title: Multiplication algorithm

text: Currently, the algorithm with the best computational complexity is a 2019 algorithm of David Harvey and Joris van der Hoeven, which uses the strategies of using number-theoretic transforms introduced with the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm to multiply integers using only formula_7 operations. This is conjectured to be the best possible algorithm, but lower bounds of formula_8 are not known.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: For systems that need to multiply numbers in the range of several thousand digits, such as computer algebra systems and bignum libraries, long multiplication is too slow. These systems may employ Karatsuba multiplication, which was discovered in 1960 (published in 1962). The heart of Karatsuba's method lies in the observation that two-digit multiplication can be done with only three rather than the four multiplications classically required. This is an example of what is now called a "divide-and-conquer algorithm". Suppose we want to multiply two 2-digit base-"m" numbers: "x"" m + x" and "y"" m + y":


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: To compute these three products of base "m" numbers, we can employ the same trick again, effectively using recursion. Once the numbers are computed, we need to add them together (steps 4 and 5), which takes about "n" operations.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: Karatsuba multiplication has a time complexity of O("n") ≈ O("n"), making this method significantly faster than long multiplication. Because of the overhead of recursion, Karatsuba's multiplication is slower than long multiplication for small values of "n"; typical implementations therefore switch to long multiplication for small values of "n".


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: Karatsuba's algorithm was the first known algorithm for multiplication that is asymptotically faster than long multiplication, and can thus be viewed as the starting point for the theory of fast multiplications.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: Another method of multiplication is called Toom–Cook or Toom-3. The Toom–Cook method splits each number to be multiplied into multiple parts. The Toom–Cook method is one of the generalizations of the Karatsuba method. A three-way Toom–Cook can do a size-"3N" multiplication for the cost of five size-"N" multiplications. This accelerates the operation by a factor of 9/5, while the Karatsuba method accelerates it by 4/3.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: Although using more and more parts can reduce the time spent on recursive multiplications further, the overhead from additions and digit management also grows. For this reason, the method of Fourier transforms is typically faster for numbers with several thousand digits, and asymptotically faster for even larger numbers.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: The basic idea due to Strassen (1968) is to use fast polynomial multiplication to perform fast integer multiplication. The algorithm was made practical and theoretical guarantees were provided in 1971 by Schönhage and Strassen resulting in the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm. The details are the following: We choose the largest integer "w" that will not cause overflow during the process outlined below. Then we split the two numbers into "m" groups of "w" bits as follows


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: Clearly the above setting is realized by polynomial multiplication, of two polynomials "a" and "b". The crucial step now is to use Fast Fourier multiplication of polynomials to realize the multiplications above faster than in naive "O"("m") time.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: To remain in the modular setting of Fourier transforms, we look for a ring with a (2"m")th root of unity. Hence we do multiplication modulo "N" (and thus in the "Z"/"NZ" ring). Further, "N" must be chosen so that there is no 'wrap around', essentially, no reductions modulo "N" occur. Thus, the choice of "N" is crucial. For example, it could be done as,


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: The ring "Z"/"NZ" would thus have a (2"m")th root of unity, namely 8. Also, it can be checked that "c" < "N", and thus no wrap around will occur.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: The algorithm has a time complexity of Θ("n" log("n") log(log("n"))) and is used in practice for numbers with more than 10,000 to 40,000 decimal digits.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: In 2007 the asymptotic complexity of integer multiplication was improved by the Swiss mathematician Martin Fürer of Pennsylvania State University to "n" log("n") 2 using Fourier transforms over complex numbers. Anindya De, Chandan Saha, Piyush Kurur and Ramprasad Saptharishi gave a similar algorithm using modular arithmetic in 2008 achieving the same running time. In context of the above material, what these latter authors have achieved is to find "N" much less than 2 + 1, so that "Z"/"NZ" has a (2"m")th root of unity. This speeds up computation and reduces the time complexity. However, these latter algorithms are only faster than Schönhage–Strassen for impractically large inputs.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: In 2015, Harvey, Joris van der Hoeven and Lecerf gave a new algorithm that achieves a running time of formula_13, making explicit the implied constant in the formula_14 exponent. They also proposed a variant of their algorithm which achieves formula_15 but whose validity relies on standard conjectures about the distribution of Mersenne primes. In 2016, Covanov and Thomé proposed an integer multiplication algorithm based on a generalization of Fermat primes that conjecturally achieves a complexity bound of formula_15. This matches the 2015 conditional result of Harvey, van der Hoeven, and Lecerf but uses a different algorithm and relies on a different conjecture. In 2018, Harvey and van der Hoeven used an approach based on the existence of short lattice vectors guaranteed by Minkowski's theorem to prove an unconditional complexity bound of formula_15.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: In March 2019, David Harvey and Joris van der Hoeven announced their discovery of an multiplication algorithm. It was published in the "Annals of Mathematics" in 2021. Because Schönhage and Strassen predicted that "n" log("n") is the ‘best possible’ result Harvey said: “...our work is expected to be the end of the road for this problem, although we don't know yet how to prove this rigorously.”


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: Using number-theoretic transforms instead of discrete Fourier transforms avoids rounding error problems by using modular arithmetic instead of floating-point arithmetic. In order to apply the factoring which enables the FFT to work, the length of the transform must be factorable to small primes and must be a factor of , where "N" is the field size. In particular, calculation using a Galois field GF("k"), where "k" is a Mersenne prime, allows the use of a transform sized to a power of 2; e.g. supports transform sizes up to 2.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: There is a trivial lower bound of Ω("n") for multiplying two "n"-bit numbers on a single processor; no matching algorithm (on conventional machines, that is on Turing equivalent machines) nor any sharper lower bound is known. Multiplication lies outside of AC["p"] for any prime "p", meaning there is no family of constant-depth, polynomial (or even subexponential) size circuits using AND, OR, NOT, and MOD gates that can compute a product. This follows from a constant-depth reduction of MOD to multiplication. Lower bounds for multiplication are also known for some classes of branching programs.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: As observed by Peter Ungar in 1963, one can reduce the number of multiplications to three, using essentially the same computation as Karatsuba's algorithm. The product ("a" + "bi") · ("c" + "di") can be calculated in the following way.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: This algorithm uses only three multiplications, rather than four, and five additions or subtractions rather than two. If a multiply is more expensive than three adds or subtracts, as when calculating by hand, then there is a gain in speed. On modern computers a multiply and an add can take about the same time so there may be no speed gain. There is a trade-off in that there may be some loss of precision when using floating point.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: For fast Fourier transforms (FFTs) (or any linear transformation) the complex multiplies are by constant coefficients "c" + "di" (called twiddle factors in FFTs), in which case two of the additions ("d"−"c" and "c"+"d") can be precomputed. Hence, only three multiplies and three adds are required. However, trading off a multiplication for an addition in this way may no longer be beneficial with modern floating-point units.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: All the above multiplication algorithms can also be expanded to multiply polynomials. For instance the Strassen algorithm may be used for polynomial multiplication


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: Alternatively the Kronecker substitution technique may be used to convert the problem of multiplying polynomials into a single binary multiplication.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: As a further example of column based multiplication, consider multiplying 23 long tons (t), 12 hundredweight (cwt) and 2 quarters (qtr) by 47. This example uses avoirdupois measures: 1 t = 20 cwt, 1 cwt = 4 qtr.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: First multiply the quarters by 47, the result 94 is written into the first workspace. Next, multiply cwt 12*47 = (2 + 10)*47 but don't add up the partial results (94, 470) yet. Likewise multiply 23 by 47 yielding (141, 940). The quarters column is totaled and the result placed in the second workspace (a trivial move in this case). 94 quarters is 23 cwt and 2 qtr, so place the 2 in the answer and put the 23 in the next column left. Now add up the three entries in the cwt column giving 587. This is 29 t 7 cwt, so write the 7 into the answer and the 29 in the column to the left. Now add up the tons column. There is no adjustment to make, so the result is just copied down.


title: Multiplication algorithm

text: The same layout and methods can be used for any traditional measurements and non-decimal currencies such as the old British £sd system.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Prabowo Subianto Djojohadikusumo (born 17 October 1951) is an Indonesian politician, businessman and former army lieutenant general who is the currently-appointed Minister of Defense of the Republic of Indonesia. He is the son of Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, an Indonesian economist, and Dora Sigar. He is the former husband of Titiek Suharto, the late President Suharto's second daughter. They were married in 1983 and divorced in 1998 during the Indonesian political crisis.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Prabowo graduated from the Indonesian Military Academy in 1970 and served in the Special Forces (Kopassus) until his appointment as chief of the Strategic Reserve Command (Kostrad) in 1998. That same year, he was dishonorably discharged from the military and subsequently banned from entering the United States because of alleged human rights violations.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In early 2008, Prabowo's inner circle, including Fadli Zon, established the Great Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra). In the 2009 presidential election, he ran unsuccessfully for the vice-presidency as Megawati Sukarnoputri's running mate. He contested the 2014 presidential election and was defeated by Jakarta Governor Joko Widodo, which he initially disputed. He made another unsuccessful run for the presidency in 2019 with Sandiaga Uno as his running mate and with the support of Gerindra, the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS), the National Mandate Party (PAN), the Democratic Party and Berkarya Party. His refusal to accept the result saw his followers stage protests that sparked deadly riots in Jakarta.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: On 10 October 2021, Gerindra announced Prabowo as their candidate in the 2024 Indonesian presidential election. In June 2022, Prabowo initially declined the party's nomination, stating that he wanted to give the opportunity to another politician to run for the presidency. Despite his declining the bid, Gerindra insisted on his nomination. On 12 August 2022, Prabowo announced that he accepted Gerindra's nomination to contest the 2024 presidential election.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Prabowo's father, Sumitro Djojohadikusumo, was an economist who served as former President Suharto's minister for the economy and minister for research and technology. Sumitro named Prabowo after his own younger brother, a martyr hero who died in a battle against the Japanese in Lengkong, Tangerang during the Indonesian National Revolution. Prabowo's mother, Dora Maria Sigar, was a Protestant Christian of Minahasan descent, who originated from the Sigar-Maengkom family in Langowan, North Sulawesi.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Prabowo has two older sisters, Bintianingsih and Mayrani Ekowati, and one younger brother, Hashim Djojohadikusumo. Hashim's "pribumi" conglomerate business interests stretch from Indonesia to Canada and Russia. Between 1966 and 1968, the family lived in London, where Prabowo attended and graduated from The American School in London. Sumitro subsequently encouraged his son to attend a military academy. One of Prabowo's role models was Turkish military figure Atatürk, and according to peers and observers, Prabowo was talented with a passion for stratagems and had an appetite for political power.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Prabowo's grandfather, Margono Djojohadikusumo, was the founder of Bank Negara Indonesia, the first leader of Indonesia's Provisional Supreme Advisory Council ("Dewan Pertimbangan Agung Sementara"), and a member of the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence ("Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan ").


