title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: Lander is desperately in love with Dahlia Iyad, an operative from the Palestinian terrorist group Black September, who controls and manipulates him. They conspire together to launch a suicide attack using a bomb composed of plastique and a quarter-million steel flechettes. They plan to mount the bomb on the underside of the gondola of the Goodyear blimp which traditionally flies over the Super Bowl football game, and detonate it over the Miami Orange Bowl during Super Bowl X, in order to call attention to the plight of the Palestinians and to punish the United States for supporting Israel.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: During a raid on a Black September unit in the Middle East, the Israeli counter-terrorist Mossad agent David Kabakov surprises Iyad while she is bathing. His mission was to kill everyone in the unit; however, seeing her unarmed and naked, he spares her life and turns his attention to clearing the rest of the unit. She escapes. When the raid is complete, Kabakov finds a recorded message which Iyad had planned to publish after the terrorist attack. The recording explains the motive for the terrorism, but does not include any specific information about the attack plan itself. Collaborating with FBI agent Sam Corley, Kabakov and his partner Robert Moshevsky try to learn the details of the plan. Meanwhile, Black September bribes freighter captain Tekiaki Ogawa to transport the plastic explosives, disguised as statuettes. Ogawa puts the explosives aboard Iyad and Lander's motorboat, but the two terrorists are discovered by the Coast Guard and forced to flee.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: Ogawa is interrogated by Kabakov and Moshevsky, only for a bomb Lander had secretly planted to explode, killing Ogawa and injuring Kabakov, who is hospitalized. Iyad disguises herself as a nun to infiltrate the hospital and assassinate Kabakov, only for Moshevsky to discover her. When he tries to report her to the hospital security, she kills him and escapes. Kabakov uses a contact in the Egyptian government to discover her identity, and Corley tracks Iyad and her superior Mohammed Fasil to a hotel in Miami. They attempt to capture them, but Iyad escapes, while Fasil is killed. After searching Iyad's room, Kabakov realizes that they are targeting the Super Bowl. Corley and Kabakov form a security detail to search the crowd for any sign of suspicious activity. During the Super Bowl game, Kabakov figures out that Iyad and Lander have mounted the bomb on the Goodyear blimp. He and Corley commandeer a helicopter and set out in pursuit of the blimp, accompanied by a police helicopter.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: Loaded with the bomb, the blimp approaches the stadium. Lander pilots the blimp while Iyad exchanges deadly gunfire with policemen in the pursuing helicopters. From his place in one helicopter, Kabakov sees Iyad's face, and recognizes her as the Black September agent whose life he had previously spared. This time he does not hesitate; he shoots and kills her. Lander is mortally wounded, but he lasts long enough to succeed in flying the blimp straight into the Super Bowl, causing mass panic and destruction in the stadium. Just before dying, Lander lights the fuse of the weapon. Just minutes away from detonation, Kabakov lowers himself from the helicopter to the blimp, and hooks it up with a cable to the helicopter, which hauls it out of the panicked stadium and over the ocean. Kabakov unhooks the cable from the blimp, and clings to the cable as the helicopter moves away to a safe distance. A few seconds later, the bomb detonates, firing the flechettes harmlessly into the water.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: The film was produced by former Paramount Pictures chief Robert Evans. He had earlier produced "Chinatown" (1974) and "Marathon Man" (1976). Director John Frankenheimer's frequent line producer Robert L. Rosen was credited as executive producer.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: As it hinged on filming a real Goodyear Blimp at a real Super Bowl, many challenges existed. Luckily, Frankenheimer had a good relationship with Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company head Robert Lane, as a result of working with Goodyear on his earlier film "Grand Prix". Lane told Frankenheimer, "You're the only person I've ever worked with who has kept his word." Frankenheimer told Goodyear that if they declined the use of their blimps, he would rent the only other large blimp in the world from Germany, paint it silver, and people would assume it was theirs anyway. Lane granted Frankenheimer use of Goodyear's blimps on three conditions: the film had to make clear that the villainous pilot did not work directly for Goodyear, but for a contractor; the final explosion could not come out of the word "Goodyear" on the blimp's side; and the blimp itself could not be part of any violence, for example nobody was to be churned up in its propellers.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: Evans helped secure the unprecedented cooperation of the National Football League and the production was allowed to film at Super Bowl X on January 18, 1976 and shoot extensive footage with the principal actors for the film's final half hour as the Pittsburgh Steelers beat the Dallas Cowboys 21–17. The production returned to the Miami Orange Bowl on January 29, 1976, to film the final moments of the pursuit, as the blimp crashes into the stadium. A mockup nose section of the blimp was recreated. The thousands of extras needed for this footage, which obviously could not be shot during the real Super Bowl, were instead provided by the United Way charity, in exchange for Frankenheimer directing a promotional film for them, narrated by Shaw. Members of the Miami Dolphins were hired and outfitted with Cowboys and Steelers uniforms to appear in the footage as well. During filming of the chaotic scenes of panic as the blimp descends into the crowds, Dolphins player Barry Hill fell and injured himself, requiring a splint and a bandage on his right hand.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: Goodyear granted the film use of all three of its U.S.-based blimps for "Black Sunday". The blimps were flown by company pilots Nick Nicolary and Corky Belanger Sr., among the five pilots who were involved in the production. The landing and hijacking scenes were photographed at the Goodyear blimp base in Carson, California with the "Columbia" (N4A). A short scene was filmed at the Spring, Texas base with the "America" (N10A). The extensive Miami Super Bowl scenes were filmed with the noticeably smaller blimp "Mayflower" (N1A), which was then based on Watson Island across the Port of Miami. While Goodyear allowed the use of their airship fleet in the film, they did not allow the "Goodyear Wingfoot" logo (prominently featured on the sides of the blimp) to be used in any advertising or the poster for the film. Thus, the words "Super Bowl" are featured in place of the logo on the blimp in all advertising collateral.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: The film's score was composed by John Williams. In January 2010, "Film Score Monthly" issued a limited edition of 10,000 copies of the previously unreleased soundtrack, remixed from the original masters.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: The film grossed $15.8 million against a budget of $8 million. Director Frankenheimer felt the film was hurt by the fact an earlier movie about terrorism at a championship football game, "Two-Minute Warning", had come out just beforehand and performed poorly. He also blamed the film's audience response on the fact the film was banned in Germany and Japan.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 71% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "A smart, tense thriller from director John Frankenheimer, "Black Sunday" succeeds on a technical level, even if it fails to bring its characters to vivid life." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 57 out of 100 based on 8 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". In general, "Black Sunday" was appreciated more for its technical virtues and storyline than its character development. Reviewer Vincent Canby from "The New York Times" tried to rationalize his reaction: "I suspect it has to do with the constant awareness that the story is more important than anybody in it ... The characters don't motivate the drama in any real way." In a later review, Christopher Null took exception and identified the one key character who drove the plot: "... "Black Sunday" is distinguished by its unique focus not on the hero but on the villain: Bruce Dern ..." John Simon said that "Black Sunday" "is one of those films that are perfectly enjoyable to watch but [about] which there is not all that much to say". Simon did praise the acting of Robert Shaw, Bruce Dern, Fritz Weaver, Michael V. Gazzo, William Daniels, Steven Keats and Walter Gotell, but said Marthe Keller lacked power and had no charisma.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: Quentin Tarantino has said in interviews that the sequence in "" where Daryl Hannah attempts to kill The Bride in disguise as a nurse is an homage to a similar sequence in "Black Sunday". More specifically, he said the fact that the sequence in his film is done with split-screens is actually an homage to the trailer for "Black Sunday", which shows shots from the sequence in that manner, unlike in the actual film.


title: Black Sunday (1977 film)

text: The film was parodied as "Blimp Sunday" in the December 1977 issue of "Mad Magazine" #195, in a story written by Dick DeBartolo with art from Mort Drucker.


title: Sharjah FC

text: Sharjah Football Club () is an Emirati professional football club based in Sharjah that competes in the UAE Pro League. Their home stadium is Sharjah Stadium.


title: Sharjah FC

text: Founded in 1966, it has been the most successful team in the Emirate of Sharjah, winning 6 pro league titles, 9 presidents cups and 2 super cups. The club was also the first official UAE league champion since its establishment in 1974.


title: Sharjah FC

text: Sharjah FC was founded in 1966 under the name of Al Oruba Club, they were the first official champions of the UAE League winning it in 1974 after beating Al Ahli and Oman. The club would merge with Al Khaleej in 1974 to form "Al Sharjah SCC" and relocate their headquarters in Sharjah City. The club would later see itself win the league in 4 more occasions during the 80s and 90s and 8 out of the 22 players in the UAE's 1990 squad were players from Sharjah, more than any other club at the time.


title: Sharjah FC

text: During the mid-2000s however, Sharjah would see a decline as they would finish in mid-table consecutively and in 2012, the club got relegated for the first time in their history. However, the club managed to quickly get promoted back to the top tier division in 2013.


title: Sharjah FC

text: Sharjah has managed to win its first title since 1996 in 2019 with a record of only one loss. On 14 September 2019, Sharjah managed to win their first UAE Super Cup title since 1994 after beating Shabab Al Ahli in penalties 4-3.


title: Title character

text: The title character in a narrative work is one who is named or referred to in the title of the work. In a performed work such as a play or film, the performer who plays the title character is said to have the title role of the piece. The title of the work might consist solely of the title character's name – such as "Michael Collins" or "Othello" – or be a longer phrase or sentence – such as "The Autobiography of Malcolm X", "Alice in Wonderland" or "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer". The title character is commonly – but not necessarily – the protagonist of the story. Narrative works routinely do not have a title character, and there is some ambiguity in what qualifies as one.


title: Title character

text: Examples in various media include Figaro in the opera "The Marriage of Figaro", Giselle in the ballet of the same name, the Doctor in the TV series "Doctor Who", Harry Potter in the series of novels and films, Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet in the play "Romeo and Juliet", Amos Jones and Andy Brown in the radio and TV dramas "Amos 'n' Andy", Mario and Luigi in the game "Super Mario Bros.", and Naruto Uzumaki in the manga and anime franchise "Naruto".


title: Title character

text: There is no formal, prescriptive definition of a "title character" or "title role", but there are general standards accepted by tradition.


