title: Irreplaceable

text: When the team worked with Ne-Yo, they recorded the song with a male vocalist. However, they thought a female vocalist would be more suitable, and Ne-Yo also thought that it was empowering for a woman to sing it. Eriksen of Stargate said it was an A&R person who suggested that the song would work better when sung by a woman. Two labels wanted the song. While Beyoncé worked on material for "B'Day", she was pleased with the demo of the "Irreplaceable" that was presented to her. However, "Irreplaceable" did not seem to fit on "B'Day", which was supposed to be "a hard-hitting club album". Swizz Beatz, who was working on the album, declared that Beyoncé would be crazy not to include the song on the record. Beyoncé asked for changes to the song, including the addition of drums, vocal arrangements, and singing in a higher register than the demo. Espen Lind and Amund Bjørklund, from the Norwegian production team Espionage, wrote the chord structure and the guitar part. In an interview with MTV, Ne-Yo said, "Beyoncé had some stuff that she wanted to get off her chest", while aiming to make a record that women could relate to, in keeping with the theme of the album.


title: Irreplaceable

text: The recording was engineered by Jim Caruana and mixed by Jason Goldstein at Sony Music Studios in New York City. Goldstein was hired to mix "B'Day". He said: "This song was really simple to mix. It was produced by Stargate and the sounds are really good and they all made sense, and there was lots of room for all the instruments." Goldstein used a board equalizer for the drums' treatment. For the acoustic guitars, he used the analogue flanger of a TC 1210 spatial expander "to sweeten the sound" and to give them "a little bit more spread". Goldstein thought "Irreplaceable" sounded "a bit old-school"; an eighth note delay echo was placed on the song's lead vocal at 341ms, using the "Echo Farm" plug-in software. For the backing vocals, Goldstein used "Echo Farm" with a quarter note delay at 682ms and Sony's "Oxford Dynamics" compressor/limiter in dual-mono mode.


title: Irreplaceable

text: The compressor was placed in Classic setting, to emulate the LA-2A leveling amplifier, and the Warmth button used to add harmonics. "Oxford Dynamics" was used for the bass in a different setting. Goldstein passed the final mix through the "Oxford EQ" and "Inflator" plug-ins. Pro Tools software was used to print the aux track into a 44.1kHz/24-bit CD and then into a 24-bit CD master. After the sessions for "Irreplaceable" ended, Hermansen said that "everyone felt they had captured something special and that Beyoncé had done the track justice", but there were still concerns that urban radio might not play the song as it featured acoustic guitars and had more of a pop appeal. "But then it became the biggest urban record ... ever," [Hermansen] said.


title: Irreplaceable

text: A controversy arose over the writing credits on "Irreplaceable". Ne-Yo told MTV: "Apparently Beyoncé was at a show somewhere and right before the song came on she said, 'I wrote this for all my ladies' and then the song came on ... The song is a co-write. I wrote the lyrics, I wrote all the lyrics. Beyoncé helped me with the melodies and the harmonies and the vocal arrangement and that makes it a co-write. Meaning my contribution and her contribution made that song what it is." In 2011, Ne-Yo said that he wrote the song for himself, but thought that it would be better suited for Beyoncé. Some of Beyoncé's fans read Ne-Yo's remark as disrespectful towards her. However, he clarified his comment later through Twitter, writing, "I said I originally wrote the song for me. ... Once I realized how the song comes across if sung by a guy, that's when I decided to give it away."


title: Irreplaceable

text: "Irreplaceable" is a mid-tempo ballad with pop and R&B influences. Written in the key of B major, the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 88 beats per minute. Beyoncé's vocal range in the song spans nearly two and a half octaves, from B to E. While most of the songs on the album are aggressive and uptempo, her voice on "Irreplaceable" is toned down. "Irreplaceable" uses a gently strummed acoustic guitar, following the B–F–Cm–E chord series. Hermansen and Eriksen combined the classic chord progression on an acoustic guitar, a modern-sounding 808 drum beat and cellos. Al Shipley of "Stylus Magazine" noted that the guitar strum can be found in Rihanna's 2007 single "Hate That I Love You", a song co-produced by Stargate and Ne-Yo. Rob Sheffield of "Rolling Stone" wrote that Chris Brown's 2007 single "With You", another Stargate-produced song, also features the same element. He wrote, "'With You' is the convincer, even if you can instantly tell that producer Stargate was just trying to roll out 'Irreplaceable' one more time." while "Billboard" magazine wrote that it "leans a bit too heavily" to the song.


title: Irreplaceable

text: Jim DeRogatis of the "Chicago Sun-Times" wrote that "Irreplaceable" resembles ballads sung by Whitney Houston. Spence D. of IGN wrote that the song was inspired by Aretha Franklin's work since "Irreplaceable" consists of several variations in gutturals and octave range. The lyrics of "Irreplaceable" concern the breakdown of a woman's relationship with her boyfriend after she discovers his infidelity, and the song "sounds a lot like a statement of independence". Sarah Rodman of "The Boston Globe" wrote, "With a heretofore unknown grasp of nuance, Beyonce combines heartache, bravado, and anger as she tells a cad he's far from irreplaceable—and that, in fact, her new man will be arriving momentarily." Hermansen said that "Irreplaceable" is a song that "people from all walks of life can enjoy". Beyoncé said that the song is "a little honest", and, "... basically we can't forget our power and our worth. And sometimes you're so in love, you forget that. And sometimes you feel like you're not being appreciated. And sometimes they forget that they can be replaced."


title: Irreplaceable

text: The song's lyrics are constructed in the verse-pre-chorus-chorus form. It begins with guitar strumming, and Beyoncé sings the hook-intro, "To the left, to the left: everything you own in a box to the left". In bar seven, she sings the first verse, arguing with her boyfriend about the indifference of their relationship, and tells him to walk away. The pre-chorus and chorus follow, "You must not know 'bout me ... I can have another you by tomorrow / I could have another you in a minute ... Don't you ever for a second get to thinking / You're irreplaceable". In the second verse, Beyoncé recollects the moment she discovered her boyfriend's infidelity. The same pattern leads to the second chorus. Towards the end, Beyoncé sings the bridge, where she tells her lover, "Replacing you is so easy". The song closes with an ad-libbed chorus. "The Boston Globe" noted that Beyoncé sings some parts of it in a higher register "that complements the lyrics' wounded sensibility".


title: Irreplaceable

text: During the production of "Irreplaceable", Hermansen thought that the track would not receive radio play because of the acoustic guitars, and deemed the song too pop-oriented. Hermansen did not expect "Irreplaceable" to conform to any genre. Despite his prediction, the song became successful on urban charts. It was played in New York and on country radio stations. Shortly after the release of "Irreplaceable", Beyoncé told MTV: "I love 'Irreplaceable'. I think it's important to have those songs. I've had so many people come up to me in tears, saying, 'I experienced my first breakup. If it wasn't for the song, I wouldn't be strong enough to not call. I wouldn't know how much I'm worth.' I'm happy to be a part of that."


title: Irreplaceable

text: "Irreplaceable" was released in the United Kingdom on October 23, 2006, as the second single there. In the US, "Irreplaceable" was the third single from "B'Day"<nowiki>'</nowiki>, and followed "Ring the Alarm". The single was released on December 5, 2006, and featured the album and instrumental versions of the track. "Irreplaceable" was the second single released from "B'Day" in international markets on Columbia Records. Two versions of the single were released in the UK on October 26, 2006. A CD single, which featured the album version of "Irreplaceable", and the Freemasons club mix radio edit of "Ring the Alarm", was released. An enhanced CD, which included the album version, three remixes of "Ring the Alarm", and the "Ring the Alarm" music video, was also released. A 12-inch single was released in the UK the following week. In Australia, a maxi single, which featured the album version and two remixes of "Déjà Vu", was released on December 5, 2006. A Maurice Joshua remix edit of the song was released in Australia two weeks later.


title: Irreplaceable

text: Beyoncé recorded a Spanish version of the song, called "Irreemplazable", with additional lyrical contributions from Rudy Pérez and was included on the second disc of the deluxe edition of "B'Day" released on June 12, 2007. An "Irreemplazable" EP was released in the US on August 28, 2007, and on September 10, 2007, in the UK. The EP includes "Irreemplazable", the Norteña Remix of "Irreplaceable", "Amor Gitano", three versions of "Beautiful Liar", the Timbaland remix of "Get Me Bodied" featuring Voltio, and "Oye", the Spanish version of "Listen".


title: Irreplaceable

text: As a fundraiser for the victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan, a compilation album that included "Irreplaceable", called "Songs for Japan", was released on March 25, 2011.


title: Irreplaceable

text: Jody Rosen of "Entertainment Weekly" noted "Irreplaceable" to be "a lilting tune unlike anything Beyoncé has ever performed". Sarah Rodman of "The Boston Globe" wrote that the song is "gentle but maddeningly hook-y". Spence Abbott of IGN wrote that "Irreplaceable" and "Resentment" go for "a much more traditional contemporary R&B vibe" than any of the previous tracks on "B'Day", making them stand out as if they were recorded separately from the rest of the album.


title: Irreplaceable

text: Roger Friedman of Fox News Channel wrote that "Irreplaceable" is a "clever ballad" and the most memorable track on "B'Day". He added that it has the most potential of catching on with fans quickly, and that it is the only song on the album that "you might actually want to sing along to". Mike Joseph of PopMatters commented that "'Irreplaceable' tellingly, was co-written by Ne-Yo, who may not be the powerhouse vocalist Beyonce is, but has significantly stronger songwriting skills. It's the best song on the album—perhaps Ms. Knowles should take a hint." Tim Finney of "Pitchfork Media", called "Irreplaceable" the best song on "B'Day" and praised its overall production, writing:


title: Irreplaceable

text: Before, Beyoncé's approach to heartbreak was always literal, her voice and her words declaiming her feelings with a studied earnestness that at times was difficult to believe, let alone connect with. 'Irreplaceable' is the first song in which Beyoncé lies to herself, and the way her voice perfectly betrays that lie (revealing a giveaway tremble in the stiff upper lip of the lyrics) simultaneously renders it her most sophisticated and her most honest performance to date.


