell Tower

text: Construction, by contractors A E Symes, of Leyton, London, commenced in 1972, with the building being completed in 1974. Before construction, the plans at basement level were changed from the original brief to accommodate the need for extra car-parking. In the early 1990s, access to the building was restricted through the use of key fobs, and lift access to the first four storeys was discontinued. The building was renovated in 2015–16.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: When the building opened in 1974, it was nicknamed the 'Moroccan Tower' because many tenants came from the local Moroccan immigrant community. In recent years, some residents had become leaseholders, mostly under the Right to Buy scheme; 14 flats in the tower, and three in Grenfell Walk, were leaseholder owned at the time of the 2017 fire.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: The renovation was part of a project to utilise the area around Lancaster Green. The new Kensington Leisure Centre had already been built to the east of the green, and the all-weather football pitches to the north of the tower were destined to become Kensington Academy. The renovation aimed to replace the substandard heating system, replace the windows, increase the thermal efficiency of the tower and improve appearance of the tower in the style of the academy.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: It aimed to reconfigure the podium levels in order to use the space more efficiently. The nursery would move from on the mezzanine floor to on the ground floor with immediate access to outside play space. The mezzanine floor would be continued across the full width of the building making space for three four-bedroom, six-person flats. The Dale Youth boxing club gained almost extra space by moving from the ground floor to the walkway level ( to ). Walkway + 1 level would be converted from offices, to four new four-bedroom, six-person flats.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: Plans by Studio E Architects for renovation of the tower were publicised in 2012. The £8.7 million refurbishment, undertaken by Rydon Ltd, of Forest Row, East Sussex in conjunction with Artelia for contract administration and Max Fordham as specialist mechanical and electrical consultants, was completed in 2016. As part of the project, in 2015–2016, the concrete structure received new windows and new aluminium composite rainscreen cladding, in part to improve the appearance of the building.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: Two types were used: Arconic's Reynobond PE, which consists of two coil-coated aluminium sheets that are fusion bonded to both sides of a polyethylene core; and Reynolux aluminium sheets. Beneath these, and fixed to the outside of the walls of the flats, was Celotex RS5000 polyisocyanurate (PIR) thermal insulation. The work was carried out by Harley Facades of Crowborough, East Sussex, at a cost of £2.6 million.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: A fire broke out on 14 June 2017, which killed 72 of Grenfell's residents. Emergency services received the first report of the fire at 00:54 local time. It burned for around 24hours. Initially, hundreds of firefighters and 45 fire engines were involved in efforts to control the fire, with many firefighters continuing to attempt to control pockets of fire on the higher floors after most of the rest of the building had been gutted. Residents of surrounding buildings were evacuated due to concerns that the tower could collapse, though the building was later determined to be structurally sound.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: After the fire, the exterior was covered in a protective wrap to assist the outstanding forensic investigations. The Government, the Kensington and Chelsea Council, and the Grenfell United survivors' group, have agreed that at the conclusion of the Grenfell Tower Inquiry the demolished tower will be replaced by a memorial to the victims. The government has voiced its intention to allow the survivors to "...guide the way future decisions are made" about the tower site and memorial. As of May 2021, demolition of the tower is not expected to begin until June 2022 at the earliest.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: Nigel Whitbread was the lead architect for the Grenfell Tower. In an interview with Constantine Gras, quoted in "The Guardian", he said that "he was born in Kenton, his parents had a grocers shop on St Helen's Gardens, North Kensington. He was educated at Sloane Grammar school and then got a position with the architects Douglas Stephen and Partners, who though small were applying the principles of Le Corbusier and the modernists." He worked alongside Kenneth Frampton who was the Technical Editor of the journal "Architectural Design"; and Elia Zenghelis and Bob Maxwell. He moved to work for Clifford Wearden after the basic plan for Lancaster West Estate had been established. He later worked for 30 years until his retirement at Aukett Associates. Around 2016 he became involved with local residents association drawing up the St Quintin and Woodlands Neighbourhood Plan.


title: Grenfell Tower

text: A residents' organisation, Grenfell Action Group (GAG), published a blog in which it highlighted major safety problems. In the four years preceding the fire, they published 10 warnings criticising fire safety and maintenance practices at Grenfell Tower.


title: Residual sum of squares

text: In statistics, the residual sum of squares (RSS), also known as the sum of squared estimate of errors (SSE), is the sum of the squares of residuals (deviations predicted from actual empirical values of data). It is a measure of the discrepancy between the data and an estimation model, such as a linear regression. A small RSS indicates a tight fit of the model to the data. It is used as an optimality criterion in parameter selection and model selection.


title: Residual sum of squares

text: In general, total sum of squares = explained sum of squares + residual sum of squares. For a proof of this in the multivariate ordinary least squares (OLS) case, see partitioning in the general OLS model.


title: Residual sum of squares

text: where "y" is the "i" value of the variable to be predicted, "x" is the "i" value of the explanatory variable, and formula_2 is the predicted value of "y" (also termed formula_3).


title: Residual sum of squares

text: In a standard linear simple regression model, formula_4, where formula_5 and formula_6 are coefficients, "y" and "x" are the regressand and the regressor, respectively, and ε is the error term. The sum of squares of residuals is the sum of squares of formula_7; that is


title: Residual sum of squares

text: where formula_9 is the estimated value of the constant term formula_5 and formula_11 is the estimated value of the slope coefficient formula_6.


title: Residual sum of squares

text: The general regression model with observations and explanators, the first of which is a constant unit vector whose coefficient is the regression intercept, is


title: Residual sum of squares

text: where is an "n" × 1 vector of dependent variable observations, each column of the "n" × "k" matrix is a vector of observations on one of the "k" explanators, formula_14 is a "k" × 1 vector of true coefficients, and is an "n"× 1 vector of the true underlying errors. The ordinary least squares estimator for formula_6 is


title: French Basque Country

text: The French Basque Country, or Northern Basque Country ( (), , ) is a region lying on the west of the French department of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques. Since 1 January 2017, it constitutes the Basque Municipal Community (; ) presided over by .