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Prabowo married Suharto's daughter, Siti Hediati Hariyadi, in 1983. They have a son, Didit Hediprasetyo, who lived in Boston before settling in Paris to pursue a career in design. Prabowo is uncle to Rahayu Saraswati Djojohadikusumo.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Prabowo enrolled in Indonesia's Military Academy in Magelang in 1970. He graduated in 1974 with others who would gain senior leadership positions such as Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In 1976, Prabowo served in the Indonesian National Army Special Force "Kopassus" and was assigned as the commander of Group 1 Komando Pasukan Sandhi Yudha (Kopassandha), which was one of the Indonesian Army's Nanggala commando units in East Timor, the former Portuguese territory that Indonesia had invaded the previous year. Prabowo, then 26 years old, was the youngest Nanggala commander. Prabowo led the mission to capture the vice president of Fretilin, who was the first Prime Minister of East Timor, Nicolau dos Reis Lobato. Guiding Prabowo was Antonio Lobato – Nicolau's younger brother. On 31 December 1978, Prabowo's company found and fatally shot Nicolau in the stomach as he was being escorted in Maubisse, fifty kilometres south of Dili.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In 1985 Prabowo attended the Advanced Infantry Officers Course at Fort Benning, in the United States for commando training. In the early 1990s, as the commander of Kopassus Group 3, the now Major General Prabowo attempted to crush the East Timorese independence movement by using irregular troops (hooded "ninja" gangs dressed in black and operating at night) and, in main towns and villages, militias trained and directed by Kopassus commanders. Human rights abuses rose. The Army's 1997 campaign was called Operation Eradicate.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In 1996, Prabowo led the Mapenduma Operation in the mountainous terrain of Papua, Indonesia. The goal of the operation was the release of 11 scientific researchers, who had been taken hostage by the Free Papua Movement (OPM). The researchers were five Indonesians, four Britons, one Dutchman and his pregnant German wife. Two of the Indonesian male hostages were killed shortly before the rescue operation. The mission involved covert support from British Military Attache and SAS veteran Colonel Ivor Helberg. Following the hostage transfer, Kopassus under Prabowo began a reprisal campaign against villages perceived to support OPM, in one incident at Geselema village attacking the villagers with a military helicopter disguised as a Red Cross helicopter.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: On 20 March 1998, Prabowo was appointed head of the 27,000-strong Army Strategic Reserve Command (Kostrad), that Suharto had commanded in 1965.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Less than three months after his appointment as head of Kostrad, on the first day of the May 1998 riots, Prabowo urged the commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, Wiranto, to let him bring his Strategic Reserve units from outside Jakarta into the city to help restore order. Hundreds of men trained by Kopassus (Prabowo's former command) were flown from Dili to Yogyakarta in chartered planes, and then on to Jakarta by train. Prabowo publicly urged Indonesians to join him to fight "traitors to the nation". On the morning of 14 May, Kopassus troops escorted young thugs from Lampung in southern Sumatra into the capital. Thus Prabowo was accused of using his contacts in his former command to import and create trouble, while Wiranto had declined to give Prabowo's current command, Kostrad, permission to quell the existing trouble, in line with classic Javanese tactic to stir chaos to discredit a rival and/or seize power.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Troops under Prabowo's command kidnapped and tortured at least nine democracy activists in the months before the May 1998 Riots. In one testimony, a former detainee told of being tortured for days in an unidentified location, allegedly a military camp where most of their time was spent blindfolded, while being forced to answer repeated questions, mainly concerning their political activities. The abuse included being punched, terrorised physically and mentally, and given electric shocks. Later, in 2009, two of the nine men were candidates for Gerindra, Prabowo's political party, and another served as his media adviser. Prabowo was also suspected of organising the kidnappings of another 13 activists (all of whom remain "missing") between February 1997 and May 1998.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Later investigations into the May riots revealed that violence in Jakarta was the result of an internal struggle within the military elite to become Suharto's successor. Many believed Prabowo, as Strategic Reserve commander, sought to become his father-in-law's successor and coveted the commander of the Armed Forces position held by General Wiranto, who was favoured to succeed Suharto. Together with Operations Commander for Greater Jakarta ("", Pangkoops Jaya) Major General Sjafrie Sjamsoeddin, Prabowo aimed to terrorise opponents of the government and to show that Wiranto was "an incompetent commander who could not control disorder". During August and September, the fact-finding team interviewed Prabowo, Sjafrie, and other military commanders regarding their movements during the Jakarta riots. Prabowo asserted that he was unsure of the precise movements of military forces in the capital and deferred to Sjafrie. In its final report, the fact-finding team suspected that, on the night of 14 May, Prabowo met with several Armed Forces and prominent civilian figures at the Kostrad headquarters to discuss organization of the violence. However, this was later refuted by several people who attended the meeting, including prominent human rights lawyer Adnan Buyung Nasution and Joint Fact-Finding Team member Bambang Widjojanto. Further testimonies by Prabowo in the years following the investigation contradicted the team's report and led to scepticism of the team's allegations.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: On 21 May 1998, Suharto announced his resignation from the presidency and Vice President B. J. Habibie took over as president.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: On the afternoon following Habibie's inauguration as president, Prabowo demanded of Habibie that he be put in charge of the Army in place of Wiranto. However, Habibie and Wiranto demoted Prabowo from Kostrad commander instead, and the following day, announced Wiranto's promotion to Minister of Defense and Security and the Indonesian National Armed Forces (ABRI, later renamed TNI) commander. A furious Prabowo went to the Presidential Palace packing a sidearm and with trucks of his Kostrad troops. On being blocked from entering the Habibie's office, he instead went to Suharto who rebuked him. Prabowo was visited by Wiranto at his home over the weekend of 23–24 May and subsequently reassigned to a non-combat role at the Armed Forces Command and General Staff College in Bandung.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Following an ABRI investigation, Prabowo acknowledged responsibility for the kidnapping of the activists. He was discharged from military service in August. He and Wiranto denied that the discharge was a result of disciplinary action. In August 1998, the Dewan Kehormatan Perwira (Officers Council of Honor) tried and found Prabowo guilty of "misinterpreting orders" in the kidnapping of anti-Suharto activists in 1998. He was discharged from military services and went into a voluntary exile in Jordan where he knew that country's new young King Abdullah as a fellow commander of special forces. In an interview with "Asiaweek" magazine in 2000, Prabowo said "I never threatened Habibie. I was not behind the riots. That is a great lie. I never betrayed Pak Harto. I never betrayed Habibie. I never betrayed my country...There was a certain group that wanted to make me a scapegoat, maybe to hide their involvement."" Rights groups have long questioned Prabowo's eligibility to run for president, noting that he was discharged dishonorably from the Army in August 1998 for "misinterpreting orders" in the abduction of the democracy activists. While that was the military's official statement, observers have long believed that it was a coup conspiracy that saw Prabowo, then the commander of the Army Strategic Reserves, given his marching orders.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: As a 2014 presidential candidate, Prabowo's past came under renewed scrutiny, with many organizations calling for him to step down. A coalition, which consisted of Imparsial, Kontras, the Setara Institute, and the Human Rights Working Group (HRWG), combined under the Civil Society Coalition Against Forgetting, visited the National Commission on Human Rights (Komnas HAM) in Jakarta on 7 May 2014 to urge the commission to re-investigate Prabowo. A 27 June 2014 report indicated that an investigative journalist, Allan Nairn, had been threatened with arrest "for revealing the former general's role in human rights abuses."


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: After being discharged from the military, Prabowo joined his brother Hashim Djojohadikusumo's business. He purchased Kiani Kertas, a paper pulp and plantation company based in Mangkajang, East Kalimantan. Prior to Prabowo's purchase, Kiani was owned by Bob Hasan, a businessman close to former President Suharto. Today, Prabowo's Nusantara Group controls 27 companies in Indonesia and abroad. Prabowo's companies include Nusantara Energy (oil and natural gas, coal), Tidar Kerinci Agung (palm oil plantations) and Jaladri Nusantara (fishery industry).