title: Irreplaceable

text: Mark Edward Nero ranked it as the ninth best R&B song of 2006, and wrote, "This song has modern-day classic written all over it." "The Village Voice" listed it 18 on their list of best songs of 2006. Staff members of "Pitchfork Media" ranked the song on their list of The Top 100 Tracks of 2006 at number 45. Shaheem Reid, Jayson Rodriguez and Rahman Dukes of MTV News placed the song at number 3 on their year-end list of 27 Essential R&B Songs of 2007.


title: Irreplaceable

text: In 2009, Ryan Schreiber ranked "Irreplaceable" at number 183 on his list of Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s (decade). Barry Schwartz of "Stylus" Magazine wrote that "Irreplaceable" recaptured Beyoncé's 2003 debut single "Crazy in Love"'s near-perfection, describing it as "gentle but defiant", and further wrote, "Through some breezy strums and a sweet plaintive melody Beyonce delivers her most genuinely emotional vocal to date, equal parts vulnerable, upset, pissed off, vindictive, resigned, and apathetic." "Rolling Stone" ranked the song at number 60 on its list of 100 Best Songs of the 2000s. The RIAA recognized the song as the "Highest-certified Master Ringtone by a Female Artist" of the decade achieving three times multiplatinum certification


title: Irreplaceable

text: "Irreplaceable" won the award for Best R&B/Soul Single, Female, at the 2007 Soul Train Music Award, and the 'Favorite Song' award at the 2007 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards. It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year in the 2008 Grammy Awards, and Song of the Year at the VH1 Soul Vibe awards. "Irreplaceable" was recognized as one of the five most-performed songs of 2007 by the ASCAP Pop Music Awards.


title: Irreplaceable

text: "Irreplaceable" entered various charts worldwide, and became the most successful single released from "B'Day". The single debuted on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart on November 4, 2006, at number eighty-seven. It climbed the charts rapidly because of its radio airplay, and it was the "Greatest Airplay Gainer" for six consecutive weeks by early December 2006. Three weeks after the release of "Irreplaceable", "B'Day" re-entered the top ten on the US "Billboard" 200. "Irreplaceable" reached number one on December 16, becoming Beyoncé's fourth number one single as a solo artist, and her second in 2006, following "Check on It" (2005). The single spent ten consecutive weeks at number one and was replaced by Nelly Furtado's "Say It Right" (2006) on February 24, 2007. "Irreplaceable" outperformed "Baby Boy"'s nine weeks at number one. Beyoncé's former group Destiny's Child's single "Independent Women Part I" (2000) remained at number one for eleven weeks in late 2000 and early 2001. "Irreplaceable" remained on the chart for thirty weeks, and as of December 2017, and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It was additionally certified triple platinum in July 2007, denoting sales of three million master ringtones. "Irreplaceable" peaked atop the US Radio Songs, staying atop the chart for eleven consecutive weeks.


title: Irreplaceable

text: According to Mediabase, "Irreplaceable" passed the two hundred million audience impressions mark on December 11, 2006. Another Beyoncé's single "Check on It" previously passed this mark on January 31, 2006. Consequently, Beyoncé became the second singer to achieve this in the United States, the first having been Mariah Carey whose two singles, "We Belong Together" (2005) and "Shake It Off" (2005), passed the same audience impressions mark in 2005. "Irreplaceable" was the best-performing single in the United States of 2007, topping the "Billboard" Top Hot 100 Hits. "Irreplaceable" installed Beyoncé at third place for most number one singles by a female songwriter, overtaking Janet Jackson and Carole King and tying Diane Warren for nine number-one singles. Beyoncé received three songwriting credits in one year, the only woman to achieve this since King in 1971 and Carey in 1991. In February 2010, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) listed "Irreplaceable" as the highest certified master ringtone by a female solo artist of the 2000s. By August 2011, the single had sold over three million digital downloads in the United States. Spanish version of the song "Irreemplazable" charted equally well, peaking at number four on the Hot Latin Songs. The extended play (EP) of the same title appeared on the US Latin Pop Albums at number two, Top Latin Albums at number three, Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums at number forty-one and on the "Billboard" 200 at number one-hundred-and-five.


title: Irreplaceable

text: "Irreplaceable" debuted at number eight on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart, and peaked at number one, staying atop the chart for three consecutive weeks, becoming Beyoncé's first and so far only number-one single in Australia. It was certified six-times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of 420,000 copies. "Irreplaceable" appeared twice on the ARIA year-end charts, reaching number twenty-three in 2006, and number forty-two in 2007. "Irreplaceable" debuted at number three on the New Zealand Singles Chart on November 6, 2006, the song's highest debut on any chart. It peaked at number one, and remained on the chart for eighteen weeks. It was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ). "Irreplaceable" peaked atop the charts in Hungary and Ireland, as well; it also entered the top ten in Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Scotland, Slovakia, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and Venezuela. In the United Kingdom, it peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart, spending twelve weeks in the top twenty and twenty-five weeks on the chart in total. It was Beyoncé's fifth longest-charting single in the United Kingdom, and spent more weeks on the chart than her number-one singles "Crazy in Love" and "Déjà Vu" but slightly less than more recent hit singles "If I Were a Boy", "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", "Halo" and "Sweet Dreams". Due to Beyoncé's performance of "Irreplaceable" at the Glastonbury Festival 2011 on June 26, 2011, the song re-entered the top forty of the UK Singles Chart at number thirty-three, and the live version appeared at number twenty-six on the UK Singles Chart Update. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), "Irreplaceable" was 2007's tenth best-selling digital single with over 4.6 million copies sold worldwide;


title: Irreplaceable

text: "Irreplaceable" was directed by Anthony Mandler, who co-directed the video of "Get Me Bodied". The video features the debut performance of Beyoncé's all-female band, Suga Mama, who also appeared in the "Green Light" music video. Her acting-then-ex-boyfriend in the video is model Bobby Roache, who played police officer for the "Ring the Alarm" music video and warrior during Jay-Z and Beyoncé's live performance at the 2006 Fashion Rocks show. The video was included on the 2007 "B'Day Anthology Video Album", and a video edit was produced for "Irreemplazable". Part of the video which shows Beyoncé dancing in silhouette in front of a glass door is inspired by a James Bond movie. Late in January 2008, "Irreemplazable" premiered on the MiTRL, a video countdown show on the bilingual channel MTV Tr3s.


title: Irreplaceable

text: The music video follows the storyline of the song's lyrics. "She told me to pack up all my stuff, I'm getting kicked out—the video starts off like that", said Roache. It opens with Beyoncé filing her nails in silence, as her ex-partner packs up his property, as Beyoncé orders him to leave. Mid-way in the video, Beyoncé follows her then-ex-boyfriend outside the house and leans on a 2007 Jaguar XK. She appears to be pretentiously caressing him; only for the audience to find out that she is repossessing things she bought for him. He leaves her and the car, about to ride off in a taxi. Between cuts, Beyoncé manages herself in front of a mirror; putting on a lipstick, wearing huge curlers and a high-waisted skirt. There are additional beats mixed to the arrangement for the video version that can be heard, when Beyoncé sings with her all-female band, Suga Mama, towards the end. It ends with Beyoncé greeting her new boyfriend at the front door.


title: Irreplaceable

text: At the 2007 Black Entertainment Television (BET) Awards, Beyoncé won Video of the Year Award for "Irreplaceable", an award for which "Beautiful Liar" was also nominated. It was nominated for Video of the Year during the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards, but it lost to Rihanna's single, "Umbrella" (2007). At the 2007 Soul Train Music Awards, the video was nominated for the Michael Jackson Award for Best R&B/Soul or Rap Music Video, but lost to rapper (and husband) Jay-Z's "Show Me What You Got" video. The video received two nominations for Best Female Artist and Video of the Year at the 2007 MTV Australia Video Music Awards.


title: Irreplaceable

text: Beyoncé performed "Irreplaceable" during various public appearances, including the 2006 American Music Awards, "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", the "Today Show".


title: Irreplaceable

text: The song was a part of Beyoncé's set list for her tour The Beyoncé Experience and I Am... World Tour. "Irreplaceable" was the closing song during her 2007 The Beyoncé Experience world tour. It was performed late in the set on earlier tour dates, but when Beyoncé embarked on the US leg, it was performed earlier in the show. Beyoncé performed "Irreplaceable" during her revue.


title: Irreplaceable

text: Beyoncé has performed "Irreplaceable" without backup dancers or live instrumentation, or in another case, Beyoncé was accompanied by two drummers, two keyboardists, a percussionist, a horn section, three backup vocalists called the Mamas, and the lead guitarist, Bibi McGill. Footage of Beyoncé's performance at the Staples Center, Los Angeles was included on "The Beyoncé Experience Live!" DVD (2007), and the deluxe edition of "I Am... World Tour" (2010). According to "NME", "'Irreplaceable' [at the Glastonbury Festival] sparked a mass singalong, with the crowd taking the lead on the entire first verse." Following the performance of "Irreplaceable" at the Glastonbury Festival, the song was digitally released in the UK and the US on June 27, 2011, as charity single to raise funds for Oxfam, WaterAid and Greenpeace. This version charted at number twenty-six on the UK Singles Chart Update.


title: Irreplaceable

text: American band Sleigh Bells recorded an acoustic cover of the song during their Maida Vale sessions and released it Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show on March 6, 2012. A writer of "Billboard" magazine commented that their cover was "ethereal". Ray Rahman of "Entertainment Weekly" described the cover as "really good!... Krauss also has a teen-pop background thanks to her Rubyblue days, so it's actually not that surprising that she can find her away around a Top 40 single so well." However, Maura Johnston of "The Village Voice" gave a negative review for the cover, saying: "Krauss sighs her way through the song, turning her voice into a mew that sounds like she was trying to sing along with the radio while not being heard by her roommates or anyone else outside of a six-inch radius... Also, some of the guitar chords are a bit off... it's sorta disappointing."