title: French Basque Country

text: It includes three former historic French provinces in the north-east of the traditional Basque Country totalling : Lower Navarre (; ), until 1789 nominally Kingdom of Navarre, with ; Labourd (), with ; Soule (), with . The population included in the Basque Municipal Community amounts to 309,723 inhabitants distributed in 158 municipalities.


title: French Basque Country

text: It is delimited in the north by the department of Landes, in the west by the Bay of Biscay, in the south by the Southern Basque Country and in the east by Béarn (although in the Béarnese village of Esquiule, Basque is spoken), which is the eastern part of the department. Bayonne and Biarritz (BAB) are its chief towns, included in the Basque Eurocity Bayonne-San Sebastián Euroregion. It is a popular tourist destination and is somewhat distinct from neighbouring parts of the southern Basque Country, since it was not industrialized as Biscay or Gipuzkoa and remained agricultural and a beach destination.


title: French Basque Country

text: The department of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques is divided into three districts or "arrondissements": The Arrondissement of Bayonne, the Arrondissement of Oloron-Sainte-Marie, and the Arrondissement of Pau. French Basque Country includes all of Bayonne and Canton of Montagne Basque in Oloron-Sainte-Marie. Additionally, it includes the following territories in Béarn: Esquiule, Aramits, Géronce, and Arette (in the Canton of Oloron-Sainte-Marie-1).


title: French Basque Country

text: The French Basque Country included three pre-existing historic territories before the departmental division of France in 1789, with a few modifications:


title: French Basque Country

text: The most important city in the territory is Bayonne (, in Gascon and ). The ancient Roman , from which the toponyms and originate, is a part of the Biarritz-Anglet-Bayonne agglomeration community (BAB) alongside Biarritz and Anglet (), the most populated urban space in the territory. It is the political capital of its subprefecture and economic capital of the largest region, which includes the French Basque country and the south of Landes. Other important places are Saint-Jean-de-Luz (), Hendaye (), Sainte-Jean-Pied-de-Port (), the capital of Lower Navarre, and Mauleón (), the capital of Soule.


title: French Basque Country

text: A slow but continuous French institutional evolution has been produced as a response to the historical claims of the French Basque Country. By an order from 29 January 1997 from the prefect of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques, a “Basque Country” was recognized as a , according to the French administrative category, in accordance with the laws called: the Pasqua Law (LOADT) from 4 February 1995, and the Voynet Law (LOADDT) from 25 June 1999. These are based on the notion of a country in the traditional sense, as a society belonging to a place, culture, etc., promoting the organization and development of the territory in a global manner.


title: French Basque Country

text: The creation of an institution of greater substance than what was represented by the geographical organization of and more specifically of a Basque department, has been a constant element during that last decades in elected posts for the main political parties, with representation from the French Socialist Party, The Republicans, and nationalist parties. 64% of Basque-French mayors support such a creation. The is an association that groups political posts such as regional councilors, general councilors and mayors of the French Basque Country, from both political spectrums, whose goal is to achieve the division of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department into Basque and Béarnese departments respectively (24 of the existing mainland departments have smaller populations than the French Basque Country).


title: French Basque Country

text: The Council of the Development of the French Basque Country was created in 1994, and in 1995 the Council of the Elected of the French Basque Country () was created.


title: French Basque Country

text: On 15 January 2005, the (Chamber of Agriculture for the Basque Country), was created as a house for the representation and promotion of the interests of livestock farmers and agriculturists of the French Basque Country, promoted by the agrarian union, . Initially, this institution wasn't recognised, and its function was illegal. Now, its function is regulated and receives subventions from the Regional Council of Aquitaine.


title: French Basque Country

text: In 2012, the French government proposed the creation of a single commonwealth for all of the towns in French Basque Country, under two conditions: being approved by at least half of the 158 communes in the historic territory, and that at least half of the nearly 300,000 residents be represented within this historic territory. After a process of municipal meetings, on May 2, 2016, both conditions were met.


title: French Basque Country

text: On 1 January 2017, the Agglomerate Community of Basque Country, was created: an intercommunal cooperation movement (EPCI), which promotes a greater level of autonomy, with the French administrative categorization as an official territorial administrative structure with greater abilities than a , but fewer than a French department, and that is made up of a union of ten commonwealths and 157 of the 159 Basque communes, plus one Béarnese community.


title: French Basque Country

text: The oldest human remains that are known of in the territory of the current French Basque Country are approximately 150,000 years old. Some houses have been found on the terraces of the river Adour, in Ilbarritz (Bidart), Sainte-Pierre-d’Irube, and Mouguerre. In the Middle Paleolithic era (700,000-100,000 years ago), neanderthals inhabited this area. At the beginning they lived in the open air and later in caves, like the one in Isturits. Cro-magnon people appeared during the Upper Paleolithic (9000-50,000 years ago).


title: French Basque Country

text: The most well-known object found is a bird bone with three holes in it in the shape of a . Moving into the Mesolithic era, humans began to live outside of caves, despite the fact that these were still used until a much later date. Also, during this era, the artefacts of ceramics, agriculture, and raising livestock were discovered.


title: French Basque Country

text: During the Neolithic era (4000-3000 B.C.E.), new techniques for the use of metals and agriculture arrived.