title: Title character

text: The title character need not be literally "named" in the title, but may be referred to by some other identifying word or phrase, such as Bilbo Baggins in "The Hobbit," Simba in "The Lion King", Aang in "", Idi Amin in "The Last King of Scotland", or more vaguely as in the play "An Ideal Husband", which ostensibly refers to the character Sir Robert Chiltern.


title: Title character

text: A title character is typically fictional, such as Alice in the book "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland", Robinson Crusoe in the book of the same name, or Jean-Luc Picard in the TV series ""; but can be a non-fictional dramatization, such as Annie Oakley in the musical "Annie Get Your Gun", Erin Brockovich in the film of the same name, or Thomas More in the play "A Man for All Seasons".


title: Title character

text: Although it is common for the title character to be the protagonist, it is not unusual for the principle antagonist or a key secondary character to be named in the title instead. Examples of titular antagonists include Sauron in the book and film series "The Lord of the Rings," Count Dracula in Bram Stoker's "Dracula", or Francisco Scaramanga and Julius No in the James Bond novels and films "The Man with the Golden Gun" and "Dr. No". The protagonist and antagonist can arguably both be title characters, as in the films "Godzilla vs. the Smog Monster" "or Smokey and the Bandit." In the novel and TV series "Shogun", the feudal lord Toranaga is the title character, but the protagonist is John Blackthorne. In the 2003 revival of August Wilson's "Ma Rainey's Black Bottom", Whoopi Goldberg had the title role of Ma Rainey, but the lead was Charles S. Dutton as Levee. In "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz", the Wizard of Oz is the title character, but is a minor supporting character. In the musical "Bye Bye Birdie", Conrad Birdie is the title character, while Albert Peterson is the protagonist. In the video game "The Legend of Zelda", the title character Princess Zelda is the damsel in distress, and the protagonist is Link. The title character in the 2017 animated film "Coco" is the protagonist's great-grandmother.


title: Title character

text: The title character need not be the subject of the title in a strict grammatical sense: Uncle Tom is considered the title character of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" and Lee Marvin is often described as playing the title character in the film "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance", as his character (Liberty Valance) is named in the title, even though the grammatical subject of the title is the person who shot him.


title: Title character

text: The concept of "title character" may be interpreted to include unseen characters, such as Godot in "Waiting for Godot", Rebecca de Winter in the 1938 novel "Rebecca", or Jason Bourne in the 2012 film "The Bourne Legacy". Status as the title character has been attributed to named objects, such as the bus in the film and musical "Priscilla, Queen of the Desert", or the imaginary 6-foot rabbit Harvey in the play and film of the same name.


title: Title character

text: The general noun phrase "title character" can be replaced with a descriptive noun or phrase which is then further described using the adjective "titular". For example, the title character of "Dracula" can be referred to as the book's "titular vampire", the title character of "Hamlet" is the "titular prince of Denmark", and the title character of "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" is the "titular wizard".


title: Bihu

text: Bihu is a set of three important Assamese festivals in the Indian state of Assam – 'Rongali' or 'Bohag Bihu' observed in April, 'Kongali' or 'Kati Bihu' observed in October, and 'Bhogali' or 'Magh Bihu' observed in January. The Rongali Bihu is the most important of the three, celebrating spring festival. The Bhogali Bihu or the Magh Bihu is a harvest festival, with community feasts. The Kongali Bihu or the Kati Bihu is the sombre, thrifty one reflecting a season of short supplies and is an animistic festival.


title: Bihu

text: The Rongali Bihu coincides the Assamese New year and as well as with other regions of Indian subcontinent, East Asia and South-East Asia, which follow the Hindu calendar and Buddhist calendar. The other two Bihu festivals every year are unique to Assamese people. Like some other Indian festivals, Bihu is associated with agriculture, and rice in particular. Bohag Bihu is a sowing festival, Kati Bihu is associated with crop protection and worship of plants and crops and is an animistic form of the festival, while Bhogali Bihu is a harvest festival. Assamese celebrate the Rongali Bihu with feasts, music and dancing. Some hang brass, copper or silver pots on poles in front of their house, while children wear flower garlands then greet the new year as they pass through the rural streets.


title: Bihu

text: The three Bihu are Assamese festivals elders in family, fertility and mother goddess, but the celebrations and rituals reflect influences from Southeast Asia and Sino-Tibetan cultures. In contemporary times, the Bihus are celebrated by all Assamese people irrespective of religion, caste or creed. It is also celebrated overseas by the Assamese diaspora community living worldwide.


title: Bihu

text: The term "Bihu" is also used to simply Bihu dance otherwise called Bihu Naas and Bihu folk songs also called Bihu Geet.


title: Bihu

text: Although the modern form of Bihu is a synthesis of varied cultural elements from diverse ethnic groups like Tibeto-Burman and Tai, it has deep roots in the indigenous culture.


title: Bihu

text: The word "Bihu" has been derived from the Deori (a Boro-Garo language) word "Bisu" which means "excessive joy". The original form of Bihu continue among the Chutias, Sonowal Kacharis and Deoris. These groups, known as Sadiyal Kacharis were associated with the historical Kingdom of Sadiya. The other branches of Bodo-Kacharis which include Boros, Dimasas, Rabhas, Tiwas, etc. have also been celebrating Bihu since ancient times. The Boros call it "Baisagu", while the Dimasas, Tiwa and Rabha call it "Bushu" or "Bushu Dima","Pisu", "Dumsi" respectively.


title: Bihu

text: In local folklore, it is said that "Bordoisila" (Bardai Sikhla in Bodo) (meaning north-westerly winds in Assamese) was the daughter of God Earth who married to a bridegroom of some distant land. Bordoisila visits her mother’s home once in year during spring time which indicates the beginning of Bihu and leaves after a few days which indicates the end of Bihu. Assam experience strong gale (wind) at that period which marks the beginning of Bihu and another strong gale after her departure which is devastating. The word "Bordoisila" is derived from the Bodo word "Bordaisikhla" which means "girl of storm" (Sikhla meaning girl and Bardai meaning storm). There is even a dance with the same name performed among Boro people during Baisagu which points to the origin of Bihu in the Bodo-Kachari groups.


title: Bihu

text: The first reference of Bihu can be found in the copperplate inscription of the Chutia king Lakshminarayan. The inscription was found in Ghilamara region of Lakhimpur district in the year 1935 and it was issued in the year 1401 A.D. It states that the king Lakshminarayan has donated land grants to Brahmins on the auspicious occasion of Bihu. It reads,


title: Bihu

text: This means that on the pious occasion of Bihu, a Brahmin named Dvija Ravidev was granted land by the king. This indicates that Bihu played an important role in the social life of people of Assam at that period.


title: Bihu

text: The wooden Khol played in Majuli in early times (similar to the Mayamora Khul, Manipuri Pung) was later turned into the terracotta Mridanga (similar to the ones played in eastern India) by the Vaishnavite saint Sankardev so that it could be used in art forms like dances and dramas.


title: Bihu

text: Yet another reference of "Bihu" can be found in the "Deodhai Buranji" which mentions that the capital of the Chutia kingdom, Sadiya was suddenly attacked by the Ahom forces on the first day of Bihu/Bisu in 1524 (first Wednesday of Bohag/Vaisakha), when the people were busy celebrating Bihu. The Ahom general Phrasenmung Borgohain upon the advise of a Chutia general (who sided with the enemies) played the Bihu Dhul (on Ujha Bisu day i.e. 7th Bohag/Vaisakha) to trick the Chutias which ultimately led to their defeat.


title: Bihu

text: In early texts, Bohag Bihu celebrations started from the first week of Chaitra ("Chot" in Assamese) month. The period from the first week of Chaitra till the end was known as "Raati Bihu" or "Chotor Bihu". During this period, young people danced at night in the grounds of the "Than" (temple). The last day of Chaitra or the first Tuesday of Bohag was when the Rati Bihu ended. This was known as the "Uruka" (derived from the Deori-Chutia "Urukuwa" meaning "to end"). The temple dancers "Deodhani" danced the entire night and were believed to be possessed by the goddess "Kechai-khati" (kolimoti), signaling that she had descended upon earth from heaven ("Bihu nomai ona"). This belief of the goddess arriving during the Bihu season each year can still be found in Bihu songs as, The day after Uruka,i.e. the first Wednesday was celebrated as Goru Bihu. This tradition of cattle rites is same as that followed by the Boros in Bwisagu indicating the common roots of both the festivals. During the night of Goru-bihu, people danced Bihu in separate groups in the Thans where animal sacrifice took place. After the sacrifices to the goddess, the young folk visited the households of the village, which was the start of "Husori". This old tradition of starting Husori from the temple is still followed by the Deoris, some Sonowals, Chutias and Morans as well as the people of Sadiya. In other communities, the temple has been replaced by the "Namghar". The festivities of Bohag Bihu continued for a week and ended with the rite by which the goddess was bid farewell. In this rite, a boat was first prepared out of banana stem and decorated with flowers and offerings. Then, it was carried to the banks of the river where a duck/chicken was put inside the boat and allowed to float as a symbol of sacrifice. After performing the rite, the people returned to their homes, singing along the way with the beats of the Dhul and the tunes of the Pepa.


title: Bihu

text: The modern form of Bihu dance was derived from the "Faat Bihu" dance celebrated in Dhakuakhana, Lakhimpur. The performers were called by the Ahom king Rudra Singha in 1694 to dance in the royal arena Rang Ghar. The origin of "Faat Bihu" can be traced to Sadiya. The word "Faat" in Deori-Chutia language means "to migrate". After the defeat of the Sadiyal Kacharis in Sadiya, the survivors were displaced from Sadiya to different places in the kingdom. A group of these people moved from Sadiya, to Dibrugarh and finally settled down in Harhi Sapori, Dhakuakhana. These people had brought the idols of god and goddess along with them and established a temple now known as Harhi Dewaloi. It was here that the first form of modern Bihu dance was developed. Later, in the 19th century, this form of Bihu dance was adopted by the other communities as well and started being performed in Mahguli sapori, Dhakuakhana by Chutias, Sonowals, Deoris, Ahoms, Mishing, etc.


title: Bihu

text: Ahom King Rudra Singha gave patronage to Bihu and was also the first one to celebrate Bihu in the courtyard. This policy was later followed by his successors.