title: Irreplaceable

text: In 2007, Gregory and the Hawk and Taylor Swift each covered the song. US country band Sugarland, who performed some of Beyoncé's songs during their live shows, performed a country version of "Irreplaceable" with Beyoncé at the 2007 American Music Awards, held on November 18. Kate Nash covered "Irreplaceable" in January 2008. In November 2009, Damon Thomas of The Underdogs sang the song. Kidz Bop covered "Irreplaceable" on their eleventh studio album "Kidz Bop 11" (2007). A group named Faith, consisting of Michelle Delamor, Ashley Rodriguez and Charity Vance, sang "Irreplaceable" on the 'group night' episode of ninth season of "American Idol" on February 10, 2010, In 2011, Canadian singer Maria Aragon, and South Korean singer G.NA, covered the song. Andy Grammer performed "Irreplaceable" on the radio station The Mix Lounge 104.1 and posted the video of his performance on his YouTube page in June 2011. During the finale of the tenth season of "American Idol" on May 25, 2011, the lady contestants joined together onstage to perform "Irreplaceable" along with a medley of Beyoncé's other singles. On August 26, 2013, singer Barry Southgate covered the song during the fifth season of "The X Factor Australia". Giles Hardie of "The Sydney Morning Herald" rated his performance eight out of ten and wrote it was "a very clever song choice". In September 2013, Lily Allen covered "Irreplaceable" at a celebration party in Italy, and on June 30, 2014, Anja Nissen covered the song on the third series of "The Voice Australia". In May 2007, "Irreplaceable" was used in the final scene of "When the Chickens Come Home to Roost", the final episode of the first season of the television series "The Game". The series also used the song in the opening moments of its premiere episode for the second season. In 2017, Woman2Woman group from Cape Town, South Africa, did a parody on the breakfast show "Expresso". Felicity Kiran, Anray Amansure and Lauren-Lee Bock originally did it as promotional video. It went viral with around 40 million views worldwide.


title: Kaadhal

text: Kaadhal () is a 2004 Indian Tamil-language romantic drama film based on a true story, directed by Balaji Sakthivel, starring Bharath (in his first film as a main lead actor) and Sandhya. It was produced by S. Shankar and featured music composed by Joshua Sridhar. The film opened to critical acclaim and was a high commercial success. The film was dubbed into Telugu as Premisthe and released on 12 October 2005. It was remade in Kannada as "Cheluvina Chittara" in 2007, in Bengali as "Chirodini Tumi Je Amar" in 2008, in Bengali Bangladesh as "Nogor Mastan" in 2015, in Marathi as "Ved Laavi Jeeva" in 2010, in Nepali as "Manjari" in 2013 and in Punjabi as "Ramta Jogi" in 2015.


title: Kaadhal

text: Murugan is a diligent scooter mechanic in Madurai, and life goes on smoothly for him until a rich student Aishwarya sets an eye on him. The infatuation reaches a dangerous level when she coaxes Murugan to take her from the constraint of her family, who has other plans about her future. Initially, Murugan hesitates to love her as she belongs to a rich family but later understands her true love and reciprocates. The couple knows that Aishwarya's family will not agree for the wedding and decides to run away to Chennai. Murugan's friend Stephen helps them in their hour of crisis, and the lovers unite in marriage. But Aishwarya's family dotes on her and is not going to give up so easily.


title: Kaadhal

text: The family tracks down the couple and reaches Chennai to meet them. But the family members pretend to have agreed on the wedding and convince them to return to Madurai along with them. On the way back to Madurai, the family members take the couple to their farmland where Aishwarya's relatives have gathered. They all beat Murugan, and Aishwarya's father wants her to remove the mangalyam tied by Murugan. Aishwarya fears that if she does not obey her father, then Murugan will be killed, so she agrees to marry another man to save Murugan's life. Murugan is beaten and let go of the place.


title: Kaadhal

text: After a few years, Aishwarya, while travelling with her husband and her child, comes across Murugan, where she finds him as a mentally deranged beggar roaming near a traffic signal. Aishwarya faints upon realizing that the man is Murugan and gets admitted to the nearby hospital. At night, she runs from the hospital to the same signal in search of Murugan, and she finds him sitting there. Aishwarya cries to Murugan and feels bad that she was responsible for his pathetic situation. Aishwarya's husband also comes to the spot and understands his wife's situation. He admits Murugan in a mental health centre and also takes care of him.


title: Kaadhal

text: The movie ends with title cards mentioning that this is a true incident narrated by the girl's husband to the director during a train journey, which prompted him to make a film.


title: Kaadhal

text: After the average response of his debut film "Samurai" (2002), Balaji was supposed to direct again Vikram in a new venture which was later shelved. During the shoot of "Anniyan" (2005), Balaji narrated the plot of "Kaadhal" to his mentor Shankar who agreed to produce the film after hearing the script.


title: Kaadhal

text: The film was initially turned down by actors Dhanush and Shanthanu Bhagyaraj, before Balaji Sakthivel consulted Shankar's advice for the lead role. Telugu actor Ram also auditioned for the lead role but was unsuccessful. After considering both Manikandan and Bharath from the cast of "Boys" (2003), Shankar chose the latter to star in his production. For the female lead, the makers held discussions with Ileana D'Cruz and then Varalaxmi Sarathkumar, but the latter's father was reluctant to let her become an actress at the time. The team then picked Saranya Nag was in Class IX, when cinematographer Vijay Milton referred her on to Balaji Sakthivel. She was initially considered to play the heroine in the film, but the role was later handed to Sandhya, after the director felt Saranya looked too young. Dhandapani from Madurai was selected to play Sandhya's father. He became popular with this film and adopted the film's title as Kaadhal Dhandapani.


title: Kaadhal

text: Though the story was shown to have taken place in Madurai, shooting was done in Dindigul and Madurai. The school where Sandhya studies is St. Joseph's Girls Higher Secondary School, Dindigul.


title: Kaadhal

text: Produced on a budget of ₹1.25 crores, the film was a surprise blockbuster recovering almost its entire budget from Chennai distribution territory.


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: Fables of the Reconstruction, also known as Reconstruction of the Fables, is the third studio album by American alternative rock band R.E.M., released on I.R.S. Records on June 10, 1985. The Joe Boyd-produced album was the first recorded by the group outside the United States. It is a concept album with Southern Gothic themes and characters.


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: Despite the growing audience and critical acclaim experienced by the band after its first two albums, "Murmur" and "Reckoning", R.E.M. decided to make noticeable changes to its style of music and recording habits, including a change in producer to Joe Boyd and in recording location to London, England. Boyd was best known for his work with modern English folk musicians, including such acts as Fairport Convention and Nick Drake.


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: Lyrically, the album explores the mythology and landscape of the South, and the title and chorus of "Cant Get There from Here", the album's first single (intentionally misspelled, like most contractions and possessives in R.E.M. titles), is a rural American colloquialism sometimes used in response to a request by travelers for difficult directions (the video for the song received airplay on MTV).


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: The opening song, "Feeling Gravitys Pull" (sic), describes falling asleep while reading; Michael Stipe's lyrics also reference surrealist photographer Man Ray, setting the tone for the album. The song was a musical departure for the band, making use of a dark, chromatic guitar figure by Peter Buck, and a string quartet, while R.E.M.'s previous albums had opened with rhythmic, "jangly" rock songs.


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: "Maps and Legends" fits the earlier sound and features distinct harmony vocals by bassist Mike Mills, singing different lyrics from Stipe. The song is dedicated to the Reverend Howard Finster, a noted outsider artist whom the band considered to be "a man of vision and feeling—a fine example to all" (Finster created the album sleeve for R.E.M.'s "Reckoning" the previous year).


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: "Driver 8" describes the scenery surrounding railroad tracks in somewhat abstract terms. Trains are a frequent motif in rural American music, suggesting the freedom and promise of an escape from one's home environment. Driven by a distinctive guitar riff, "Driver 8" was one of the songs on the album to receive college radio play, and the record company also authorized a music video.


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: Beginning with a soft introduction, "Life and How to Live It" charged through another atmospheric, folk rock arrangement and referenced storytelling. Without mentioning him by name, the song was about Athens, Georgia, author Brivs Mekis, as alluded to in the live performance on the "And I Feel Fine..." bonus disc. (Mekis wrote a book titled "Life: How to Live", and had it printed, only to have all existing copies of it stacked in his closet.)


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: Much of the band's songwriting material in this era also came from the members' own experiences traveling through the country in near-constant tours over the previous several years, as well as an increasing sense of political activism which would find expression on subsequent albums "Lifes Rich Pageant" and "Document". Stipe later said that his previous lyrics never really had any literal meanings, and that by this time he had begun to write lyrics that told stories.


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: The song "Green Grow the Rushes" is a prime example, which contains the line "the amber waves of gain", is thought (by biographer Marcus Gray) to be about migrant farm laborers and also alludes to the folk song "Green Grow the Rushes, O". Natalie Merchant is quoted as saying: "I was doing a lot of research about the genocide against the native American Indians, and we made a pact that we'd both write songs about their plight." Her song, "Among the Americans", appeared on the 1985 10,000 Maniacs album "The Wishing Chair".


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: "Kohoutek" (misspelled as "Kahoetek" in the album's liner notes) referenced the comet Kohoutek, and is perhaps one of the earliest R.E.M. songs about a romantic relationship, using the comet as a simile for a lover: "like Kohoutek, you were gone."


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: The song "Auctioneer (Another Engine)" deviated from the typical R.E.M. sound of the time, with jagged guitar riffs and more references to old rural ways of life.


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: The plaintive "Good Advices" contains the following Stipe lyric that has been quoted in musical and literary contexts: "When you meet a stranger, look at his shoes / keep your money in your shoes."


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: A celebration of an eccentric individual is the subject of "Old Man Kensey" (which has lyrics by Stipe's friend Jeremy Ayers) and closing track "Wendell Gee". The latter, a ballad with piano and more harmonies from Berry and Mills, was the album's third and final single in the UK only, although it made no commercial impression there.


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: Reviewer Matthew Perpetua describes the album's lyrics as particularly "preoccupied with the behavior of mysterious older men" and "imagining the inner lives of outsiders and recluses" with "a sound that evokes images of railroads, small towns, eccentric locals, oppressive humidity, and a vague sense of time slowing to a crawl".


