title: Darius Miles

text: After making nearly $62 million in his NBA career, Miles filed for bankruptcy on September 18, 2016. In October 2018, Miles addressed mental health issues that he had battled after his career in a "Player's Tribune" article.


title: Darius Miles

text: Since February 2019 he has co-hosted "The Knuckleheads" podcast with Quentin Richardson associated with "The Players' Tribune". A show where they interview former and current professional basketball players from the perspective of ex-NBA players.


title: Darius Miles

text: On October 7, 2021, Miles was indicted for insurance fraud in the Southern District of New York for allegedly defrauding the NBA's health and welfare benefit plan.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: Antonio-Mirko Čolak (; born 17 September 1993) is a professional footballer who plays as a forward for Scottish Premiership club Rangers. Born in Germany, he represents the Croatia national team.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: Čolak began his senior career in the lower divisions of German football and has since gone on to play in the top flights of German, Polish, Croatian, Greek, Swedish and Scottish football. He was the top scorer in the 2019–20 Prva HNL season while playing for Croatian club HNK Rijeka. He won the 2021 Allsvenskan title while on loan at Swedish club Malmö from Greek club PAOK.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: Čolak played more than 20 times for Croatia's youth national teams, before making his senior international debut for the country in November 2020 in a friendly against Turkey.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: The Čolak family immigrated to Germany in 1992 to avoid the war in the former Yugoslavia, where Antonio was born on 17 September 1993. Born in Ludwigsburg, in 2000 he signed for Stuttgarter Kickers, where he remained for eight years before returning to Freiburg in 2008. From there he joined the youth academy at Hoffenheim in 2010 for just one year, and in 2011 moved to Karlsruhe, where he made his professional debut in the lower leagues. In 2012 he was signed by 1. FC Nürnberg, initially for the reserve team. Čolak made his debut on 19 October 2013 in a Bundesliga game against Eintracht Frankfurt. He entered the field after 78 minutes for Tomáš Pekhart. He stayed in Nuremberg until 2015, playing in seven games, while for one season he was loaned out to Lechia Gdańsk, where he scored ten goals in 31 games, also contributing two assists.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: In the summer of 2015 he signed a contract with TSG 1899 Hoffenheim, but he did not play with the club throughout his contract. Initially he joined 1. FC Kaiserslautern on a season-long loan. On 25 July 2016, Čolak joined Darmstadt 98 on a season-long loan. For the following season he was again sent out on loan, to 2. Bundesliga side FC Ingolstadt.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: Following the mutually agreed termination of the loan at Ingolstadt, in January 2018, Čolak was loaned to HNK Rijeka in Croatia until June 2019. Following the end of the loan, on 22 June 2019 Čolak officially joined HNK Rijeka on a three-year contract. In the 2019–20 season, he was the top scorer in the Croatian championship with 20 goals, while with Rijeka he also won two Croatian Cups. His performances also saw him win a place in the Croatia national football team.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: On 20 September 2020, PAOK agreed terms with Rijeka for the purchase of Čolak. The Greek club paid a fee over €3,000,000, while Čolak signed a four-year contract worth €450,000 per year.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: On 6 March 2021, Čolak moved to Swedish side Malmö FF, on a loan deal until December 2021. At Malmö FF, Čolak quickly established himself as a prolific goalscorer with ten goals in his first 15 appearances and went on to win the title with Malmö. In December 2021, with Malmö FF unwilling to pay the buy out of €3 million that had been set in his loan contract, Croatian newspaper "Sportske Novosti" linked Čolak with a move to Dinamo Zagreb. He returned to PAOK from the beginning of January 2022.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: On 20 March 2022, he scored a goal after an Alexandru Mitriță assist, helping PAOK to gain a 1–0 away win against rivals AEK Athens for the Play-off round. It was his first goal for the club after his return from Malmö FF.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: On 7 July 2022, Čolak joined his eleventh club Rangers, signing a three-year deal with the Scottish Premiership team. He made his debut for the club against Scottish Premiership side Livingston, starting the match on 30 July. Čolak scored his first goal for Rangers in Scottish Premiership match against Kilmarnock on 6 August then followed this by netting in the next two consecutive matches verse Union Saint-Gilloise and St Johnstone.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: On 24 August, Čolak scored the winning goal in the Champions League play-off second leg against PSV Eindhoven to send Rangers to the group stage for the first time since 2010.


title: Antonio Čolak

text: Čolak played youth international football for Croatia at under-18, under-19 and under-20 levels. On 27 August 2020 Croatia national team head coach Zlatko Dalić included Čolak in the list of players for the Nations League fixtures against Portugal on 5 September 2020 and France on 8 September 2020.


title: Acer negundo

text: Acer negundo, the box elder, boxelder maple, Manitoba maple or ash-leaved maple, is a species of maple native to North America. It is a fast-growing, short-lived tree with opposite, compound leaves. It is sometimes considered a weedy or invasive species, and has been introduced to and naturalized throughout much of the world, including in South America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, much of Europe, and parts of Asia.


title: Acer negundo

text: "Acer negundo" is a fast-growing and fairly short-lived tree that grows up to tall, with a trunk diameter of , rarely up to diameter. It often has several trunks and can form impenetrable thickets. The typical lifespan of box elder is 60 - 75 years. Under exceptionally favorable conditions, it may live to 100 years.


title: Acer negundo

text: The shoots are green, often with a whitish to pink or violet waxy coating when young. Branches are smooth, somewhat brittle, and tend to retain a fresh green color rather than forming a bark of dead, protective tissue. The bark on its trunks is pale gray or light brown, deeply cleft into broad ridges, and scaly.


title: Acer negundo

text: Unlike most other maples (which usually have simple, palmately lobed leaves), "Acer negundo" has pinnately compound leaves that usually have three to seven leaflets. Simple leaves are also occasionally present; technically, these are single-leaflet compound leaves. Although some other maples (such as "Acer griseum", "Acer mandshuricum" and the closely related "A. cissifolium") have trifoliate leaves, only "A. negundo" regularly displays more than three leaflets. The leaflets are about long and wide with slightly serrate margins. Leaves have a translucent light green color and turn yellow in the fall.


title: Acer negundo

text: The yellow-green flowers are small and appear in early spring, with staminate flowers in clusters on slender pedicels and pistillate flowers on drooping racemes long.


title: Acer negundo

text: The fruits are paired samaras on drooping racemes, each seed slender, long, with a incurved wing; they drop in autumn or they may persist through winter. Seeds are usually both prolific and fertile.


title: Acer negundo

text: Unlike most other maples, "A. negundo" is fully dioecious and both a male and female tree are needed for reproduction to occur.


title: Acer negundo

text: A few botanists treat boxelder maple in its own distinct genus ("Negundo aceroides") but this is not widely accepted.


title: Acer negundo

text: Indicative of its familiarity to many people over a large geographic range, "A. negundo" has numerous common names. The names "box elder" and "boxelder maple" are based upon the similarity of its whitish wood to that of boxwood and the similarity of its pinnately compound leaves to those of some species of elder.


title: Acer negundo

text: Other common names are based upon this maple's similarity to ash, its preferred environment, its sugary sap, a description of its leaves, its binomial name, and so on. These names include "Manitoba maple", "ash-leaf maple", "cut-leaved maple", "three-leaf maple", "ash maple", "sugar maple", "negundo maple", and "river maple".


title: Acer negundo

text: Names vary regionally. Box elder, boxelder maple, ash-leaved maple, and maple ash are among its common names in the United States. In Canada it is commonly known as Manitoba maple and occasionally as elf maple. In the British Isles it is known as box elder or ashleaf maple. In Russia it is known as American maple () as well as ash-leaf maple ().


title: Acer negundo

text: Because of its leaflets' superficial similarity to those of poison ivy, "Acer negundo" saplings are often mistaken for the allergenic plant. While both poison ivy and "Acer negundo" have compound leaves composed of three leaflets with ragged edges, "Acer negundo" exhibits an opposite branching pattern, as opposed to the alternating pattern of poison ivy. Like poison ivy, "Acer negundo" is also a noted riparian species, and can often be found growing along riverbeds and in wet soils generally. For all these reasons, and despite their obvious differences, "Acer negundo" is sometimes referred to informally as the poison ivy tree.


title: Acer negundo

text: "Acer negundo" is often divided into three subspecies, each of which was originally described as a separate species. These are:


title: Acer negundo

text: Some authors further subdivide "A. negundo" subsp. "negundo" into a number of regional varieties but these intergrade and their maintenance as distinct taxa is disputed by many. Even the differences between recognized subspecies are probably a matter of gradient speciation.


title: Acer negundo

text: "Acer negundo" is native across much of the United States (mostly in the east) and south-central Canada, and can be found as far south as Guatemala.


title: Acer negundo

text: Although native to North America, it is considered a weedy species in some areas, such as in parts of the Northeastern United States, and has increased greatly in these areas. In 1928, Joseph Illick, chief forester for the state of Pennsylvania, wrote in "Pennsylvania Trees" that box elder was "rare and localized" in the state. After World War II, box elder's rapid growth made it a popular landscaping tree in suburban housing developments despite its poor form, vulnerability to storm damage, and tendency to attract large numbers of box elder bugs. Intentional cultivation has thus made the tree far more abundant than it once was.


title: Acer negundo

text: It can quickly colonize both cultivated and uncultivated areas and the range is therefore expanding both in North America and elsewhere. In Europe where it was introduced in 1688 as a park tree it is able to spread quickly and is considered an invasive species in parts of Central Europe, including Germany, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia, and Poland) where it can form mass growth in lowlands, disturbed areas, and riparian biomes on calcareous soils. It has also become naturalized in eastern China, is listed as a pest invasive species in some of the cooler areas of the Australian continent, and is invasive in the Rio de la Plata area.