title: Bihu

text: The Indo-Aryans upon their arrival in Assam helped in gradually sanskritisation of the native Bihu/Bisu to bring it to the present form. Being the pioneers of Astronomy, they further associated the term Bisu with the Visuvan day for coincidence of the Bohag Bihu with other springtime festivals observed elsewhere in India on this day and adopted the festival of the natives.


title: Bihu

text: Bohag Bihu (mid-April, also called Rongali Bihu), the most popular Bihu celebrates the onset of the Assamese New Year (around 14–15 April) and the coming of Spring. This marks the first day of the Hindu solar calendar and is also observed in Bengal, Manipur, Mithila, Nepal, Orissa, Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu though called by different names. It's a time of merriment and feasting and continues, in general, for seven days. The farmers prepare the fields for cultivation of paddy and there is a feeling of joy around. The women make pitha, "larus" (traditional food made of rice, coconut) various drinks by local tribes such as Chuje by Deoris, Nam-Lao by Tai-Ahom, Aapong by Mising tribe and Jolpan which gives the real essence of the season.


title: Bihu

text: The first day of the bihu is called "goru" bihu or cow bihu, where the cows are washed and worshipped, which falls on the last day of the previous year, usually on 14 April. This is followed by "manuh" (human) bihu on 15 April, the New Year Day. This is the day of getting cleaned up, wearing new cloths and celebrating and getting ready for the new year with fresh vigor. The third day is "Gosai" (Gods) bihu; statues of Gods, worshiped in all households are cleaned and worshiped asking for a smooth new year.


title: Bihu

text: The folk songs associated with the Bohag Bihu are called Bihugeets or Bihu songs. The form of celebration and rites vary among different demographic groups.


title: Bihu

text: Bohag Bihu or Rongali Bihu festival continues for seven days and called as Haat Bihu. The seven days are known as Chot Bihu, Goru Bihu, Manuh Bihu, Kutum Bihu, Senehi Bihu, Mela Bihu and Chera Bihu.


title: Bihu

text: Goru Bihu: The "goru bihu" or cattle worship rites are observed on the last day of the year. The cattle are washed, smeared with ground turmeric and other pastes, struck with sprigs of "dighalati" and "makhiyati" and endeared to be healthy and productive ("lao kha, bengena kha, bosore bosore barhi ja/maar xoru, baper xoru, toi hobi bor bor goru"—eat gourd, eat brinjal, grow from year to year/your mother is small, your father is small, but you be a large one). The old cattle ropes are cast away through the legs and new ropes are tied to them, and they are allowed to roam anywhere they wished for the entire day.


title: Bihu

text: Manuh Bihu: The New Year day, the day after the "goru bihu", is called the "manuh bihu". Elders are shown respect, with gifts of "bihuwan" (a gamosa), a "hachoti" (kerchief), a "cheleng" etc., and their blessings are sought. Children are given new clothes, and Husori singing begins on this day, and people visit their relatives and friends.


title: Bihu

text: Husori: Village elders move from household to households singing carols, also in the style of "bihu geets", called "husoris". It possibly derives from the Dimasa Kachari word formation "ha" (land) and "char" (move over): "hachari". Villages could have more than one Husori band, and they would visit households in a village non-contiguous to itself, first singing carols at the "Naamghar". The husari singers then visit individual households, by first announcing their arrival at the gate ("podulimukh") with drum beats. The singers are traditionally welcomed into the courtyard where they sing the husori songs and perform a ring dance. At the end of the performance they are thanked with an offering "dakshina" of "paan" (betel leaf) "tamul" (areka nut) in a "xorai" (brass dish with stand), whereupon the singers bless the household for the coming year. If there is a bereavement in the family, or the family does not invite the husori singers due to an illness, the husori band offers blessings from "podulimukh" and move on. Generally the singers are all male.


title: Bihu

text: Faat Bihu: This is a very old form of Bihu, characterized by spontaneity, popular in the Lakhimpur area of Assam.


title: Bihu

text: Mukoli Bihu: Young unmarried men and women attired in traditional golden silk "muga" dance the bihu and sing bihu songs in the open fields. The songs have themes of romance and sexual love, requited or unrequited. Sometimes the songs describe tragic events too but treated very lightly. The dance celebrates female sexuality.


title: Bihu

text: Jeng Bihu: This is Bihu dance and song performed and watched only by women. The name "jeng" comes from the fact that in earlier days women in the villages used to surround the place of their performance with sticks dug into the ground called "jeng" in Assamese. It is also called "gos tolor bihu" (Bihu beneath the tree).


title: Bihu

text: Baisago: The Bodo-Kachari people celebrate for seven days—the first day for cattle ("Magou"), the second day for man ("Mansoi") and ancestor worship, feasting, singing and merriment. Songs follow the same themes as the Bihu songs.


title: Bihu

text: Bihutoli Bihu: The rural festival made its transition to urban life when it was first time brought to the stage in Lataxil field in Guwahati by the Guwahati Bihu Sanmilani in 1962, promoted by leading citizens like Radha Govinda Baruah and others. Bihu to a great extent has been popularized by the Bihu 'Samrat'( king ), of Assam, Khagen Mahanta. Unlike the rural version, the dancers danced on a makeshift elevated stage in an open area that came to be known as a "Bihutoli". Many such Bihutolis have sprouted since then in Guwahati and other urban areas. The performances are not confined to the Bihu dance form but may incorporate all forms of theatrical performances to keep the audience enthralled well into the early hours. Performances could include standup comedy, to concerts by solo singers. The stage form of Bihu has become so popular, that organizers have begun extending the celebrations to "bohagi bidai", or farewell to the "Bohag" month, which is similar performances held a month later.


title: Bihu

text: Saat Bihu: Rongali Bihu also called "saat Bihu" (seven Bihus). It celebrates seven days, it's called so. On the other hand, Rangali Bihu is constitute of seven different types of Bihu -Goru Bihu (Cow Bihu), Manuh Bihu, Xat Bihu, Senehi Bihu, Maiki Bihu, Rongali Bihu, and Sera Bihu. Actually, first day to pay respect to cows and other days for social activities.


title: Bihu

text: Kongali Bihu (mid-October, also called "Kati-Bihu") has a different flavor as there is less merriment and the atmosphere has a sense of constraining and solemnity. During this time of the year, the paddy in the fields are in the growing stage and the granaries of the farmers are almost empty. On this day, earthen lamps ("saki") are lit at the foot of the household tulsi plant, the granary, the garden ("bari") and the paddy fields. In ancient times, earthen lamps were lit all around the paddy fields to attract the insects, thus acting as a natural insectide. To protect the maturing paddy, cultivators whirl a piece of bamboo and recite "rowa-khowa" chants and spells to ward off pests and the evil eye. During the evening, cattle are fed specially made rice items called "pitha". Kati Bihu is known as "Kati Gasa" by the Bodo people and "Gathi Sainjora" by the Dimasa people. The Bodo people light lamps at the foot of the "siju" ("Euphorbia neriifolia") tree. This Bihu is also associated with the lighting of "akaxi gonga" or "akaxbonti", lamps at the tip of a tall bamboo pole, to show the souls of the dead the way to heaven, a practice that is common to many communities in India, as well as Asia and Europe. Kati bihu is generally celebrated on 19 october, as it is almost mid-October.


title: Bihu

text: Bhogali Bihu (mid-January, also called Magh Bihu) comes from the word "Bhog" that is eating and enjoyment. It is a harvest festival and marks the end of harvesting season. Since the granaries are full, there is a lot of feasting and eating during this period. On the eve of the day called "uruka", i.e., the last day of "pausa", menfolk, more particularly young men go to the field, preferably near a river, build a makeshift cottage called "Bhelaghar" with the hay of the harvest fields and the bonfire or "Meji", . the most important thing for the night. During the night, they prepare food and there is community feasting everywhere. There is also the exchange of sweets and greetings at this time. The entire night (called Uruka) is spent around a "Meji" with people singing bihu songs, beating Dhol, a typical kind of drums or playing games. Boys roam about in the dark stealing firewood and vegetables for fun. The next morning they take a bath and burn the main "Meji". People gather around the "Meji" and throw "Pitha"s (rice cakes) and betel nuts to it while burning it at the same time. They offer their prayers to the god of Fire and mark the end of the harvesting year. Thereafter they come back home carrying pieces of half burnt firewood for being thrown among fruit trees for favorable results. All the trees in the compound are tied to bamboo strips or paddy stems. Different types of sports like Buffalo-fight, Egg-fight, Cock-fight, Nightingale-fight etc. are held throughout the day. There are other conventional festivals observed by various ethnic-cultural groups. Me-dam-me-phi, Ali-aye-ligang, Porag, Garja, Hapsa Hatarnai, Kherai are few among them. The koch celebrates this bihu as .


title: Bihu

text: Bihu is also seen to be celebrated abroad. Many Bihu associations/committees exist elsewhere where this festival is celebrated with enthusiasm. The London Bihu Committee (LBC), UK is one of them among others.


title: Bihu

text: The Bohag Bihu (Rongali Bihu) festive day is celebrated elsewhere but called by other name. Some examples of related festivals in Asia include:


title: Bihu

text: However, this is not the universal new year for all Hindus. For some, such as those in and near Gujarat, the new year festivities coincide with the five day Diwali festival. For others, the new year falls on Ugadi and Gudi Padwa, which falls about two weeks before Bohag Bihu.


title: Area and population of European countries

text: Some of the countries listed below are transcontinental, meaning that they are located in two continents:


text: Armenia and Cyprus are entirely within Asia physiographically, but have political, cultural and sporting ties to Europe.


text: There is some discussion about whether Kosovo should be recognised as a separate country. "De facto" it can be considered as one, but "de jure" recognition is not clear-cut.


title: Funan

text: Funan (; , ; , Chữ Hán: ) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Indianized state—or, rather a loose network of states "(Mandala)"—located in mainland Southeast Asia centered on the Mekong Delta that existed from the first to sixth century CE. The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and the most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats, Kang Tai and Zhu Ying, representing the Eastern Wu dynasty who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century CE.


title: Funan

text: Funan is known in the modern languages of the region as "Vnum" (Old Khmer: ), Nokor Phnom (, , ), (), and (Vietnamese). However, the name "Funan" is not found in any texts of local origin from the period, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their polity. Some scholars argued that ancient Chinese scholars transcribed the word "Funan" from a word related to the Khmer word "bnaṃ" or "vnaṃ" (modern: , meaning "mountain"), others however thought that "Funan" may not be a transcription at all- rather it meant what it says in Chinese.