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Prabowo rebranded Kiani Kertas to Kertas Nusantara. The company was established in 1990 and is part of the Nusantara Energy. It controls an area of 3,400 hectares used for paper mills, employee housing, private schools, and various company facilities. Kiani has been awarded ISO 900–2005 status as one of the highest quality management companies. It is reported that Kiani Kertas has been experiencing financial difficulties, and in early 2014, workers took to the streets to demand their wages which had not been paid in five months.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Prabowo was the wealthiest presidential candidate in the 2009 election, with assets of Rp 1.5 trillion (about US$150 million) and US$7.5 million.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In 2007, PT Ridlatama, whose majority stakeholder was British-based Churchill PLC, conducted a geo-survey eastern Kalimantan for coal. Two months after the survey yielded positive results, East Kutai officials granted mining licenses to Nusantara Energy (a subsidiary of the Nusantara Group, a conglomerate owned by Prabowo's family) to operate in the area surveyed by Ridlatama. In 2010, Ridlatama's license was revoked, effectively completing Nusantara's take over of Churchill's operations. Churchill appealed to the Supreme Court of Indonesia but lost the case. In 2012, Churchill filed a case against the government of Indonesia at the International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes, demanding $2 billion in compensation. Indonesia argued that ICSID had no authority to arbitrate. In 2014 ICSID ruled that it had the authority and the case is still ongoing.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In 2014, the regent of East Kutai, Isran Noor, publicly endorsed Prabowo as a presidential candidate. He also considered pressing criminal charges against Churchill, alleging that Churchill forged its license.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Using his connections to President Suharto, Prabowo and his brother worked to silence journalistic and political critics in the 1990s. Hashim unsuccessfully pressured Goenawan Mohamad to sell his outspoken and banned "Tempo" magazine to him. As a lieutenant colonel, Prabowo invited Gus Dur to his battalion headquarters in 1992 and warned him to stick to religion and to stay out of politics, or face unspecified actions if he continued to oppose the president. He later warned the intellectual Nurcholish Madjid (Cak Nur) to resign from the KIPP, the election monitoring unit set up by Goenawan Mohamad, which armed forces commander Feisal Tanjung had denounced as "obviously unconstitutional".


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In 2004, Prabowo was one of five contenders vying to become Golkar party's presidential candidate. He received the lowest number of votes, just 39, and was eliminated in the first round. The second round of voting was won by Wiranto.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In early 2008, Prabowo's inner circle, including Fadli Zon, established the Great Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra), which nominated Prabowo for the presidency in the 2009 elections. However, having won 26 out of 560 seats in the Indonesian parliament, the party did not have the required numbers, and Prabowo ran as a vice presidential candidate to Megawati Soekarnoputri, daughter of Indonesia's first president Sukarno. The pair, referred to colloquially by the Indonesian media as "Mega–Pro", earned 27% of the vote and lost to Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and his running mate, economist Boediono.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In November 2011, Prabowo announced his intention to run in the 2014 presidential elections. Surveys published by the Center for Policy Studies and Strategic Development (Puskaptis) and by the Indonesian Survey Institute published on 23 February 2012 gave him the lead – but observers and activists cast doubt on the polls.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In March 2012, Gerindra named Prabowo its 2014 presidential candidate. The party's slogan was then changed to "Gerindra Menang Prabowo Presiden" (Gerindra Wins, Prabowo Becomes President). Prabowo said he would run an investment-friendly administration if he won and that Indonesia needed more energy exploration. Furthermore, he said he had been in close contact with labour unions and believed rising worker discontent could be managed with a wise national budget. He promised to use military-style efficiency to push through chronically delayed infrastructure projects, as well as to create jobs in the archipelago's backwaters by improving agricultural productivity. Another pillar to Prabowo's platform was that he was solidly secular, and his party planned to protect the rights of minority religious groups in the Muslim-majority country.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: According to numerous quick counts after the 9 April legislative election, Gerinda came in third place, positioning Prabowo as one of two leading presidential candidates for the election to be held 9 July, the other being Jakarta governor, Joko Widodo. On Tuesday, 20 May 2014, Golkar, along with the United Development Party (PPP), the National Mandate Party (PAN), the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS), and the Crescent Star Party (PBB), officially endorsed Prabowo to run for the 2014 presidential election; the coalition collected 48.9% of votes and 52.1 seats in the parliament. The day before, Prabowo had picked former Coordinating Minister for Economics Hatta Rajasa as his vice-presidential running mate.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: On 22 July 2014, the day that the KPU was due to announce its official tally, Prabowo withdrew from the race after having insisted on his victory since the initial quick counts were released, although the majority showed Jokowi ahead. He attributed this withdrawal to Indonesia "fail[ing] in its duty to democracy" because of "massive cheating that is structured and systematic", and stated that he and Hatta "exercise our constitutional right to reject the presidential election and declare it unconstitutional". His speech, aired live, implied he would challenge the results in the Constitutional Court. Later reports indicated confusion over whether Prabowo had resigned from the election or simply rejected the count.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: According to Douglas Ramage of the Jakarta-based Bower's Asia Group, this was the first time since "reformasi" began in 1998 that the legitimacy of an election was questioned; he declared the country was entering "uncharted territory". The legality of a Prabowo challenge is questionable, as – if he withdrew – he is no longer considered a presidential candidate. If he can make the challenge, according to "The Jakarta Post", the gap between the two is sufficient to make such a challenge difficult. Under the presidential election law, Prabowo could face up to six years in prison and a 100 billion rupiah ($10 million) fine for withdrawing. Later that evening, Joko Widodo was officially announced as president and began to receive congratulations from world leaders.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Following the announcement, the value of the Indonesian rupiah dropped by 0.3%, and the JSX Composite fell by 0.9%. Observers denied Prabowo's allegations of cheating, finding that the elections were "generally fair and free"; Maswadi Rauf of the University of Indonesia stated that there was "no sign of significant fraud", and that Prabowo's withdrawal simply reflected "the real attitudes of the elite, who are not yet ready to accept losing". On 21 August 2014, the Indonesian Constitutional Court rejected his claim of fraud, confirming his election loss.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: On 12 April 2018, Prabowo announced he would contest Indonesia's 2019 presidential election if he could obtain sufficient support from other political parties. Indonesian media had speculated on whether Prabowo would become a presidential candidate or a "king-maker" giving his support to another candidate. Prabowo's brother Hashim in March 2018 said health and logistical factors had to be considered before the party announces a presidential candidate.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In April 2018, John McBeth reported Maritime Coordinating Minister Luhut Panjaitan had held a series of meetings with Prabowo, culminating in the proposal of a joint Widodo-Prabowo ticket for the 2019 election. Luhut reportedly lost his enthusiasm after Prabowo allegedly said he would want to be in charge of the military and seven seats in any new cabinet. Fadli Zon denied Luhut and Prabowo had discussed politics, claiming they merely spoke about Europe's move to limit imports of Indonesian palm oil. Gerindra official Andre Rosiade also dismissed the report as a hoax.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: On 10 August 2018, Prabowo registered at the KPU office for the 2019 presidential election with Sandiaga Uno as his running mate and with the support of Gerindra, PKS, PAN, the Democratic Party and Berkarya Party. The Democratic Party had wanted Prabowo to choose Agus Harimurti Yudhoyono as his running mate. Following the election, 'quick counts' conducted at polling stations by independent institutions authorised by the government indicated Widodo had won by a margin of about 10%, but Prabowo claimed victory, insisting a real count by his side showed he received 62% of the vote. His unsubstantiated claims of widespread cheating prompted his supporters to stage protests in Jakarta, resulting in riots that left eight people dead and 737 injured. The Constitutional Court in June 2019 unanimously rejected Prabowo's appeal against the election result.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: On 23 October 2019, Prabowo was inaugurated as Indonesia's Minister of Defense by president Joko Widodo.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Shortly after his inauguration, Prabowo began advocating for a "total people's war" doctrine for Indonesia's national defense.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Following an incident in late 2019 where Chinese vessels violated Indonesian EEZ off the Natuna Islands, Prabowo called for a cautious response, referring to China as a "friendly nation", for which he was criticised by netizens for being "too soft". He also ordered the deployment of additional navy vessels in the region in response to the incident.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Prabowo is planning to massively expand Indonesia's domestic ability to manufacture ammunition, as Indonesia's capacity to manufacture is only 450 million ammunition per year, despite a demand at one billion ammunition annually. Prabowo is looking to strengthen Indonesia's military by acquiring newer fighter aircraft such as General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon from the United States and Dassault Rafale from France.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: Despite the controversy of his inaction in Natuna Island, a poll by Indo Barometer on early January show that Prabowo is the most popular minister in Jokowi's cabinet.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In October 2020, Prabowo visited the United States despite his previous ban from entering the country, in his capacity as Minister of Defense after being invited by his US counterpart Mark Esper and a visa was issued for him. Several human rights organizations, including Amnesty International, had previously called for the Trump administration to cancel the visit. Prior to this, Prabowo also visited China in December 2019.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In November 2017 an investigation conducted by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalism cited his name in the list of politicians named in "Paradise Papers" allegations.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: On 18 September 2017, at the launch of a book on his father's political economy theory, Prabowo made a speech warning Indonesia could break apart in 2030. "In other countries, they have made studies, where the Republic of Indonesia has been declared no more in 2030," he said. A video clip of the speech was posted to Gerindra's official Facebook page on 18 March 2018. When asked which studies Prabowo was referring to, Gerindra official Elnino M. Husein Mohi said, "Prabowo has read various writings of people that are outside the country, intellectual observers that exist. You can also see them online." It was subsequently revealed the "studies" were actually a 2015 science-fiction war novel called "Ghost Fleet" by American authors August Cole and P.W. Singer. A note by the authors at the start of the book states: "The following was inspired by real-world trends and technologies. But, ultimately, it is a work of fiction, not prediction." Bemused by Prabowo citing the book, Singer posted on Twitter: "Indonesian opposition leader cites #GhostFleet in fiery campaign speeches... There have been many unexpected twists and turns from this book experience, but this may take the cake."