title: Acer negundo

text: This species prefers bright sunlight. It often grows on flood plains and other disturbed areas with ample water supply, such as riparian habitats. Human influence has greatly favored this species; it grows around houses and in hedges, as well as on disturbed ground and vacant lots.


title: Acer negundo

text: The boxelder bug ("Boisea trivittata") lays its eggs on all maples, but prefers this species, clustering the eggs in bark crevices. The rosy maple moth ("Dryocampa rubicunda") also lays its eggs on the leaves of maple trees, including "Acer negundo". The larvae feed on the leaves, and in very dense populations can cause defoliation.


title: Acer negundo

text: Small galls are formed on the leaves by a bladder mite, "Aceria negundi". A gall midge, "Contarinia negundinis" joins and enlarges the galls of "Aceria negundi". The midge sometimes creates a separate, tubular gall on the midrib or veins of the undersides of the leaves.


title: Acer negundo

text: The cottony maple leaf scale, "Pulvinaria acericola", occurs on the foliage of "Acer negundo". A leaf spot fungus, "Septoria negundinis" creates black-ringed lesions on the leaves.


title: Acer negundo

text: Although its weak wood, irregular form, and prolific seeding might make it seem like a poor choice for a landscape tree, "A. negundo" is one of the most common maples in cultivation. Long-term success has been noted as far north as Yellowknife. Many cultivars have been developed, such as:


title: Acer negundo

text: A protoxin present in the seeds of "Acer negundo", hypoglycin A, has been identified as a major risk factor for, and possibly the cause of, a disease in horses, seasonal pasture myopathy (SPM). SPM is an equine neurological disease which occurs seasonally in certain areas of North America and Europe, with symptoms including stiffness, difficulty walking or standing, dark urine and eventually breathing rapidly and becoming recumbent. Ingestion of sufficient quantities of box elder seeds or other parts of the plant results in breakdown of respiratory, postural, and cardiac muscles. The cause of SPM was unknown for centuries despite the disease being well known among affected areas and was only positively determined in the 21st century. It is analogous to Jamaican vomiting sickness in humans, also caused by hypoglycin A.


title: Acer negundo

text: "Acer negundo" pollen, which is released in winter or spring (varying with latitude and elevation) is a severe allergen.


title: Acer negundo

text: Although its light, close-grained, soft wood is considered undesirable for most commercial uses, this tree has been considered as a source of wood fiber, for use in fiberboard. There is also some commercial use of the tree for various decorative applications, such as turned items (bowls, stem-ware, pens). Such purposes generally use burl or injured wood, as the injured wood develops a red stain.


title: Acer negundo

text: The wood has been used for a variety of purposes by Native Americans, such as by the Navajo to make tubes for bellows, by the Cheyenne to make bowls, and by the native peoples of Montana who use the large trunk burls or knots to make bowls, dishes, drums, and pipe stems. The Tewa use the twigs as pipe stems and the Keres make the twigs into prayer sticks.


title: Acer negundo

text: The Dakota people and the Omaha people make the wood into charcoal, which is used in ceremonial painting and tattooing. The Kiowa burn the wood in the altar fire during the peyote ceremony.


title: Acer negundo

text: "Acer negundo" was identified as the material used in the oldest extant wood flutes from the Americas. The flutes, excavated by Earl H. Morris in 1931 in Northeastern Arizona, have been dated to 620–670 CE.


title: Acer negundo

text: "Acer negundo" has been used by Native Americans for several medicinal purposes. The Cheyenne burn the wood as incense for making spiritual medicines, and during Sun Dance ceremonies. The Meskwaki use a decoction of the inner bark as an emetic, and the Ojibwa use an infusion of the inner bark for the same purpose.


title: Acer negundo

text: The sap has been used to make syrup by Native Americans, including the Dakota, Omaha, Pawnee, the Ponca, Winnebago, Cree, Sioux, and the indigenous people of Montana. The Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache dry scrapings of the inner bark and keep it as winter food, and they also boil the inner bark until sugar crystallizes out of it. The Cheyenne mix the boiled sap with shavings from the inner sides of animal hides and eat them as candy. The Ojibwa mix the sap with that of the sugar maple and drink it as a beverage.


title: Rattus

text: Rattus is a genus of muroid rodents, all typically called rats. However, the term rat can also be applied to rodent species outside of this genus.


title: Rattus

text: The best-known "Rattus" species are the black rat ("R. rattus") and the brown rat ("R. norvegicus"). The group is generally known as the Old World rats or true rats and originated in Asia. Rats are bigger than most Old World mice, which are their relatives, but seldom weigh over in the wild.


title: Rattus

text: The genus "Rattus" is a member of the giant subfamily Murinae. Several other murine genera are sometimes considered part of "Rattus": "Lenothrix", "Anonymomys", "Sundamys", "Kadarsanomys", "Diplothrix", "Margaretamys", "Lenomys", "Komodomys", "Palawanomys", "Bunomys", "Nesoromys", "Stenomys", "Taeromys", "Paruromys", "Abditomys", "Tryphomys", "Limnomys", "Tarsomys", "Bullimus", "Apomys", "Millardia", "Srilankamys", "Niviventer", "Maxomys", "Leopoldamys", "Berylmys", "Mastomys", "Myomys", "Praomys", "Hylomyscus", "Heimyscus", "Stochomys", "Dephomys" and "Aethomys".


title: Rattus

text: The genus "Rattus" proper contains 64 extant species. A subgeneric breakdown of the species has been proposed, but does not include all species.


title: Vactrain

text: A vactrain (or vacuum tube train) is a proposed design for very-high-speed rail transportation. It is a maglev (magnetic levitation) line using partly evacuated tubes or tunnels. Reduced air resistance could permit vactrains to travel at very high (hypersonic) speeds with relatively little power—up to . This is 5–6 times the speed of sound in Earth's atmosphere at sea level.


title: Vactrain

text: In 1799, George Medhurst of London conceived of and patented an atmospheric railway that could convey people or cargo through pressurized or evacuated tubes. The early atmospheric railways and pneumatic tube transport systems (such as the Dalkey Atmospheric Railway) relied on steam power for propulsion.


title: Vactrain

text: In 1888, Michel Verne, son of Jules Verne, imagined a submarine pneumatic tube transport system that could propel a passenger capsule at speeds up to under the Atlantic Ocean (a transatlantic tunnel) in a short story called "An Express of the Future".


title: Vactrain

text: The vactrain proper was invented by Robert H. Goddard as a freshman at Worcester Polytechnic Institute in the United States in 1904. Goddard subsequently refined the idea in a 1906 short story called "The High-Speed Bet" which was summarized and published in a Scientific American editorial in 1909 called "The Limit of Rapid Transit". Esther, his wife, was granted a US patent for the vactrain in 1950, five years after his death.


title: Vactrain

text: In 1909, Russian professor built the world's first model of his proposed version of the vactrain at Tomsk Polytechnic University. He later published a vactrain concept in 1914 in the book "Motion without friction (airless electric way)".


title: Vactrain

text: In 1955, Polish science-fiction writer Stanisław Lem in a novel "The Magellan Nebula" wrote about intercontinental vactrain called "organowiec", which moved in a transparent tube at a speed higher than . Later in April 1962, the vactrain appears in the story "Mercenary" by Mack Reynolds, where he mentions Vacuum Tube Transport in passing.


title: Vactrain

text: During the 1970s, a leading vactrain advocate, Robert M. Salter of RAND, published a series of elaborate engineering articles.


title: Vactrain

text: An interview with Robert Salter appeared in the "Los Angeles Times" (June 11, 1972). He discussed, in detail, the relative ease with which the U.S. government could build a tube shuttle system using technologies available at that time. Maglev being poorly developed at the time, he proposed steel wheels. The chamber's door to the tube would be opened, and enough air admitted behind to accelerate the train into the tube. Gravity would further accelerate the departing train down to cruise level. Rising from cruise level, the arriving train would decelerate by compressing the rarefied air ahead of it, which would be vented. Pumps at the stations would make up for losses due to friction or air escaping around the edges of the train, the train itself requiring no motor. This combination of modified (shallow) gravity train and atmospheric railway propulsion would consume little energy but limit the system to subsonic speeds, hence initial routes of tens or hundreds of miles or kilometers rather than transcontinental distances were proposed.


title: Vactrain

text: Trains were to require no couplers, each car being directly welded, bolted, or otherwise firmly connected to the next, the route calling for no more bending than the flexibility of steel could easily handle. At the end of the line, the train would be moved sideways into the end chamber of the return tube. The railway would have both an inner evacuated tube and an outer tunnel. At cruise depth, the space between would have enough water to float the vacuum tube, softening the ride.


title: Vactrain

text: A route through the Northeast Megalopolis was laid out, with nine stations, one each in Washington DC, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and two in Connecticut. Commuter rail systems were mapped for the San Francisco and New York areas, the commuter version having longer, heavier trains, to be propelled less by air and more by gravity than the intercity version. The New York system was to have three lines, terminating in Babylon, Paterson, Huntington, Elizabeth, White Plains, and St. George.


title: Vactrain

text: Salter pointed out how such a system would help reduce the environmental damage being done to the atmosphere by aviation and surface transportation. He called underground Very High Speed Transportation (tube shuttles) his nation's "logical next step". The plans were never taken to the next stage.


title: Vactrain

text: At the time these reports were published, national prestige was an issue as Japan had been operating its showcase shinkansen for several years and maglev train research was hot technology. The American "Planetran" would establish a transcontinental subway service in the United States and provide a commute from Los Angeles to New York City in one hour. The tunnel would be buried to a depth of several hundred feet in solid rock formations. Construction would make use of lasers to ensure alignment and use tungsten probes to melt through igneous rock formations. The tunnel would maintain a partial vacuum to minimize drag. A trip would average and subject passengers to accelerations up to 1.4 times that of gravity, requiring the use of gimballed compartments. Enormous construction costs (estimated as high as US$1 trillion) were the primary reason why Salter's proposal was never built.