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: Upon release, "Fables of the Reconstruction" reached #28 in the United States (going gold in 1991) and was the band's best showing yet in the UK, peaking at 35. Recorded during a period of internal strife—largely due to the R.E.M. members' homesickness and an unpleasant London winter—the band's unenthusiastic view of the album has been public for years, and is often reflected among fans and the press. Drummer Bill Berry was quoted in the early 1990s as saying that "Fables of the Reconstruction" "sucked". Guitarist Peter Buck dismissed single "Driver 8" saying, "I can write that kind of stuff in my sleep." Frontman Michael Stipe once shared the opinion, but later said that he considers it to be the strongest collection of songs among their 1980s albums, telling producer Joe Boyd that he had grown to love the album.


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: Peter Buck, in the liner notes of the 25th Anniversary Deluxe edition, said, "Over the years, a certain misapprehension about "Fables of the Reconstruction" has built up. For some reason, people have the impression that the members of R.E.M. don't like the record. Nothing could be further from the truth. [...] It's a personal favorite, and I'm really proud of how strange it is. Nobody but R.E.M. could have made that record."


title: Fables of the Reconstruction

text: "Fables" was often characterized by a slow tempo and an intentionally murky sound, in contrast with the more upbeat and jangly (if equally abstract) sound of earlier R.E.M. material. Nevertheless, the focus on American folk instruments such as the banjo in "Wendell Gee" and a few additional orchestrations (string instruments in "Feeling Gravitys Pull" and honking brass in " Get There from Here") began the band's route toward the layered, acoustic-based sound they adopted for their popular breakthrough in the late 1980s and early 1990s with albums such as "Document", "Green", "Out of Time" and "Automatic for the People".


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: Lord Kitchener Wants You is a 1914 advertisement by Alfred Leete which was developed into a recruitment poster. It depicted Lord Kitchener, the British Secretary of State for War, above the words "WANTS YOU". Kitchener, wearing the cap of a British Field Marshal, stares and points at the viewer calling them to enlist in the British Army against the Central Powers. The image is considered one of the most iconic and enduring images of World War I. A hugely influential image and slogan, it has also inspired imitations in other countries.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: British policy for a century had been that recruitment to the British armed forces was strictly volunteer. Before the outbreak of the First World War, recruiting posters had not been used in Britain on a regular basis since the Napoleonic Wars. UK government advertisements for contract work were handled by His Majesty's Stationery Office, who passed this task onto the publishers of R. F. White & Sons in order to avoid paying the government rate to newspaper publishers. As war loomed in late 1913, the number of advertising contracts expanded to include other firms. J. E. B. Seely, then the Secretary of State for War, awarded Hedley Le Bas, Eric Field, and their Caxton Advertising Agency a contract to advertise for recruits in the major UK newspapers. Eric Field designed a prototype full-page advertisement with the coat of arms of King George V and the phrase "Your King and Country Need You." Britain declared war on the German Empire on 4 August 1914 and the first run of the full-page advert ran the next day in those newspapers owned by Lord Northcliffe.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: The Prime Minister H. H. Asquith appointed Kitchener as Secretary of State for War in August 1914. Kitchener was the first currently serving soldier to hold the post and was given the task of recruiting a large army to fight Germany. Unlike some of his contemporaries who expected a short conflict, Kitchener foresaw a much longer war requiring hundreds of thousands of enlistees. According to Gary S. Messinger, Kitchener reacted well to Field's advertisement, although he insisted "that the ads should all end with 'God Save the King' and that they should not be changed from the original text, except to say 'Lord Kitchener needs YOU.'" In the following months, Le Bas formed an advisory committee of ad men to develop further newspaper recruiting advertisements, most of which ran vertically , two columns wide.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: Alfred Leete, one of Caxton's illustrators, designed the now-famous image of Kitchener as the cover illustration for the 5 September 1914 issue of "London Opinion", a popular weekly magazine, taking cues from Field's earlier recruiting advertisement. At the time, the magazine, which sold for one penny, had a circulation of around 300,000.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: In response to requests for reproductions, the magazine offered postcard-sized copies for sale - at 100 for 1s 4 d "post free". It advertised these alongside other post cards from cartoons published in the "London Opinion" The Parliamentary Recruiting Committee obtained permission to use the design in poster form. A similar poster used the words "YOUR COUNTRY NEEDS YOU".


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: In September a poster printed by Victoria House and credited to the "London Opinion" carried the image of Kitchener below "Britons" and above "Wants You" "Join your Country's Army! God, Save The King". In November David Allen and Sons printed the same Kitchener image with "your country needs you" on a recruitment poster below the allied flags alongside details of rates of pay and exhortations to join. Although David Allen were printers for the Parliamentary Recruiting Committee it was not an official publication, lacking design number and the PRC endorsement.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: Kitchener, a "figure of absolute will and power, an emblem of British masculinity", was a natural subject for Leete's artwork as his name was directly attached to the recruiting efforts and the newly-forming Kitchener's Army. Le Bas of Caxton Advertising (for whom Leete worked) chose Kitchener for the advertisement because Kitchener was "the only soldier with a great war name, won in the field, within the memory of the thousands of men the country wanted." Kitchener made his name in the Sudan Campaign, avenging the death of General Gordon with brutality and efficiency. He became a hero of "New Imperialism" alongside other widely regarded figures in Britain like Field Marshal Wolseley and Field Marshal Roberts. Kitchener's appearance including his bushy moustache and court dress jacket was reminiscent of romanticized Victorian era styles. Kitchener, tall and powerfully built, was for many the personification of the military ethos so popular in the present Edwardian era. After the scorched earth tactics and hard-fought victory of the Second Boer War, Kitchener represented a return to the military victories of the colonial era. The fact that Kitchener's name was not used in the poster demonstrates how easily he was visually recognized. David Lubin opines that the image may be one of the earliest successful celebrity endorsements as the commercial practice expanded greatly in the 1920s. Keith Surridge posits that Kitchener's features evoked the harsh, feared militarism of the Germans, which boded well for British fortunes in the war. Kitchener did not see the end of the war; he died when the cruiser HMS "Hampshire" carrying him and a delegation to Russia struck a German mine and sank in 1916.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: Leete's drawing of Kitchener was the most famous image used in the British Army recruitment campaign of World War I. It continues to be considered a masterful piece of wartime propaganda as well as an enduring and iconic image of the war.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: Recruitment posters in general have often been seen as a driving force helping to bring more than a million men into the Army. September 1914, coincident with publication of Leete's image, saw the highest number of volunteers enlisted. "The Times" recorded the scene in London on 3 January 1915; "Posters appealing to recruits are to be seen on every hoarding, in most windows, in omnibuses, tramcars and commercial vans. The great base of Nelson's Column is covered with them. Their number and variety are remarkable. Everywhere Lord Kitchener sternly points a monstrously big finger, exclaiming 'I Want You'". One contemporaneous publication decried the use of advertising methods to enlist soldiers: "the cold, basilisk eye of a gaudily-lithographed Kitchener rivets itself upon the possible recruit and the outstretched finger of the British Minister of War is levelled at him like some revolver, with the words, 'I want you.' The idea is stolen from the advertisement of a 5c. American cigar." Although it became one of the most famous posters in history, its widespread circulation did not halt the decline in recruiting.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: The placement of the Kitchener posters including Alfred Leete's design has been examined and questioned following an Imperial War Museum publication in 1997. The museum suggested that the poster itself was a "non event" and was made popular by postwar advertising by the war museum, perhaps conflating Leete's design with the so-called "30-word" poster, an official product from the Parliamentary Recruitment Committee.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: The 30-word design was the most popular recruitment poster at the time, having been printed ten times more than Leete's image. Leete's image has been praised for being more arresting, while his accompanying text is also far less verbose. The official wording, taken from a Kitchener speech, may seem more fitting for a character in a Henry James novel. The 30-word recruiting poster was developed as Britons' collective hopes of the war being over by Christmas were dashed in January 1915 and volunteer enlistments fell.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: A 2013 book researched by James Taylor counters the popular belief that the Leete design was an influential recruitment tool during the war. He claims the original artwork was acquired by the Imperial War Museum in 1917 and catalogued as a poster in error. Though the image of Kitchener (Britain's most popular soldier) inspired several other poster designs, Taylor says he can find no evidence that the poster was as popular or influential as later stated having examined many contemporary photographs, although a photograph from 15 December 1914 taken at the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway station in Liverpool clearly depicts Leete's depiction among other recruiting posters.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: The effectiveness of the image upon the viewer is attributed to what E. B. Goldstein has called the "differential rotation effect". Because of this effect, Kitchener's eyes and his foreshortened arm and hand appear to follow the viewer regardless of the viewer's orientation to the artwork. Historian Carlo Ginzburg compared Leete's image of Kitchener to similar images of Christ and Alexander the Great as depicting the viewer's contact with a powerful figure. Pearl James commented on Ginzburg's analysis agreeing that the strength of the connotation lies with a clever use of discursive psychology and that art historical methods better illuminate why this image has such resonance. The capitalized word "YOU" grabs the reader, bringing them directly to Kitchener's message. The textual focus on "you" engages the reader about their own participation in the war. Nicholas Hiley differs in that Leete's portrayal of Kitchener is less about immediate recruiting statistics but the myth that has grown around the image, including ironic parodies. Leete's Kitchener poster caught the attention of a then eleven-year-old George Orwell, who may have used it as the basis for his description of the "Big Brother" posters in his novel "1984". It remains recognised and parodied in popular culture.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: In 1997 the British Army created a recruiting advertisement re-using Leete's image but substituting for Kitchener's face that of a British Army non-commissioned officer of African descent. Leete's image of Kitchener is featured on a 2014 £2 coin produced by sculptor John Bergdahl for the Royal Mint. The coin was the first of a five-year series to commemorate the centennial of the war. Use of Leete's image of Kitchener has been criticized by some for its pro-war connotation in light of the human losses of the First World War and the violence of Kitchener's campaign in Sudan. In July 2014, one of only four original posters known to exist went to auction for more than £10,000. The other three originals exist on display in State Library Victoria, the Museum of Brands, Packaging and Advertising, and the Imperial War Museum. Leete's design was also used for a corn maze in the Skylark Garden Centre in Wimblington to mark the centenary of World War I.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: Original copies of the poster are rare compared to official PRC posters that were produced in up to a hundred thousand copies. The IWM, established in 1917, did not receive a copy for its collection until the 1950s. Leete's original artwork for the magazine cover version was exhibited alongside war posters in 1919 and donated to the IWM. In 1968 reproductions were printed by the Curwen Press for HMSO and these may have contributed to its later popularity.