title: French Basque Country

text: The present-day territory was inhabited by the Tarbelli and the Sibulates, tribal divisions of the Aquitani. When Caesar conquered Gaul, he found all the region south and west of the Garonne inhabited by a people known as the Aquitani, who were not Celtic and are nowadays assumed to have been early Basques (see Aquitanian language). In early Roman times, the region was initially known as Aquitania, but by the end of the 3rd century, when use of the name Aquitania was extended to cover the region up to the river Loire, as Novempopulania (). Its name in Latin means the "nine peoples", as a reference to the nine tribes that inhabited it:


title: French Basque Country

text: The region reached a high level of Romanization, as many of the toponyms with Latin or Celtic suffixes, such as or , demonstrate. In the north of what is now French Basque Country, these (toponyms) become more frequent: e.g., Loupiac and Gaillan. However, in the southeast of the territory, the less Romanized area, toponyms with Basque suffixes are abundant: , , and , such as Biscarrosse and Almandoz, for example; some inscriptions have words similar to those in Basque on them.


title: French Basque Country

text: After the Germanic invasions that caused the fall of the Roman Empire, the ancient province began to be referred to as according to texts by Frankish chroniclers, mainly Gregory of Tours and the Chronicle of Fredegar from the 6th century, and was differentiated from the trans-Pyrenean territories that later chroniclers in the "Ravena Cosmograph" called .


title: French Basque Country

text: In the year 418, the Visigoths moved to the region in accordance with a federation pact or made with Rome, but they were forced to leave in 507 as a consequence of their defeat against the Merovingians led by King Clovis I at the battle of Vouillé. After Clovis I's death in 511, the heirs to his throne consolidated their northern possessions centered on Neustria and Austrasia, placing them under the direct control of the sovereign, while the rest of their territories were organized into autonomous entities led by powerful officials of the kingdom: counts, dukes, patricians, and vice chancellors, in accordance with the Merovingian tradition of decentralizing power.


title: French Basque Country

text: In and the Pyrenean periphery in , armed incursions and confrontations with Merovingian potentates were frequent during the last third of the 6th century. Venantius Fortunatus' chronicles cite the clashes with the Frankish king Chilperic I and the "comes" from Bordeaux, Galactorio, up until 580, while Gregory of Tours wrote about the incursions Duke Austrobald faced in 587 after the defeat of Duke Bladastes in 574 at Soule.


title: French Basque Country

text: After the Basque rebellions against Roman feudalism in the late 4th and 5th centuries, the area was eventually incorporated as part of the independent Duchy of Vasconia in 602, a mixed ethnic polity stretching south of the river Garonne that broke up during the 8th to 9th centuries, following the Carolingian expansion, the pressure of Norman raids, and introduction of feudalism. At this time, the County of Vasconia was created, extending around the river Adour. According to Iñaki Bazán, after the Duchy was created, the Frankish kings Theuderic II and Theudebert II exercised better military control over the area, including better tax collection and judicial administration, placing Duke Genial at the forefront. Later, between 635-638, King Dagobert I set out on a campaign to repress the Vascon inhabitants that eventually led to their submission.


title: French Basque Country

text: In the 8th century a second autonomous Duchy of Gascony was created, and by the end of the 9th century Guillermo Sanchez was named the duke of all Vascons. Some years later, Guy Geoffroy, united the duchies of Vasconia and Aquitania (with the Poitiers county).


title: French Basque Country

text: During this period, northern Basques very likely participated in the successive battles of Roncevaux against the Franks, in 778, 812 and 824. Count Sans Sancion detached from the Franks and became the independent commander of Vasconia, but got involved in the Carolingian dynastic wars over succession after taking over Bordeaux (844), supporting the young Pepin II to the throne of Aquitaine. He became Duke of Vasconia after submitting to Charles the Bald (851).


title: French Basque Country

text: At this point, the Basque language was losing ground to Vulgar Latin and written Latin and was increasingly confined to the lands around the Pyrénées. Since 963, the town Saint-Sever has been referred to as , interpreted as meaning "the limit of Vasconia" or "prominence of Vasconia" (on account of its location on a hill overlooking the plains of Vasconia).


title: French Basque Country

text: The evangelization of the territory that today comprises French Basque Country was slow and precarious. Beginning in the 9th century, and in part due to the peregrination to Santiago de Compostela, a stable and long-lasting ecclesiastic organization was established in the region. The most important trails leading to Santiago pass through the region, and this greatly influenced the development of the trails and the villas in the territory up to the present day.


title: French Basque Country

text: The lands to the south of the Adour became Labourd, encompassing initially a bigger region than the later territory around the Nive (Errobi) and the coast. In 1020 Gascony ceded its jurisdiction over Labourd, then also including Lower Navarre, to Sancho "the Great" of Pamplona. This monarch made it a Viscounty in 1023 with its capital in Bayonne, which gave vassals to the King and Queen of Navarre until 1193. The area became disputed by the Angevin Dukes of Aquitaine until 1191 when Sancho "the Wise" and Richard "Lionheart" agreed to divide the country, Labourd remaining under Angevin sovereignty and Lower Navarre under Navarrese control.


title: French Basque Country

text: All vacant land, forests, and waters under this Viscounty belonged to the King and everyone had the right to use them, whether they were nobles or not. Nobles did not have any feudal rights and justice rested solely in the hands of the King. The Biltzar, the only existing assembly, was in charge of distributing taxes and charges, and its delegates were chosen by the of the parishes. Furthermore, parish assemblies that administrated the collective goods of each parish existed. In 1215, Bayonne separated from Labourd, ruling from that moment on through its council. From the end of the 12th century until the French Revolution, Ustaritz was the capital of Labourd. Bayonne continued to be the economic hub of the area until the 19th century. However, above all, it was the port of Navarre that connected it to the North of Europe.


title: French Basque Country

text: Meanwhile, Soule () was constituted as an independent viscounty, generally supported by Navarre against the pretensions of the Counts of Béarn, though at times also it admitted a certain Angevin overlordship. With the end of the Hundred Years' War, Labourd and Soule passed to the Crown of France as autonomous provinces ().