title: Funan

text: Like the very name of the kingdom, the ethno-linguistic nature of the people is the subject of much discussion among specialists. The leading hypotheses are that the Funanese were mostly Mon–Khmer, or that they were mostly Austronesian, or that they constituted a multi-ethnic society. The available evidence is inconclusive on this issue. Michael Vickery has said that, even though identification of the language of Funan is not possible, the evidence strongly suggests that the population was Khmer. The results of archaeology at Oc Eo have demonstrated "no true discontinuity between Oc Eo and pre-Angkorian levels", indicating Khmer linguistic dominance in the area under Funan control.


title: Funan

text: Based on the testimony of the Chinese historians, the polity Funan is believed to have been established in the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta, but archaeological research has shown that extensive human settlement in the region may have gone back as far as the 4th century BCE. Though regarded by Chinese authors as a single unified polity, some modern scholars suspect that Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes were at war with one another and at other times constituted a political unity. From archaeological evidence, which includes Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods excavated at the ancient mercantile centre of Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, it is known that Funan must have been a powerful trading state. Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Óc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.


title: Funan

text: Some scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the word "Funan". It is often said that the name "Funan" (Middle Chinese pronunciation of : /bju nậm/, Later Han pronunciation: /buɑ nəm/ or possibly /puɑ nəm/) represents a transcription from some local language into Chinese. For example, French scholar Georges Coedès advanced the theory that in using the word "Funan", ancient Chinese scholars were transcribing a word related to the Khmer word "bnaṃ" or "vnaṃ" (modern: "phnoṃ", meaning "mountain").


title: Funan

text: However, the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a mistranslation of the Sanskrit word "parvatabùpála" in the ancient inscriptions as equivalent to the Khmer word "bnaṃ" and a mis-identification of the King Bhavavarman I mentioned in them as the conqueror of Funan. It has also been observed that in Chinese the character (, ) is frequently used in geographical terms to mean "South"; Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of Southeast Asia, such as Annam.


title: Funan

text: Thus, "Funan" may be an originally Chinese word, and may not be a transcription at all. Jacques proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names, such as "Bhavapura", "Aninditapura", "Shresthapura" and "Vyadhapura", which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the region and give a more accurate idea of the geography of the ancient Khmer regions than the names "Funan" or "Zhenla" which are unknown in the Old Khmer language.


title: Funan

text: The first modern scholar to reconstruct the history of the ancient polity of Funan was Paul Pelliot, who in his ground-breaking article "Le Fou-nan" of 1903 drew exclusively on Chinese historical records to set forth the sequence of documented events connecting the foundation of Funan in approximately the 1st century CE with its demise by conquest in the 6th to 7th century. Scholars critical of Pelliot's Chinese sources have expressed scepticism regarding his conclusions.


title: Funan

text: Chinese records dating from the 3rd century CE, beginning with the (, Records of the Three Kingdoms) completed in 289 CE by Chén Shòu (; 233–297), record the arrival of two Funanese embassies at the court of (), governor in the southern Chinese kingdom of Wú (): the first embassy arrived between 225 and 230 CE, the second in the year 243. Later sources such as the Liáng shū (, Book of Liang) of Yáo Chá (; 533–606) and (, d. 637), completed in 636, discuss the mission of the 3rd-century Chinese envoys Kang Tai () and () from the Kingdom of Wu to Funan. The writings of these envoys, though no longer extant in their original condition, were excerpted and as such preserved in the later dynastic histories, and form the basis for much of what we know about Funan.


title: Funan

text: Since the publication of Pelliot's article, archaeological excavation in Vietnam and Cambodia, especially excavation of sites related to the Óc Eo culture, have supported and supplemented his conclusion.


title: Funan

text: Chinese sources relate a local legend to document Funan's origin, that a foreigner named "Huntian (混填)" [pinyin: Hùntián] established the Kingdom of Funan around the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam. Archeological evidence shows that extensive human settlement in the region may go back as far as the 4th century BCE. Though treated by Chinese historians as a single unified empire, according to some modern scholars Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes warred with one another and at other times constituted a political unity.


title: Funan

text: The ethnic and linguistic origins of the Funanese people have consequently been subject to scholarly debate, and no firm conclusions can be drawn based on the evidence available. The Funanese may have been Cham or from another Austronesian group, or they may have been Khmer or from another Austroasiatic group. It is possible that they are the ancestors of those indigenous people dwelling in the southern part of Vietnam today who refer themselves as "Khmer" or "Khmer Krom." The Khmer term "krom" means "below" or "lower part of" and is used to refer to territory that was later colonized by Vietnamese immigrants and taken up into the modern state of Vietnam. While no conclusive study to determine whether Funan's ethnolinguistic components were Austronesian or Austroasiatic, there is dispute among scholars. According to the majority of Vietnamese academics, for example, Mac Duong, stipulates that "Funan's core population certainly were the Austronesians, not Khmer;" the fall of Funan and the rise of Zhenla from the north in the 6th century indicate "the arrival of the Khmer to the Mekong Delta." That thesis received support from D. G. E. Hall. Recent archaeological research lends weight to the conclusion that Funan was a Mon-Khmer polity. In his Funan review, Michael Vickery expresses himself a strong supporter of Funan's Khmer predominance theory.


title: Funan

text: It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society, including various ethnic and linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization advanced more rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire. The only extant local writings from the period of Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava dynasty, a scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia. These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the Funanese.


title: Funan

text: Funan may have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient Indian texts. Among the Khmer Krom of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants of ancient Funan, the core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, Malaya, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia. In December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, discovered a Pre-Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of Kampong Speu Baset District, which he tentatively dated to 633 CE. According to him, the inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription, translated, read: “The great King Isanavarman is full of glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their heads”.


title: Funan

text: The Book of Liang records a local legend to document Funan's origin, that of the foundation of Funan by the foreigner Hùntián (, Middle Chinese pronunciation /ɦwən tɦian/): "He came from the southern country Jiào (, an unidentified location, perhaps on the Malaysian Peninsula or in the Indonesian archipelago) after dreaming that his personal genie had delivered a divine bow to him and had directed him to embark on a large merchant junk. In the morning, he proceeded to the temple, where he found a bow at the foot of the genie's tree. He then boarded a ship, which the genie caused to land in Fúnán. The queen of the country, Liǔyè (, "Willow Leaf"; Queen Soma, Middle Chinese: "Iiu-iap") wanted to pillage the ship and seize it, so Hùntián shot an arrow from his divine bow which pierced through Liǔyè's ship. Frightened, she gave herself up, and Hùntián took her for his wife. But unhappy to see her naked, he folded a piece of material to make a garment through which he made her pass her head. Then he governed the country and passed power on to his son, who was the founder of seven cities." Nearly the same story appeared in the Jìn shū (Book of Jin), compiled by Fáng Xuánlíng in 648 CE; however, in the Book of Jin the names given to the foreign conqueror and his native wife are "Hùnhuì" and "Yèliǔ" .


title: Funan

text: Some scholars have identified the conqueror Hùntián of the Book of Liang with the Brahmin Kauṇḍinya who married a nāga (snake) princess named Somā, as set forth in a Sanskrit inscription found at Mỹ Sơn and dated 658 CE (see below). Other scholars have rejected this identification, pointing out that the word "Hùntián" has only two syllables, while the word "Kauṇḍinya" has three, and arguing that Chinese scholars would not have used a two-syllable Chinese word to transcribe a three-syllable word from another language.


title: Funan

text: The story of Kaundinya is also set forth briefly in the Sanskrit inscription C. 96 of the Cham king Prakasadharma found at Mỹ Sơn. It is dated Sunday, 18 February 658 CE (and thus belongs to the post-Funanese period) and states in relevant part (stanzas XVI-XVIII): "It was there [at the city of Bhavapura] that Kauṇḍinya, the foremost among brahmins, planted the spear which he had obtained from Droṇa's Son Aśvatthāman, the best of brahmins. There was a daughter of a king of serpents, called "Somā", who founded a family in this world. Having attained, through love, to a radically different element, she lived in the abode of man. She was taken as wife by the excellent Brahmin Kauṇḍinya for the sake of (accomplishing) a certain task...".


title: Funan

text: The legend of Kaundinya is paralleled in modern Khmer folklore, where the foreign prince is known as "Preah Thaong" and the queen as "Neang Neak". In this version of the story, Preah Thaong arrives by sea to an island marked by a giant thlok tree, native to Cambodia. On the island, he finds the home of the nāgas and meets Neang Neak, daughter of the nāga king. He marries her with blessings from her father and returns to the human world. The nāga king drinks the sea around the island and confers the name "Kampuchea Thipdei", which is derived from the Sanskrit ("Kambujādhipati") and may be translated into English as "the lord of Cambodia". In another version, it is stated that Preah Thaong fights Neang Neak.


title: Funan

text: Keneth Hall remarks that the basic details of the Chinese legend are reiterated elsewhere in Indian and Southeast Asian folklore.


title: Funan

text: The historian Gabriel Ferrand believed that some Indian merchants might have immigrated to the region and established relations with the natives and that's how the myth emerged. Some Indian historians have taken this myth to extreme length and speculate that a large population of South Asians colonized Funan. Dutch historian J.C. van Leur stressed that it was the local rulers who recognized the benefits of associating with the relatively advanced level of life and drew from the Indian traditions by encouraging migration of Brahman clerks to help with the administration.


title: Funan

text: As per O.W. Wolters, there was a mutual sharing process in the evolution of Indianized statecraft and no mass influx of Brahmans. He said that it was rather the Indianized local Southeast Asian traders who provided the initial contact with Indian cultural traditions and the local rulers followed up. He also stated that Hindu traditions was selectively mobilized by the local rulers to strengthen the political alliances among fragile polity of the states in that period.


title: Funan

text: Even if the Chinese "Hùntián" is not the proper transcription of the Sanskrit "Kaundinya", the name "Kaundinya" [Kauṇḍinya, Koṇḍañña, Koṇḍinya, etc.] is nevertheless an important one in the history of Funan as written by the Chinese historians: however, they transcribed it not as "Hùntián", but as "Qiáochénrú" (). A person of that name is mentioned in the Book of Liang in a story that appears somewhat after the story of Hùntián.