title: Lord Kitchener Wants You

text: The image of Lord Kitchener with his hand pointing directly at the viewer has inspired numerous imitations:


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968), was a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision in which the Court ruled that it is constitutional for American police to "stop and frisk" a person they reasonably suspect to be armed and involved in a crime. Specifically, the decision held that a police officer does not violate the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution's prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures when questioning someone even though the officer lacks probable cause to arrest the person, so long as the police officer has a reasonable suspicion that the person has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime. The Court also ruled that the police officer may perform a quick surface search of the person's outer clothing for weapons if they have reasonable suspicion that the person stopped is "armed and presently dangerous." This reasonable suspicion must be based on "specific and articulable facts," and not merely upon an officer's hunch.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: This permitted police action has subsequently been referred to in short as a "stop and frisk", "stop, question, and frisk," or simply a "Terry stop." The "Terry" standard was later extended to temporary detentions of persons in vehicles, known as traffic stops; see Terry stop for a summary of subsequent jurisprudence. The rationale behind the Supreme Court decision revolves around the notion that, as the opinion argues, "the exclusionary rule has its limitations." According to the Court, the meaning of the rule is to protect persons from unreasonable searches and seizures aimed at gathering evidence, not searches and seizures for other purposes (like prevention of crime or personal protection of police officers).


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: "Stop-and-frisk" is a police practice where a police officer stops a person suspected of involvement in a crime, briefly searches their clothing for weapons, and then questions them, all without requiring the person's consent and without enough grounds to arrest them. The stop-and-frisk practice has long been routinely employed by all major American police forces. It was historically viewed as a "low visibility" police procedure and was "largely ignored by commentators and dealt with ambiguously by most courts."


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: In the early 1960s, several major changes in American criminal law raised the issue's importance. First, in its 1961 decision "Mapp v. Ohio", the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the exclusionary rule —which prevents the government from using evidence in criminal prosecutions if it were illegally obtained— applies to the U.S. states as well as the federal government. Then, in 1966, the Supreme Court ruled in "Miranda v. Arizona" that the Fifth Amendment requires courts to suppress confessions that law enforcement obtains without first giving certain specific legal warnings. Stop-and-frisk quickly became a popular topic for law review articles. Several cases forced state supreme courts to address the practice more directly, such as the Supreme Court of California's 1963 decision in "People v. Mickelson". Finally, in 1968, the U.S. Supreme Court addressed the issue in "Terry".


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: On October 31, 1963, police officer Martin McFadden was on duty in downtown Cleveland, Ohio, when he noticed two men standing on a street corner. One of the men, John W. Terry, walked down the street, looked through a certain store window, then continued on before turning around and returning to where he started, stopping on his way back to look in the store window again. The other man, Richard Chilton, repeated Terry's movements. McFadden watched the pair repeat this routine about a dozen times. A third man then joined Terry and Chilton and the three walked up the street together toward the store. McFadden suspected that the men had been "casing" the store in preparation for robbing it, so he followed and confronted them. He asked the men's names, but they gave noncommittal mumbling answers. McFadden then grabbed Terry and Chilton, spun them around, patted down their exterior clothing, and discovered that they both had pistols in their jacket pockets.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: McFadden arrested Terry and Chilton, and they were charged in the Cuyahoga County Court of Common Pleas with illegally carrying concealed weapons. At trial, Terry's lawyer filed a motion to suppress the evidence of the discovered pistol, arguing that the "frisk" had been a violation of the Fourth Amendment and therefore the pistol McFadden discovered during it should have been excluded from evidence under the exclusionary rule. The trial judge denied his motion on the basis that the "stop-and-frisk" was generally presumed legal, and Terry was convicted. He appealed to the Ohio District Court of Appeals, which affirmed his conviction, then appealed to the Supreme Court of Ohio, which dismissed his appeal. He then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which agreed to hear his case and granted "certiorari".


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: On June 10, 1968, the U.S. Supreme Court issued an 8–1 decision against Terry that upheld the constitutionality of the "stop-and-frisk" procedure as long as the police officer performing it has a "reasonable suspicion" that the targeted person is about to commit a crime, has committed a crime, or is committing a crime, and may be "armed and presently dangerous".


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: Eight justices formed the majority and joined an opinion written by Chief Justice Earl Warren. The Court began by accepting Terry's arguments, which Ohio had disputed, that policeman McFadden's stopping, questioning, and frisking of Terry and Chilton constituted actual "searches" and "seizures" under the Fourth Amendment. But the Court ruled that the Fourth Amendment "searches" and "seizures" that occurred during a "stop-and-frisk" were not "unreasonable" under the Amendment's first clause. Both the initial "stop" and the subsequent "frisk" were so "limited" and "brief" that a lesser justification sufficed, rather than requiring the police to have probable cause beforehand.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: Reasoning that police officers' need to protect themselves outweighed the limited intrusions involved, the Court ruled that officers could "stop" a person if they had "reasonable suspicion" that criminal activity was afoot, and could then "frisk" the person who was stopped if they had "reasonable suspicion" that the person was "armed and presently dangerous." Neither intrusion required that police have the higher level of "probable cause" that would be needed to arrest or to conduct a full search. The Court defined this new, lesser standard of "reasonable suspicion" as being less than "probable cause" but more than just a hunch, stating that "the police officer must be able to point to specific and articulable facts which, taken together with rational inferences from those facts, reasonably warrant [the] intrusion."


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: The Court held that this "reasonable suspicion" standard must apply to both the initial stop and the frisk. First, it said that a police officer must have reasonable suspicion to stop a suspect in the first place. Second, it held that an officer could then "frisk" a stopped suspect if he or she had reasonable suspicion that the suspect was armed and dangerous, or if, in the officer's experience, the suspected criminal activity was of a type that was "likely" to involve weapons. The officer's "frisk" could only be for the sole purpose of ensuring the suspect was not armed, and so had to be limited to a pat-down of the suspect's outer clothing.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: The Court then applied these legal principles to McFadden's actions with Terry and found that they comported with the "reasonable suspicion" standard. McFadden had years of experience as a policeman and was able to articulate the observations that led him to suspect that Terry and the other men were preparing to rob the store. Since McFadden reasonably suspected that the men were preparing for armed robbery, he reasonably suspected that Terry was armed, and so his frisk of Terry's clothing was permissible and did not violate Terry's Fourth Amendment rights.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: The Court ended its opinion by framing the issue very narrowly, saying the question it was answering was "whether it is always unreasonable for a policeman to seize a person and subject him to a limited search for weapons unless there is probable cause for an arrest." In answer to this limited question, the Court said it was not. It ruled that when an American policeman observes "unusual conduct which leads him reasonably to conclude in light of his experience that criminal activity may be afoot and that the persons with whom he is dealing may be armed and presently dangerous", it is not a violation of the Fourth Amendment for the policeman to conduct a "stop-and-frisk" of the people he suspects.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: There is nothing in the Constitution which prevents a policeman from addressing questions to anyone on the streets. Absent special circumstances, the person approached may not be detained or frisked but may refuse to cooperate and go on his way. However, given the proper circumstances, such as those in this case, it seems to me the person may be briefly detained against his will while pertinent questions are directed to him. Of course, the person stopped is not obliged to answer, answers may not be compelled, and refusal to answer furnishes no basis for an arrest, although it may alert the officer to the need for continued observation.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: With regard to the lack of obligation to respond when detained under circumstances of "Terry", this opinion came to be regarded as persuasive authority in some jurisdictions, and the Court cited these remarks in dicta in "Berkemer v. McCarty", , at 439. However, in "Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada", , the Court held that neither of these remarks was controlling in a situation where a state law required a detained person to identify himself.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: Justice William O. Douglas strongly disagreed with permitting a stop and search absent probable cause:


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: We hold today that the police have greater authority to make a 'seizure' and conduct a 'search' than a judge has to authorize such action. We have said precisely the opposite over and over again.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: To give the police greater power than a magistrate is to take a long step down the totalitarian path. Perhaps such a step is desirable to cope with modern forms of lawlessness. But if it is taken, it should be the deliberate choice of the people through a constitutional amendment.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: "Terry" was criticized in 1997 for inaccurately summarizing the facts of the case itself. It was also criticized for "fail[ing] to strike a meaningful Fourth Amendment balance between effective law enforcement and individual freedom."