title: Vactrain

text: Starting in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Swissmetro was proposed to leverage the invention of the experimental German Transrapid maglev train, and operate in large tunnels reduced to the pressure altitude of at which the Concorde SST was certified to fly.


title: Vactrain

text: In the 1980s, Frank P. Davidson, a founder and chairman of the Channel Tunnel project, and Japanese engineer tackled the transoceanic problems with a proposal to float a tube above the ocean floor, anchored with cables (a submerged floating tunnel). The transit tube would remain at least below the ocean surface to avoid water turbulence.


title: Vactrain

text: On November 18, 1991, Gerard K. O'Neill filed a patent application for a vactrain system. He called the company he wanted to form "VSE International", for velocity, silence, and efficiency. However, the concept itself he called "Magnetic Flight". The vehicles, instead of running on a pair of tracks, would be elevated using electromagnetic force by a single track within a tube (permanent magnets in the track, with variable magnets on the vehicle), and propelled by electromagnetic forces through tunnels. He estimated the trains could reach speeds of up to – about five times faster than a jet airliner – if the air was evacuated from the tunnels. To obtain such speeds, the vehicle would accelerate for the first half of the trip, and then decelerate for the second half of the trip. The acceleration was planned to be a maximum of about one-half of the force of gravity. O'Neill planned to build a network of stations connected by these tunnels, but he died two years before his first patent on it was granted.


title: Vactrain

text: James R. Powell, co-inventor of superconducting maglev in the 1960s, has since 2001 led investigation of a concept for using a maglev vactrain for space launch (theoretically two orders of magnitude less marginal cost than present rockets), where the StarTram proposal would have vehicles reach up to within an acceleration tunnel (lengthy to limit g-forces), considering boring through the ice sheet in Antarctica for lower anticipated expense than in rock.


title: Vactrain

text: ET3 claim to have achieved some work that resulted in a patent on "evacuated tube transport technology" which was granted in 2009. They presented their idea in 2013 on public stage.


title: Vactrain

text: In August 2013 Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla and SpaceX, published the Hyperloop Alpha paper, proposing and examining a route running from the Los Angeles region to the San Francisco Bay Area, roughly following the Interstate 5 corridor. The Hyperloop concept has been explicitly "open-sourced" by Musk and SpaceX, and others have been encouraged to take the ideas and further develop them.


title: Vactrain

text: To that end, a few companies have been formed, and several interdisciplinary student-led teams are working to advance the technology. SpaceX built an approximately subscale track for its pod design competition at its headquarters in Hawthorne, California.


title: Vactrain

text: In the 2022 book "Road to Nowhere", technology writer Paris Marx claimed Musk had admitted that the hyperloop proposal was simply an attempt to cause the cancellation of a high speed rail project in California.


title: Crawl space

text: A crawl space is an unoccupied, unfinished, narrow space within a building, between the ground and the first (or ground) floor. The crawl space is so named because there is typically only enough room to crawl rather than stand; anything larger than about and beneath the ground floor would tend to be considered a basement.


title: Crawl space

text: A crawl space is often built when building a basement would be impractical or too expensive. A crawl space can also substitute for a concrete slab foundation that would hinder building inspections.


title: Crawl space

text: The crawl space's functions include providing access to repair plumbing, electrical wiring, and heating and cooling systems without the need for excavation. Building insulation can also be installed in a crawl space. The crawl space can provide a protective buffer between the damp ground and the wooden parts of a home and, with adequate sealing, help with radon mitigation. Crawl spaces are also sometimes used for storage of items such as canned goods that are not particularly susceptible to destruction by mildew or unstable temperatures.


title: Crawl space

text: A crawl space foundation can be used to elevate the lowest floors of residential buildings located in Special Flood Hazard Areas above the Base Flood Elevation. The Federal Emergency Management Agency recommends that the floor of the crawlspace be at or above the lowest grade adjacent to the building.


title: Crawl space

text: Crawl spaces are not usually an option in cold regions, such as the northern United States, where a full basement is needed to get the foundation below the frost line. Another downside of crawl spaces compared to basements is that they offer less protection against earthquakes, tornadoes, and hurricanes. Crawl spaces also tend to be more expensive than slab foundations. Problems with crawl spaces, such as leaks, may not be noticed as quickly as problems with basements, since people typically do not go into their crawl space as often. A crawl space also may not be as well-suited to a sloped lot as a basement. HVAC equipment in unconditioned crawl spaces tends not to operate as efficiently as it would in a conditioned space such as a basement.


title: Crawl space

text: Crawl spaces can be actively or passively vented, or closed. An advantage of a vented crawl space is that harmful gases such as radon or carbon monoxide (e.g. from gas furnaces or water heaters) can escape or be diluted before they can enter the living space. However, in regions with a humid climate, vents to the outside can also allow moist air to come in, which can then condense if temperatures (e.g. on cooler surfaces such as ductwork) drop below the dew point, creating a damp environment that is hospitable to indoor mold growth as well as infestations by rodents and insects, possibly including wood-damaging ones such as termites or carpenter ants. Even without condensation, relative humidity above 80% can support mold growth and rot wooden structural materials such as floor joists. Humidity in some sealed crawl spaces is controlled using a dehumidifier.


title: Crawl space

text: Encapsulation is sometimes used to prevent the passage of air from the crawl space to the living environment, to save energy and improve indoor air quality, since air in the crawl space might otherwise tend to rise due to the stack effect. Encapsulation involves adding a vapor barrier to the floor, sealing off all openings to the outdoors, adding thermal insulation to the walls, and sealing off any remaining gaps and cracks (such as plumbing and wiring penetrations) between the crawl space and the floor of the home. A 2005 U.S. Department of Energy study of homes in the southeastern United States found that closed crawl spaces with sealed foundation wall vents, sealed polyethylene film liners and various insulation and drying strategies had significantly reduced space conditioning energy use compared to traditional wall-vented crawl spaces with perimeter wall vents and unsealed polyethylene film covering the ground surface. As a further encapsulation measure, crawl space access doors are sometimes located inside the home, or an airtight, insulated access door is built in the perimeter wall.


title: Crawl space

text: A crawl space can be susceptible to flooding, a risk that is sometimes mitigated by such measures as using rain drainage such as rain gutters to conduct rainwater away from the house and sloping the earth away from the house.


title: Crawl space

text: In the series Breaking Bad, the main character Walter White uses his crawl space to hide the money he makes from illegally selling drugs.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: Phillauri is a 2017 Indian Hindi-language fantasy-comedy film directed by Anshai Lal and produced by Fox Star Studios with Anushka Sharma and her brother Karnesh Ssharma under their banner of Clean Slate Filmz. Director Navdeep Singh and writer Sudip Sharma are associated with the film as creative producers. The film stars Anushka Sharma, Diljit Dosanjh, Suraj Sharma and Mehreen Pirzada in the lead roles. The film's first official poster was released on 3 February 2017. The film was released on 24 March 2017.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: A young man Kanan returns to India from Canada to marry his long-term girlfriend Anu, but learns that he is a Manglik (born under an unlucky star) and has to marry a tree before marrying her. He reluctantly marries the tree, which is duly chopped down after the completion of the ceremony. As a result, from that day onward he is haunted by the spirit of a woman named Shashi, who lived in that particular tree and hence claims to now be 'married' to him.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: The story of Phillauri and Shashi is slowly revealed via the latter's flashbacks. Back in an unspecified time period, Shashi is a bright young woman who never fails to read the works of a poet named "Phillauri" that is regularly published in a local weekly. Everyone in the village of Phillaur thinks that the poems are written by the singer Roop Lal 'Phillauri', who is the heart-throb of the village. However Roop Lal notices that Shashi, unlike all the other village girls, never comes to hear him sing. When he confronts her and tells her that he is the Phillauri who writes the poetry by narrating one of his famous poems to her, he is shocked when Shashi slaps and insults him. She asks him to use his talent – of being able to connect with the common man through his songs – for something important (especially when the struggle for independence is on) and not for frivolous matters. From that day onwards Roop Lal is a changed man, dedicating his life to knowing and understanding the poetry of Phillauri (which it is clear now that he is not the author of), and spreading its message via his beautiful singing to others.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: On one particular night while Roop Lal is alone at home singing one of Phillauri's poems, Shashi comes to him and reveals that she is the one who writes poetry under the pseudonym of 'Phillauri' (which she can't do openly, being a woman). Subsequently, love blossoms between the two (the poet and the singer who translates her poetry to song and spreads its message far and wide), but Shashi's elder brother (a reputed doctor of the village who brought her up) eventually learns about the affair and intervenes between the lovers. Roop Lal confronts Shashi's brother and admits to having been an alcohol-addicted good-for-nothing who still is not worthy of her, but tells him that he (Roop Lal) is going to Amritsar to record all the songs written by Shashi and will eventually return and ask for her hand in marriage.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: The very fact that Shashi writes poetry is a revelation to her brother, and as time passes he too reads the poems and starts appreciating her obvious talent. Meanwhile, Roop Lal records the songs in Amritsar (the gramophone record is credited to both) and is paid a handsome fee of three hundred rupees. He immediately sends the entire amount as a money order to Shashi's brother, along with a letter stating his intention to return and marry her on Baisakhi. Shashi's brother, by now convinced of Roop Lal's changed nature and good intentions as well as the deep love between the couple, starts the preparations for her marriage.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: On the day of the wedding Shashi discovers that she is pregnant, but does not disclose the news to anyone except her close friend Amrit (Nidhi Bisht). She expectantly waits for Roop Lal along with all her relatives and the entire village, but eventually the day ends with him nowhere to be seen on any of the buses from Amritsar. Her brother has to face the intense embarrassment and shame of sending everyone away, and this in turn hurts Shashi so much that she commits suicide (by hanging herself from a tree) due to an overwhelming sense of sadness, despair and betrayal.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: In the midst of all these flashbacks by Shashi's spirit the parallel storyline in the present continues with Kanan (whose confused ramblings about seeing a ghost naturally no-one believes), ending up in trouble with Anu who feels that he is not really interested in marrying her (which is partially true since he is getting cold feet). In order to clear the misunderstanding Shashi finally manages to reveal her presence to Anu as well (though Anu still cannot see her), and having heard her entire painful story Anu realises that Shashi's spirit is in fact still stuck on the mortal plane due to her unfulfilled love. At that point Anu's grandmother asks Kanan to say something to his bride, and Shashi prompts him with her poem. Grandma sings a few lines of the same, being her favourite, which as fate would have it is the one Roop Lal recorded. The record label mentions the recording date as 1919, which results in an epiphany for Kanan who immediately takes Anu (with Shashi in tow) to the site of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, which took place on that very day 98 years ago.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: The movie ends with Shashi's spirit reuniting finally with her lover Roop Lal's (who was indeed killed in the massacre on the very Baisakhi day he recorded their songs and was to return to marry her). Before they both ascend to heaven Shashi tells Kanan and Anu (who can now see her) to love and cherish each other always, and that is what they promise each other as they embark on a new phase of their very own love story.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: Principal photography of the film commenced in April 2016. The shooting of the film went on floors after the Punjabi festival of Vaisakhi 2016. First day of the shoot was on 19 April 2016.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: The music of the film is composed by Shashwat Sachdev with Jasleen Royal as a guest composer while the lyrics have been penned by Anvita Dutt Guptan, Aditya Sharma, Neeraj Rajawat and Shellee. Sameer Uddin has composed the background score. The music rights are acquired by T-Series. The first song "Dum Dum" was released on 16 February 2017. The soundtrack was released on 6 March 2017.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: The film received mixed reviews. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, "Phillauri" has an approval score of 40% based on 10 reviews with an average rating of 6.1 out of 10.