title: Funan

text: According to this source, Qiáochénrú was one of the successors of the king Tiānzhú Zhāntán (, "Candana from India"), a ruler of Funan who in the year 357 CE sent tamed elephants as tribute to Emperor Mu of Jin (r. 344–361; personal name: Sīmǎ Dān (): "He [Qiáochénrú] was originally a Brahmin from India. There a voice told him: 'you must go reign over Fúnán,' and he rejoiced in his heart. In the south, he arrived at Pánpán (). The people of Fúnán appeared to him; the whole kingdom rose up with joy, went before him, and chose him king. He changed all the laws to conform to the system of India."


title: Funan

text: Successive rulers following Hun-t'ien included Hun-p'an-huang, P'an-p'an, and then Fan Shih-man, "Great King of Funan", who "had large ships built, and sailing all over the immense sea he attacked more than ten kingdoms... he extended his territory five or six thousand li." Fan Shih-man died on a military expedition to Chin-lin, "Frontier of Gold". He was followed by Chin-cheng, Fan Chan, Ch'ang and then Fan Hsun, in successive assassinations. Before his death, Fan Chan sent embassies to India and China in 243.


title: Funan

text: Around 245, Funan was described as having "walled villages, palaces, and dwellings. They devote themselves to agriculture... they like to engrave ornaments and chisel. Many of their eating utensils are silver. Taxes are paid in gold, silver, pearls, perfumes. There are books and depositories of archives and other things." The Indian Chan-T'an was ruling in 357, followed by another Indian Chiao Chen-ju (Kaundinya) in the fifth century, who "changed all the laws to conform to the system of India." In 480, She-yeh-pa-mo, Jayavarman or "Protege of Victory" reigned until his death in 514. One of his sons, Rudravarman, killed the other, Gunavarman, for the throne, and became the last king of Funan.


title: Funan

text: Funan reached the apex of its power under the 3rd-century king Fan Shiman (). Fan Shiman expanded his empire's navy and improved the Funanese bureaucracy, creating a quasi-feudal pattern that left local customs and identities largely intact, particularly in the empire's further reaches. Fan Shiman and his successors also sent ambassadors to China and India to regulate sea trade. The kingdom likely accelerated the process of Indianization of Southeast Asia. Later kingdoms of Southeast Asia such as Chenla may have emulated the Funanese court. The Funanese established a strong system of mercantilism and commercial monopolies that would become a pattern for empires in the region.


title: Funan

text: Funan's dependence on maritime trade is seen as a cause for the beginning of Funan's downfall. Their coastal ports allowed trade with foreign regions that funnelled goods to the north and coastal populations. However, the shift in maritime trade to Sumatra, the rise in the Srivijaya trade empire, and the taking of trade routes all throughout Southeast Asia by China, leads to economic instability in the south, and forces politics and economy northward.


title: Funan

text: Funan was superseded and absorbed in the 6th century by the Khmer polity of the Chenla Kingdom (Zhenla). "The king had his capital in the city of T'e-mu. Suddenly his city was subjugated by Chenla, and he had to migrate south to the city of Nafuna" (Middle Chinese: "*nâ-piiidt-nâ").


title: Funan

text: The "Book of Sui" (complied in 636) states: "The Kingdom of Zhenla is to the southwest of Linyi and was originally subject to Funan… The surname of its [former] king was that of the Cha-li clan; his given name was Zhiduo-si-na 質多斯那. His ancestors had gradually become more powerful and flourishing until the time of Zhi-duo-sina himself, who annexed Funan and possessed it." The "New Book of Tang" (c. 1060) tells that "Yīshēnàxiāndài (伊奢那先代), son of Citrasena-Mahendravarman, subdued Funan and annexed Funan territory in the beginning of the Zhenguan era (627–649) [when Emperor Taizong of Tang


title: Funan

text: The first inscription in the Khmer language is dated shortly after the fall of Funan. A concentration of later Khmer inscriptions in southern Cambodia may suggest the even earlier presence of a Khmer population. Despite absence of compelling evidence as to the ethnicity of the Funanese, modern scholar Michael Vickery has stated that "on present evidence it is impossible to assert that Funan as an area and its dominant groups were anything but Khmer".


title: Funan

text: The "King of the mountain" was the monarch of Funan. There was a mountain regarded as holy. Mountain in Khmer sounds similar to Funan.


title: Funan

text: The Java-based Sailendras claimed that the Funan monarchs were their ancestors. Cambodia was taken control of after a sojourn in Java by Jayavarman II.


title: Funan

text: The "Mountain Kings" of Funan were claimed as the forebears of the Malacca Sultanate and Brunei Sultanate.


title: Funan

text: Keeping in mind that Funanese records did not survive into the modern period, much of what is known came from archaeological excavation. Excavations yielded discoveries of brick wall structures, precious metals and pot from southern Cambodia and Vietnam. Also found was a large canal system that linked the settlements of Angkor Borei and coastal outlets; this suggests a highly organised government. Funan was a complex and sophisticated society with a high population density, advanced technology, and a complex social system.


title: Funan

text: On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".


title: Funan

text: Unfortunately, only limited archaeological research has been conducted on Funan in southern Cambodia and Cochinchina in the last few decades, and it is precisely this region that reputedly housed the capital or capitals of Funan. However, archaeological surveys and excavations were carried out by joint Cambodian (Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts; Royal University of Fine Arts) and international teams at Angkor Borei since 1994 continuing into the 2000s. The research included excavation and dating of human burials at Wat Kamnou. Numerous brick features, architectural remains, and landscape features such as mounds, canals and reservoirs have also been identified.


title: Funan

text: Some have been dated with a wide spectrum of results ranging from the late centuries BCE to the Angkorian period. A significant canal system linking the site of Oc Eo has also been researched and dated. Phon Kaseka led a Royal Academy of Cambodia and Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts team (also with Royal University of Fine Arts personnel) conducted Iron Age to Funan period burial excavations at neighboring Phnom Borei. Large landscape features, notable settlement mounds, and other sites exhibiting Funan material culture and settlement patterns extend from at least Phnom Chisor through Oc Eo and numerous sites in Vietnam. Vietnamese archaeologists have also conducted a fair amount of research on Funan sites in the lower Mekong region.


title: Funan

text: Many of the mounds show evidence of material culture and landscape modification (inclusive of species-genera biological regimes) ranging from the metal age through the post-Angkorian period and later as evidenced by 13th through 16th century CE Chinese, Thai, Vietnamese, and Cham ceramics. The evidence suggests a 2000-year or longer period of urbanization, continuous activity, and relatively strong albeit indirect and multi-nodal connections to long-distance value chains. Nevertheless, it is quite evident that periods of intense production, consumption, activity, commercial and political centrality fluctuated.


title: Funan

text: The Funan period seems to have been the heyday and Angkor Borei may have been Funan's premiere capital for much of that period. However, many of the settlements did not necessarily spring up out of nowhere or vanish quickly. They were certainly well integrated into pre-Funan, Funan, Zhenla [Chenla], Angkorian and post-Angkorian socio-economic and political networks. The urbanization and networking processes demonstrate significant continuity, evolution and longevity before and after the typical first to sixth century CE historic classification scheme.


title: Funan

text: Funanese culture was a mixture of native beliefs and Indian ideas. The kingdom is said to have been heavily influenced by Indian culture, and to have employed Indians for state administration purposes. Sanskrit was the language at the court, and the Funanese advocated Hinduism and, after the fifth century, Buddhist religious doctrines. Records show that taxes were paid in silver, gold, pearls, and perfumed wood. Kang Tai () and Zhu Ying () reported that the Funanese practised slavery and that justice was rendered through trial by ordeal, including such methods as carrying a red-hot iron chain and retrieving gold rings and eggs from boiling water.


title: Funan

text: Archaeological evidence largely corresponds to Chinese records. The Chinese described the Funanese as people who lived on stilt houses, cultivated rice and sent tributes of gold, silver, ivory and exotic animals.


title: Funan

text: Kang Tai's report was unflattering to Funanese civilisation, though Chinese court records show that a group of Funanese musicians visited China in 263 CE. The Chinese emperor was so impressed that he ordered the establishment of an institute for Funanese music near Nanking. The Funanese were reported to have extensive book collections and archives throughout their country, demonstrating a high level of scholarly achievements.


title: Funan

text: Two Buddhist monks from Funan, named Mandrasena and Sanghapala, took up residency in China in the 5th to 6th centuries, and translated several Buddhist sūtras from Sanskrit (or a prakrit) into Chinese. Among these texts is the Mahayana "Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra", also called the "Mahāprajñāpāramitā Mañjuśrīparivarta Sūtra". This text was separately translated by both monks. The bodhisattva Mañjuśrī is a prominent figure in this text.


title: Funan

text: Funan was Southeast Asia's first great economy. It became prosperous through maritime trade and agriculture. The kingdom apparently minted its own silver coinage, bearing the image of the crested argus or hamsa bird.


title: Funan

text: Funan came into prominence at a time when the trade route from India to China consisted of a maritime leg from India to the Isthmus of Kra, the narrow portion of the Malay peninsula, a portage across the isthmus, and then a coast-hugging journey by ship along the Gulf of Siam, past the Mekong Delta, and along the Vietnamese coast to China. Funanese kings of the 2nd century conquered polities on the isthmus itself, and thus may have controlled the entire trade route from Malaysia to central Vietnam.


title: Funan

text: The Funanese settlement of Óc Eo, located near the Straits of Malacca, provided a port-of-call and entrepot for this international trade route. Archaeological evidence discovered at what may have been the commercial centre of Funan at Óc Eo includes Roman as well as Persian, Indian, and Greek artefacts. The German classical scholar Albrecht Dihle believed that Funan's main port, was the Kattigara referred to by the 2nd century Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy as the emporium where merchants from the Chinese and Roman empires met to trade. Dihle also believed that the location of Óc Eo best fit the details given by Ptolemy of a voyage made by a Graeco-Roman merchant named Alexander to Kattigara, situated at the easternmost end of the maritime trade route from the eastern Roman Empire.


title: Funan

text: Georges Coedès said: "Fu-nan occupied a key position with regard to the maritime trade routes, and was inevitably a port of call both for the navigators who went through the Straits of Malacca and for those – probably more numerous – who made the transit over one of the isthmuses of the Malay Peninsula. Fu-nan may even have been the terminus of voyages from the Eastern Mediterranean, if it is the case that the Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy was situated on the western coast of Indochina on the Gulf of Siam".