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: "Terry" set precedent for a wide assortment of Fourth Amendment cases. The cases range from street stop-and-frisks to traffic stops in which pat-down searches could be conducted on the driver or passengers. In "Michigan v. Long", the Supreme Court ruled that car compartments could be constitutionally searched if an officer had reasonable suspicion that the suspect is armed and dangerous. Thus the compartments are viewed as an extension of the suspect's person. This is known as "frisking the lunge area," as an officer may protect himself by searching any areas from which the suspect could grab a weapon.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: The "Terry" doctrine was markedly extended in the 2004 case of "Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada", , in which the Supreme Court held that a state law requiring the suspect to identify himself during a "Terry" stop did not necessarily violate the Fourth Amendment prohibitions of unreasonable searches and seizures or the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination (although potentially could if the citizen in question reasonably believed that such identification could be used to incriminate). The Court did not legalize this process in all states but instead left it up to the states to decide whether they would pass such laws. So far 24 states have passed such laws.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: The Court most recently cited "Terry v. Ohio" in "Arizona v. Johnson". In that 2009 case, the Court ruled 9–0 in favor of further expanding "Terry," granting police the ability to frisk an individual in a stopped vehicle if there is reasonable suspicion to believe the individual is armed and dangerous. This fulfills only the second prong of "Terry" (the first prong—reasonable suspicion that a crime has, is, or will be committed—is fulfilled by whatever traffic violation prompted the pull-over). According to "Whren v. United States", any traffic violation, no matter how small, is a legitimate basis for a traffic stop.


title: Terry v. Ohio

text: In "Heien v. North Carolina", on an 8–1 decision in December 2014, the Supreme Court of the United States expanded the reasonable suspicion factor of the Terry stop to cover a police officer's reasonable mistake of law that gives rise to "reasonable suspicion" that justifies a traffic stop under the Fourth Amendment.


title: Pilot (band)

text: Pilot were a Scottish rock group, formed in 1973 in Edinburgh by David Paton and Billy Lyall. They are best known for their songs "January", "Magic", "Just a Smile" and "Call Me Round".


title: Pilot (band)

text: Paton and Lyall had briefly been substitute members of the Bay City Rollers before that band's breakthrough. Joined by drummer Stuart Tosh, the band recorded several demos during 1972 and 1974 at Craighall Studios, Edinburgh, where Billy Lyall was the resident engineer. They were signed to a management contract with Nick Heath and Tim Heath, sons of British bandleader Ted Heath, and John Cavanagh. In due course they signed to a worldwide recording deal with EMI Records. After the recording of their debut album, "From the Album of the Same Name", guitarist Ian Bairnson (who had played on the album as a session musician) joined the band permanently.


title: Pilot (band)

text: The 1974 single "Magic" from their first album, produced by Alan Parsons and written by Lyall and Paton, was a No. 11 UK and No. 5 US success. It sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc by the R.I.A.A. in August 1975. The song "January" gave them their greatest success in the UK, securing the number one spot in the UK Singles Chart on 1 February 1975. It stayed at number one for three weeks. It also went to number one in Australia where it stayed up top for eight weeks; in the United States, it reached the lower end of the Hot 100. However, the group failed to make the top 30 again. The arranger of "January", Andrew Powell, went on to record Kate Bush, and both Paton and Bairnson played on her debut album, "The Kick Inside", which included "Wuthering Heights". Paton and Bairnson also played on Kate Bush's second album "Lionheart" (1978).


title: Pilot (band)

text: The band's other singles chart successes were "Call Me Round" and "Just a Smile" (both 1975), which each hit the top 40 in the UK and nowhere else. By 1977, only Paton and Bairnson were left from the original foursome, and after switching labels to Arista they recorded Pilot's final album "Two's a Crowd" with session musicians, including Steve Swindells, who later joined Hawklords.


title: Pilot (band)

text: By 1978, all of Pilot's members had begun other projects, with Tosh, Paton and Bairnson becoming members of the Alan Parsons Project, and Tosh also working with 10cc.


title: Pilot (band)

text: Lyall left Pilot and in 1976, as William Lyall, released a solo LP, "Solo Casting", which included contributions from Paton and Bairnson, with Phil Collins drumming on all but two tracks. Lyall wrote all the songs, played keyboards and flute, and wrote all but two of the orchestral arrangements. Lyall died of AIDS-related causes in 1989.


title: Pilot (band)

text: Paton and Bairnson reconvened in 2002, to re-record the original Pilot album "Two's a Crowd". The subsequent issue was entitled "Blue Yonder".


title: Pilot (band)

text: As they approached the 40th anniversary of Pilot's debut album, Paton, Bairnson, and Tosh reunited as Pilot. They released "A Pilot Project" in August 2014 as an homage to The Alan Parsons Project mastermind Eric Woolfson.


title: Pilot (band)

text: In 2019, David Paton released a follow-up to "A Pilot Project", "The Traveller - Another Pilot Project". With a few exceptions, he recorded all the instruments himself.


title: Pilot (band)

text: In 2020, the label Cherry Red (Rough Trade) released a 4 CD box set containing all 4 albums of the band plus some rare recordings as bonus tracks.


title: Pilot (band)

text: In July 2021, Pilot (Paton and Bairnson) released "The Magic EP", which features 4 completely re-recorded older songs: "Magic", "January", "Just a Smile" and "Over the Moon". "Over the Moon" was completely rearranged for this purpose. A compilation of Pilot's greatest hits "The Magic Collection" was released on 21 March 2022.


title: Manner of articulation

text: In articulatory phonetics, the manner of articulation is the configuration and interaction of the articulators (speech organs such as the tongue, lips, and palate) when making a speech sound. One parameter of manner is "stricture," that is, how closely the speech organs approach one another. Others include those involved in the r-like sounds (taps and trills), and the sibilancy of fricatives.


title: Manner of articulation

text: The concept of manner is mainly used in the discussion of consonants, although the movement of the articulators will also greatly alter the resonant properties of the vocal tract, thereby changing the formant structure of speech sounds that is crucial for the identification of vowels. For consonants, the place of articulation and the degree of phonation of voicing are considered separately from manner, as being independent parameters. Homorganic consonants, which have the same place of articulation, may have different manners of articulation. Often nasality and laterality are included in manner, but some phoneticians, such as Peter Ladefoged, consider them to be independent.


title: Manner of articulation

text: Manners of articulation with substantial obstruction of the airflow (stops, fricatives, affricates) are called obstruents. These are prototypically voiceless, but voiced obstruents are extremely common as well. Manners without such obstruction (nasals, liquids, approximants, and also vowels) are called sonorants because they are nearly always voiced. Voiceless sonorants are uncommon, but are found in Welsh and Classical Greek (the spelling "rh"), in Standard Tibetan (the "lh" of Lhasa), and the "wh" in those dialects of English that distinguish "which" from "witch".


title: Manner of articulation

text: Sonorants may also be called resonants, and some linguists prefer that term, restricting the word 'sonorant' to non-vocoid resonants (that is, nasals and liquids, but not vowels or semi-vowels). Another common distinction is between occlusives (stops, nasals and affricates) and continuants (all else).


title: Manner of articulation

text: From greatest to least stricture, speech sounds may be classified along a cline as stop consonants (with "occlusion", or blocked airflow), fricative consonants (with partially blocked and therefore strongly turbulent airflow), approximants (with only slight turbulence), tense vowels, and finally lax vowels (with full unimpeded airflow). Affricates often behave as if they were intermediate between stops and fricatives, but phonetically they are sequences of a stop and fricative.


title: Manner of articulation

text: Over time, sounds in a language may move along the cline toward less stricture in a process called lenition or towards more stricture in a process called fortition.


title: Manner of articulation

text: Sibilants are distinguished from other fricatives by the shape of the tongue and how the airflow is directed over the teeth. Fricatives at coronal places of articulation may be sibilant or non-sibilant, sibilants being the more common.


title: Manner of articulation

text: Flaps (also called taps) are similar to very brief stops. However, their articulation and behavior are distinct enough to be considered a separate manner, rather than just length. The main articulatory difference between flaps and stops is that, due to the greater length of stops compared to flaps, a build-up of air pressure occurs behind a stop which does not occur behind a flap. This means that when the stop is released, there is a burst of air as the pressure is relieved, while for flaps there is no such burst.


title: Manner of articulation

text: Trills involve the vibration of one of the speech organs. Since trilling is a separate parameter from stricture, the two may be combined. Increasing the stricture of a typical trill results in a trilled fricative. Trilled affricates are also known.


title: Manner of articulation

text: Nasal airflow may be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound. It is most commonly found in nasal occlusives and nasal vowels, but nasalized fricatives, taps, and approximants are also found. When a sound is not nasal, it is called "oral."


title: Manner of articulation

text: Laterality is the release of airflow at the side of the tongue. This can be combined with other manners, resulting in lateral approximants (such as the pronunciation of the letter L in the English word "let"), lateral flaps, and lateral fricatives and affricates.


title: Manner of articulation

text: All of these manners of articulation are pronounced with an airstream mechanism called pulmonic egressive, meaning that the air flows outward, and is powered by the lungs (actually the ribs and diaphragm). Other airstream mechanisms are possible. Sounds that rely on some of these include:


title: Background and causes of the Iranian Revolution

text: The Iranian Revolution was the Shia Islamic revolution that replaced the secular monarchy of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi with a theocracy led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.


text: Its causes continue to be the subject of historical debate and are believed to have stemmed partly from a conservative backlash opposing the westernization, modernization and secularization efforts of the Western-backed Shah, as well as from a more popular reaction to social injustice and other shortcomings of the "ancien régime".


text: Shi'a clergy (or "Ulama") have historically had a significant influence in Iran. The clergy first showed themselves to be a powerful political force in opposition to Iran's monarch with the 1891 Tobacco Protest boycott that effectively destroyed an unpopular concession granted by the shah giving a British company a monopoly over buying and selling Tobacco in Iran. To some the incident demonstrated that the Shia ulama were "Iran's first line of defense" against colonialism.


text: The dynasty that the revolution overthrew – the Pahlavi dynasty – was known for its autocracy, its focus on modernization and Westernization as well as its disregard for religious and democratic measures in Iran's constitution.


text: Considered the founding father of modern Iran by contemporary historians, Army General Reza Shah Pahlavi replaced Islamic laws with western ones, and forbade traditional Islamic clothing, separation of the sexes and veiling of women (hijab). Women who resisted his ban on public hijab had their chadors forcibly removed and torn. In 1935 a rebellion by pious Shi'a at the shrine of Imam Reza in Mashhad was crushed on his orders with dozens killed and hundreds injured, rupturing relations between the Shah and pious Shia in Iran.


