title: John Marshall Harlan

text: Harlan did not embrace the idea of full social racial equality. While he had appeared to advocate for equality among those of different races and for a color-blind Constitution, in his "Plessy" dissent, he also stated "[t]here is a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States... I allude to the Chinese race." In "United States v. Wong Kim Ark" (1898), Harlan joined Chief Justice Fuller's dissent proclaiming the dangers of having large numbers of Chinese immigrants in the United States. The Court's holding was that persons of Chinese descent born in the United States were citizens by birth. Fuller and Harlan argued that the principle of "jus sanguinis" (that is, the concept of a child inheriting their father's citizenship by descent regardless of birthplace) had been more pervasive in U.S. legal history since independence. In the view of the minority, excessive reliance on "jus soli" (birthplace) as the principal determiner of citizenship would lead to an untenable state of affairs in which "the children of foreigners, happening to be born to them while passing through the country, whether of royal parentage or not, or whether of the Mongolian, Malay or other race, were eligible to the presidency, while children of our citizens, born abroad, were not".


title: John Marshall Harlan

text: Harlan was also the most staunchly anti-imperialist justice of the Supreme Court, arguing consistently in the Insular Cases (from 1901 to 1905) that the Constitution did not permit the demarcation of different rights between citizens of the states and the residents of newly acquired territories in the Philippines, Hawaii, Guam, and Puerto Rico, a view that was consistently in the minority. In "Hawaii v. Mankichi" (1903) his opinion stated: "If the principles now announced should become firmly established, the time may not be far distant when, under the exactions of trade and commerce, and to gratify an ambition to become the dominant power in all the earth, the United States will acquire territories in every direction... whose inhabitants will be regarded as 'subjects' or 'dependent peoples,' to be controlled as Congress may see fit... which will engraft on our republican institutions a "colonial" system entirely foreign to the genius of our Government and abhorrent to the principles that underlie and pervade our Constitution."


title: John Marshall Harlan

text: Harlan delivered the majority opinion in "Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. City of Chicago" (1897), holding that due process required fair compensation to be given for any private property seized by the state. The decision incorporated the Fifth Amendment's Takings Clause, representing the first time that part of the Bill of Rights was applied to state governments. The Court would not incorporate another provision of the Bill of Rights until "Gitlow v. New York" (1925). Harlan wrote the majority opinion in "Northern Securities Co. v. United States", the first time the Court upheld the use of the Sherman Antitrust Act to break up a large corporation. Harlan also wrote the majority opinion in "Adair v. United States" (1908), holding that Congress did not have the power to ban "yellow-dog contracts".


title: John Marshall Harlan

text: During his final years on the Court, Harlan continued to write dissents in major cases, such as "Giles v. Harris" (1903), a case challenging the use of grandfather clauses to restrict voting rolls and "de facto" exclude blacks. He also dissented in "Lochner v. New York" (1905), but he agreed with the majority "that there is a liberty of contract which cannot be violated even under the sanction of direct legislative enactment." In his dissent in "Hodges v. United States" (1906), Harlan reiterated his belief that the Thirteenth Amendment empowered Congress to protect African Americans from discrimination and violence. He was the lone dissenter in "Ex parte Young" (1908), arguing that the Eleventh Amendment prevented suits against state officials acting on behalf of the state. In his partial dissent in the 1911 case of "Standard Oil Company of New Jersey v. United States", Harlan argued against the Court's establishment of the rule of reason, which held that in some extenuating circumstances a trust should not be broken up even if it has a monopoly. In both "Standard Oil" and "United States v. American Tobacco Co." (1911), Harlan strongly criticized the majority opinion for adopting the rule of reason; as the rule was not present in the original legislation, he believed that the Court was usurping Congress's legislative prerogatives.


title: John Marshall Harlan

text: Harlan died on October 14, 1911, after 33 years serving on the Supreme Court, the third-longest tenure on the court up to that time and sixth-longest ever. He was the last veteran of the Waite Court to remain on the bench. He was buried in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C., where his body resides along with those of three other justices. Harlan, who suffered from financial problems throughout his tenure on the Court, left minimal assets for the support of his widow, Malvina Shanklin Harlan, and two unmarried daughters. In the months following Harlan's death, leading members of the Supreme Court Bar established a fund for the benefit of the Harlan survivors.