title: Funan

text: At Óc Eo, Roman coins were among the items of long-distance trade discovered by the French archaeologist Louis Malleret in the 1940s. These include mid-2nd-century Roman golden medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius, and his adopted son and heir Marcus Aurelius. From Óc Eo, archaeologists also found a fine gold pendant imitation of a "aureus" of Antoninus minted in 152 AD with caption ANTONINVS AVG PIVS (Antoninus Aug(ustus) Pius) and portrait of the emperor turning left. Similar gold sheet discs that imitated Roman coins minted by local Funanese also are rediscovered, included imitations of aureus of Antoninus (minted in 155–158), Commodus ( 192), Septimius Severus ( 198–202), perhaps the minting techniques were brought by traders including those from the Roman Empire. It is perhaps no small coincidence that the first Roman embassy from "Daqin" recorded in Chinese history is dated 166 AD, allegedly sent by a Roman ruler named "Andun" (; corresponding with the names Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) and arriving through the Eastern Han Empire's southernmost frontier province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam.


title: Funan

text: In addition to trade, Funan also benefited from a sophisticated agricultural system that included use of an elaborate system of water storage and irrigation. The Funanese population was concentrated mainly along the rivers of the Mekong Delta; the area was a natural region for the development of an economy based on fishing and rice cultivation.


title: Funan

text: Little is known about Funan's political history apart from its relations with China. The Funanese had diplomatic relations and traded with the Eastern Wu and Liang dynasties of southern China. Contact with Southeast Asia began after the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty, and the annexation of Nanyue and other kingdoms situated in southern China. Goods imported or modelled on those from China, like bronze axes, have been excavated in Cambodia. An Eastern Wu embassy was sent from China to Funan in 228. A brief conflict is recorded to have happened in the 270s, when Funan and its neighbour, Linyi, joined forces to attack the area of Tongking (Vietnamese: Đông Kinh, "eastern capital"), located in what is now modern Northern Vietnam (which was a Chinese colony at the time).


title: Funan

text: Funan maintained diplomatic relations with the Murunda dynasty of northern Kalinga during 3rd cen CE, when King Dhamadamadhara (Dharmatamadharasya) of Murunda received envoy Su-Wu who represented King Fan Chan of Funan (225–250 CE).


title: Funan

text: According to Chinese sources, Funan was eventually conquered and absorbed by its vassal polity Chenla (pinyin: Zhēnlà). Chenla was a Khmer polity, and its inscriptions are in both Sanskrit and in Khmer. The last known ruler of Funan was Rudravarman (, pinyin: ) who ruled from 514 up to c. 545 CE.


title: Funan

text: The French historian Georges Coedès once hypothesized a relation between the rulers of Funan and the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia. Coedès believed that the title of "mountain lord" used by the Sailendra kings may also have been used by the kings of Funan, since he also believed that the name "Funan" was a Chinese transcription related to the Khmer "phnom", which means "mountain." Other scholars have rejected this hypothesis, pointing to the lack of evidence in early Cambodian epigraphy for the use of any such titles.


title: Funan

text: People who came from the coast of Funan are also known to establish Chi Tu (the Red Earth Kingdom) in the Malay Peninsula. The Red Earth Kingdom is thought to be a derivation nation of Funan with its own kind of Khmer culture.


title: Borgia (TV series)

text: Borgia is a historical drama television series created by Tom Fontana for Canal+, ZDF, ORF, and Sky Italia. The show recounts the Borgia family's rise to power and subsequent domination of the Papal States during the Renaissance.


title: Borgia (TV series)

text: "Borgia" debuted in Italy on Sky Cinema 1 on 10 July 2011. It was since renewed for a second season, which premiered in France on Canal+ on 18 March 2013. A third and final season premiered in France on Canal+ on 15 September 2014. The series finale aired in France on Canal+ on 27 October 2014 as the 38th episode overall.


title: Borgia (TV series)

text: The series is produced by Atlantique Productions, a subsidiary of Lagardère Entertainment, for French premium-pay TV Canal+ in association with EOS Entertainment, and was filmed in the Czech Republic and Italy. Czech production was held by company Etic films. International distribution is handled by Beta Film GmbH. Season 3 was filmed between 27 May 2013 and 27 January 2014.


title: Borgia (TV series)

text: Despite being a French-German-Czech-Italian production, the whole setup is very international. The series creator, producer, and lead writer Tom Fontana, as well as other writers including Sean Whitesell, Gina Gionfriddo, and Larry Cohen are all American. Season 2 sees French writer Audrey Fouché join the writing team.


title: Borgia (TV series)

text: The directors come from several different parts of Europe: Oliver Hirschbiegel and Christoph Schrewe are German, Dearbhla Walsh is Irish, Metin Hüseyin is British and Thomas Vincent is French. Each director is in charge of directing at least two consecutive episodes before handing the series over to a new director.


title: Borgia (TV series)

text: The main character, Rodrigo Borgia, is portrayed by American actor John Doman. The rest of the cast hails from the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Czech Republic, but the Republic of Ireland, Denmark, and Spain and several other countries are also represented.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Jack Wayne Sikma (born November 14, 1955) is an American former professional basketball center. He was a seven-time NBA All-Star with the Seattle SuperSonics, who drafted him in the first round with the eighth overall pick of the 1977 NBA draft. In 1979, he won an NBA championship with Seattle. Sikma finished his playing career with the Milwaukee Bucks. He was elected to the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame in 2019.


title: Jack Sikma

text: He was known for his trademark reverse pivot and step back behind-the-head jumper, coined as the "Sikma move", along with his distinctive curly, blond hair during his playing days. During his thirteen-year career, he reached the playoffs eleven times and anomalously established himself as an accurate-shooting center. His style of play would become significantly influential for centers at both the amateur and professional levels. Sikma scored 17,287 points in his NBA career.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Sikma was born in Kankakee, Illinois to Grace and Clarence Sikma and attended St. Anne High School in St. Anne, Illinois. He lived in rural Wichert, Illinois growing up. Sikma was a guard his first three years of high school, before a growth spurt had him at 6'10" going into his senior season. Nicknamed "the Wichert Wonder," Sikma led the St. Anne High School Cardinals to a fourth-place finish in the 1974 Illinois High School Association (IHSA) Class A boys basketball tournament, scoring 100 points in his four tournament games.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Sikma played collegiately at Illinois Wesleyan University in Bloomington, Illinois, graduating in 1977 and majoring in accounting. After being heavily recruited by many Division I schools, Sikma was swayed by his close relationship with Illinois Wesleyan Coach Dennie Bridges and being able to immediately play as a freshman. At the time, the NAIA allowed this, but the NCAA did not. Sikma also liked that Illinois Wesleyan had several Division I schools on their schedule.


title: Jack Sikma

text: At Illinois Wesleyan, Sikma was a three-time National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) All-American and averaged 27.0 points and 15.4 rebounds as a senior. Sikma was chosen as the College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin (CCIW) Most Outstanding Player for three straight years. He was later inducted into the NAIA Hall of Fame (2012), the Small Schools Basketball Hall of Fame (2017) and was a member of the NAIA 50th & 75th All-Anniversary Teams. He was also a two-time Academic All-American and was selected to the CoSIDA Academic All-American Hall of Fame (1999).


title: Jack Sikma

text: At Wesleyan, Sikma remains the school's all-time leading scorer and rebounder averaging 21.2 points (2,272 career points) and 13.1 rebounds (1,405 career rebounds). In each of his last three seasons, the Titans won College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin Conference Championships and advanced to the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics Tournament.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Sikma was a first round pick, drafted with the eighth overall selection in the 1977 NBA draft by the Seattle SuperSonics. Due to the relatively small size of his alma mater, Sikma was considered an unknown quantity compared to the "established, well‐publicized stars" taken before him.


title: Jack Sikma

text: As a rookie in 1977-1978, Sikma averaged 10.7 points and 8.3 rebounds, and on March 24, 1978, scored a rookie season high 28 points, along with recording 10 rebounds and 5 assists, in a 104-102 win over the Indiana Pacers. The Sonics made it to 1978 NBA Finals, losing to the Washington Bullets in seven games. Sikma was named to the NBA All-Rookie Team at the end of the season.


title: Jack Sikma

text: The next season, 1978-1979, Sikma averaged 15.6 points and 12.4 rebounds and became an All-Star. With Sikma averaging a double-double of 14.8 points and 11.7 rebounds in the playoffs, including scoring a game high 33 points along with grabbing 11 rebounds to lead Seattle to a Game 7 Western Conference Finals win over the Phoenix Suns. Sikma and teammates Dennis Johnson, Gus Williams and Paul Silas, went on to defeat the Washington Bullets in an NBA Finals rematch. Sikma's final free throws were the last points scored by the Sonics to win the series.


title: Jack Sikma

text: In 1984, Sikma signed a five-year contract with the Supersonics. Sonics General Manager Les Habegger remarked, "After careful consideration, we concluded that we could look far and wide and never obtain another center of his caliber." In that season's all-star game, Sikma recorded his highest all-star game totals of points and rebounds, with 15 and 12 respectively. Sikma continued his All-Star caliber play, but was forced to undergo finger surgery in 1985.


title: Jack Sikma

text: With the Supersonics, Sikma was selected to seven consecutive All-Star Games, from 1979 to 1985. In nine seasons and 715 games with Seattle, Sikma averaged a double-double of 16.8 points, 10.8 rebounds, along with 3.3 assists, 1.1 steals and 1.0 blocks, shooting 47% from the field and 83% from the line.


title: Jack Sikma

text: After missing the playoffs for two years, Sikma requested a trade from Seattle. In 1986, Sikma and Seattle's 1988 second round draft pick were traded to the Milwaukee Bucks in exchange for Alton Lister and Milwaukee's first-round draft picks in 1987 and 1989. Later in response, "Sports Illustrated" would report:


title: Jack Sikma

text: Milwaukee Coach Don Nelson felt Sikma was the missing piece of a team that had frequently dominated the regular season before being exposed at the center position in the playoffs. Milwaukee struggled with injuries leading to the playoffs.