text: Reza Shah was deposed in 1941 by an invasion of allied British and Soviet troops who believed him to be sympathetic with the allies' enemy Nazi Germany. In fact Reza Shah could not trust allied forces due to long history of British and Russian interference, separating parts of Iran and contracts exploiting Iran. His son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, agreed to substitute for his father as monarch. Prince Pahlavi (later crowned Shah) reigned until the 1979 revolution with one brief interruption. In 1953 he fled the country after a power-struggle with his Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh. Mossadegh is remembered in Iran for having been voted into power through a democratic election. He was selected by the Shah as Prime Minister and introduced to Parliament for approval following Iran's Constitutional procedure. The process was in fact not democratic as claimed, as women did not have the right to vote yet and Parliament consisted of feudalists who used their influence to be members. The Shah supported his Prime Minister who defended Iran's right in the Court of Hague to nationalize British-controlled oil fields. Mossadegh was deposed in a military coup d'état organized by an American CIA operative and aided by the British MI6. However, the coup d'etat could not have happened without the critical participation of important Iranian individuals and political factions who had more significant roles than foreign powers.


text: The Shah maintained a close relationship with the United States, both regimes sharing a fear of the southward expansion of the Soviet state, Iran's powerful northern neighbor. Leftist and Islamist groups attacked his government for violating the Iranian Constitution, political corruption, and political oppression by the SAVAK (secret police).


text: During the time of Shah's reign, women's rights improved significantly. The urban and secular middle class grew quickly. Many universities and foundations of education were established, and many young people from lower and middle classes were funded so that they could study in the best universities in the West. Most of these new generations trained thanks to the Shah's policies demanded political changes quickly, something that was not supported by traditional sections of society.


text: Shia cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the Iranian revolution, first came to political prominence in 1963 when he led opposition to the Shah and his program of reforms known as the "White Revolution", which aimed to break up landholdings owned by some Shi’a clergy, allow women to vote and religious minorities to hold office, and finally grant women legal equality in marital issues.


text: Khomeini declared that the Shah had "embarked on the destruction of Islam in Iran" and publicly denounced the Shah as a "wretched miserable man." Following Khomeini's arrest on June 5, 1963, three days of major riots erupted throughout Iran, with Khomeini supporters claiming 15,000 were killed by police fire. Khomeini was detained and kept under house arrest for 8 months. After his release he continued his agitation against the Shah, condemning the regimes's close cooperation with Israel (it gave Islamic diplomatic recognition, in addition to covert assistance) and its "capitulations" – the extension of diplomatic immunity to all American government personnel in Iran. In November 1964, Khomeini was re-arrested and sent into exile, where he remained for 14 years until the revolution.


text: A period of "disaffected calm" followed. Despite political repression, the budding Islamic revival began to undermine the idea of ‘Westernization as progress’ that was the basis of the Shah's secular regime forming the ideology of the revolution. Jalal Al-e-Ahmad's idea of "Gharbzadegi" – that Western culture was a plague or an intoxication to be eliminated; Ali Shariati's vision of Islam as the one true liberator of the Third World from oppressive colonialism, neo-colonialism, and capitalism; and Morteza Motahhari's popularized retellings of the Shia faith, all spread and gained listeners, readers and supporters. Most importantly, Khomeini preached that revolt, and especially martyrdom, against injustice and tyranny was part of Shia Islam, and that Muslims should reject the influence of both capitalism and communism with the slogan ""Neither East, nor West - Islamic Republic!"" ().


text: To replace the shah's regime Khomeini developed the ideology of "velayat-e faqih" (guardianship of the jurist) as government, postulating that Muslims – in fact everyone – required "guardianship," in the form of rule or supervision by the leading Islamic jurist or jurists. Such rule would protect Islam from deviation from traditional sharia law, and in so doing eliminate poverty, injustice, and the "plundering" of Muslim land by foreign unbelievers. Establishing and obeying this Islamic government was ""actually an expression of obedience to God"", ultimately ""more necessary even than prayer and fasting"" in Islam, and a commandment for all the world, not one confined to Iran.


text: Publicly, Khomeini focused more on the socio-economic problems of the shah's regime (corruption, unequal income and developmental issues), not his solution of rule by Islamic jurists.


text: He believed a propaganda campaign by Western imperialists had prejudiced most Iranians against theocratic rule.


text: His book, published in 1970, was widely distributed in religious circles, especially among Khomeini's students ("talabeh"), ex-students (clerics), and traditional business leaders ("bazaari"). A powerful and efficient network of opposition began to develop inside Iran, employing mosque sermons and smuggled cassette speeches by Khomeini, amongst other means. Added to this religious opposition were secular and Islamic modernist students and guerrilla groups


text: who admired Khomeini's history of resistance, though they would clash with his theocracy and be suppressed by his movement after the revolution.


text: The very first signs of opposition in 1977 came from Iranian constitutionalist liberals. Based in the urban middle class, this was a section of the population that was fairly secular and wanted the Shah to adhere to the Iranian Constitution of 1906 rather than religious rule. Prominent in it was Mehdi Bazargan and his liberal, moderate Islamic group Freedom Movement of Iran, and the more secular National Front.


text: The clergy were divided, allying variously with the liberals, Marxists and Islamists. The various anti-Shah groups operated from outside Iran, mostly in London, France, Iraq, and Turkey. Speeches by the leaders of these groups were placed on audio cassettes to be smuggled into Iran. Khomeini, who was in exile in Iraq, worked to unite clerical and secular, liberal and radical opposition under his leadership by avoiding specifics – at least in public – that might divide the factions.


text: Seen as a proxy for the Russian menace in the north, Marxists groups were illegal and ruthlessly suppressed by SAVAK internal security apparatus. They included the communist Tudeh Party of Iran; two armed organizations, the Organization of Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas (OIPFG) and the breakaway Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas (IPFG); and some minor groups. The guerillas aim was to defeat the Pahlavi regime by assassination and guerilla war. Although they played an important part in the chaos of 1978 before the overthrow of the regime, they had been weakened considerably by government repression and factionalization in the first half of the 1970s. They subsequently failed to pose much of a threat to the regime once it had assumed power, although the People's Mujahedin of Iran, an Islamist-Marxist armed organization that opposed the influence of the clergy, fought against Khomeini's Islamic government.


text: Islamists were divided into several groups. In addition to the People’s Mujahedin of Iran was the Freedom Movement of Iran, made up of religious members of the National Front of Iran who wanted to use lawful political methods against the Shah; they were led by Bazargan and Mahmoud Taleghani.


text: The Islamist group that ultimately prevailed contained the core supporters of Ayatollah Khomeini. Amongst them were some minor armed Islamist groups which joined together after the revolution in the Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization. The Coalition of Islamic Societies was founded by religious bazaaris (traditional merchants). The Combatant Clergy Association comprised Morteza Motahhari, Mohammad Beheshti, Mohammad-Javad Bahonar, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and Mohammad Mofatteh, who later became the major leaders of the Islamic Republic. They used a cultural approach to fight the Shah.


text: Because of internal repression, opposition groups abroad, like the Confederation of Iranian students, the foreign branch of Freedom Movement of Iran and the Islamic Association of Students, were important to the revolution.


text: In October 1971, the 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire was held at the site of Persepolis. Only foreign dignitaries were invited to the three-day party, whose extravagances recalled those of Persian King Ahasverus roughly 2,500 years previously. The Ministry of the Court placed the cost at $17 million (at that time); Ansari, one of the organizers, puts it at $22 million (at that time). Meanwhile, drought ravaged the provinces of Baluchistan, Sistan, and even Fars where the celebrations were held. However people of Fars province and Shiraz consider Persepolis celebrations as a success that made their province famous in the world bringing in mass tourism there.


text: By late 1974 the oil boom had begun to produce not "the Great Civilization" promised by the Shah, but an "alarming" increase in inflation and waste and an "accelerating gap" between the rich and poor, the city and the country. Nationalistic Iranians were angered by the tens of thousands of skilled foreign workers who came to Iran, many of them to help operate the already unpopular and expensive American high-tech military equipment that the Shah had spent hundreds of millions of dollars on.


text: The next year the "Rastakhiz" party was created. It became not only the only party Iranians were permitted to belong to, but one the "whole adult population" was required to belong and pay dues to. The party attempted to take a populist stand fining and jailing merchants in its "anti-profiteering" campaigns, but this proved not only economically harmful but also politically counterproductive. Inflation morphed into a black market and business activity declined. Merchants were angered and politicized.


text: In 1976, the Shah's government angered pious Iranian Muslims by changing the first year of the Iranian solar calendar from the Islamic "hijri" to the ascension to the throne by Cyrus the Great. "Iran jumped overnight from the Muslim year 1355 to the royalist year 2535." The same year the Shah declared economic austerity measures to dampen inflation and waste. The resulting unemployment disproportionately affected the thousands of recent poor and unskilled migrants to the cities. Cultural and religious conservatives, many of whom were predisposed to view the Shah's secularism and Westernization as "alien and wicked", went on to form the core of the revolution's demonstrators and "martyrs".


text: In 1977 a new American president, Jimmy Carter, was inaugurated. Carter envisioned a post-Vietnam American foreign policy that exercised power in a more benevolent way (he tried to push away from support for dictators and tyrants; for example see Operation Condor). He enlarged the Office of Human Rights created by his predecessor. The office proceeded to send the Shah a "polite reminder" of the importance of political rights and freedom. The Shah responded by granting amnesty to 357 political prisoners in February and allowing Red Cross to visit prisons, beginning what is said to be 'a trend of liberalization by the Shah'. Through the late spring, summer and autumn, liberal opposition formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the regime. Later that year a dissenting group (the Writers' Association) gathered without the customary police break-up and arrests, starting a new era of political action by the Shah's opponents.


text: That year also saw the death of the very popular and influential modernist Islamist leader Ali Shariati, allegedly at the hands of SAVAK, removing a potential revolutionary rival to Khomeini. In October, Khomeini's son Mostafa died. Though the cause appeared to be a heart attack, anti-Shah groups blamed SAVAK poisoning and proclaimed him a 'martyr.' A subsequent memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back in the spotlight and began the process of building Khomeini into the leading opponent of the Shah.


text: The Iranian Revolution had a number of unique and significant characteristics. It produced profound change at great speed and replaced the world’s oldest empire with a theocracy based on Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (or "velayat-e faqih"). Its outcome – an Islamic Republic "under the guidance of an 80-year-old exiled religious scholar from Qom" – was, as one scholar put it, "clearly an occurrence that had to be explained.…"


text: The revolution was unique for the surprise it created throughout the world, and followed the maxim of appearing "impossible" until it seemed "inevitable".