title: John Marshall Harlan

text: In December 1856, Harlan married Malvina French Shanklin, the daughter of an Indiana businessman. According to friends and Shanklin's memoirs, theirs was a happy marriage, which lasted until Harlan's death. They had six children, three sons and three daughters. Their eldest son, Richard, became a Presbyterian minister and served as president of Lake Forest College. Their second son, James S. Harlan, practiced in Chicago and served as attorney general of Puerto Rico and chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Their youngest son, John Maynard Harlan, also practiced in Chicago and served as an alderman. John Maynard's son, John Marshall Harlan II, served as a Supreme Court Associate Justice from 1955 until 1971.


title: John Marshall Harlan

text: Harlan was fervently religious, and legal scholar James W. Gordon argued that his faith ”was the most important lens through which he viewed the people and events of his life”. A conservative Presbyterian, he favored the Old School branch of that denomination, opposed higher criticism, and stridently adhered to Calvinism. During his tenure as a justice, he was an elder at the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church in Washington, D.C., and there he taught a Sunday school class of middle-aged men from 1896 until his death in 1911.


title: John Marshall Harlan

text: Harlan was largely forgotten in the decades after his death, but his reputation began to improve in the mid-twentieth century, and many scholars now consider him to be one of the greatest Supreme Court justices of his era. He is most known for his reputation as the "Great Dissenter," and he is especially remembered for his dissent in "Plessy v. Ferguson". Historian D. Grier Stephenson writes that "more than any justice with whom he served, Harlan understood the Reconstruction Amendments to establish a nationally protected right against racial discrimination, although it is a measure of the Court that he frequently articulated those promises in dissent." Legal scholar Bernard Schwartz writes that "Harlan's key dissents have generally been affirmed in the court of history. A century later, his rejection of the narrow view toward civil rights adopted by the Court majority has been generally approved." Harlan's view that the Fourteenth Amendment made the provisions of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states has also largely been adopted by the Supreme Court.


title: John Marshall Harlan

text: Harlan is commemorated by John Marshall Harlan Community Academy High School, a Chicago public high school, as well as by John Marshall Harlan High School in Texas. During World War II the Liberty ship was built and named in his honor. Centre College, Harlan's alma mater, instituted the John Marshall Harlan Professorship in Government in 1994 in honor of Harlan's reputation as one of the Supreme Court's greatest justices. Named for Justice Harlan, the "Harlan Scholars" of the University of Louisville/Louis D. Brandeis School of Law is an undergraduate organization for students interested in attending law school. Collections of Harlan's papers are at the University of Louisville and at the Library of Congress in Washington. Other papers are collected at many other libraries.


title: John Marshall Harlan

text: On March 12, 1906, Harlan donated a King James Version Bible to the Supreme Court. This Bible had become known as the "Harlan Bible", and as of 2015, has been signed by every succeeding Supreme Court justice after taking the oath of office.


title: Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York

text: Edmund of Langley, Duke of York (5 June 1341 – 1 August 1402) was the fourth surviving son of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault. Like many medieval English princes, Edmund gained his nickname from his birthplace: Kings Langley Palace in Hertfordshire. He was the founder of the House of York, but it was through the marriage of his younger son, Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge, to Anne de Mortimer, great-granddaughter of Edmund's elder brother Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, that the House of York made its claim to the English throne in the Wars of the Roses. The other party in the Wars of the Roses, the incumbent House of Lancaster, was formed from descendants of Edmund's elder brother John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, Edward III's third son.


title: Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York

text: On the death of his godfather, the Earl of Surrey, Edmund was granted the earl's lands north of the Trent, primarily in Yorkshire. In 1359, he joined his father King Edward III on an unsuccessful military expedition to France and was made a knight of the Garter in 1361. In 1362, at the age of twenty-one, he was created Earl of Cambridge by his father.


title: Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York

text: Edmund took part in several military expeditions to France in the 1370s. In 1369, he brought a retinue of 400 men-at-arms and 400 archers to serve with John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, on campaigns in Brittany and Angoulême. The following year, he first joined Pembroke again on an expedition to relieve the fortress of Belle Perche and then accompanied his eldest brother Edward, the Black Prince, on a campaign that resulted in the siege and sack of Limoges. In 1375, he sailed with the Earl of March to relieve Brest, but after some initial success, a truce was declared.


title: Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York

text: In the 1370s, English envoys entered into an alliance with Ferdinand I of Portugal, where Portugal promised to attack Castile with the Lancastrian army. As a consequence of the Caroline War in France, John of Gaunt was forced to postpone the invasion of Castile. In 1381, Edmund finally led an abortive expedition to press John's claim to Castile, joining with King Ferdinand in attacking Castile as part of the Fernandine Wars. After months of indecisiveness, a peace was again declared between Castile and Portugal, and Edmund had to lead his malcontented troops home.