title: Phillauri (film)

text: Nihit Bhave of The Times of India gave the film a rating of 3 out of 5 and said that, "The idea is superbly original, culturally on point and has great potential. The problem is, you only get what you see in the trailer." Sweta Kausal of Hindustan Times gave the film a rating of 2.5 out of 5 saying that, "There is nothing extraordinary about Phillauri. It is a light-hearted, average love story." Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV gave the film a rating of 3 out of 5 saying that, "The film is a lively, lighthearted drama enlivened with some fine cinematic touches." Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express criticized the film for being too slow saying that, "The pacing is not just languid, it is positively slow, and it allows scenes to go on for much longer than they should." and gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5. Rajeev Masand of News18 praised the performances of actors Suraj Sharma, Diljit Dosanjh and Anushka Sharma but criticized the long length of the film and gave the film a rating of 3 out of 5 saying that, "Phillauri isn’t a consistently smooth ride. It’s uneven and bumpy and unforgivably slow in portions. But a lot of it works and some of it flies."


title: Sam Greenwood (footballer)

text: Sam Greenwood (born 26 January 2002) is an English footballer who plays as a midfielder or forward for club Leeds United.


title: Sam Greenwood (footballer)

text: Greenwood started his career at Hebburn Town Juniors and Sunderland's academy, but left to join Arsenal's academy in 2018 at the age of 16, for a fee reported to be £500,000.


title: Sam Greenwood (footballer)

text: Greenwood joined Leeds United on a three-year deal on 28 August 2020 for an undisclosed fee, reported to be £1,500,000. He won the Premier League 2 player of the month award for September 2020. Greenwood made his senior Leeds debut on 10 January 2021 in the 3–0 FA Cup third round defeat against Crawley Town as a second-half substitute.


title: Sam Greenwood (footballer)

text: His second senior appearance for the club was in Leeds' 2-0 EFL Cup defeat at Arsenal on 26 October 2021, where he came on as a 70th minute replacement for Rodrigo. He made his Premier League debut on 18 December 2021 as a substitute in a 4–1 defeat at Arsenal. He was given his first Premier League start in the final match of the season away to Brentford on 22 May 2022, with Leeds needing to better Burnley's result to avoid relegation. Leeds won 2–1, with Greenwood playing as a central midfielder, and Burnley lost 2–1, ensuring Leeds' Premier League survival. In total, he made nine appearances across the 2021–22 season.


title: Sam Greenwood (footballer)

text: Greenwood’s first Premier League goal came in Leeds’ 4-3 win over Bournemouth at Elland Road on 5 November 2022.


title: Sam Greenwood (footballer)

text: On 6 September 2021, Greenwood made his debut for the England U20s during a 6–1 victory over Romania U20s at St. George's Park.


title: Sam Greenwood (footballer)

text: On 16 November 2021, Greenwood made a goalscoring debut for the England U21s as a 36th-minute substitute during the 3–2 defeat to Georgia in Batumi.


title: Brylcreem

text: Brylcreem () is a British brand of hair styling products for men. The first Brylcreem product was a hair cream created in 1928 by County Chemicals at the Chemico Works in Bradford Street, Birmingham, England, and is the flagship product of the brand. The cream is an emulsion of water and mineral oil stabilised with beeswax. It is notable for the high shine it provides, which spawned the name of the product, stemming from "brilliantine" and "cream".


title: Brylcreem

text: The British pharmaceutical firm Beecham was the longtime owner of Brylcreem. Sara Lee acquired the personal care unit of SmithKline Beecham in June 1993. In January 2012, the global rights to the Brylcreem brand were sold by Sara Lee Corporation to Unilever.


title: Brylcreem

text: Brylcreem is marketed in the United States by Combe Incorporated, in Europe by Unilever and in India by HUL. Before Godrej acquired a 51% stake of Sara Lee, in their joint venture "Godrej Sara Lee" in May 2010, the brand was distributed by Godrej in India.


title: Brylcreem

text: It was first advertised on television with the jingle "Brylcreem — A Little Dab'll Do Ya! Brylcreem — You'll look so debonair. Brylcreem — The gals'll all pursue ya; they'll love to run their fingers through your hair!". Another version was "Brylcreem—a little dab will do ya! Use more only if you dare; but watch out! The gals will all pursue ya! They'll love to run their fingers through your hair!"


title: Brylcreem

text: The jingle was created by Hanley M. Norins of the Young & Rubicam advertising agency. The television advertisement for Brylcreem included a cartoon animation of a man with (initially) shaggy hair, who happily has a little dab applied, and, miraculously, the hair combs and smooths itself.


title: Brylcreem

text: When the dry look became popular, partly inspired by the unoiled moptops of the Beatles, the last line was changed from "They'll love to run their fingers through your hair", to "They'll love the natural look it gives your hair". Subsequent television advertisements used the mottoes "Grooms without gumming" and later, in the 1970s, in the United Kingdom and Canada, "A little dab of Brylcreem on your hair gives you the Brylcreem bounce".


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: Salaam-e-Ishq () is a 2007 Indian Hindi-language romantic drama film directed by Nikkhil Advani, it featured an ensemble cast of Salman Khan, Priyanka Chopra, Anil Kapoor, Juhi Chawla, Akshaye Khanna, Ayesha Takia, John Abraham, Vidya Balan, Govinda, Shannon Esra, Sohail Khan and Isha Koppikar in lead roles. The film weaves six love stories together thanks to the relationships of the people within it. The film was Advani's second directorial venture after "Kal Ho Naa Ho" (2003) and the unofficial remake of Hollywood film "Love Actually" (2003). The shooting for the film began in 2004 and wrapped up in 2006.


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: Born in Dehradun, temperamental and ambitious Kamna changes her name to Kamini Ranawat, hires Babu as her manager, and becomes one of the most sought-after heroines in Bollywood. As a publicity stunt to change her image from item queen and to get the attention of filmmaker Karan Johar, she says that she is in love with a man named Rahul. In London, a man saying that he is Rahul Khanna and poses as her childhood sweetheart and future husband. Kamna has to play along or she will not get the film deal she was looking for with Johar. This results in a dilemma for her as Rahul reveals that he loved her back when she was Kamna, and she has to choose between her career and Rahul. Kamna initially chooses her career but soon realizes that she is in love with Rahul when she cannot stop thinking about him. Kamna turns down Johar's movie offer and hunts down Rahul at Gia Bakshi and Shiven Dungarpur's wedding, where she proposes to him.


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: Gia's sister Seema, who lives in Britain, has been married to Vinay Malhotra for 15 years, and they have two children. Vinay sees his life as boring and dull until a woman named Anjali comes into his life. The two start to meet and begin an affair, but while preparing to travel to India for Gia's marriage, Seema finds out about Vinay's affair, leaving her heartbroken. Vinay is left to choose between Seema and Anjali. He chooses Seema and runs to the airport as she is leaving for India with their children. Vinay apologizes to Seema, and the couple reunites.


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: Gia lives with her father Col. Bakshi and is in love with Shiven. Both are to get married shortly, but Shiven starts to get cold feet thanks to a few misleading words about marriage from his friend Juggy. He decides to disappear from her life, leaving Bakshi no alternative but to arrange Gia's marriage with Rohit Chhada. However, Shiven remains heartbroken and cannot stop thinking about Gia. While driving one day, he accidentally hits Tehzeeb Hussain, who is walking on the road, and helps her reunite with Ashutosh Raina. As he sees the pair reunite, he realizes that he cannot let Gia go. He rushes to her wedding with Rohit and stops the wedding, professing his love for Gia. Shiven and Gia get married.