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In late 2018, Prabowo was ridiculed after erroneously stating that Haiti, a republic in the Caribbean, is an African country. In a speech made on 23 December 2018 in Solo, Central Java, Prabowo said the Indonesian government had driven part of Indonesia's wealth offshore. "If this continues to go on, Indonesia will continue to be impoverished," he said. "We, Indonesians, are on par with African impoverished countries such as Rwanda, Haiti, and small islands like Kiribati, which we don't even know where it's located," he added.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: On 17 January 2019, in the first debate between the candidates in Indonesia's April 2019 presidential election, Prabowo said some Indonesian governors deserve higher salaries considering the size of their provinces. He gave the example of Central Java province, which he claimed is larger than Malaysia (in population) . Local media reports pointed out that Central Java is 32,544.12 square kilometres, while Malaysia is 330,323 square kilometres. After the media reported on the error, Prabowo's campaign team claimed he had actually been referring to the population totals of Malaysia and Central Java.


title: Prabowo Subianto

text: In the same debate, Prabowo claimed that terrorist attacks in Indonesia were caused by poverty and perpetrated by non-Muslims disguised as Muslims, sent by other countries and controlled by foreigners. Media reports refuted his claims, pointing out that some Indonesian terrorist bombers were not poor and were not manipulated by foreigners.


title: Centrifugation

text: Centrifugation is a mechanical process which involves the use of the centrifugal force to separate particles from a solution according to their size, shape, density, medium viscosity and rotor speed. The denser components of the mixture migrate away from the axis of the centrifuge, while the less dense components of the mixture migrate towards the axis. Chemists and biologists may increase the effective gravitational force of the test tube so that the precipitate (pellet) will travel quickly and fully to the bottom of the tube. The remaining liquid that lies above the precipitate is called a supernatant or supernate.


title: Centrifugation

text: There is a correlation between the size and density of a particle and the rate that the particle separates from a heterogeneous mixture, when the only force applied is that of gravity. The larger the size and the larger the density of the particles, the faster they separate from the mixture. By applying a larger effective gravitational force to the mixture, like a centrifuge does, the separation of the particles is accelerated. This is ideal in industrial and lab settings because particles that would naturally separate over a long period of time can be separated in much less time.


title: Centrifugation

text: The rate of centrifugation is specified by the angular velocity usually expressed as revolutions per minute (RPM), or acceleration expressed as "g". The conversion factor between RPM and "g" depends on the radius of the centrifuge rotor. The particles' settling velocity in centrifugation is a function of their size and shape, centrifugal acceleration, the volume fraction of solids present, the density difference between the particle and the liquid, and the viscosity. The most common application is the separation of solid from highly concentrated suspensions, which is used in the treatment of sewage sludges for dewatering where less consistent sediment is produced.


title: Centrifugation

text: The centrifugation method has a wide variety of industrial and laboratorial applications; not only is this process used to separate two miscible substances, but also to analyze the hydrodynamic properties of macromolecules. It is one of the most important and commonly used research methods in biochemistry, cell and molecular biology. In the chemical and food industries, special centrifuges can process a continuous stream of particle turning into separated liquid like plasma. Centrifugation is also the most common method used for uranium enrichment, relying on the slight mass difference between atoms of U-238 and U-235 in uranium hexafluoride gas.


title: Centrifugation

text: In a liquid suspension, many particles or cells will gradually fall to the bottom of the container due to gravity; however, the amount of time taken for such separations is not feasible. Other particles, which are very small, can not be isolated at all in solution until they are exposed to a high centrifugal force. As the suspension is rotated at a certain speed or revolutions per minute (RPM), the centrifugal force allows the particles to travel radially away from the rotation axis. The general formula for calculating the revolutions per minute (RPM) of a centrifuge is:


title: Centrifugation

text: where "g" represents the respective force of the centrifuge and "r" the radius from the center of the rotor to a point in the sample.


title: Centrifugation

text: However, depending on the centrifuge model used, the respective angle of the rotor and the radius may vary, thus the formula gets modified. For example, the Sorvall #SS-34 rotor has a maximum radius of 10.8 cm, so the formula becomes formula_2, which can further simplify to formula_3.


title: Centrifugation

text: When compared to gravity, the particle force is called the 'Relative Centrifugal Force' (RCF). It is the perpendicular force exerted on the contents of the rotor as a result of the rotation, always relative to the gravity of the earth, which measures the strength of rotors of different types and sizes. For instance, the RCF of 1000 x g means that the centrifugal force is 1000 times stronger than the earthly gravitational force. RCF is dependent on the speed of rotation in rpm and the distance of the particles from the center of rotation. The most common formula used for calculating RCF is:


title: Centrifugation

text: where formula_5 is a constant; "r" is the radius, expressed in centimetres, between the axis of rotation and the center; and "rpm" is the speed in revolutions per minute.


title: Centrifugation

text: Historically, many separations have been carried out at the speed of 3000 rpm; a rough guide to the ‘g’ force exerted at this speed is to multiply the centrifugation radius by a factor of 10, so a radius of 160 mm gives approximately 1600 x g. This is a rather arbitrary approach, since the RCF applied is linearly dependent on the radius, so a 10% larger radius means that a 10% higher RCF is applied at the same speed. Roughly, the above formula can be simplified to formula_6, with an error of only 0.62%.


title: Centrifugation

text: Microcentrifuges are specially designed table-top models with light, small-volume rotors capable of very fast acceleration up to approximately 17,000 rpm. They are lightweight devices which are primarily used for short-time centrifugation of samples up to around 0.2–2.0 mL. However, due to their small scale, they are readily transportable and, if necessary, can be operated in a cold room. They can be refrigerated or not. The microcentrifuge is normally used in research laboratories where small samples of biological molecules, cells, or nuclei are required to be subjected to high RCF for relatively short time intervals. Microcentrifuges designed for high-speed operation can reach up to 35,000 rpm, giving RCF up to 30000×g, and are called high-speed microcentrifuges.


title: Centrifugation

text: Low-speed centrifuges are used to harvest chemical precipitates, intact cells (animal, plant and some microorganisms), nuclei, chloroplasts, large mitochondria and the larger plasma-membrane fragments. Density gradients for purifying cells are also run in these centrifuges. Swinging-bucket rotors tend to be used very widely because of the huge flexibility of sample size through the use of adaptors. These machines have maximum rotor speeds of less than 10 000 rpm and vary from small, bench-top to large, floor-standing centrifuges.


title: Centrifugation

text: High-speed centrifuges are typically used to harvest microorganisms, viruses, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes and intact tubular Golgi membranes. The majority of the simple pelleting tasks are carried out in fixed angle rotors. Some density-gradient work for purifying cells and organelles can be carried out in swinging-bucket rotors, or in the case of Percoll gradients in fixed-angle rotors. High-speed or superspeed centrifuges can handle larger sample volumes, from a few tens of millilitres to several litres. Additionally, larger centrifuges can also reach higher angular velocities (around 30,000 rpm). The rotors may come with different adapters to hold various sizes of test tubes, bottles, or microtiter plates.


title: Centrifugation

text: Ultracentrifugation makes use of high centrifugal force for studying properties of biological particles at exceptionally high speeds. Current ultracentrifuges can spin to as much as 150,000 rpm (equivalent to 1,000,000 x g). They are used to harvest all membrane vesicles derived from the plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi membrane, endosomes, ribosomes, ribosomal subunits, plasmids, DNA, RNA and proteins in fixed-angle rotors. Compared to microcentrifuges or high-speed centrifuges, ultracentrifuges can isolate much smaller particles and, additionally, while microcentrifuges and supercentrifuges separate particles in batches (limited volumes of samples must be handled manually in test tubes or bottles), ultracentrifuges can separate molecules in batch or continuous flow systems.


title: Centrifugation

text: Ultracentrifugation is employed for separation of macromolecules/ligand binding kinetic studies, separation of various lipoprotein fractions from plasma and deprotonisation of physiological fluids for amino acid analysis.


title: Centrifugation

text: They are the most commonly used centrifuge for the density-gradient purification of all particles except cells, and, while swinging buckets have been traditionally used for this purpose, fixed-angle rotors and vertical rotors are also used, particularly for self-generated gradients and can improve the efficiency of separation greatly. There are two kinds of ultracentrifuges: the analytical and the preparative.


title: Centrifugation

text: Analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) can be used for determination of the properties of macromolecules such as shape, mass, composition, and conformation. It is a commonly used biomolecular analysis technique used to evaluate sample purity, to characterize the assembly and disassembly mechanisms of biomolecular complexes, to determine subunit stoichiometries, to identify and characterize macromolecular conformational changes, and to calculate equilibrium constants and thermodynamic parameters for self-associating and hetero-associating systems. Analytical ultracentrifuges incorporate a scanning visible/ultraviolet light-based optical detection system for real-time monitoring of the sample’s progress during a spin.


title: Centrifugation

text: Samples are centrifuged with a high-density solution such as sucrose, caesium chloride, or iodixanol. The high-density solution may be at a uniform concentration throughout the test tube ("cushion") or a varying concentration ("gradient"). Molecular properties can be modeled through sedimentation velocity analysis or sedimentation equilibrium analysis. During the run, the particle or molecules will migrate through the test tube at different speeds depending on their physical properties and the properties of the solution, and eventually form a pellet at the bottom of the tube, or bands at various heights.


title: Centrifugation

text: Preparative ultracentrifuges are often used for separating particles according to their densities, isolating and/or harvesting denser particles for collection in the pellet, and clarifying suspensions containing particles. Sometimes researchers also use preparative ultracentrifuges if they need the flexibility to change the type of rotor in the instrument. Preparative ultracentrifuges can be equipped with a wide range of different rotor types, which can spin samples of different numbers, at different angles, and at different speeds.