title: French Basque Country

text: After the conquest of Upper Navarre by Castile in 1512–21, the still independent north Pyrenean part of Navarre took the lead of the Huguenot party in the French Wars of Religion. In this time, the Bible was first translated into the Basque language. Eventually Henry III of Navarre became King of France but kept Navarre as a formally independent state until 1620–24, when this separation was suppressed.


title: French Basque Country

text: In 1634, Axular, in his literary work , gives a rough description of the extent of Basque at the time: The language comprised all the provinces now known as Basque Country "and [in] so many other places". After Axular's accomplished book, other Basque writing authors followed suit, especially in Labourd, a district thriving on whale hunting. In 1579, an important handbook for navigation was published by Martin Oihartzabal, the "Navigational Pilot", offering guidance and useful landmarks found in Newfoundland and other Basque traditional fisheries. In 1677 it was translated to Basque by Pierre Etxeberri. However, during the 17 and 18th century, that activity saw a gradual decline as the English took over from the Basques.


title: French Basque Country

text: The 16th century was probably the most tragic for the inhabitants of the French Basque Country in its history. The recurring French-Spanish conflict between 1512 and 1659 and the French Wars of Religion that lasted 30 years sowed terror and misery.


title: French Basque Country

text: On the other hand, the accusations made in the Parliament of Bordeaux motivated Labourd in sending the councilor Pierre de Lancre. He burned around 200 women, children and priests by forcing them to confess through torture. Pierre de Lancre was responsible for the witch hunt in Labourd. He believed women had a sinful nature, and that they were so dangerous that one judge alone could not judge a woman because men are weak. He said that a tribunal made up of several men was necessary to do so.


title: French Basque Country

text: However, after overcoming the disasters suffered, a sort of renaissance was lived during the 17th century. Among other things, Rabelais published his "Gargantua and Pantagruel", and Etxepare wrote the first printed text in Basque.


title: French Basque Country

text: With the conquest of the castles of Mauléon and Bayonne in 1449 and 1451 respectively, Labourd and Soule were under the domain of the French crown. When Henry III of Navarre took the French throne at the end of the 16th century (as Henry IV), Lower Navarre was incorporated into the French Royal patrimony (becoming the King of France and Navarre).


title: French Basque Country

text: The three Basque provinces still enjoyed considerable autonomy until the French Revolution suppressed it radically, as it did elsewhere in France, eventually creating the department of Basses-Pyrénées, half-Basque and half-Gascon (Béarn, a former sovereign territory). Louis XVI of France summoned the Estates General to discuss problems of state. This assembly united the three estates: nobles, clerics, and the common people (the third estate). Third estate representatives of the Basque provinces attending the Estates-General of 1789 and the following national assemblies in Paris rejected the imposition of an alien political-administrative design, regarding the events with a blend of disbelief and indignation. The brothers Garat, representatives of Labourd, defended against a hostile audience the specificity of their province and that of the Basques, putting forward instead the establishment of a Basque department. However, eventually the brothers Garat from Labourd voted for the new design out of hopes to get a say in future political decisions. In 1790 the Lower Pyrenees department project arrived, uniting the ancient Basque countries with Béarn. The reorganization favored the Bayonne bishopric that included the entire department (up to the Lescar and Oloron coasts that disappeared, and part of the Dax).


title: French Basque Country

text: The three Basque provinces were then shaken by traumatic events after the intervention of the French Convention army during the War of the Pyrenees (1793–95). Besides prohibiting the native Basque language for public use, with Bertrand Barère even declaring that "fanaticism speaks Basque", an indiscriminate mass-deportation of civilians followed resulting in the expulsion from their homes of thousands and a death toll of approx. 1,600 in Labourd.


title: French Basque Country

text: The Basques started to be forcibly recruited for the French army, with large numbers of youths in turn deciding to run away or defect among allegations of mistreatment, so starting a trend of exile and emigration to the Americas that was to last for more than a century.


title: French Basque Country

text: The mutual hostility and lack of trust between the new regime and the European monarchies led to the creation of the First Coalition against revolutionary France. At first, French Basque Country stayed at the margins of the conflict, since Spain stayed neutral, but in 1793, France declared war on Spain. The political situation after the mass-deportation of civilians improved when General Moncey led the French to a counterattack in June 1794, expelling the Spanish, and even entering Gipuzkoa. Jacques Pinet and Jean-Baptiste Cavaignac went to Spain to manage conquered territory, courting the possibility of annexing it to France. After the fall of Robespierre, General Moncey forced the removal of Pinet and Cavaignac, who had managed to have a falling out with the Gipuzkoans. Due to this, they threw themselves into a desperate guerilla war, an antecedent to that of 1808. On July 22, the Treaty of Basel was signed and the conflict ended, giving rise to a period of relative peace and prosperity.


title: French Basque Country

text: It became a matter of concern discussed by Napoleon Bonaparte and Dominique Garat. As of 1814, traditional cross-Pyrenean trade fell conspicuously, starting a period of economic stagnation. Eventually, trade across the Pyrénées border was cut off after the First Carlist War, with large numbers further departing to the Americas in search for a better life. In Soule, the emigration trend was mitigated by the establishment circa 1864 of a flourishing espadrille industry in Mauleon that attracted workers from Roncal and Aragon too. Others took to smuggling, a rising source of revenue.


title: French Basque Country

text: The mid-1800s were years of decay and yearning for the time before the French Revolution. The Basques were divided into Republicans, laicist Jacobins (but for a nuanced position held by Xaho), and Royalists (traditional Catholics), with the latter eventually prevailing in the area. Shepherding and small-scale mining and agriculture were the main economic activities, and were accompanied by the increased presence of customs officials, both locals and non-Basques.