text: The regime it overthrew was perceived to be heavily protected by a lavishly financed army and security services. As one observer put it:


text: "Few expected the regime of the Shah, which had international support and a modern army of 400,000, to crumble in the face of unarmed demonstrators within a matter of months."


text: Another historian noted the revolution was "unique in the annals of modern world history in that it brought to power not a new social group equipped with political parties and secular ideologies, but a traditional clergy armed with mosque pulpits and claiming the divine right to supervise all temporal authorities, even the country's highest elected representatives."


text: Explanations advanced for why the revolution happened and took the form it did include policies and actions of the Shah, in addition to the mistakes and successes of a myriad different political forces:


text: Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union long competed with each other for the domination of Iran. Britain maintained its control of the Iranian oil industry for a long time using its alliance with power blocs, landlords, and courts and was able to reduce the power of the United States and the Soviet Union in Iran. The British control of the oil was already precarious given their withdrawal of forces "east of Suez" in the beginning of the 1970s. On the other hand, the United States and the Soviet Union were mainly interested in the logistically important location of Iran and wanted an oil concession in the northern part of Iran. The United States used its influence in the army and courts while the Soviet Union had the total support of the Tudeh Party and the CCFTU. The Shah himself was very interested in involving the United States in Iran's efforts to reorganize the army and boost the economy with US assistance. The US could also reduce the influence of communism in Iran via more overt presence in Iran. As early as the late 1950s, the US was fed up with the widespread corruption in Iranian government and began reducing its financial assistance to Iran. In 1958, the US unsuccessfully attempted to replace the Shah with Iran's chief of staff, a reform orientated politician, to push for social reform in Iran. As the Shah realized how dependent his government and the Iranian economy was on the US, he decided to liberalize his policies. Therefore in 1961, the Shah, with some pressure from the Kennedy administration, opted for Ali Amini group, which had no popular base, but full US support and a clear reform program.


text: Prime Minister Amini's agenda was to broadcast land reform, reduce corruption, stabilize the economy, limit the power of the Shah, and reduce the size and influence of the Army. Despite having a reformist ideology, Amini did not gain popular support from the National Front, identified with Mossadegh, or the Tudeh Party. Amini's government was very distrusted by the people because of his infamous backing of the Consortium Agreement (re-privatizing Iranian oil in 1954) and was widely criticized by the Tudeh Party as spreading anti-communist propaganda; as a result he was widely perceived as being an American puppet. Amini's government fell apart after fifteen months of struggle with economic dilemmas, popular distrust and the Shah trying to convince Kennedy to shift his support from Amini to him. In 1962, Amini resigned and Asadollah Alam, a faithful friend of the shah who had no intention of reform but to consolidate the power of the monarchy, became the new prime minister and laid the ground for the Shah to reestablish his dictatorship in early 1963.


text: In the mid-1970s, the Shah was once again placed under US pressure for mistreatment and human rights violations of political prisoners. The paralyzing crisis of the state made the Shah concerned about the future of his throne. Although it was very undesirable for the Shah to introduce another round of liberalization policies, the first round being in the early 1960s, he had no other choice but to do so. Therefore in early 1977, the Shah announced liberalization policies to gain US support once again and resolve the crises of the state. In mid-1977, the Shah allowed an open discussion forum for the Rastakhiz Party to discuss social issues publicly. Following the liberalization policies, mullahs played a crucial role in mobilizing the people against the regime.


text: Charles Kurzman, author of "The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran" has postulated that the explanations offered by observers for why the revolution occurred "are only partially valid," and that "the closer we listen to the people who made the revolution - the more anomalies we find."


text: Kurzman points out that one explanation for the Shah's overthrow – the 40-day (Arba'een) cycle of commemorating deaths of protesters – "came to a halt" on June 17, 1978, a half year before the revolution's culmination. Moderate religious leaders such as Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari called for calm and a stay-at-home strike, which prevented more casualties to commemorate 40 days later. Kurzman also argues that the mourning rituals in Iran had been a political act only once before.


text: Alexis de Tocqueville's idea that "steadily increasing prosperity, far from tranquilizing the population, everywhere promoted a spirit of unrest", has been offered by several observers as an explanation for the 1978–79 revolt. But this does not explain why "there was very little oppositional activity" in the recession of 1975–76 when unemployment and inflation were at similar levels to those of 1978. Furthermore, revolutions were conspicuously absent in other "high-growth autocracies" – Venezuela, Algeria, Nigeria, Iraq – in the 1970s and 1980s despite the fact that those countries also suffered from oil wealth problems (corruption, debt, fraud, repression). However, Tocqeueville’s other idea that "when a people which has put up with an oppressive rule over a long period without protest suddenly finds the government relaxing its pressure, it takes up arms against it" would seem to solve this anomaly.


text: Another cause, or partial cause, in doubt is the Shah's liberalization as a result of the encouragement of President Jimmy Carter. Kurzman points out that "even as the shah arrived in Washington" for a state visit in late 1977, "his regime's partial tolerance of oppositional activity was disappearing. ... In November 1977, as the shah ingratiated himself with Jimmy Carter, liberals were in retreat."


text: Another author, Moojan Momen, questions whether Carter "could have said or done" anything to save the Shah – aside from foregoing his human rights policy – since "any direct interference by America would only have increased resentment" against the pro-American Shah.


text: Theda Skocpol, an American sociologist specializing in the study of social revolutions, proposed an unprecedented cultural theory to account for the unique aspects of the Iranian Revolution, which she admitted falsified her past history-based theories on causes of social revolutions.


text: The revolution’s success was arguably dependent on the sustained extraordinary efforts by the urban Iranians to wear down and undermine the regime. Despite the negative impact of the Shah’s hectic modernization on traditional urban life, it caused more people, displaced villagers and farmers especially, to come into contact with members of traditional urban communities such as bazaaris and artisans, who were also disgruntled with the Shah’s reign. Bazaars in particular became centers of associational life, with Islamic groups and occasions tying people together through clerics' interpreting Islamic laws to settle commercial disputes and taxing the well-to-do to provide welfare for devout poorer followers. An endless succession of prayer-meetings and rituals were organized by both clergy and the laity. Bazaars also enjoyed ties with more modern sectors of Iranian society as many Iranian university students were from the merchant class. But since 1970s, Shah aroused the defense and oppositions of the bazaar by attempts at bringing under control their autonomous councils and marginalizing the clergy by taking over their educational and welfare activities.


text: In the mass revolutionary movements during 1977-8 the traditional urban communities played an indispensable role in making sustained mass struggle possible. The workers relied on economic aid from bazaar during their strikes and the secular opponents depended on alliance with clerics and lay leaders of the bazaar to mobilize the masses. Without these autonomous sources of support and sustenance, successful resistance against the modern political and economic power holders would’ve been impossible.


text: The next question is how as part of a unique historical precedence, millions of Iranians were willing to face death in the mass demonstrations against brutal suppression by the army and how the clerics could rise as the leaders of the revolution. This is explained by the potential role of the Shia beliefs and clerical organization in the Iranian society. Shi'a Islam embodies substantial symbolic content to inspire resistance against unjust rule and to justify religious leaders as alternative to secular authority. As Shah aimed to marginalize the Shia clergy and eliminate their influence by its modernization policies, clerics in Qom and their followers developed a populist, anti-Imperialist interpretation of Shia theology to delegitimize Shah for his injustice and his reliance on the anti-Islamic foreign imperialists. The story of Husayn's just revolt against the usurper caliph, Yazid I, and his eventual martyrdom, as well as the belief in the Islamic Messiah, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who clerics claim to represent during his Occultation, were particularly influential in victory of the revolution. As protests against the Shah began, the Shi'a clerics could claim legitimate leadership of the protests and the Husayn legend provided a framework for characterizing the Shah as a modern incarnation of the tyrant Yazid. The revolution also attracted secular Iranians who saw Shi'a Islam and Khomeini's unwavering moral leadership as an indigenous way to express common opposition to an arrogant monarch too closely associated with foreigners. Khomeini’s message and appeal spread through existing networks of social links with the urban life and gradually resonated with the majority who saw Shah as being subservient to foreign powers instead of the indigenous demands of his own people. With the inspiration found in Hussein, the devout Iranians consistently defied the army with an audacity unprecedented in European revolutions and despite sustaining casualties. This sustained resistance, gradually undermined the morale of the military rank-and-file and their willingness to continue shooting into the crowds, until the state and the army succumbed before the revolution. As such a very "traditional" part of Iranian life could forge a very modern-looking revolutionary movement. This represented the first revolution to ever be deliberately “made” by a revolutionary ideology and organization that mobilize mass followings.


title: Teaneck, New Jersey

text: Teaneck () is a township in Bergen County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It is a bedroom community in the New York metropolitan area. As of the 2010 U.S. census, the township's population was 39,776, reflecting an increase of 516 (+1.3%) from the 39,260 counted in the 2000 census. As of 2010, it was the second-most populous among the 70 municipalities in Bergen County, behind Hackensack, which had a population of 43,010.


title: Teaneck, New Jersey

text: Teaneck was created on February 19, 1895, by an act of the New Jersey Legislature from portions of Englewood Township and Ridgefield Township, both of which are now defunct (despite existing municipalities with similar names), along with portions of Bogota and Leonia. Independence followed the result of a referendum held on January 14, 1895, in which voters favored incorporation by a 46–7 margin. To address the concerns of Englewood Township's leaders, the new municipality was formed as a township, rather than succumbing to the borough craze sweeping across Bergen County at the time. On May 3, 1921, and again on June 1, 1926, portions of what had been Teaneck were transferred to Overpeck Township.


title: Teaneck, New Jersey

text: Teaneck lies at the junction of Interstate 95 and the eastern terminus of Interstate 80. The township is bisected into north and south portions by Route 4 and east and west by the River Subdivision of CSX Transportation. Commercial development is concentrated in four main shopping areas, on Cedar Lane, Teaneck Road, DeGraw Avenue, and West Englewood Avenue and Queen Anne Road, more commonly known as "The Plaza".