title: Centrifugation

text: In biological research, cell fractionation typically includes the isolation of cellular components while retaining the individual roles of each component. Generally, the cell sample is stored in a suspension which is:


title: Centrifugation

text: Centrifugation is the first step in most fractionations. Through low-speed centrifugation, cell debris may be removed, leaving a supernatant preserving the contents of the cell. Repeated centrifugation at progressively higher speeds will fractionate homogenates of cells into their components. In general, the smaller the subcellular component, the greater is the centrifugal force required to sediment it. The soluble fraction of any lysate can then be further separated into its constituents using a variety of methods.


title: Centrifugation

text: Differential centrifugation is the simplest method of fractionation by centrifugation, commonly used to separate organelles and membranes found in cells. Organelles generally differ from each other in density and in size, making the use of differential centrifugation, and centrifugation in general, possible. The organelles can then be identified by testing for indicators that are unique to the specific organelles. The most widely used application of this technique is to produce crude subcellular fractions from a tissue homogenate such as that from rat liver. Particles of different densities or sizes in a suspension are sedimented at different rates, with the larger and denser particles sedimenting faster. These sedimentation rates can be increased by using centrifugal force.


title: Centrifugation

text: A suspension of cells is subjected to a series of increasing centrifugal force cycles to produce a series of pellets comprising cells with a declining sedimentation rate. Homogenate includes nuclei, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, plasma membrane sheets and a broad range of vesicles derived from a number of intracellular membrane compartments and also from the plasma membrane, typically in a buffered medium.


title: Centrifugation

text: Density gradient centrifugation is known to be one of the most efficient methods for separating suspended particles, and is used both as a separation technique and as a method for measuring the density of particles or molecules in a mixture.


title: Centrifugation

text: It is used to separate particles on the basis of size, shape, and density by using a medium of graded densities. During a relatively short or slow centrifugation, the particles are separated by size, with larger particles sedimenting farther than smaller ones. Over a long or fast centrifugation, particles travel to locations in the gradient where the density of the medium is the same as that of the particle density; (ρp – ρm) → 0. Therefore, a small, dense particle initially sediments less readily than a large, low density particle. The large particles reach their equilibrium density position early, while the small particles slowly migrate across the large particle zone and ultimately take up an equilibrium position deeper into the gradient.


title: Centrifugation

text: A tube, after being centrifuged by this method, has particles in order of density based on height. The object or particle of interest will reside in the position within the tube corresponding to its density. Nevertheless, some non-ideal sedimentations are still possible when using this method. The first potential issue is the unwanted aggregation of particles, but this can occur in any centrifugation. The second possibility occurs when droplets of solution that contain particles sediment. This is more likely to occur when working with a solution that has a layer of suspension floating on a dense liquid, which in fact have little to no density gradient.


title: Centrifugation

text: A centrifuge can be used to isolate small quantities of solids retained in suspension from liquids, such as in the separation of chalk powder from water. In biological research, it can be used in the purification of mammalian cells, fractionation of subcellular organelles, fractionation of membrane vesicles, fractionation of macromolecules and macromolecular complexes, etc. Centrifugation is used in many different ways in the food industry. For example, in the dairy industry, it is typically used in the clarification and skimming of milk, extraction of cream, production and recovery of casein, cheese production, removing bacterial contaminants, etc. This processing technique is also used in the production of beverages, juices, coffee, tea, beer, wine, soy milk, oil and fat processing/recovery, cocoa butter, sugar production, etc. It is also used in the clarification and stabilization of wine.


title: Centrifugation

text: In forensic and research laboratories, it can be used in the separation of urine and blood components. It also aids in separation of proteins using purification techniques such as salting out, e.g. ammonium sulfate precipitation. Centrifugation is also an important technique in waste treatment, being one of most common processes used for sludge dewatering. This process also plays a role in cyclonic separation, where particles are separated from an air-flow without the use of filters. In a cyclone collector, air moves in a helical path. Particles with high inertia are separated by the centrifugal force whilst smaller particles continue with the air-flow.


title: Centrifugation

text: Centrifuges have also been used to a small degree to isolate lighter-than-water compounds, such as oil. In such situations, the aqueous discharge is obtained at the opposite outlet from which solids with a specific gravity greater than one are the target substances for separation.


title: Centrifugation

text: By 1923 Theodor Svedberg and his student H. Rinde had successfully analyzed large-grained sols in terms of their gravitational sedimentation. Sols consist of a substance evenly distributed in another substance, also known as a colloid. However, smaller grained sols, such as those containing gold, could not be analyzed. To investigate this problem Svedberg developed an analytical centrifuge, equipped with a photographic absorption system, which would exert a much greater centrifugal effect. In addition, he developed the theory necessary to measure molecular weight. During this time, Svedberg's attention shifted from gold to proteins.


title: Centrifugation

text: By 1900, it had been generally accepted that proteins were composed of amino acids; however, whether proteins were colloids or macromolecules was still under debate. One protein being investigated at the time was hemoglobin. It was determined to have 712 carbon, 1,130 hydrogen, 243 oxygen, two sulfur atoms, and at least one iron atom. This gave hemoglobin a resulting weight of approximately 16,000 dalton (Da) but it was uncertain whether this value was a multiple of one or four (dependent upon the number of iron atoms present).


title: Centrifugation

text: Through a series of experiments utilizing the sedimentation equilibrium technique, two important observations were made: hemoglobin has a molecular weight of 68,000 Da, suggesting that there are four iron atoms present rather than one, and that ,no matter where the hemoglobin was isolated from, it had exactly the same molecular weight. How something of such a large molecular mass could be consistently found, regardless of where it was sampled from in the body, was unprecedented and favored the idea that proteins are macromolecules rather than colloids. In order to investigate this phenomenon, a centrifuge with even higher speeds was needed, and thus the ultracentrifuge was created to apply the theory of sedimentation-diffusion. The same molecular mass was determined, and the presence of a spreading boundary suggested that it was a single compact particle. Further application of centrifugation showed that under different conditions the large homogeneous particles could be broken down into discrete subunits. The development of centrifugation was a great advance in experimental protein science.


title: Centrifugation

text: Linderstorm-Lang, in 1937, discovered that density gradient tubes could be used for density measurements. He discovered this when working with potato yellow-dwarf virus. This method was also used in Meselson and Stahl's famous experiment in which they proved that DNA replication is semi-conservative by using different isotopes of nitrogen. They used density gradient centrifugation to determine which isotope or isotopes of nitrogen were present in the DNA after cycles of replication.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Bruce Allen Harrell (born October 10, 1958) is an American politician and attorney serving as the 57th and current mayor of Seattle, Washington. He served as a member of the Seattle City Council from District 2 from 2016 to 2020. Elected to the council in 2007 and reelected in 2011 and 2015, he did not run in 2019. In 2016, he was chosen as president of the city council. He also served as acting mayor of Seattle from September 13 to 18, 2017. He was elected mayor in his own right in the 2021 Seattle mayoral election, winning with 59 percent of the vote, becoming the second Black mayor since Norm Rice, and the first Asian American mayor of the city.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell was born in 1958 in Seattle, to an African American father who worked for Seattle City Light and a Japanese American mother who worked for the Seattle Public Library. As a child during World War II, Harrell's mother was interred with her family at Minidoka internment camp in Idaho. Growing up, Harrell and his family lived in the Central District in Seattle in a minority neighborhood. He attended Garfield High School and played football there as a linebacker, becoming named to the all-Metro team. Harrell graduated from Garfield in 1976 as class valedictorian.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: After high school, Harrell attended the University of Washington on a football scholarship, rejecting an offer to attend Harvard University. He played for the Washington Huskies football team from 1976 to 1979 and was named to the 1979 All-Pacific-10 Conference football team. He also received the National Football Foundation Scholar-Athlete Award, made the national Academic All-American First Team in football, and was named the Husky defensive player of the year.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell graduated from the University of Washington in 1980 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science. Four years later, he earned a Juris Doctor from the University of Washington School of Law. In 1994, Harrell earned a master's degree in organizational design and improvement from City University of Seattle.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In 2007, Harrell received the University of Washington Distinguished Alumni Award. In 2012, he won the University of Washington's Timeless Award, and in 2013 he was inducted into the NW Football Hall of Fame.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: After attending law school, Harrell joined US West, now Lumen Technologies, in 1987. Harrell was chief legal advisor to the Rainier Valley Community Development Fund, chief legal advisor to the First A.M.E. Church and First A.M.E. Housing Corporation, chief counsel to US West, and general counsel to Moovn and the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, Zeta Pi Lambda chapter.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In addition to his legislative responsibilities, Harrell chairs the Puget Sound Regional Council's Performance First Committee, a business development strategy of PSRC's Prosperity Partnership; is advisory board chair for CASASTART, a focused strategy for youth with behavioral challenges at Seattle Public Schools; and is a member of the Social Action Committee for First A.M.E. Church.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell was elected to the Seattle City Council in 2007. Between 2008 and 2011, he chaired the Energy, Technology, and Civil Rights Committee and was responsible for oversight of Seattle City Light, the city's public power utility and the city's Department of Information and Technology. In 2010, he created a Rate Stabilization Account (RSA) for Seattle City Light. The account provides protection for Seattle City Light customers from the volatility of the wholesale power market.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In 2011, Harrell sponsored a program to establish partnerships with technology companies and financial institutions to provide need-based Internet access to students in the Seattle Public Schools. In 2011, he wrote a letter to now former US Attorney Jenny Durkan asking that the federal government mandate body cameras in Seattle.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In 2013, Harrell introduced legislation to regulate the Seattle Police Department's use of drones and other surveillance measures in an effort to protect the public's civil liberties. He also authored "ban the box" legislation that passed on June 10, 2013.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Following years of at-large city council elections, Harrell was reelected into the newly created District 2 position after a change to district-based city council elections. On January 4, 2016, he was sworn in to the District 2 office and elected council president by fellow councilmembers. In 2016, Harrell supported a measure to attempt to bring back the Seattle SuperSonics, but the measure was defeated in a 5–4 vote.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell was sworn in as acting mayor of Seattle on September 13, 2017, after Mayor Ed Murray resigned due to multiple allegations of child abuse, rape and sexual molestation. Harrell served as acting mayor for a five-day period, after which the city council elected Tim Burgess to fill the position until the November election. Harrell declined to continue as acting mayor until November, which would have required him to lose his city council seat.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: After Mayor Jenny Durkan announced in 2021 that she would not seek reelection, Harrell announced his candidacy. He won the November 2021 election and was sworn in as the 57th mayor of Seattle on January 1, 2022.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Seattle has a mayor-council government system. This means the mayor has the power to veto council legislation, appoint and remove department heads, and develop strong policy agendas. While the City Council holds legislative authority, the mayor holds executive authority.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell appointed Adrian Diaz to be chief of Seattle police in September 2022. Diaz was deputy chief of police until Chief Carmen Best resigned in August 2020 in response to the City Council’s plan to lay off 100 police officers, making Diaz interim police chief. His appointment made his role permanent after a search for the position included 15 candidates with three finalists: Diaz, Seattle Police Department Assistant Chief Eric Greening, and Tucson, Arizona, Police Assistant Chief Kevin Hall. Harrell openly campaigned for Diaz to apply for the role. The Downtown Seattle Association and Seattle Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce, which have publicly praised Harrell's public safety policies, both publicly supported Diaz's appointment. The Seattle Police Officer's Guild also supported the appointment, saying that Diaz's "internal knowledge of the department" gained him favor among their members. In a news conference following his appointment, Diaz said that his priorities as chief would be addressing violent crimes, ending the police department staff shortage, and improving department culture.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Deputy Mayor Kendee Yamaguchi resigned in July 2022. Harrell informed his cabinet that Greg Wong would be promoted to deputy mayor. Harrell informed the press that Yamaguchi had resigned to "pursue other opportunities".