title: French Basque Country

text: The railway arrived at Hendaye in 1864 (Mauleon in 1880), increasing the flow of freight and people from outside the Basque Country, resulting in the growth of the non-Basque population especially on the coast, with Biarritz the most noteworthy case, in a type of settlement (Manex Goihenetxe, Eneko Bidegain). Upper-class tourism gained momentum from 1854 onwards (Kanbo, Saint-Jean-de-Luz, Biarritz, Hendaye, etc.), as the high nobility (e.g., Eugénie de Montijo) chose to take healing baths at spa resorts and sought to be closer to nature.


title: French Basque Country

text: In 1851, the first took place in Urruña (restored floral games tradition) organized by a scholar of Basque-Irish origin, Antoine d'Abbadie (Anton Abbadia), followed by several more editions up to 1897. Other political and cultural events in fellow Basque districts to the south of the Pyrenees had an impact in the French Basque Country, especially in church-related circles (periodicals like , 1887), the only institution that still spoke to the people in their language. This could not prevent the Basque language from further receding, it becoming confined to local and domestic circles. In 1914, Basque ceased to be the trading language used by the local middle- and higher-class customers at the Mauleon marketplace (Soule).


title: French Basque Country

text: Basque young men could not avoid becoming entangled in World War I when they were drafted to the front. While across the border Gipuzkoa and Biscay thrived on their shipbuilding and steel processing industry supplying the European war effort, continental Basques under the age of 49 were required to travel to the front in north-east France. From the beginning and as the slaughter of the trenches wore on, thousands of Basques objected to military service, defected and fled to the south or the Americas. However, war took a heavy toll; 6,000 died at the front, equivalent to 3% of the French Basque population. It also produced strengthened the notion in the Basque psyche that it is an integral part of the French nation, fostered by the above weekly "Eskualduna" on the grounds that "God champions France."


title: French Basque Country

text: During World War II, the French Basque Country was part of Occupied France and the coast was fortified as part of the Atlantic Wall.


title: French Basque Country

text: Over the last 200 years, the territory has shown a slow demographic rise: 126,493 (in 1801); 162,365 (1851); 226,749 (1979) (79% in Labourd, 13% in Lower Navarre, 8% in Soule); 259,850 (1990) (81%; 13%; 6% respectively); 262,000 (1999 census). On January 29, 1997, the area was made an official "pays" of France named , i.e., a representative body promoting several activities, but without its own budget.


title: French Basque Country

text: Neither Basque nor any of the other regional languages in France, such as Catalan, Breton or Occitan, have official recognition in France. According to the second article of the French Constitution, "the language of the Republic is French", and, despite several attempts to add "with respect to the regional languages that are part of our heritage" by 44 deputies in 2006, the proposal was rejected by 57 votes against and 44 in favor.


title: French Basque Country

text: Basques continue to practice many Basque cultural traditions. The town of Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle is well known for its celebration.


title: French Basque Country

text: According to a 2006 survey, 22.5% were bilinguals (French-Basque), 8.6% were French speakers who understand Basque, and 68.9% were not Basque speakers. But the results were very different in the three zones. In the inner land (Lower Navarre and Soule), 66.2% speak or understand Basque. In the coast (Labourd), the figure stands at 36.9%. And in the B.A.B. urban zone (Bayonne- Anglet-Biarritz), only 14.2% speak or understand Basque (20% of B.A.B. can speak or understand Gascon). The proportion of French-Basque bilinguals fell from 26.4% in 1996 to 22.5% in 2006.


title: French Basque Country

text: On the coast, where the largest cities are located, the predominant language is French, for example, in the Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz agglomeration, Basque is spoken by 10% of the population. However, in the rural interior of the Northern Basque Country, Basque is the predominant language, spoken by the majority of the population.


title: French Basque Country

text: Basque, a continuum of Aquitanian (or Proto-Basque) spoken in this region since before the Roman era, does not have official status but it does have some acknowledgement, so that it can be studied in school and be used as a secondary language by the institutions in the area.


title: French Basque Country

text: According to the current division created by Koldo Zuazo, there are two dialects spoken in the French Basque Country: Souletin () and the Navarro-Lapurdian dialect (), whose delimitations don't correspond to the three Basque provinces. The spoken languages of Labourd and Lower Navarre are part of a linguistic continuum without established borders. It ends in the Amikuze or Mixe Country region and the Soule province, where a dialect with great cohesion and defined traits can be found: Souletin. In Zuazo's opinion, this may be due to the fact that this territory has been separated administratively from the other two, and that the differences in speech have been intensified by the lack of interaction.


title: French Basque Country

text: The literary tradition in the French Basque Country, especially in Labourd, has had great importance in the history of the Basque language. The first Basque writers on that side of the Pyrenees took the language from the Labourd coast as their base language for literature, more specifically the triangle formed by Ciboure, Sare, and Sainte-Jean-de-Luz. The language has evolved in the literary plane from classical Labourd dialect used by writers in the Sare School, to the literary Navarro-Lapurdian dialect, a sort of Basque unified in the French Basque Country made concrete by a grammar book by Pierres Lafitte Ithurralde in the 1940s. In many ways, it is considered one of the predecessors of Standard Basque, and it currently survives as an unrecognized version of unified Basque. In other words, it is a unified Basque with lexical and morphological elements unique to the region.


title: French Basque Country

text: The Navarro-Lapurdian dialect and Souletin have common characteristics that distinguish them from other Basque dialects, such as the pronunciation of (according to Koldo Mitxelena, it was lost around the 13th century in the Pyrenees territories due to Aragonese influence and became extinct on the Labourd coast around the 19th century, according to Louis Lucien Bonaparte), the differences in speech in the grammatical cases of (absolutive) and (ergative), and the use of the root * in front of * used in speech on the other side of the Bidasoa ( vs. ). The Royal Academy of the Basque Language took into account the four centuries of literary tradition of this region when it began the unification project.