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: Ashutosh is a Hindu but falls in love and marries Tehzeeb, who is Muslim, much to the chagrin of his father, who will not have anything to do with him. Tehzeeb is a TV news reporter; while travelling on an inaugural train route, the train derails. Tehzeeb survives but loses her memory and is unable to recall who Ashutosh is – and may end up leaving him and returning to her parents' home. Ashutosh takes Tehzeeb to his parents' house where they first met so that Tehzeeb can restore her memories, but he must deal with his father in order to help her. Tehzeeb is overwhelmed and runs away. She is accidentally hit by Shiven's car. Shiven calls Ashutosh, and they bring Tehzeeb to Shiven's house to rest. When Tehzeeb wakes up, she wants to leave Ashutosh and go to her family's house because she is tired of seeing him sad when she is unable to remember who he is. Ashutosh tells her that even if she cannot remember their past, the couple can form new memories together. He also tells her that without her, he has no present or future and that whatever the future brings, the couple will be able to face together. Tehzeeb and Ashutosh then reunite and resume their life together. A few years later, they are back to being the loving couple that they were before Tehzeeb's accident.


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: Raju is a taxi driver who comes to the assistance of a white woman Stephanie, who is frantically trying to hunt down her lover Rohit. While Raju drives her around all of Northern India searching for Rohit, he falls in love with her and drops her off to the venue where Rohit is getting ready to marry Gia. However, it turns out that Rohit does not want to marry Stephanie because he wants to marry an Indian girl and tells her to get lost. Raju slaps Rohit across the face and confesses his love for Stephanie. Stephanie confesses her love for Raju, and the couple unites.


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: Ramdayal weds attractive Phoolwati and would like to spend some intimate moments with her, but comical circumstances prevent him from doing so. On the day they get married, Ram accidentally sets the room on fire, thus ruining his and Phoolwati's first night. One night, Ram gets kicked out of a brothel when five kids see him kissing Phoolwati. Ram and Phoolwati hide in a car but get injured when the car crashes into a house. Then, while travelling together on a train, they somehow manage to scare away the passengers from the compartment they are sharing, so they finally get their romance time.


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: Since the plot involves various interlinked stories, the film was shot in various Indian locations of Rishikesh, Delhi, Agra, Jaipur, and Hyderabad along with abroad location at London, Australia and Sri Lanka. Vikram Phadnis worked for about two years and designed around 800 costumes for all the on-screen characters from lead actors to background dancers of the film.


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: The music of the film was released in 2006 at Grand Hyatt, Mumbai by T-Series. It has 7 songs composed by Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy with lyrics by Sameer. This is the second film of Nikhil Advani together with the musical trio. Their first venture "Kal Ho Naa Ho" (2003) had earned Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy the National Film Award for Best Music Direction. This soundtrack consisted of 7 tracks. The track "Babuji" from "Aar Paar" (1954) was remastered and used for the album.


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: Actor Akshaye Khanna who plays Shiven in the film commented on the music, saying, ""Salaam-E-Ishq" has the best music I have heard in the last 10 years. The album is outstanding. It is definitely Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy's best work till today. It has very unique sounds, and Sameer's lyrics are also fabulous. It is not the type which will become obsolete after a point of time. You will want to pull out its CD even after 15 years and listen to the music." Anil Kapoor, who plays Vinay, too echoed the same sentiments, saying the album was best to come out of Bollywood in a long time.


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: The album was met with highly positive reviews from music critics and was a huge commercial success. Sukanya Verma of "Rediff" in her 4.5 star review, remarked, ""Salaam-e-Ishq" is a well-designed, wholesome soundtrack with emphasis on melody, beat and innovation. Featuring 7 individual tracks, no sad versions or technically-damaged retakes. It is 7 out of 7! The musical trio succeed in getting the perfect score." Joginder Tuteja of "Bollywood Hungama" too gave the album a positive review, stating, "Each of the songs of "Salaam-E-Ishq" boasts of high quality music. There are some new sounds interspersed with the kind of music that goes well with the Bollywood scheme of things and the final result is something that is going to stay with you for many more months to come." "Glamsham" remarked, "The musical trio has infused different musical beats, style and concepts with élan in tracks in 'Dil Kya Kare' and 'Saiyaan Re' and has entertained with the title track. Hear it for different musical flavors and you will feel the versatility of this high-profile album and the musical flamboyance of the musical trio."


title: Salaam-e-Ishq

text: According to the Indian trade website "Box Office India", with around 16,50,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's fourth highest-selling. "Rediff.com" called it a "delightful soundtrack helmed by the efficient troika of Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy."


title: The Cellar (2022 film)

text: The Cellar is a 2022 supernatural horror film written and directed by Brendan Muldowney and starring Elisha Cuthbert and Eoin Macken. It follows a family whose daughter disappears in the cellar of the large estate they have just moved into. The film was released via Shudder on 15 April 2022.


title: The Cellar (2022 film)

text: Keira Woods has moved into a new house with her husband, son, and daughter. When her daughter mysteriously vanishes in the cellar, she soon discovers there is an ancient and powerful entity controlling their home that she will have to face or risk losing her family's souls forever. This entity is tied to the Leviathan as well as Baphomet, a pagan deity associated with the occult.


title: The Cellar (2022 film)

text: An international co-production between Ireland and Belgium. The film was shot on fall 2019 in Roscommon, Ireland.


title: The Cellar (2022 film)

text: The film premiered at South by Southwest in March 2022 before being released via Shudder on 15 April 2022.


title: Ophelia Dahl

text: Ophelia Magdalena Dahl (born 12 May 1964) is a British-American social justice and health care advocate. Dahl co-founded Partners In Health (PIH), a Boston, Massachusetts-based non-profit health care organization dedicated to providing a "preferential option for the poor." She served as executive director for 16 years and has since chaired its Board of Directors.


title: Ophelia Dahl

text: As a co-founder and key member of the PIH team, Dahl was featured prominently in "Mountains Beyond Mountains: The Quest of Dr. Paul Farmer, a Man Who Would Cure the World", Tracy Kidder's book describing the work of the organisation and the life of Dr. Farmer. In December 2006, Ophelia Dahl and Paul Farmer received the Union Medal from Union Theological Seminary in New York. Dahl and the Partners in Health team is featured in the 2017 documentary film, Bending The Arc.


title: Ophelia Dahl

text: In 1983, Dahl first encountered Paul Farmer, the future co-founder of PIH, as an eighteen-year-old volunteer in Haiti. Dahl has served as Executive Director of PIH from 2001-2005, and now chairs the Board of Directors, where the organisation continues to build health care systems and raise standards in global health in remote areas of the world.


title: Ophelia Dahl

text: Since the development of PIH in 1987, the organisation has expanded its health care services around the planet. Under the leadership of Dahl, PIH is strengthening the public health system for over 800,000 people in Rwanda. Other countries include Malawi, Mexico, Russia, and Lesotho, where PIH works with the countries' respective ministries of health to fight diseases in certain rural areas. PIH provides critical health care services through programs for cancer, chronic diseases, cholera, HIV/AIDS, surgery, women's health, child health, community health workers, mental health, and tuberculosis. As of now, PIH works in more than 60 hospital centers around the world, with more than 12,000 colleagues involved.


title: Ophelia Dahl

text: In 2011, she was named by the "Boston Globe" as one of the three Bostonians of the Year, along with Paul Farmer and a senior member of Partners in Health, Louise Ivers. This was mainly due to her role in the charity's response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake. She has also been selected by Social Capital Inc. (SCI) as a 2011 SCI Idealist Award recipient, to be given on 30 March 2011.


title: Ophelia Dahl

text: In 2013, Dahl was a distinguished speaker at the Madeleine Korbel Albright Institute for Global Affairs.


title: Ophelia Dahl

text: Dahl was born on May 12, 1964 in Oxford, United Kingdom. Dahl is the second-youngest child of actress Patricia Neal and author Roald Dahl. Dahl contributed to the 2003 book "The Roald Dahl Treasury", a collection of her father's stories, memoirs, letters and poetry, and is currently writing a memoir of her father. She is a trustee and vice president of the Roald Dahl Museum and Story Centre, a registered charity with the mission of "telling Roald Dahl’s life story, to care for his archive and to promote a love of creative writing in everyone." She also is the chair of Dahl & Dahl LLP, which manages the literary estate of her father.


title: Ophelia Dahl

text: In 1994, Dahl graduated from Wellesley College as a Davis Scholar and delivered Wellesley's 2006 commencement address.


title: Vanishing twin

text: A vanishing twin, also known as twin resorption, is a fetus in a multigestation pregnancy that dies "in utero "and is then partially or completely reabsorbed. In some instances, the dead twin is compressed into a flattened, parchment-like state known as "fetus papyraceus".


title: Vanishing twin

text: Vanishing twins occur in up to one of every eight multifetus pregnancies and may not even be known in most cases. "High resorption rates, which cannot be explained on the basis of the expected abortion rate, suggest intense fetal competition for space, nutrition, or other factors during early gestation, with frequent loss or resorption of the other twin(s)."


title: Vanishing twin

text: In pregnancies achieved by "in vitro" fertilization, "it frequently happens that more than one amniotic sac can be seen in early pregnancy, whereas a few weeks later there is only one to be seen and the other has 'vanished'".


title: Ovis

text: Ovis is a genus of mammals, part of the Caprinae subfamily of the ruminant family Bovidae. Its seven highly sociable species are known as sheep or ovines. Domestic sheep are members of the genus, and are thought to be descended from the wild mouflon of central and southwest Asia.


title: Ovis

text: Female sheep are called "ewes", males are called "rams" or less frequently "bucks" or "tups", neutered males are called "wethers", and young sheep are called "lambs". The adjective applying to sheep is "ovine", and the collective term for sheep is "flock" or "mob". The term "herd" is also occasionally used in this sense, generally for large flocks. Many specialist terms relating to domestic sheep are used.


title: Ovis

text: Sheep are fairly small compared to other ungulates; in most species, adults weigh less than . Males are usually heavier than females by a significant amount.


title: Ovis

text: Wild sheep are mostly found in hilly or mountainous habitats. Their diets consist mainly of grasses, as well as other plants and lichens. Like other ruminants, they have four-chambered stomachs, which play a vital role in digesting food; they eructate, and rechew the cud to enable them to digest and live on low-quality, rough plant materials. Sheep conserve water well, and can live in fairly dry environments.