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell appointed Wong Deputy Mayor of External Relations in August 2022. Wong previously served as the Interim Director of the Seattle Department of Neighborhoods. Deputy Director of the Department of Neighborhoods Sarah Morningstar will serve as acting director until a permanent director is found.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In February 2022 Harrell appointed Wong Director of the Department of Neighborhoods, saying, "Greg [has] demonstrated work ethic and [a] values-driven approach, along with [a] long record of local leadership and community partnership."


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In February 2022 Harrell announced the appointment of Markham McIntyre as director of the Office of Economic Development. Harrell said that McIntyre was appointed because he can "make the most of COVID recovery investments and work with Seattle businesses to drive real economic development that will benefit the whole community".


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell appointed Gino Bettis as director of the Office of Police Accountability on August 1, 2022. Bettis previously served as the assistant state’s attorney in Cook County, Illinois. Harrell said he appointed Bettis because of his "commitment to fairness and justice, belief in continuous learning and improvement, and proven experience". One of Bettis's highest-profile cases as assistant state’s attorney was his investigation of former Chicago police chief Ronald Watts.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In July 2022, Harrell nominated Gregg Spotts as director of the Department of Transportation after a search process that included a search committee. Spotts previously served as the Executive Officer and Chief Sustainability Officer at the Los Angeles Bureau of Street Services, where he is credited for delivering over $600 million in American Recovery and Reinvestment Act projects, and for making Los Angeles more "walkable, bikeable, transit-friendly, and sustainable". Harrell said he nominated Spotts because he "understands local priorities and recognizes how community voices can enhance and improve our transportation system". Spotts received numerous endorsements upon his nomination, including from Councilmember Alex Pederson, Port of Seattle Commission President Ryan Calkins, a representative from the union PROTEC17, the transportation lead from the Seattle Chamber of Commerce, the Seattle Department of Transportation interim director, and the executive director of the Cascade Bike Club. He began his work as interim director on September 7, 2022; on September 13, the City Council unanimously approved him, and he officially became director. Upon his confirmation, Spotts said his priorities included reviewing the Vision Zero program and accelerating the improvement of the city's bridges.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In February 2022, Harrell announced the appointment of State Representative Jessyn Farrell as Director of Sustainability and Environment, taking over for Interim Director Michelle Caulfield, who returned to the Deputy Director role. Harrell said that Farrell would bring "ambitious policy ideas and experience, needed collaborative approach, and vision grounded in a true commitment to environmental justice".


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In September 2022, Harrell named Executive Officer and Assistant General Manager for the Los Angeles Department of Recreation and Parks Anthony-Paul (AP) Diaz as Seattle Parks and Recreation Superintendent. Harrell said he chose Diaz because he has a "track record of working collaboratively and innovatively with community and a commitment to preserving open spaces… [he understands] how parks create opportunities, advance equity, provide safe spaces, and support youth through mentorship".