title: French Basque Country

text: According to the theory of waves or gradients, the Souletin and Biscayan dialects are the dialects that have conserved the largest number of archaisms due to their geographical location, but at the same time, they had the greatest influence from other languages (Mitxelena). This is why Souletin is considered innovative with regards to its phonology (influenced mainly by Gascon), but conservative in its lexicon and morphology. Souletin relies on a written literary tradition of great importance, but something worth noting is the oral tradition, since ancient ballads and songs have been passed on from generation to generation up until current times, being rescued by musicians and singer-songwriters in the second half of the 20th century. The Soule people have a firm popular theatre tradition, and pastorals and masques reflect this. The plays are performed by entire towns, who turn into an instrument for the reaffirmation of Souletin identity, which has suffered a worrying demographic decline.


title: French Basque Country

text: Neither Basque nor any of the other regional languages of France (like Alsatian, Breton, or Occitan) have official recognition in France. According to the second article of the French Constitution, “the language of the Republic is French” and, despite many attempts to add “with respect to regional languages that are a part of our patrimony” to the text by 44 deputies in 2006, the proposal was denied by 57 votes against the 44 votes in favor.


title: French Basque Country

text: Despite this, bilingual signage exists at the municipal level for traffic (trilingual in places like Bayonne).


title: French Basque Country

text: Below is an extract from the report of the Observatory of Linguistic Rights of Euskal Herria::Since 1994, the ikastolas (Basque-medium schools) are recognized as educational establishments, with an association model, although they don't receive any state aid. Professors in the ikastolas are under the responsibility of the French Education Ministry. In 2000, the Basque-French federation of ikastolas, Seaska, decided to end negotiations with the French educational administration to integrate ikastolas into the public education system of France, since the conditions it set did not guarantee their education model. Currently, the ikastolas are financed largely by the parents in a cooperative system and by various activities organized in favor of Basque, such as (Popular Step), which Basque speakers in Spain and France attend to do a walk for solidarity. Thanks to the participation of individuals, companies, and communities, Herri Urrats, in collaboration with Seaska, has allowed for the opening of 20 elementary schools, three highschools and an institution for secondary education since 1984.


title: French Basque Country

text: In 2003, the Basque government and the members of the Department of Public Works of the French Basque Country signed the protocols that allowed the collaboration between the various Basque organisms and institutions to encourage a linguistic policy on both sides of the Spanish-French border; the Public Institution of Basque () was born due to this accord in French Basque Country.


title: French Basque Country

text: There is a Basque nationalist political movement going back to 1963 with the Embata movement (outlawed in 1974), followed up during the 2000s by Abertzaleen Batasuna and others. They seek a split of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques into two French departments: and "Béarn". Some other nationalist parties are EAJ, and EA with a reduced, almost symbolic presence, especially when compared to the Spanish Basque Country across the border. Since 2007, they gather around the electoral platform Euskal Herria Bai, typically earning roughly 15% of the votes in the district elections.


title: French Basque Country

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, an armed group called (‘the Northerners’) used violence to seek independence. It disbanded in the 1990s.


title: French Basque Country

text: The Northern Basque Country has 29,759 companies, 107 companies for 1,000 inhabitants and an annual growth of 4.5% (between 2004 and 2006).


title: French Basque Country

text: 66.2% of companies are in the tertiary sector (services), 14.5% in the secondary sector (manufacturing) and 19.3% in the primary sector (mainly agriculture, agribusiness, fishing and forestry). This includes an AOC wine: Irouléguy AOC.