title: Jack Sikma

text: In the initial playoff series, Sikma scored 11 points in the fourth quarter to get past Charles Barkley and the Philadelphia 76ers. In the next series, the Bucks were defeated by the Boston Celtics in a seven-game series, during which Sikma averaged 17.6 points and 9.6 rebounds per game. In the series, Sikma was one of eight players fined for fighting or leaving the bench to join the brawl.


title: Jack Sikma

text: During the following pre-season, Sikma and the Bucks participated in the diplomatically oriented Basketball Open, a round-robin, exhibition tournament, which included a match with the U.S.S.R. national team and the Italian national team (a country where Sikma was particularly popular). On December 11, 1987, Sikma scored what would be his highest point total while on the Bucks, with 35 points alongside 7 rebounds during a 125-117 win over the Portland Trail Blazers.


title: Jack Sikma

text: With the Bucks, Sikma showed his superb shooting skills and made the playoffs every year for the remainder of his career. Despite being the team's center, Sikma was one of the most effective free-throw shooters in the league and he would shoot technical free throws for the team, Sikma set a then-record of 51 games without a free throw miss. His late-career three point shooting was cited as a sign of league-wide adoption.


title: Jack Sikma

text: In 1989, he would face his former team in what was then the longest game in the shot clock era at four hours and 17 minutes, scoring 23 points and grabbing 8 rebounds, while winning by a score of 155-154 in the fifth overtime.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Into his final season, Sikma remained an effective big man, playing 77 regular season games and three playoff games, including twice grabbing 14 rebounds in a game.


title: Jack Sikma

text: In five seasons and 392 games with Milwaukee, Sikma averaged 13.4 points, 7.9 rebounds and 2.9 assists, shooting 45% from the floor and 88% from the line.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Sikma averaged a double-double in points and rebounds in eight seasons, always averaged double points-per-game figures throughout his career, and after his stint with the Sonics, he maintained consistent numbers while playing with the Milwaukee Bucks in his final five seasons. For his career, Sikma averaged 15.6 points (17,287 in total) and 9.8 rebounds (10,816) over 14 seasons and 1107 games.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Sikma was one of the most accurate shooting centers in NBA history. He holds the rare distinction of leading the league in free-throw percentage (92.2%) while playing the center position during the 1987–88 season; he averaged 84.9% in free-throw shooting for his career. Sikma also made over 200 three-pointers during his career with a 32.8% three-point accuracy.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Along with his accurate shooting, Sikma led the league in defensive rebounds in both 1981–82 and 1983–84.


title: Jack Sikma

text: In June 2007 Sikma was hired by the Houston Rockets as an assistant coach under Coach Rick Adelman. Among his duties was tutoring center Yao Ming in "big man" playing strategies.


title: Jack Sikma

text: On December 6, 2011, he was signed as an assistant coach by the Minnesota Timberwolves, again under Adelman.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Beginning in 2017, Sikma acted as a coaching consultant for the Toronto Raptors, particularly working with center Jonas Valančiūnas.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Sikma was a pioneer as one of the earliest sharp-shooting big men, a role that would become common after the turn of the 21st century. As a center, Sikma's distinct shot and uncharacteristic accuracy allowed him to play a role outside of the paint. His signature Sikma-1/Sikma-2 moves were key to future agile centers with agility and shooting touch. Instructional coach Pete Newell wrote on Sikma's signature move in his 2008 book, "Playing Big" as "baseline moves for loose defenses. Towards the end of his career where his lack of athleticism prevented Sikma from using his eponymous move and no other big men appeared to be able to replicate it, he stated that coaches were inquiring him about the technique, even though he believed it would be defunct upon his retirement.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Sikma's overall strength and height, combined with his shooting ability and rebounding become a more common prototype long after his retirement, with protegees like Yao Ming and Kevin Love becoming quality players in the NBA. On a January 2019 NBA TV segment, former players Chris Webber, Isiah Thomas, and Kevin McHale discussed his unexpected influence on modern-day basketball play with a segment entitled, "Jack Sikma's moves still being used today", discussing common moves taller players have since adopted to utilize their shooting and passing abilities. The "stretch 5" has since become common in the NBA, with the number of three pointers made by centers sharply increasing. His Sikma moves remains widely taught in amateur basketball, including being one of College Basketball Hall of Fame coach Bo Ryan's five required skills for his team's big men, being cited by local, girls' basketball coaches in 2019, and being strongly touted by college players born well after Sikma's retirement.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Sikma lived in Medina, Washington. A long-time Seattle-area resident, Sikma sold his mansion to Bill Gates in 1997 as a temporary residence while Gates's own mansion was being built.


title: Jack Sikma

text: Sikma's son, Luke Sikma, played for the University of Portland Pilots, and plays professionally in Germany. Sikma's son, Nate, played for the University of Hartford Hawks men's basketball team.


title: Jack Sikma

text: American speed skater Bonnie Blair cited Sikma as an early sponsor before she won her Olympic medals.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Kʼinich Janaab Pakal I (), also known as Pacal or Pacal the Great (March 603 – August 683), was "ajaw" of the Maya city-state of Palenque in the Late Classic period of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican chronology. He acceded to the throne in July 615 and ruled until his death. Pakal reigned 68 years—the fifth-longest verified regnal period of any sovereign monarch in history, the longest in world history for more than a millennium, and still the longest of any residing monarch in the history of the Americas. During his reign, Pakal was responsible for the construction or extension of some of Palenque's most notable surviving inscriptions and monumental architecture. Pakal is perhaps best known in popular culture for his depiction on the carved lid of his sarcophagus, which has become the subject of pseudoarchaeological speculations.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Pakal's full name, "Kʼinich Janaab Pakal" ("Radiant Corn-Flower (?) Shield"), is rendered in Classic Maya as KʼINICH-JANA꞉B-PAKAL-la, KʼINICH-JANA꞉B-pa-ka-la, or KʼINICH-ja-na-bi-pa-ka-la. Before his name was securely deciphered from extant Maya inscriptions, Pakal had been known by various nicknames and approximations, including Sun Shield and 8 Ahau.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: In modern sources Pakal's name is also sometimes appended with a regnal number, to distinguish him from other rulers with this name who either preceded or followed him in the dynastic lineage of Palenque. Confusingly, he has at times been referred to as "either" "Pakal I" or "Pakal II". Reference to him as Pakal II alludes to his maternal grandfather (died c. 612), who also bore the name Janahb Pakal. However, although his grandfather was a personage of "ajaw" ranking, he does not himself appear to have been a king. When instead the name "Pakal I" is used, this serves to distinguish him from two later known successors to the American rulership, Kʼinich Janaab Pakal II (ruled c. 742) and Janaab Pakal III, the last-known Palenque ruler (ruled c. 799).


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Kʼinich Janaab Pakal was a Palenque native, born on 9.8.9.13.0 (March 603) to Lady Sak Kʼukʼ of the ruling Palenque dynasty and her husband Kʼan Moʼ Hiix.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Pakal's birth came during a particularly turbulent time in Palenque's history. Palenque had been sacked by the powerful Maya state of Calakmul just four years earlier, and another catastrophic attack was led by Calakmul "ajaw" Scroll Serpent during Pakal's early childhood in 611. The deaths the following year of both the ruling Palenque "ajaw" Ajen Yohl Mat and his heir Janahb Pakal (Pakal's maternal grandfather and namesake) triggered a crisis of succession; eventually Pakal ascended to the rulership of Palenque on 9.9.2.4.8 (July 615), at the age of twelve, after an interim regency by his mother Lady Sak Kʼukʼ.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Pakal expanded Palenque's power in the western part of the Maya states and initiated a building program at his capital that produced some of Maya civilization's finest art and architecture. On 9.9.13.0.7 (March 626), he married Ix Tzʼakbu Ajaw, a descendant of the former ruling Toktahn dynasty from Palenque's satellite settlement of Uxteʼkʼuh; during their long marriage, they had at least two sons—Kan Bahlam (b. 635) and Kʼan Joy Chitam (b. 644)—and probably a third, Tiwol Chan Mat (b. 648).