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In May 2022, Harrell announced his "One Seattle Homelessness Action Plan" to reduce the number of homeless and displaced people in Seattle. The plan includes funding for 2,000 units of low-income housing to relocate homeless persons from encampments throughout the city.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In July 2022, the Pacific Northwest experienced a historic heat wave that brought dangerously high temperatures to Seattle. Harrell's administration faced harsh criticism for continuing to remove homeless encampments during the heat wave, a move critics say displaced homeless persons during deadly weather conditions without alternative housing available. Harrell rebutted the objections, but numerous homeless persons reported to local news outlets that the city offered no plans to relocate them to safe housing after their encampments were removed. The Harrell administration's move was opposed by numerous city council members and by the Regional Homelessness Authority.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell's administration has emphasized the importance of increasing Seattle's public transit reliability, safety, and ease of use. Harrell is expected to announce further transportation plans in the near future. Seattle's current Transportation Millage expires in 2024, so Seattle voters must pass a new proposal to continue funding for transportation projects. Seattle has faced a rise in pedestrian accidents and deaths, leading Harrell to assemble a team committed to addressing Seattle's top transportation concerns.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In July 2022, Harrell's administration reversed a decision made by former mayor Jenny Durkan to make the Department of Transportation responsible for issuing parking violation tickets instead of the Seattle Police Department. The move resulted in the cancellation of 200,000 parking tickets that had been issued by the Department of Transportation, as department officials and legal experts questioned the legality of civilian-issued parking tickets. Seattle vowed to refund nearly $5 million to those who paid the invalid tickets.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: During his 2021 mayoral campaign, Harrell released "The Emerald City Plan" with the goals of reducing harmful emissions, strengthening climate resilience, and centering environmental justice. The plan calls for developing a localized clean energy economy, establishing 100% clean buildings, preserving and investing in Seattle’s park system, and divesting from fossil fuels. Harrell says he believes Seattle should be a leading force for environmental change in the nation and also plans to reduce home energy consumption by phasing out natural gas usage and reverting to green electricity by installing more heat pumps. In September 2022, Harrell signed Green New Deal legislation in Seattle allocating $6.5 million for climate projects in the city, including funding towards efforts to get city-owned buildings off fossil fuels by 2035.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: From 2021 to 2022, the number of violent and property crimes decreased from 5,412 to 4,856 and from 42,538 to 37,240, respectively. Homicide was the only category in violent or property crimes that increased, from 42 to 46.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell plans to ensure public safety by investing in prevention and intervention programs to reduce gun violence, assist victims of crime, and mentor at-risk youth. He also hopes to create a budget that guarantees proper training and needed staff.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell is also working with Police Chief Adrian Diaz to address high-crime neighborhoods using hot-spot policing. Hot-spot policing strategies focus resources on small geographic areas where crime is highly concentrated. Harrell and Diaz are also using various recruitment strategies to increase employment. Their approach to public safety has been praised by the Downtown Seattle Association and the Seattle Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell has proposed several prevention efforts to reduce gun violence, including improving education and outreach, fighting for stronger gun laws, and investing in technology to track gunshots. Education and outreach include making sure residents understand how to properly store firearms. Stronger gun laws mean limiting the number of weapons that can enter the city. Lastly, technology such as Automatic Gunfire Locator Systems can hold offenders accountable.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In September 2022, Harrell proposed a $7.4 billion budget for the 2023-24 fiscal year. This would be a $300 million increase from the previous fiscal year. This budget is the first biennial budget since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell's $7.4 billion budget proposal included 49% for "Utilities, Transportation, & Environment”, 21% for "Administration", 11% for "Public Safety", 7% for "Arts, Culture, and Recreation", 6% for "Liveable and Inclusive Communities", and 6% for "Education and Human Services". Utilities, Transportation & Environment is decreased by 1% of the overall budget but increased by $143 million from the previous budget. Administration stays at 21% of the overall budget but increases by $7 million from the previous fiscal year. Public Safety stays at 11% of the overall budget but increases by $13 million. Arts, Recreation, and Culture increases by 1% of the overall budget and 62 million. Liveable and Inclusive Communities stays at 6% of the overall budget but increases by $52 million. Education and Human Services stays at 6% of the overall budget and increases by $24 million.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Some of Harrell's noted allocations include over $250 million for affordable housing, shelter units, and a 13% increased investment in the King County Regional Homelessness authority; over $33 million toward the City’s Unified Care Team, Green New Deal investments, and the One Seattle Climate Justice Agenda; $8 million to fund Vision Zero projects, projects that renovate or upgrade critical transportation corridors; moving park enforcement officers back to the Seattle Police Department, a move he claims would save $5 million in overhead; a large increase in funding to law enforcement, in part to bolster officer recruitment and retention; and increased funding for the Seattle Fire Department in an effort to increase recruitment by 50% by 2023.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: The Seattle City Council approved Harrell's proposed budget on November 30 by a vote of 6-3, with councilmembers Sara Nelson, Alex Pedersen, and Kshama Sawant voting against. After multiple rounds of amendments and discussions the Council funded 99% of Harrell's proposals. The council did limit some of Harrell's proposed increases in funding for public safety and law enforcement, including lowering the increased funding towards the Seattle Police Department, eliminating some unfunded Seattle Police Department positions, and rejecting a proposed gunshot detection software. Despite those changes the approved budget still represented an overall increase in public safety funding.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: During the voting process for the budget, the divisions between councilmembers "ruffled some feathers", according to the Seattle Times. Nelson and Pedersen voted against the budget in part due to their belief that eliminating some of the unfunded Seattle Police Department positions would hurt public safety, that the public would view this move negatively in the context of the "Defund the Police" movement prominent in 2020, and that it would impair recruitment and retention of new officers. Councilmember Lisa Herbold, one of the yes votes, countered those claims, saying that the council had fully funded the police department for three years in a row. Sawant, the lone socialist on the council, has voted no on every proposed budget since 2014, with her reason voting against the 2023-24 budget being that working people would be hurt by it while larger companies like Amazon are left unaffected. Harrell credited his budget being passed, in part, due to the joint work between his office and Budget Committee Chair Teresa Mosqueda.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: The budget is able to work through the $140 million shortfall due to the use of a program called the Jumpstart payroll tax. This program grants flexible revenue that is projected to run out by 2025, representing a short-term solution to the shortfall. An amendment by Sawant to raise $140.5 million in revenue by increasing the tax rate by 47% to some of the city’s highest employers failed, gaining the support only of Councilmember Tammy Morales and Budget Committee Chair Member Mosqueda. Mosqueda, in partnership with Harrell, formed the Revenue Stabilization Work Group in an effort to find future stable revenue streams. The group and Mosqueda have not yet shared any specific proposals to raise revenue. Nelson said she had concerns about the work group, believing that the city should "spend within its means" instead of looking for additional revenue. She did not name what areas she wanted the city to cut. In the 2023-24 budget all city councilmembers proposed additional funding in their policy areas. The deficit is in part due to national inflation and in part due to various decreases in revenue; a $9.4 million decrease in the General Fund, $4.5 million decrease in the Sweetened Beverages Tax and a $64 million decrease in real estate excise taxes. It is projected to grow from $140 million in 2023 to $152 million in 2024.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: On October 8, 2021, Harrell, at the time campaigning for mayor, attended a dinner event at China Harbor restaurant, a popular location for political fundraisers, to spread and deliver his mayoral platform. In attendance were political figures including former Washington Governor Gary Locke, Burien Mayor Jimmy Matta, and candidate for Port of Seattle Commission Hamdi Mohamad. The event, which had around 270 attendees, had many COVID-19 restrictions in place by the restaurant, including requiring proof of COVID-19 vaccination or a negative COVID-19 test, and for eventgoers to wear a mask when not eating, drinking or sitting at their table. According to state law at the time, masks were required in all public, indoor spaces, with the exception of those actively eating or drinking. During the event, Harrell and other attendees were photographed mingling and posing for photos without masks. This drew criticism, including from Seattle journalist Erica Barnett, who shared the photos on Twitter and called the event a "giant, unmasked fundraiser". One of Harrell’s mayoral opponents, M. Lorena Gonzalez, later said in a forum that "leadership in my mind means that you cannot play by your own rules when it comes to public health, especially when the city is in a public health crisis". In a statement two days later, Harrell said, "even though I only removed my mask for dining and brief intervals for photographs with friends and community leaders, I understand that people in public life will and should be held to high standards". Locke, Matta, and Mohamad all commented on the story as well: Locke said he tried to wear his mask the whole time but nobody is perfect, Matta that the venue was big enough for everyone to be safe but they were still cautious, and Mohamad that he only removed his mask to eat and some photos.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Barnett, who publicly criticized the event, was also set to be moderator for a forum hosted by the Queen Anne Community Council between Harrell and other mayoral candidates. According to Barnett, Harrell’s campaign threatened to withdraw from the forum unless she was removed as a moderator, which she eventually was. This drew a round of criticism, with Gonzalez saying at that forum, "It’s my understanding this journalist was one of the first to report on my opponent’s decision to host a very large maskless indoor fundraiser in violation of King County’s public health mandate". Harrell responded that he "had no discussions with Barnett but the question was posed, why was she the person to host us."


title: Bruce Harrell

text: In August 2022, as Harrell was implementing and pushing his "One Seattle<nowiki>"</nowiki> plan to fight homelessness, excerpts from a meeting with the Seattle Police Department were leaked to the radio station 770 KTTH. In the leaks, he said that "no one has a right to sleep on the streets" and that the "authority" was "working against" his efforts to address homelessness, criticized the King County Regional Homelessness Authority, and vowed to work against "inexperienced" City Council members. In later comments he acknowledged his statements, and did not disavow them, but used more "diplomatic" language, according to the "Seattle Times". In those comments he also said he had a right to "criticize what he sees" but that he would call anyone who might be offended by his leaked remarks. Lisa Daugaard, the director of the Public Defender Association and overseer of the Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion, a program to provide care for those who break the law due to extreme poverty, said that its relationship with Harrell was still "in good shape". King County Regional Homelessness Authority CEO Mark Dones did not directly address Harrell's remarks but stated his belief in the Homelessness Authority's work. First-term City Councilmember Andrew Lewis noted that he did not believe the comments meant there would be any substantive changes with the mayor and the council, and that he had no concerns over the remarks.


title: Bruce Harrell

text: Harrell and his wife Joanne married in 1992; they have three children and live in Seattle's Seward Park neighborhood.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: Poland–Russia relations (, ) have a long and often turbulent history, dating to the late Middle Ages, when the Kingdom of Poland and Kievan Rus' and later the Grand Duchy of Moscow struggled over control of their borders. Over centuries, there have been several Polish–Russian Wars, with Poland once occupying Moscow and later Russia controlling much of Poland in the 19th as well as in the 20th century, damaging relations. Polish–Russian relations entered a new phase following the fall of communism, 1989–1993. Since then, Polish–Russian relations have at times seen both improvement and deterioration.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: One of the earliest known events in Russian-Polish history dates back to 981, when the Grand Prince of Kiev, Vladimir Svyatoslavich, seized the Cherven Cities from the Duchy of Poland. The relationship between two by that time was mostly close and cordial, as there had been no serious wars between both.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: In 966, Poland accepted Christianity from Rome while Kievan Rus'—the ancestor of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus—was Christianized by Constantinople. In 1054, the internal Christian divide formally split the Church into the Catholic and Orthodox branches separating the Poles from the Eastern Slavs.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: In 1018, Svyatopolk the Cursed who fled from Kiev turned for help to the Polish king Bolesław I the Brave, who defeated Yaroslav the Wise in the Battle of the River Bug. The Kiev campaign of Boleslaw I was crowned with the capture of the city, but Boleslaw, instead of transferring power to Svyatopolk, began to rule in the city himself. In response, the people of Kiev raised an uprising, as a result of which they began to “beat the Poles”. Boleslaw fled with the treasury, and also took Yaroslav the Wise's sisters with him. The Cherven cities, were restored to Poland until conquered again by Yaroslav the Wise and his brother Mstislav the Brave in 1030–1031.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: A similar story took place in 1069, when the Grand Duke Izyaslav Yaroslavich ran to Poland to his nephew Bolesław II the Brave, and he, having made a trip to Kiev, intervened in the Rus' dynastic dispute in favor of Izyaslav. According to legend, a relic sword named Szczerbiec, which was used during the coronations of Polish kings, was notched when Boleslaw I or Boleslaw II struck the Golden Gate in Kiev. The first option cannot be true due to the fact that the Golden Gate was built in the 1030s, the second is also not confirmed by the results of carbon dating of the sword, which, apparently, was created not earlier than the second half of the 12th century.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: At the same time, Kievan Rus' and Poland also knew long periods of peaceful coexistence (for example, during the life of Vladimir after 981) and military alliances. Thus, the Polish king, Kazimierz I, concluded an alliance with Yaroslav the Wise in 1042, marrying the first to the sister of the Grand Duke Maria Dobroneg. In 1074, according to the chronicle, peace with Boleslaw II was signed in Suteisk by the Smolensk prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, and in 1076 he together with the Volyn prince Oleg Svyatoslavich came to the aid of the Poles in a military campaign against the Czechs. The Grand Prince of Kiev, Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, made peace with the Polish king, Bolesław III Wrymouth, who in 1103 married the daughter of Svyatopolk Sbyslav; when in Poland a struggle broke out between Boleslaw III and his brother Zbigniew, the Rus' troops came to the aid of the king and forced Zbigniew to recognize his power.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: Like the principalities that arose from the disintegration of Kievan Rus', Poland experienced several Mongol invasions in the 13th century, however, despite the devastation, the Mongol yoke was not established, which subsequently provided Poland with an advantage in the development of trade, culture and public relations. In 1340, Vladimir Lvovich died, the last Galician heir to the Rurik dynasty, after which the Galician principality was inherited by Kazimierz III the Great and annexed to the Kingdom of Poland.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: Relations between Poland and Muscovite Russia have been tense, as the increasingly desperate Grand Duchy of Lithuania involved the Kingdom of Poland into its war with Muscovy around 16th century. As Polish historian Andrzej Nowak wrote, while there were occasional contacts between Poles and Russians before that, it was the Polish union with Lithuania which brought pro-Western Catholic Poland and Orthodox Russia into a real, constant relation with both states engaged in "the contest for the political, strategic and civilizational preponderance in Central and Eastern Europe". While there were occasional attempts to create an alliance between the new Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Grand Duchy of Moscow (including several attempts to elect the Muscovite tsars to the Polish throne and create the Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite Commonwealth), they all failed. Instead, several wars occurred. Notably, during the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18), Poland exploited Moscow's politically weakened state caused by civil war and Polish forces took Moscow – an event that would become one of the many defining moments of the future Polish–Russian relations. Muscovy, now transforming into the Russian Empire, retaliated by taking advantage of the weakening Commonwealth, taking over disputed territories and moving its borders westwards in the aftermath of the Russo-Polish War (1654–67) and later participated in the destruction of the Commonwealth during the Swedish Deluge. By the beginning of the 18th century, with the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system (Golden Liberty) into anarchy, Russians were able to intervene in internal Polish affairs at will, politically and militarily, see (Silent Sejm, War of the Polish Succession). Around the mid-18th century, the influence of ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland, could be compared to those of colonial viceroys and the Commonwealth was seen by Russians as a form of protectorate.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: With the failure of the Bar Confederation opposing the Russian political and military influence in Poland, the First Partition took place in 1772, followed by the Second Partition, and the Third Partition of Poland. By 1795, the three partitions of Poland erased Poland from the map of Europe. As Nowak remarked, "a new justification for Russian colonialism gathered strength from the Enlightenment": occupied Poland was portrayed by the Russian authors as an anarchic, dangerous country whose Catholic and democratic ideas had to be suppressed by the 'more enlightened neighbors.' Over the next 123 years, a large part of Polish population and former territory would be subject to the rule of the Russian Empire. However, Poland was undergoing a cultural and political revival after the First Partition culminating in the Constitution of 3 May 1791 and the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794. Many Polish expatriates and volunteers sided with Revolutionary and Napoleonic France in its struggles with the very same powers (Russia, Austria and Prussia) which had partitioned Poland. After 1815, several uprisings (most notably, the November Uprising and the January Uprising) would take place, attempting to regain Polish independence and stop the Russification and similar policies, aimed at removal of any traces of former Polish rule or Polish cultural influence, however only in the aftermath of the First World War would Poland regain independence (as the Second Polish Republic).