title: Ovis

text: The bodies of wild sheep (and some domestic breeds) are covered by a coat of thick hair to protect them from cold. This coat contains long, stiff hairs, called kemps, over a short, woolly undercoat, which grows in autumn and is shed in spring. This woolly undercoat has been developed in many domestic sheep breeds into a fleece of long wool, with selection against kemp hairs in these breeds. The fleece covers the body (in a few breeds also the face and legs) and is used for fibre. Domestic sheep are also reared for their milk and meat (which is called lamb or mutton depending on the age of the animal).


title: Ovis

text: In wild sheep, both rams and ewes have horns, while in domestic sheep (depending upon breed) horns may be present in both rams and ewes, in rams only, or in neither. Rams' horns may be very large – those of a mature bighorn ram can weigh  – as much as the bones of the rest of its body put together. Rams use their horns to fight with each other for dominance and the right to mate with females. In most cases, they do not injure each other because they hit each other head-to-head, and their curved horns do not strike each other's bodies. They are also protected by having very thick skin and double-layered skulls.


title: Ovis

text: Wild sheep have very keen senses of sight and hearing. When detecting predators, wild sheep most often flee, usually to higher ground, but they can also fight back. The Dall sheep has been known to butt wolves off the face of cliffs.


title: Ovis

text: Sheep have scent glands on their faces and feet. Communication through the scent glands is not well understood, but is thought to be important for sexual signaling. Males can smell females that are in estrus, and rams mark their territories by rubbing scent on rocks.


title: Ovis

text: Seven species (and numerous subspecies) of sheep are currently recognized. The main recognized divisions are:


title: Ovis

text: Sheep are social animals and live in groups, called flocks. This helps them to avoid predators and stay warm in cold weather by huddling together. Flocks of sheep need to keep moving to find new grazing areas and more favourable weather as the seasons change. In each flock, a sheep, usually a mature ram, is followed by the others. This "leader to follower" relationship can be both a positive and negative for flocks of "Ovis aries". Although there is safety in numbers, it has been reported that the following of one mature ram can bring flocks to slaughter in many situations where the mature ram misguides the flock.


title: Ovis

text: Mating in sheep is characterized by males competing for females in estrus. Social rank in rams is established by male-male competition, known as the rut. Females select from dominant males based on sexually selected characteristics such as body size and horn size, as those traits are desirable in offspring.


title: Ovis

text: Females typically are separated from males outside the rut, but during the rut, females and males are found together. Females that are oestrous isolate themselves from other ewes, and may be less mobile. The rut is also linked with different ewe behaviour than during nonrutting periods. These changes are characterized by decreased feeding, increased time observing their surroundings, and increased behaviour changes. Ewes are also predicted to be slightly receptive to the displays of the rams.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Under the law of the United Kingdom, high treason is the crime of disloyalty to the Crown. Offences constituting high treason include plotting the murder of the sovereign; committing adultery with the sovereign's consort, with the sovereign's eldest unmarried daughter, or with the wife of the heir to the throne; levying war against the sovereign and adhering to the sovereign's enemies, giving them aid or comfort; and attempting to undermine the lawfully established line of succession. Several other crimes have historically been categorised as high treason, including counterfeiting money and being a Catholic priest.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: High treason was generally distinguished from petty treason, a treason committed against a subject of the sovereign, the scope of which was limited by statute to the murder of a legal superior. Petty treason comprised the murder of a master by his servant, of a husband by his wife, or of a bishop by a clergyman. Petty treason ceased to be a distinct offence from murder in 1828, and consequently high treason is today often referred to simply as treason.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Considered to be the most serious of offences (more than murder or other felonies), high treason was often met with extraordinary punishment, because it threatened the safety of the state. Hanging, drawing and quartering was the usual punishment until the 19th century. The last treason trial was that of William Joyce, "Lord Haw-Haw", who was executed by hanging in 1946.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Since the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 became law, the maximum sentence for treason in the UK has been life imprisonment.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In addition to the Acts of 1351 and 1703, two additional Acts passed by the old Parliament of Ireland apply to Northern Ireland alone. The following is also treason:


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Although the Act of Supremacy (Ireland) 1560 is still in force, it is no longer treason to contravene it.)


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In addition to the crime of treason, the Treason Felony Act 1848 (still in force today) created a new offence known as "treason felony", with a maximum sentence of life imprisonment instead of death (but today, due to the abolition of the death penalty, the maximum penalty both for high treason and treason felony is the same—life imprisonment). Under the traditional categorisation of offences into treason, felonies, and misdemeanours, treason felony was merely another form of felony. Several categories of treason which had been introduced by the Sedition Act 1661 were reduced to felonies. While the common law offences of misprision and compounding were abolished in respect of felonies (including treason felony) by the Criminal Law Act 1967, which abolished the distinction between misdemeanour and felony, misprision of treason and compounding treason are still offences under the common law.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In England, there was no clear common law definition of treason; it was for the king and his judges to determine if an offence constituted treason. Thus, the process became open to abuse, and decisions were often arbitrary. For instance, during the reign of Edward III, a knight was convicted of treason because he assaulted one of the king's subjects and held him for a ransom of £90. It was only in 1351 that Parliament passed legislation on the subject of treason. Under the Treason Act 1351, or "Statute of Treasons", which distinguished between high and petty treason, several distinct offences constitute high treason; most of them continue to do so, while those relating to forgery have been relegated to ordinary offences.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: First, it was high treason to "compass or imagine the death of our Lord the King, of our Lady his Queen, or of their eldest son and heir." The terms "compass or imagine" indicate the premeditation of a murder; it would not be high treason to accidentally kill the sovereign or any other member of the Royal Family (though someone could be charged with manslaughter or negligent homicide). However it has also been held to include rebelling against or trying to overthrow the monarch, as experience has shown that this normally involves the monarch's death. The terms of this provision have been held to include both male and female sovereigns, but only the spouses of male Sovereigns. It is not sufficient to merely allege that an individual is guilty of high treason because of his thoughts or imaginations; there must be an overt act indicating the plot.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: A second form of high treason defined by the Treason Act 1351 was having sexual intercourse with "the King's companion, or the King's eldest daughter unmarried, or the wife of the King's eldest son and heir." If the intercourse is not consensual, only the rapist is liable, but if it is consensual, then both parties are liable. Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard, wives of Henry VIII, were found guilty of treason for this reason. The jurist Sir William Blackstone writes that "the plain intention of this law is to guard the Blood Royal from any suspicion of bastardy, whereby the succession to the Crown might be rendered dubious." Thus, only women are covered in the statute; it is not, for example, high treason to rape a Queen-Regnant's husband. Similarly, it is not high treason to rape a widow of the sovereign or of the heir-apparent.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In 1994, the book "Princess in Love" by Anna Pasternak, for which James Hewitt was a major source, alleged that Hewitt had a five-year affair with Diana, Princess of Wales from 1986 to 1991. Diana confirmed the affair in her 1995 "Panorama" interview. As she was then the wife of the Prince of Wales, heir to the throne, this fitted the definition of high treason, and a national newspaper briefly attempted to have Hewitt prosecuted for what was then still a capital offence.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: It is high treason "if a man do levy war against our Lord the King in his realm" or "if a man be adherent to the King's enemies in his realm, giving to them aid and comfort in the realm or elsewhere." Conspiracy to levy war or aid the sovereign's enemies do not amount to this kind of treason, though it may be encompassing the Sovereign's death. In modern times only these kinds of treason have actually been prosecuted (during the World Wars and the Easter Rising).


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: The Treason Act 1351 made it high treason to "slay the Chancellor, Treasurer, or the King's justices of the one bench or the other, justices in eyre, or justices of assize, and all other justices assigned to hear and determine, being in their places doing their offices."


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: The last types of high treason defined by the Treason Act 1351 were the forgery of the Great Seal or Privy Seal, the counterfeiting of English (later British) money and the importing of money known to be counterfeit. These offences, however, were reduced to felonies rather than high treasons in 1861 and 1832 respectively.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Finally, the Treason Act 1351 specified that the listing of offences was meant to be exhaustive. Only Parliament, not the courts, could add to the list. It provided that if "other like cases of treason may happen in time to come, which cannot be thought of nor declared at present", the court may refer the matter to the King and Parliament, which could then determine the matter by passage of an Act. "(See constructive treason.)"