title: French Basque Country

text: Although the Northern Basque Country is part of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques for most administrative entities, it does have its own Chamber of Commerce (the CCI Bayonne-Pays-Basque) and a distinct economy with a pole of competences around the boardsports industry including companies such as Quiksilver and Volcom based on the Basque Coast.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital (, ) is a teaching hospital in the 13th arrondissement of Paris. Part of the and a teaching hospital of Sorbonne University.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: The Salpêtrière was originally a gunpowder factory (saltpetre being a constituent of gunpowder), but in 1656 at the direction of Louis XIV, it was converted into a "hospice" for the poor women of Paris as part of the General Hospital of Paris. This main hospice was for women who were learning disabled, mentally ill or epileptic, as well as poor. In 1657 it was incorporated with the hospice of the Pitié designed specifically for beggars' children and orphans. Sheets for hospice and military clothing were produced there by the children. Between 1663 and 1673, 240 of the women at the Pitié-Salpêtrière hospice were sent on a mission to populate the Americas and help build New France. They were in the total number of 768 young women recruited during the ten-year period to become known as the "King's Daughters". The Salpêtrière was much admired for the architectural designs of Libéral Bruant with the support of Louis Le Vau. Its conversion was completed in 1669. In 1684 a women's prison was added to the site with a total capacity of 300 convicted prostitutes. It provided wretched living conditions for its inmates.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: On the eve of the Revolution, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospice had become the world's largest hospice, with a capacity of 10,000 "patients" and over 300 prisoners. Until the French Revolution, the Salpêtrière had no medical function: the sick were sent to the Hôtel-Dieu hospital.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: During the September massacres of 1792, the Salpêtrière was stormed on the night of 3/4 September by a mob from the impoverished working-class district of the Faubourg Saint-Marcel, with the avowed intention of releasing the detained prisoners: 134 of the prostitutes were released; twenty-five madwomen were less fortunate and were dragged, some still in their chains, into the streets and murdered.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: At the very end of the 18th century, the early humanitarian reforms in the treatment of the mentally ill were initiated here by Philippe Pinel (1745–1826), friend of the "Encyclopédistes". The iconic image of Pinel as the liberator of the insane was created in 1876 by Tony Robert-Fleury and Pinel's sculptural monument stands before the main entrance in Place Marie-Curie, Boulevard de L'Hôpital. Pinel was the chief physician of the Salpêtrière by 1794, in charge of a 200-bed infirmary which housed a tiny proportion of the huge indigent female population. He was succeeded by his assistant Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol (1772–1840) who, from 1817, delivered the first systematic lectures on psychiatry in France and was the chief architect of the lunacy legislation of 30 June 1838. Esquirol was followed by Étienne Pariset; and from 1831 till 1867 the "chef d'hospice" was Jean-Pierre Falret (1794–1870) who contributed much to our understanding of bipolar disorder and folie à deux.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: A regular visitor to the Salpêtrière from 1842 till his death more than thirty years later was Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne de Boulogne (1806–1875). From humble provincial origins, a long line of seafarers from Boulogne, Duchenne became one of the outstanding medical scientists of the nineteenth century. Though he never held a senior appointment in the hospital, Duchenne nevertheless made meticulous observations on neurological patients, employing a wide range of innovative diagnostic techniques. Duchenne's clinical science stood at the technical junction of electricity, photography and psychology, as recorded in his much admired "De l'électrisation localisée" with its associated atlas "Album de photographies pathologiques" (1855, 1862). His name is commemorated in the myopathies which he described, as well as in his 1862 masterpiece, the "Mécanisme de la physionomie humaine", much consulted by Charles Darwin in the preparation of his "Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" (1872). Duchenne's last major work (published in 1867) was a study of animal locomotion. He was never elected to the Academy of Sciences.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: Later, when Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893) took over the department, the Salpêtrière became celebrated as a neuropsychiatric teaching centre, represented on canvas in 1887 by "A Clinical Lesson at the Salpêtrière" by André Brouillet. In his lectures and demonstrations, the "leçons du mardi", Charcot systematised the neurological examination, did much to map out the territory of modern clinical neurology and, in a personal enthusiasm, explored its interface with psychological distress as represented in hysteria. Although Charcot insisted that hysteria could be a male disorder ("traumatic hysteria"), he is popularly remembered for his demonstrations with Louise Augustine Gleizes and Marie Wittman. Charcot had also absorbed much from Duchenne (to whom he often referred as ""mon maître, Duchenne"") and his teaching activities on the Salpêtrière's wards helped to elucidate the natural history of many diseases including neurosyphilis, epilepsy, and stroke. In his discussion of "paralysis agitans", Charcot drew attention to the 1817 description by James Parkinson, and suggested it be renamed Parkinson's disease. In 1882, with Charcot's encouragement, Albert Londe created a photographic department in the Salpêtriėre, producing, in collaboration with Georges Gilles de la Tourette, the "Nouvelle Iconographie de la Salpêtrière" of 1888.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: Students came from across the world to witness Charcot's clinical demonstrations: among them – in 1885 – was the 29-year old Sigmund Freud who translated Charcot's lectures into German and whose deconstruction of the lectures on hysteria formed the foundations of psychoanalysis. The first English translations of Charcot's "Clinical Lectures" (1877, 1881) were published by the Irish physician and politician George Sigerson. Public health physician and advocate of breastfeeding Truby King travelled from New Zealand to witness Charcot, and reported his clinical demonstrations to be a life-changing experience. A rather negative portrait of Charcot's clinical style emerges in the 1929 autobiographical memoir – "The Story of San Michele" – by the Swedish physician Axel Munthe, whose early idolatry of Charcot gave way to a kind of obsessive antagonism.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: The Hôpital de la Pitié, founded about 1612, was moved next to the Salpêtrière in 1911 and fused with it in 1964 to form the Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière. The Pitié-Salpêtrière is now a general teaching hospital with departments focusing on most major medical specialities.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: Numerous personalities have been treated at the Salpêtrière, including Michael Schumacher, Ronaldo, Prince Rainier of Monaco, Alain Delon, Gérard Depardieu, and Valérie Trierweiler. Former president Jacques Chirac had a pacemaker fitted at the Salpêtrière in 2008. Celebrities have also died at the Pitié-Salpêtrière, including the singer Josephine Baker in 1975, following a cerebral haemorrhage; philosopher Michel Foucault (from complications of AIDS) on 25 June 1984; Diana, Princess of Wales following a car crash in 1997; and French bicycle racer Laurent Fignon in 2010 (from the metastatic spread of lung cancer).


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: The Brain and Spine Institute (now called Institut du Cerveau – ICM or Paris Brain Institute) has been located in the hospital since it was established in September 2010.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: "Chapelle de la Salpêtrière" (Hospital Chapel), at n° 47 Boulevard de l'Hôpital is one of the masterpieces of Libéral Bruant, architect of Les Invalides. It was built around 1675, on the model of a Greek cross and has four central chapels each capable of holding a congregation of some 1,000 people. Its central octagonal cupola is illuminated by picture windows in circular arcs.


title: Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital

text: In the "place" in front of the main entrance to the hospital, there is a large bronze monument to Philippe Pinel, who was chief physician of the Hospice from 1795 to his death in 1826. The Salpêtrière was, at the time, like a large village, with seven thousand elderly indigent and ailing women, an entrenched bureaucracy, a teeming market and huge infirmaries. Pinel created an inoculation clinic in his service at the Salpêtrière in 1799 and the first vaccination in Paris was given there in April 1800.