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: Nationalist opposition to Russian rule of Poland persisted through the 19th century, and after the fall of the Romanov dynasty in the Russian Revolution the German Empire forced Vladimir Lenin's new Bolshevik regime to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk surrendering most of Russian Poland as a German client state. Immediately after regaining independence in 1918 after the fall of Germany, Poland was faced with a war with the new Bolshevik Russia, with the Polish–Soviet War eventually ending up with a Polish victory at Warsaw, spoiling Lenin's plans of sending his Red Army west to start a worldwide Communist revolution. However, Poland failed in its war aims to annex Soviet-occupied territories such as Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, which were incorporated into the Soviet Union as Soviet Socialist Republics.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: For the next two decades, Poland was seen by the Soviet Union as an enemy and, along with Germany under both the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich, as a politically illegitimate state created by the Allied Powers during World War I at the expense of Germany and Russia. During the interwar period Joseph Stalin feared a coordinated Polish-Japanese two-front invasion. Numerous residents of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic also fled across the border to Poland in protest of the First Five-Year Plan's collectivization policies and the Holodomor. The Soviet Union supported subversive activities of the Communist Party of Poland, the Communist Party of Western Belarus, and the Communist Party of Western Ukraine. Poland in turn sent secret agents across the border to encourage rebellion against Soviet rule, which caused Stalin to begin to associate Poles in the Soviet Union with nationalist dissident and terrorist groups. The NKVD killed 111,091 Poles during the Polish Operation and deported many families to Kazakhstan. Fears of a Polish invasion and external espionage also gave justification to the general internal repression of the Great Purge in the 1930s. Nevertheless, the USSR and Poland concluded a formal Non-Aggression Pact in 1932.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: Eventually a secret agreement with Nazi Germany allowed Germany and the Soviet Union to successfully invade the Second Republic in 1939. The Soviet invasion of Poland, conducted mostly by Ukrainian Red Army units under Semyon Timoshenko, allowed the Soviet Union to annex much of Eastern Poland into Ukraine and Belarus. Most Polish Armed Forces officers captured by the Soviet Union were killed, while many soldiers were held in the Gulag system. The following years of Soviet repressions of Polish citizens, especially the brutal mass murder in 1940, known as the Katyn massacre, of more than 20,000 Polish officers and its subsequent Soviet denial for 50 years, became additional events with lasting repercussions on the Polish–Russian relations. Nevertheless, Poland and the Soviet Union nominally became allies after the German invasion of the Soviet Union. In 1944, the Polish Home Army timed their capital's uprising to coincide with the Lublin-Brest Offensive by the Red Army and First Polish Army on the eastern suburbs of the city and the retreat of German forces. However, the Red Army stopped at the city limits and remained inactive there for several weeks. Also, the Soviet Union did not allow its Western Allies to use its nearby airports for airdrops into Warsaw for several weeks. This allowed the German forces to regroup and demolish the city while defeating the Polish resistance and causing between 150,000 and 200,000 civilian deaths. The tragic circumstances under which Poland's capital was liberated further strained the Polish–Russian relations.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Joseph Stalin was able to present his western allies, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill, with a "fait accompli" in Poland. His armed forces were in occupation of the country, and his agents, the communists, were in control of its administration. The Soviet Union was in the process of incorporating the lands in eastern Poland, including the mass expulsion of the Polish population, which it had occupied between 1939 and 1941, after participating in the invasion and partition of Poland with Nazi Germany. Stalin was determined that Poland's new government would become his tool towards making Poland a Soviet puppet state controlled by the communists. He had severed relations with the Polish government-in-exile in London in 1943, but to appease Roosevelt and Churchill he agreed at Yalta that a coalition government would be formed. The Soviet Union supported Polish demands to be compensated by the loss of the former East of Poland, from which 2-3 millions Polish citizens were expelled, by German lands east of the rivers Oder and Lusatian Neisse which had homed 9 million Germans. Stalin allowed Polish authorities to


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: man the Oder–Neisse line as border, notwithstanding the lack of international consent for the new border, to prevent Germans from returning to their homes after the German capitulation.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: Many Poles were killed (e.g. during the Augustów roundup) or deported to the Soviet Union. Joseph Stalin decided to create a communist, Soviet allied Polish state subservient to him, the People's Republic of Poland. Thus Poland became part of the Eastern Bloc, as the People's Republic of Poland. The Soviet Union had much influence over both internal and external affairs, and Red Army forces were stationed in Poland (1945: 500,000; until 1955: 120,000 to 150,000; until 1989: 40,000). In 1945, Soviet generals and advisors formed 80% of the officer cadre of the Polish Armed Forces. The communists held a majority of key posts in this new government, and with Soviet support they soon gained almost total control of the country, rigging all elections. A pro-Soviet coalition between the Polish Socialist Party and the Polish Workers' Party assumed control of the country after the rigged 1947 Polish legislative election. Many of their opponents decided to leave the country, and others were put on staged trials and sentenced to many years of imprisonment or execution. In 1947 the ruling Polish Workers' Party joined the Soviet Cominform, beginning its entrance into the Eastern Bloc and increasing Soviet dominance of the Polish government.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: Soviet control over the Polish People's Republic lessened after Stalin's death and Gomułka's Thaw, and ceased completely after the fall of the communist government in Poland in late 1989, although the Soviet-Russian Northern Group of Forces did not leave Polish soil until 1993. The continuing Soviet military presence allowed the Soviet Union to heavily influence Polish politics. The Polish People's Army was dominated by the Soviet Union through the Warsaw Pact, and Poland participated in the 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia to suppress the Prague Spring reforms in Czechoslovakia. The Soviet Politburo closely monitored the rise in political dissent in Poland in the late 1970s and the subsequent rise of the anti-communist Solidarity trade union after the 1980 Lenin Shipyard strike. The Soviet state newspaper "Pravda" denounced the Gdańsk Agreement between the Polish government and Solidarity in similar terms to state media coverage of Alexander Dubček's government during the Prague Spring. It subsequently pressured the ruling Polish United Workers' Party and Wojciech Jaruzelski's government into declaring martial law. Soviet influence in Poland finally ended with the Round Table Agreement of 1989 guaranteeing free elections in Poland, the Revolutions of 1989 against Soviet-sponsored Communist governments in the Eastern Bloc, and finally the formal dissolution of the Warsaw Pact.


title: Poland–Russia relations

text: Modern Polish–Russian relations begin with the fall of communism – 1989 in Poland (Solidarity and the Polish Round Table Agreement) and 1991 in Russia (dissolution of the Soviet Union). With a new democratic government after the 1989 elections, Poland regained full sovereignty, and what was the Soviet Union, became 15 newly independent states, including the Russian Federation. Relations between modern Poland and Russia suffer from constant ups and downs. Among the constantly revisited issues is the fact that Poland has moved away from the Russian sphere of influence (joining NATO and the European Union) and pursuing an independent politic, including establishing a significant relations with post-Soviet states; for example, Poland was the first nation to recognize Ukraine's independence and Polish support for the pro-democratic Orange Revolution in 2004 against the pro-Russian presidential candidate Viktor Yanukovych in Ukraine has resulted in a temporary crisis in Polish–Russian relations.