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: After the passage of the Treason Act 1351, several other offences were deemed to comprise high treason by Act of Parliament. Parliament seemed especially unrestrained during the reign of Edward III's successor, Richard II. Numerous new offences—including intending to kill the Sovereign (even without an overt act demonstrating such intent) and killing an ambassador—were declared treasonable. Richard II, however, was deposed; his successor, Henry IV, rescinded the legislation and restored the standard of Edward III.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: From the reign of Henry IV onwards, several new offences were made treasons; most legislation on the subject was passed during the reign of Henry VIII. It became high treason to deface money; to escape from prison whilst detained for committing treason, or to aid in an escape of a person detained for treason; to commit arson to extort money; to refer to the Sovereign offensively in public writing; to counterfeit the Sovereign's sign manual, signet or privy seal; to refuse to abjure the authority of the Pope; to marry any of the Sovereign's children, sisters, aunts, nephews or nieces without royal permission; to marry the Sovereign without disclosing prior sexual relationships; attempting to enter into a sexual relationship (out of marriage) with the Queen or a Princess; denying the Sovereign's official styles and titles; and refusing to acknowledge the Sovereign as the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Some offences, whose complexion was entirely different from traitorous actions, were nevertheless made treasons; thus, it was high treason for a Welshman to steal cattle, to commit murder by poisoning (1531), or for an assembly of twelve or more rioters to refuse to disperse when so commanded.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: All new forms of high treason introduced since the Treason Act 1351, except those to do with forgery and counterfeiting, were abrogated by the Treason Act 1547, which was passed at the beginning of the reign of Edward VI. The Act created new kinds of treason however, including denying that the King was the Supreme Head of the Church, and attempting to interrupt the succession to the throne as determined by the Act of Succession 1543.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: When Mary I became queen in 1553, she passed an Act abolishing all treasons whatsoever which had been created since 1351. Later that year, however, the offence of forging the Sovereign's sign manual or signet once again became high treason. Furthermore, the anti-counterfeiting laws were extended so as to include foreign money deemed legal tender in England. Thus, it became high treason to counterfeit such foreign money, or to import counterfeit foreign money and actually attempt to use it to make a payment. (But importing any counterfeit English money remained high treason, even if no attempt were made to use it in payment.) Mary also made it high treason to kill Philip II of Spain, her king consort, or to try to deprive him of his title.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: William III made it high treason to manufacture, buy, sell or possess instruments whose sole purpose is to coin money. He also made adding any inscription normally found on a coin to any piece of metal that may resemble a coin high treason. George II made it high treason to mark or colour a silver coin so as to make it resemble a gold one.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Aside from laws relating to counterfeiting and succession, very few acts concerning the definition of high treason were passed. Under laws passed during the reign of Elizabeth I, it was high treason for an individual to attempt to defend the jurisdiction of the Pope over the English Church for a third time (a first offence being a misdemeanour and a second offence a felony), or for a Roman Catholic priest to enter the realm and refuse to conform to the English Church, or to purport to release a subject of his allegiance to the Crown or the Church of England and to reconcile him or her with a foreign power. Charles II's Sedition Act 1661 made it treason to imprison, restrain or wound the king. Although this law was abolished in the United Kingdom in 1998, it still continues to apply in some Commonwealth countries. Under laws passed after James II was deposed, it became treasonable to correspond with the Jacobite claimants "(main article)", or to hinder succession to the Throne under the Act of Settlement 1701, or to publish that anyone other than the individual specified by the Act of Settlement had the right to inherit the Crown.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In 1708, following the Union of England and Scotland in the previous year, Queen Anne signed the Treason Act 1708, which harmonised the treason laws of both former kingdoms (effective from 1 July 1709). The English offences of high treason and misprision of treason (but not petty treason) were extended to Scotland, and the treasonable offences then existing in Scotland were abolished. These were: "theft in Landed Men", murder in breach of trust, fire-raising, "firing coalheughs" and assassination. The Act also made it treason to counterfeit the Great Seal of Scotland, or to slay the Lords of Session or Lords of Justiciary "sitting in Judgment in the Exercise of their Office within Scotland".


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In general, treason law in Scotland remained the same as in England, except that when in England the offence of counterfeiting the Great Seal of the United Kingdom "etc." (an offence under other legislation) was reduced from treason to felony by the Forgery Act 1861, that Act did not apply to Scotland, and though in England since 1861 it has not been treason to forge the Scottish Great Seal, in Scotland this remains treason today. When the Scottish Parliament was set up in 1998, treason and treason felony were among the "reserved matters" it was prohibited from legislating about, ensuring that the law of treason remains uniform throughout Great Britain.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Between 1817 and 1820 it was treason to kill the Prince Regent. In 1832 counterfeiting money ceased to be treason and became a felony. In Ireland, counterfeiting seals ceased to be treason in 1861, in line with England and Wales.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: A notable treason trial occurred at the Old Bailey in 1916 when Roger Casement was convicted of collusion with Germany for his role in the Easter Rising in Ireland. The charges against him were conspiracy to incite mutiny among Prisoners of War held captive by Germany, collusion with an enemy power in times of war, arms trafficking, and levying war against the King. Casement notably did not deny any of the charges brought against him and simply refused to acknowledge that the Treason Act 1351 even applied to him leaving his defence counsel with few options beyond arguing about legal technicalities around the precise wording of the Act. The prosecution countered that as Casement had worked as a diplomat for the British Government for almost all of his adult life and had accepted a knighthood and a pension from the Crown on retirement in 1911 he owed personal loyalty to the King when he committed the acts for which he was brought to trial. The jury agreed with the prosecution and found Casement guilty. He was hanged at Pentonville Prison on 3 August 1916.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: The Titles Deprivation Act 1917 authorised the king to deprive peers of their peerage if they had assisted the enemy during the war, or voluntarily resided in enemy territory. This was mainly in response to the closeness of the British royal family with some German thrones, leading to the loss of British titles from the dukes of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Brunswick, the Crown Prince of Hanover, and the Viscount Taaffe. Whilst the act allowed for their descendants to petition for the restoration of these titles, no descendant has done so.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: John Amery was executed in 1945 after pleading guilty to eight charges of treason for efforts to recruit British prisoners of war into the British Free Corps and for making propaganda broadcasts for Nazi Germany.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: The last execution for treason in the United Kingdom was held in 1946. William Joyce (also known as Lord Haw Haw) stood accused of levying war against King George VI by travelling to Germany in the early months of World War II and taking up employment as a broadcaster of pro-Nazi propaganda to British radio audiences. He was awarded a personal commendation by Adolf Hitler in 1944 for his contribution to the German war effort. On his capture at the end of the war, Parliament rushed through the Treason Act 1945 to facilitate a trial that would have the same procedure as a trial for murder. Before the Act, a trial for treason short of regicide involved an elaborate and lengthy medieval procedure. Although Joyce was born in the United States to an Irish father and an English mother, he had moved to Britain in his teens and applied for a British passport in 1933 which was still valid when he defected to Germany and so under the law he owed allegiance to Britain. He appealed against his conviction to the House of Lords on the grounds he had lied about his country of birth on the passport application and did not owe allegiance to any country at the beginning of the war. The appeal was not upheld and he was executed at Wandsworth Prison on 3 January 1946.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: It is thought the strength of public feeling against Joyce as a perceived traitor was the driving force behind his prosecution. The only evidence offered at his trial that he had begun broadcasting from Germany while his British passport was valid was the testimony of a London police inspector who had questioned him before the war while he was an active member of the British Union of Fascists and claimed to have recognised his voice on a propaganda broadcast in the early weeks of the war (he already had previous convictions for assault and riotous assembly as a result of street fights with communists and anarchists).


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Until 1945 treason had its own rules of evidence and procedure which made it difficult to prosecute accused traitors, such as the need for two witnesses to the same offence. Consequently, in the Second World War it was perceived that there was a need for a new offence with which to deal with traitors more expediently. The Treachery Act 1940 was passed creating a felony called treachery, to punish disloyalty and espionage. It was a capital offence. Seventeen people were sentenced to be shot or hanged for this offence instead of for treason (one death sentence was commuted). Theodore Schurch was the last person to be put to death for treachery, in 1946. He was also the last person to be executed for a crime other than murder. Josef Jakobs, a German spy executed for treachery, was the last person to be executed in the Tower of London.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In June 1945 the Treason Act 1945 abolished the special rules of evidence and procedure formerly used in treason trials, and replaced them with the rules applicable to murder trials, to simplify the law. As discussed above, the last treason prosecutions occurred later that year.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: From 1945, treason consisted of the offences which are treason today (see above), plus two other kinds. The Succession to the Crown Act 1707 made it treason to affirm that any person has a right to succeed to the Crown otherwise than according to the Act of Settlement and Acts of Union, or that the Crown and Parliament cannot legislate for the limitation of the succession to the Crown. This was abolished in 1967. The Treason Act 1795 made it treason to "compass, imagine, invent, devise or intend death or destruction, or any bodily harm tending to death or destruction, maim or wounding, imprisonment or restraint, of the person of ... the King." This was abolished in 1998, when the death penalty was also abolished.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: On 26 March 2015 the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 came into effect, which amended the line of succession to the throne to give women the same right to succeed to the throne as their brothers. In consequence of this, the Treason Act 1351 was amended in two ways. Whereas it had been treason to encompass the death of the monarch's eldest "son" and heir, this was amended to cover an heir of either sex. It had also been treason to "violate" the wife of the monarch's eldest son, but the 2013 Act restricted this to cases where the eldest son is also the heir to the throne.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: As a general rule, no British criminal court has jurisdiction over the Sovereign, from whom they derive their authority. As Sir William Blackstone writes, "the law supposes an incapacity of doing wrong from the excellence and perfection ... of the King." Furthermore, to charge the sovereign with high treason would be inconsistent, as it would constitute accusing him of disloyalty to himself. After the English Civil War, however, Charles I was tried for treason against the people of England. His trial and execution were irregular; they were more accurately products of a revolution, rather than a legal precedent, and those responsible were themselves tried for treason after the monarchy was restored "(see List of regicides of Charles I)". However, a person who attempts to become the Sovereign without a valid claim can be held guilty of treason. Consequently, Lady Jane Grey was executed for treason for usurping the throne in 1553.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: An alien resident in the United Kingdom owes allegiance to the Crown, and may be prosecuted for high treason. The only exception is an enemy lawful combatant in wartime, e.g. a uniformed enemy soldier on British territory.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: A British subject resident abroad also continues to owe allegiance to the Crown. If he or she becomes a citizen of another state before a war during which he bears arms against the Crown, he or she is not guilty of high treason. On the other hand, becoming a citizen of an enemy state during wartime is high treason, as it constitutes adhering to the sovereign's enemies.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Insane individuals are not punished for their crimes. During the reign of Henry VIII, however, it was enacted that in the cases of high treason, an idiot could be tried in his absence as if he were perfectly sane. In the reign of Mary I, this statute was repealed. Today there are powers to send insane defendants to a mental hospital.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: The Treason Act 1495 provides that in a civil war between two claimants to the throne, those who fight for the losing side cannot be held guilty of a crime merely for fighting against the winner.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In England and Wales and in Northern Ireland, the former defence of marital coercion was not available to a wife charged with treason.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Peers and their wives and widows were formerly entitled to be tried for treason and for felonies in the House of Lords or the Court of the Lord High Steward, the former being used in every case except when Parliament was not in session. In the House of Lords, the Lord High Steward presided, but the entire House acted as both judge and jury. In the Lord High Steward's Court, the Lord High Steward was a judge, and a panel of "Lords Triers" served as a jury. There was no right of peremptory challenge in either body. Trial by either body ceased in 1948, since when peers have been tried in the same courts as commoners.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Commoners, and now peers and their wives and widows, are entitled to be tried for high treason, and also for lesser crimes, by jury. Formerly, commoners were entitled to thirty-five peremptory challenges in cases of treason, but only twenty in cases of felony and none in cases of misdemeanours; all peremptory challenges, however, were abolished in 1988.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Another mode of trial for treason, and also for other crimes, is in the House of Lords following impeachment by the House of Commons (which has not occurred since 1806). Normally, the Lord Chancellor presided during trials; when a peer is accused of high treason, however, the Lord High Steward must preside. By convention, however, the Lord Chancellor would be appointed Lord High Steward for the duration of the trial—the post of Lord High Steward ceased to be regularly filled in 1421, being revived only for trials of peers and for coronations.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Finally, it was possible for Parliament to pass an Act of attainder, which pronounces guilt without a trial. Historically, Acts of attainder have been used against political opponents when speedy executions were desired. In 1661, Parliament passed acts posthumously attainting Oliver Cromwell, Henry Ireton and John Bradshaw—who were previously involved in Charles I's trial—of treason. These three individuals were posthumously executed, the only people to suffer this fate under English treason laws. (In 1540, a Scottish court summoned Robert Leslie, who was deceased, for a trial for treason. The Estates-General declared the summons lawful; Leslie's body was exhumed, and his bones were presented at the bar of the court. This procedure was never used in England.)