title: Government of Nazi Germany

text: The government of Nazi Germany was totalitarian, run by the Nazi Party in Germany according to the Führerprinzip through the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler. Nazi Germany began with the fact that the Enabling Act was enacted to give Hitler's government the power to make and enforce laws without the involvement of the Reichstag or president on 23 March 1933, and ended with the German surrender in World War II on 8 May 1945. As the successor to the government of the Weimar Republic, it inherited the government structure and institutions of the previous state. Although the Weimar Constitution technically remained in effect until Germany's surrender in 1945, there were no actual restraints on the exercise of state power. In addition to the already extant government of the Weimar Republic, the Nazi leadership created a large number of different organizations for the purpose of helping them govern and remain in power. They rearmed and strengthened the military, set up an extensive state security apparatus and created their own personal party army, which in 1940 became known as the "Waffen-SS".


title: Government of Nazi Germany

text: On 30 January 1933, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor of Germany. This event is known as the "Machtergreifung" (seizure of power). In the following months, the Nazi Party used a process termed "Gleichschaltung" (co-ordination) to rapidly bring all aspects of life under control of the party. All civilian organisations, including agricultural groups, volunteer organisations, and sports clubs, had their leadership replaced with Nazi sympathisers or party members. By June 1933, virtually the only organisations not controlled by the NSDAP were the army and the churches. By 1939, party membership was compulsory for all civil service officials. Hitler ruled Germany autocratically by asserting the "Führerprinzip" (leader principle), which called for absolute obedience of all subordinates. He viewed the government structure as a pyramid, with himself—the infallible leader—at the apex. Rank in the party was not determined by elections; positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank. The Nazi Party used propaganda to develop a cult of personality around Hitler.


title: Government of Nazi Germany

text: Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. Officials were expected to "work towards the Führer" – to take the initiative in promoting policies and actions in line with his wishes and the goals of the Nazi Party, without Hitler having to be involved in the day-to-day running of the country. He often deferred making decisions, avoided clear delegation and allowed subordinates to compete with one another, especially in the pre-war years. The government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but rather a disorganised collection of factions led by members of the party elite who struggled to amass power and gain the Führer's favour.


title: Government of Nazi Germany

text: The system of government was formed whereby leading Nazi officials were forced to interpret Hitler's speeches, remarks and writings on government policies and turn them into programs and legislation. Hitler typically did not give written orders; instead he communicated them verbally, or had them conveyed through his close associate, Martin Bormann. He entrusted Bormann with his paperwork, appointments, and personal finances; Bormann used his position to control the flow of information and access to Hitler. Hitler's cabinet never met after 1938, and he discouraged his ministers from meeting independently.


title: Government of Nazi Germany

text: Hitler's leadership style was to give contradictory orders to his subordinates and to place them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped with those of others, to have "the stronger one [do] the job". In this way, Hitler fostered distrust, competition, and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power.


title: Government of Nazi Germany

text: The process allowed more unscrupulous and ambitious Nazis to get away with implementing the more radical and extreme elements of Hitler's ideology, such as antisemitism, and in doing so win political favour. It was protected by Joseph Goebbels' effective propaganda machine, which portrayed Hitler as a heroic and infallible leader. Further, the government was portrayed as a dedicated, dutiful and efficient outfit. Through successive "Reichsstatthalter" decrees, Germany's states were effectively replaced by Nazi provinces called "Gaue".


title: Government of Nazi Germany

text: After June 1941 as World War II progressed, Hitler became preoccupied with military matters and spent most of his time at his military headquarters on the eastern front. This led Hitler to rely more and more on Bormann to handle the domestic policies of the country. On 12 April 1943, Hitler officially appointed Bormann as Personal Secretary to the Führer. By this time Bormann had de facto control over all domestic matters, and this new appointment gave him the power to act in an official capacity in any matter.


title: Government of Nazi Germany

text: Historical opinion is divided between "intentionalists" who believe that Hitler created this system as the only means of ensuring both the total loyalty and dedication of his supporters, and the impossibility of a conspiracy; and the "structuralists" who believe that the system evolved by itself, and was a limitation on Hitler's totalitarian power.


title: Government of Nazi Germany

text: It has to be considered that there is little use talking about a "legislative branch" in a totalitarian state, where there is no separation of powers. For example, since 1933 the "Reichsregierung" (Reich cabinet) was enabled to enact "Reichsgesetze" (statute law) without respect to the constitution from 1919.


title: Government of Nazi Germany

text: Most of the judicial structures and legal codes of the Weimar Republic remained in use during the Nazi era, but significant changes within the judicial codes occurred, as well as significant changes in court rulings. Most human rights of the constitution of the Weimar Republic were disabled by several "Reichsgesetze" (Reich's laws). Several minorities, opposition politicians and prisoners of war were deprived of most of their rights and responsibilities. The plan to pass a "Volksstrafgesetzbuch" (people's code of criminal justice) arose soon after 1933 but didn't come into reality until the end of World War II.


title: Government of Nazi Germany

text: As a new type of court, the "Volksgerichtshof" (people's court) was established in 1934, only dealing with cases of political importance. In practice, it served only as a kangaroo court, conducting show trials that gave the appearance of legal process while handing down harsh sentences to political enemies. From 1934 to 1945, the court sentenced 10,980 people to prison and imposed the death penalty on 5,179 more who were convicted of high treason. About 1,000 were acquitted. Its most prominent members were Otto Georg Thierack, president of the court from May 1936 to August 1942, and Roland Freisler who presided from August 1942 to February 1945. After the war ended, some surviving jurists were tried, convicted, and sentenced as war criminals.


title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: How to Be a Latin Lover is a 2017 American comedy film directed by Ken Marino, written by Chris Spain and Jon Zack and stars Eugenio Derbez, Salma Hayek, Raphael Alejandro, Raquel Welch, Rob Riggle, Rob Huebel, Rob Corddry, Renée Taylor, Linda Lavin, Kristen Bell, and Rob Lowe. The film follows a man who has spent his whole life married to a rich old woman, and must learn to make it on his own when she kicks him out. It was released on April 28, 2017 by Pantelion Films and grossed $62.6 million worldwide.