title: Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York

text: Edmund was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Warden of the Cinque Ports on 12 June 1376 and held office until 1381. On 6 August 1385, he was elevated to Duke of York. Edmund acted as Keeper of the Realm in 1394/95 when his nephew, King Richard II of England, campaigned in Ireland and presided over Parliament in 1395. He was also keeper of the realm in 1396 during the king's brief visit to France to collect his child-bride Isabella of Valois. The duke was left as Custodian of the Realm in the summer of 1399 when Richard II departed for another extended campaign in Ireland. In late June of that year, the exiled Henry Bolingbroke landed at Bridlington in Yorkshire. He raised an army to resist Bolingbroke, then decided instead to join him, for which he was well rewarded. He thereafter remained loyal to the new Lancastrian regime as Bolingbroke overthrew Richard II to become King Henry IV.


title: Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York

text: Richard II's 1399 will refers to his successor without naming him, while appointing Edmund as one of the overseers. Some believe Richard intended to make Edmund his heir despite the stronger claims of Henry of Bolingbroke and Edmund Mortimer. This was not due to any preference Richard had for Edmund, but rather a desire the king had to set Edmund's son, Edward, on the throne. Towards the end of his life, in 1399, he was appointed Warden of the West March for a short period. Otherwise, from 1399 onward he retired from public life.


title: Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York

text: Edmund of Langley died in his birthplace and was interred at King's Langley Priory; however, his tomb was relocated to the nearby All Saints' Church, Kings Langley in 1575 after the priory had been dissolved. When the tomb was moved again during church restoration work in 1877, three bodies, one male and two female, were found inside. His dukedom passed to his eldest son, Edward. He was the last of his siblings to die, and lived the longest out of all of them.


title: Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York

text: Langley's first wife, Isabella, was a daughter of King Peter of Castile and María de Padilla. She was also the sister of the Infanta Constance of Castile, the second wife of Langley's brother John of Gaunt. Langley and Isabella were both descendants of Henry II of England.


title: Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York

text: After Isabella's death in 1392, Langley married his second cousin once removed Joan Holland, whose great-grandfather Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent, was the half-brother of Langley's grandfather Edward II; she and Langley were thus both descended from King Edward I. The young Joan was the granddaughter of his late sister-in-law Joan of Kent. The marriage produced no children.


title: Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York

text: Edmund, the 1st Duke of York, is a major character in Shakespeare's "Richard II". In the play, Edmund resigns his position as an adviser to his nephew Richard II, but is reluctant to betray the king. He eventually agrees to side with Henry Bolingbroke to help him regain the lands Richard confiscated after the death of Bolingbroke's father, John of Gaunt. After Bolingbroke deposes Richard and is crowned Henry IV, Edmund discovers a plot by his son Aumerle (Edward of Norwich) to assassinate the new king. Edmund exposes the plot, but his wife Isabella convinces Henry to pardon her son.


title: Peabody Awards

text: The George Foster Peabody Awards (or simply Peabody Awards or the Peabodys) program, named for the American businessman and philanthropist George Peabody, honor the most powerful, enlightening, and invigorating stories in television, radio, and online media. The awards were conceived by the National Association of Broadcasters in 1938 as the radio industry’s equivalent of the Pulitzer Prizes. Programs are recognized in seven categories: news, entertainment, documentaries, children's programming, education, interactive programming, and public service. Peabody Award winners include radio and television stations, networks, online media, producing organizations, and individuals from around the world.


title: Peabody Awards

text: Established in 1940 by a committee of the National Association of Broadcasters, the Peabody Award was created to honor excellence in radio broadcasting. It is the oldest major electronic media award in the United States. Final Peabody Award winners are selected unanimously by the program's Board of Jurors.


title: Peabody Awards

text: Reflecting excellence in quality storytelling, rather than popularity or commercial success, Peabody Awards are distributed annually to 30 out of 60 finalists culled from more than 1,000 entries. Because submissions are accepted from a wide variety of sources and styles, deliberations seek "Excellence On Its Own Terms".


title: Peabody Awards

text: Each entry is evaluated on the achievement of standards established within its own context. Entries, for which a fee ( for radio) is required, are self-selected by those making submissions.


title: Peabody Awards

text: In 1938, the National Association of Broadcasters formed a committee to recognize outstanding achievement in radio broadcasting. Committee member Lambdin Kay, public-service director for WSB radio in Atlanta, Georgia, at the time, is credited with creating the award, named for businessman and philanthropist George Foster Peabody, who donated the funds that made the awards possible. Fellow WSB employee Lessie Smithgall introduced Lambdin to John E. Drewry, of the University of Georgia's Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication, who endorsed the idea. The Peabody Award was established in 1940 with the Grady College of Journalism as its permanent home.