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Certain special rules procedures have historically applied to high treason cases. The privilege of the peerage and parliamentary privilege preclude the arrest of certain individuals (including peers, wives and widows of peers and members of Parliament) in many cases, but treason was not included (nor were felony or breach of the peace). Similarly, an individual could not claim sanctuary when charged with high treason; this distinction between treasons and felonies was lost as sanctuary laws were repealed in the late 17th and early 19th century. The defendant, furthermore, could not claim the benefit of clergy in treason cases; but the benefit of the clergy, as well, was abolished during the 19th century.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Formerly, if an individual stood mute and refused to plead guilty or not guilty for a felony, he would be tortured until he enter a plea; if he died in the course of the torture, his lands would not be seized to the Crown, and his heirs would be allowed to succeed to them. In cases of high treason, however, an individual could not save his lands by refusing to enter a plea; instead, a refusal would be punished by immediate forfeiture of all estates. This distinction between treasons and felonies ended in 1772, when the court was permitted to enter a plea on a defendant's behalf.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Formerly, an individual was not entitled to assistance of counsel in any capital case, including treason; the rule, however, was abolished in treason cases by the Treason Act 1695. The same Act extended a rule from 1661 which had made it necessary to produce at least two witnesses to prove each alleged offence of high treason. Nearly one hundred years later a stricter version of this rule was incorporated into the Constitution of the United States. The 1695 Act also provided for a three-year time limit on bringing prosecutions for treason (except for assassinating the king) and misprision of treason, another rule which has been imitated in some common law countries.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: These rules made it difficult to prosecute charges of treason, and the rule was relaxed by the Treason Act 1800 to make attempts on the life of the King subject to the same rules of procedure and evidence as existed in murder trials (which did not require two witnesses). This change was extended to all assaults on the Sovereign by the Treason Act 1842. Finally the special rules for treason were abolished by the Treason Act 1945 when the rules of evidence and procedure in all cases of treason were made the same as for murder. However, the original three-year time limit stated above survived into the present day. This meant that when James Hewitt was accused of treason by the tabloid press in 1996 because of his affair with the Princess of Wales, he could not have been prosecuted because it could not be proved that he had done it within the foregoing three-year period.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: The procedure in trials for treason is the same as that in trials for murder. It is therefore an indictable-only offence.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: On the trial of an indictment for treason, the jury cannot return an alternative verdict to the offence charged in that indictment under section 6(3) of the Criminal Law Act 1967. For example, the jury cannot give an alternative verdict of manslaughter in cases of the assassination of the monarch. The Homicide Act 1957 does not apply. However, under the common law the jury may return a verdict of guilty of misprision of treason instead of treason.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: On the trial of an indictment for treason, the jury cannot return an alternative verdict to the offence charged in that indictment under section 6(2) of the Criminal Law Act (Northern Ireland) 1967. For this purpose each count is considered to be a separate indictment (s.6(7)).


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: A person may not be indicted for treason committed within the United Kingdom (subject to the following exception) unless the indictment is preferred within three years of the commission of that offence. This limitation does not apply to treason which consists of designing, endeavouring or attempting to assassinate the sovereign. There is no time limit on the prosecution of treason committed outside of the United Kingdom.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In England and Wales, a person charged with treason may not be granted bail except by order of a High Court judge or of the Secretary of State. The same rule applies in Northern Ireland.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: The form of execution once suffered by traitors was often (though not invariably) torturous. For men the statutory penalty (in England) was to be "hanged, drawn and quartered". <br> The condemned could not walk or be carried to the place of execution; the sentence required that they were to be drawn: they might be dragged along the ground, but were normally tied onto a hurdle which was drawn to the place of execution by a horse. A man would then be hanged by a noose around the neck until almost dead. Whilst still alive, he would be cut down and allowed to drop to the ground, stripped of his clothes, his genitals cut off, his viscera pulled out and burnt before his own eyes, and other organs would be torn out of his body. The body would be decapitated, and cut into four-quarters. The body parts would be at the disposal of the Sovereign, and generally they would be gibbeted or publicly displayed as a warning. The body parts would be parboiled in salt and cumin seed: the salt to prevent putrefaction, and the cumin seed to prevent birds pecking at the flesh. This sentence was amended in 1814 so that the offender would hang until dead; the disembowelling, beheading and quartering were to be carried out posthumously.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Women were excluded from this type of punishment and instead were drawn and then burned at the stake, until this was replaced with hanging by the Treason Act 1790 and the Treason by Women Act (Ireland) 1796.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: The penalty for high treason by counterfeiting or clipping coins was the same as the penalty for petty treason (which for men was drawing and hanging without the torture and quartering, and for women was burning or hanging.)


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Individuals of noble birth were beheaded without being subjected to either form of torture. Commoners' sentences were sometimes commuted to beheading—a sentence not formally removed from British law until 1973.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In addition to being tortured and executed, a traitor was also deemed "attainted". The first consequence of attainder was forfeiture; all lands and estates of a traitor were forever forfeit to the Crown. A second consequence was corruption of blood; the attainted person could neither inherit property, nor transmit it to his or her descendants. This may have been open to abuse, either by avaricious monarchs or by parliament when little (if any) evidence was available to secure a conviction. There was a complex and ceremonial procedure used to try treason cases, with a strict requirement for a minimum of two witnesses to the crime.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In 1870, attainder was abolished. In the same year in England, and in 1949 in Scotland, posthumous drawing and quartering was abolished, and so the sole punishment was hanging.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Beheading was abolished in 1973, by which time it had long been obsolete, having last been used in 1747.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: By 1965, capital punishment had been abolished for almost all crimes, but was still mandatory (unless the offender was pardoned or the sentence commuted) for high treason until 1998. By section 36 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 the maximum punishment for high treason became life imprisonment. "(See also Treason Act 1814.)"


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: A person convicted of treason is liable to imprisonment for life or for any shorter term. A whole life tariff may be imposed for the gravest offences. (See Life imprisonment in England and Wales for more details).


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Treason also entails disqualification from public office, and loss of suffrage (except in local elections). This rule does not apply in Scotland.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Treason (including constructive treason) is a reserved matter on which the Scottish Parliament cannot legislate.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Treason (but not powers of arrest or criminal procedure) is an excepted matter on which the Northern Ireland Assembly cannot legislate.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: Almost all treason-related offences introduced since the Treason Act 1351 was passed have been abolished or relegated to lesser offences. The Treason Act 1351, on the other hand, has not been significantly amended; the main changes involve the removal of counterfeiting and forgery, as explained above. For the state of the law today, see the "Offences" section above.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In Autumn 2001 following 9/11, the British government threatened British citizens who fought for the Taliban army in Afghanistan against Anglo-American troops with prosecution for treason, although no one was subsequently tried, at least not for treason.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: On 8 August 2005, it was reported that the UK Government was considering bringing prosecutions for treason against a number of British Islamic clerics who have publicly spoken positively about acts of terrorism against civilians in Britain, or attacks on British soldiers abroad, including the 7 July London bombings and numerous attacks on troops serving in Iraq and Afghanistan. Following this threat one foreign cleric who the British government had failed to deport fled to Lebanon, only to request to be rescued by the British military during the 2006 Israeli-Lebanon War. However, later that year prosecutors indicted Abu Hamza al-Masri for inciting murder (he was convicted in February 2006), and it now seems unlikely that anyone will be charged with treason in the foreseeable future.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In 2008 the former attorney-general, Lord Goldsmith QC, published a report on his review of British citizenship. One of his recommendations was for a "thorough reform and rationalisation of the law" of treason.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: In 2014 the Foreign Secretary Philip Hammond revealed that the British Government was considering high treason charges for Islamic extremists in response to growing numbers of British Jihad fighters travelling to Syria and Iraq to join the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. However this did not come to pass.


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: On the 2 August 2022, Jaswant Singh Chail was charged with offences under section 2 of the Treason Act 1842. He had been arrested in the grounds of Windsor Castle on 25 December, 2021 and was charged with "discharging or aiming firearms, or throwing or using any offensive matter or weapon, with intent to injure or alarm her Majesty" .


title: High treason in the United Kingdom

text: See also the Treason Act 1842 (assaulting the Queen), the Official Secrets Acts 1911 to 1989 (espionage), the Trading with the Enemy Act 1939 and the Terrorism Acts.