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: In 628, one of Pakal's officials ("aj kʼuhuun"), was captured by Piedras Negras. Six days later Nuun Ujol Chaak, "ajaw" of Santa Elena, was captured and taken to Palenque. Santa Elena became a tributary of Palenque. Having been appointed "ajaw" at the age of twelve, Pakal's mother was a regent to him. Over the years she slowly ceded power until she died in September 640. In 659 Pakal captured six prisoners; one of them, Ahiin Chan Ahk, was from Pipaʼ, generally associated with Pomona. Another lord of Pipaʼ was slain by Pakal in 663; at this time he also captured six people from Santa Elena.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: In 647, at the age of 44, Pakal began his first construction project, the temple today called El Olvidado (The Forgotten) in Spanish due to its distance from Lakamhaʼ. Of all Pakal's construction projects, perhaps the most accomplished is the Palace of Palenque. The building was already in existence, but Pakal made it much larger than it was. Pakal started his construction by adding monument rooms onto the old level of the building. He then constructed Building E, called "Sak Nuk Naah" "White Skin House" in Classic Maya for its white coat of paint rather than the red used elsewhere in the palace. The east court of the palace is a ceremonial area marking military triumphs. Houses B and C were built in 661 and house A in 668. House A is covered with frescos of prisoners captured in 662. The monuments and text associated with Pakal are: Oval Palace Tablet, Hieroglyphic Stairway, House C texts, Subterranean Thrones and Tableritos, Olvidado piers and sarcophagus texts.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Pakal was widowed when Tzʼakbu Ajaw, his wife of 47 years, died on 9.12.0.6.18 (November 672). Eight years later, Pakal also saw the death of Tiwol Chan Mat (his third son), and presided over his burial ceremony.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Pakal died on 9.12.11.5.18 (August 683), at the age of 80, having ruled Palenque for 68 years and 33 days.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: After his death, Pakal was deified as one of the patron gods of Palenque. He was survived at least by his two sons Kan Bahlam and Kʼan Joy Chitam—each of whom subsequently also became Palenque's "kʼuhul ajaw" in his own right—and two grandsons, Ahkal Moʼ Nahb (successor of Kʼinich Kʼan Joy Chitam II as "kʼuhul ajaw" of Palenque) and Janaab Ajaw, a royal official inaugurated under the reign of Kʼinich Kʼan Joy Chitam II.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Pakal was buried in a colossal sarcophagus within the largest of Palenque's stepped pyramid structures, the building called "Bʼolon Yej Teʼ Naah" "House of the Nine Sharpened Spears" in Classic Maya and now known as the Temple of the Inscriptions. Though Palenque had been examined by archaeologists before, the secret to opening his tomb—closed off by a stone slab with stone plugs in the holes, which had until then escaped the attention of archaeologists—was discovered by Mexican archaeologist Alberto Ruz Lhuillier in 1948. It took four years to clear the rubble from the stairway leading down to Pakal's tomb, but it was finally uncovered in 1952. His skeletal remains were still lying in his sarcophagus, wearing a jade mask and bead necklaces, surrounded by sculptures and stucco reliefs depicting the ruler's transition to divinity and figures from Maya mythology. Traces of pigment show that these were once colorfully painted, common of much Maya sculpture at the time.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Initially, it was hotly debated whether the bones in the tomb were really those of Pakal. The skeleton's comparatively minor degree of dental wear suggested the owner's age as some 40 years younger than the age recorded for Pakal in the inscriptional texts, leading some—including the tomb's discoverer Alberto Ruz Lhuillier—to contend that the texts must have referred to two people with the same name or used a non-standard method of recording time. Epigraphers, on the other hand, insisted that allowing for such possibilities would go against everything else that is known about the Maya calendar and Maya written history, and asserted that the texts clearly state that it is indeed Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal entombed within, and that he did in fact die at the advanced age of 80, after reigning for 68 years. More recent morphometric analysis of the rest of the skeleton demonstrates that the entombed individual could not have lived less than fifty years and most likely died in their eighth or ninth decade of life, consistent with the textual evidence rather than the younger age estimates of early researchers. The disparity between the dental wear and the skeletal morphology is likely due to Pakal's aristocratic status, which would have allowed him access to a softer, less abrasive diet than the average Maya person so that his teeth naturally acquired less wear. Unusually large accumulations of dental calculus on his teeth are also consistent with such an interpretation.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Further archaeological explorations have continued to shed light on Pakal's burial site. In 2016 an underground water tunnel was discovered under the Temple of Inscriptions; a stucco mask depicting an elderly Pakal was subsequently found in August 2018.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: The large carved stone sarcophagus lid in the Temple of Inscriptions is a unique piece of Classic Maya art. Iconographically, it is closely related to the large wall panels of the temples of the Cross and the Foliated Cross centered on world trees. Around the edges of the lid is a band with cosmological signs, including those for sun, moon, and star, as well as the heads of six named noblemen of varying rank. The central image is that of a cruciform world tree. Beneath Pakal is one of the heads of a celestial two-headed serpent viewed frontally. Both the king and the serpent head on which he seems to rest are framed by the open jaws of a funerary serpent, a common iconographic device for signalling entrance into, or residence in, the realm(s) of the dead. The king himself wears the attributes of the Tonsured maize god - in particular a turtle ornament on the breast - and is shown in a peculiar posture that may denote rebirth. Interpretation of the lid has raised controversy. Linda Schele saw Pakal falling down the Milky Way into the southern horizon.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Pakal's tomb has been the subject of ancient astronaut speculations since its appearance in Erich von Däniken's 1968 best-seller "Chariots of the Gods?" Von Däniken reproduced a drawing of the sarcophagus lid (though incorrectly labelling it as being from Copán) and compared Pakal's pose to that of Project Mercury astronauts in the 1960s; he interpreted drawings underneath Pakal as rockets, and offered the sarcophagus lid as possible evidence of an extraterrestrial influence on the ancient Maya. Such an interpretation is almost universally denounced by archaeologists, epigraphers, and art historians of the Maya, who point out that von Däniken's claim relies solely upon visual inspection, paying heed neither to the broader archaeological context nor to a wealth of additional research on Classic Maya artistic conventions, symbolism, cosmology, and written history.


title: Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal

text: Another example of this carving's manifestation in pseudoarchaeology is the identification by José Argüelles of "Pacal Votan" as an incarnation named "Valum Votan," who would act as a "closer of the cycle" in 2012 (an event that is also significant on Argüelles' "13 Moon" calendar). Daniel Pinchbeck, in his book "2012: The Return of Quetzalcoatl" (2006), also uses the name "Pacal Votan" for Pakal.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Among scholars of nationalism, a number of types of nationalism have been presented. Nationalism may manifest itself as part of official state ideology or as a popular non-state movement and may be expressed along civic, ethnic, cultural, language, religious or ideological lines. These self-definitions of the nation are used to classify types of nationalism. However, such categories are not mutually exclusive and many nationalist movements combine some or all of these elements to varying degrees. Nationalist movements can also be classified by other criteria, such as scale and location.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Some political theorists make the case that any distinction between forms of nationalism is false. In all forms of nationalism, the populations believe that they share some kind of common culture. A main reason why such typology can be considered false is that it attempts to bend the fairly simple concept of nationalism to explain its many manifestations or interpretations. Arguably, all types of nationalism merely refer to different ways academics throughout the years have tried to define nationalism. This school of thought accepts that nationalism is simply the desire of a nation to self-determine.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Ethnic nationalism defines the nation in terms of ethnicity, which always includes some element of descent from previous generations, i.e. genophilia. It also includes ideas of a culture shared between members of the group and with their ancestors, and usually a shared language. Membership in the nation is hereditary. The state derives political legitimacy from its status as homeland of the ethnic group, and from its duty to protect of the partly national group and facilitate its family and social life, as a group. Ideas of ethnicity are very old, but modern ethnic nationalism was heavily influenced by Johann Gottfried von Herder, who promoted the concept of the "Volk", and Johann Gottlieb Fichte. Theorist Anthony D. Smith uses the term 'ethnic nationalism' for non-Western concepts of nationalism, as opposed to Western views of a nation defined by its geographical territory. The term "ethnonationalism" is generally used only in reference to nationalists who espouse an explicit ideology along these lines; "ethnic nationalism" is the more generic term, and used for nationalists who hold these beliefs in an informal, instinctive, or unsystematic way. The pejorative form of both is "ethnocentric nationalism" or "tribal nationalism," though "tribal nationalism" can have a non-pejorative meaning when discussing African, Native American, or other nationalisms that openly assert a tribal identity.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Expansionist nationalism is an aggressive radical form of nationalism or "ethnic nationalism" ("ethnonationalism") that incorporates autonomous, heightened ethnic consciousness and patriotic sentiments with atavistic fears and hatreds focused on "other" or foreign peoples, framing a belief in expansion or recovery of formerly owned territories through militaristic means.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Romantic nationalism, also known as organic nationalism and identity nationalism, is the form of ethnic nationalism in which the state derives political legitimacy as a natural ("organic") consequence and expression of the nation, race, or ethnicity. It reflected the ideals of Romanticism and was opposed to Enlightenment rationalism. Romantic nationalism emphasized a historical ethnic culture which meets the Romantic Ideal; folklore developed as a Romantic nationalist concept. The Brothers Grimm were inspired by Herder's writings to create an idealized collection of tales which they labeled as ethnically German. Historian Jules Michelet exemplifies French romantic-nationalist history.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Cultural nationalism defines the nation by shared culture. Membership (the state of being members) in the nation is neither entirely voluntary (you cannot instantly acquire a culture), nor hereditary (children of members may be considered foreigners if they grew up in another culture). Yet, a traditional culture can be more easily incorporated into an individual's life, especially if the individual is allowed to acquire its skills at an early stage of his/her own life.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Cultural nationalism has been described as a variety of nationalism that is neither purely civic nor ethnic. The nationalisms of Catalonia, Quebec, and Flanders have been described as cultural.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Bill 101 is a law in the province of Quebec in Canada defining French, the language of the majority of the population, as the official language of the provincial government. Other forms of language nationalism is the English-only movement that advocates for the use of only the English language in English speaking nations such as the USA or Australia.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Religious nationalism is the relationship of nationalism to a particular religious belief, church, Hindu temple or affiliation. This relationship can be broken down into two aspects; the politicization of religion and the converse influence of religion on politics. In the former aspect, a shared religion can be seen to contribute to a sense of national unity, by the citizens of the nation. Another political aspect of religion is the support of a national identity, similar to a shared ethnicity, language or culture. The influence of religion on politics is more ideological, where current interpretations of religious ideas inspire political activism and action; for example, laws are passed to foster stricter religious adherence. Hindu nationalism is common in many states and union territories in India which joined the union of India solely on the basis of religion and post-colonial nationalism.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Since the process of decolonisation that occurred after World War II, there has been a rise of Third World nationalisms. Third world nationalisms occur in those nations that have been colonized and exploited. The nationalisms of these nations were forged in a furnace that required resistance to colonial domination in order to survive. As such, resistance is part and parcel of such nationalisms and their very existence is a form of resistance to imperialist intrusions. Third World nationalism attempts to ensure that the identities of Third World peoples are authored primarily by themselves, not colonial powers.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Examples of third world nationalist ideologies are African nationalism and Arab nationalism. Other important nationalist movements in the developing world have included Indian nationalism, Chinese nationalism and the ideas of the Mexican Revolution and Haitian Revolution. Third world nationalist ideas have been particularly influential among governments elected in South America.


title: Types of nationalism

text: Civic nationalism is the form of nationalism in which the state derives political legitimacy from the active participation of its citizenry, from the degree to which it represents the "will of the people". It is often seen as originating with Jean-Jacques Rousseau and especially the social contract theories which take their name from his 1762 book "The Social Contract". Civic nationalism lies within the traditions of rationalism and liberalism, but as a form of nationalism it is contrasted with ethnic nationalism. Membership of the civic nation is considered voluntary. Civic-national ideals influenced the development of representative democracy in countries such as the United States and France.


title: Types of nationalism

text: State nationalism is a variant of civic nationalism, often (but not always) combined with ethnic nationalism. It implies that the nation is a community of those who contribute to the maintenance and strength of the state, and that the individual exists to contribute to this goal. Italian fascism is the best example, epitomized in this slogan of Benito Mussolini: "Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato" ("Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State"). It is no surprise that this conflicts with liberal ideals of individual liberty, and with liberal-democratic principles. The revolutionary Jacobin creation of a unitary and centralist French state is often seen as the original version of state nationalism. Francoist Spain is a later example of state nationalism.