title: Peabody Awards

text: The Peabody Awards were originally issued only for radio programming, but television awards were introduced in 1948. In the late 1990s additional categories for material distributed via the World Wide Web were added. Materials created solely for theatrical motion picture release are not eligible.


title: Peabody Awards

text: The Peabody Awards judging process is unusually rigorous. Each year, more than 1,000 entries are evaluated by some 30 committees composed of a number of faculty, staff, and students from the University of Georgia and other higher education institutions across the country. Each committee is charged with screening or listening to a small number of entries and delivering written recommendations to the Peabody Board of Jurors, a ~17-member panel of scholars, critics, and media-industry professionals. Board members discuss recommended entries as well as their own selections at intensive preliminary meetings in California and Texas. The Board convenes at the University of Georgia in early April for final screenings and deliberations. Each entrant is judged on its own merit, and only unanimously selected programs receive a Peabody Award. For many years, there was no set number of awards issued. However, in 2016 the program instituted the Peabody 30, representing the best programs out of a field of 60 nominees. Prior to this, the all-time record for Peabody Award recipients in a single year was 46 in 2013.


title: Peabody Awards

text: Each spring, the Peabody Awards Board of Jurors announce award recipients for work released during the previous year. Traditionally, the winners' announcements have been made via a simple press release and/or a press conference. An April 2014 segment of "CBS This Morning" included an announcement of 2013 Peabody winners. In April 2015, the 2014 Peabodys were revealed over an 8-day period, with the entertainment-based recipients revealed on ABC's "Good Morning America".


title: Peabody Awards

text: Formal presentation of the Peabody Awards is traditionally held in late May or early June. For many years, the awards were given during a luncheon in New York City. The ceremony moved to a red carpet evening event for the first time on May 31, 2015, with Fred Armisen serving as host. Several famous names have served as Peabody Awards ceremony hosts over the years, among them Walter Cronkite, Lesley Stahl, Jackie Gleason, Jon Stewart, Morley Safer, Craig Ferguson, Larry King, and Ira Glass. From 2014 to 2016, the Peabody Awards aired on a tape-delayed basis on the TV channel Pivot. On June 2, 2017, a television special of the 76th Annual Peabody Awards Ceremony was broadcast on both PBS and FUSION networks.


title: Peabody Awards

text: The Peabody Awards Collection is the flagship of The Walter J. Brown Media Archive & Peabody Awards Collection. The archives are housed in the Richard B. Russell Building Special Collections Libraries on the north campus of The University of Georgia. The mission of the Peabody Archive is to preserve, protect, and provide access to the moving image and sound materials that reflect the collective memory of broadcasting and the history of the state of Georgia and its people. The collection contains nearly every entry for the first major broadcast award given in the United States. Entries began in 1940 for radio and 1948 for television, and at least 1,000 new entries are received every year—programs created by local, national, and international producers. The collection provides a cultural cross-section of television from its infancy to the present day, featuring news, documentary, entertainment, educational, and children's programming. Once judging is complete, all entries are moved to the Main Library for in-depth cataloging, access, and long-term preservation.


title: Peabody Awards

text: In 2017 the Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia (BMA) and WGBH, on behalf of the American Archive of Public Broadcasting, were awarded a grant from the National Historical Publications and Records Commission to digitize, preserve, and provide access to approximately 4,000 hours of public broadcasting programming nominated for a George Foster Peabody Award between 1941 and 1999. The full collection will eventually comprise 4,000 digitized hours of audio and video recordings from 230 local, state, and regional public broadcasting stations in 46 states as well as Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia.


title: Donald M. Blinken

text: Donald Mayer Blinken (November 11, 1925 – September 22, 2022) was an American businessman and diplomat. He served as the United States Ambassador to Hungary from 1994 to 1997. His son, Antony Blinken, is the current Secretary of State to United States President Joe Biden.


title: Donald M. Blinken

text: Blinken was born on November 11, 1925, in Yonkers, New York, the son of Maurice Blinken and his wife, Ethel (Horowitz). His father and mother were of Jewish descent and his father was originally from Kyiv (now the capital of Ukraine). His grandfather was author Meir Blinken. Blinken had two brothers, Alan and Robert.


title: Donald M. Blinken

text: The brothers grew up both in New York City and Yonkers. They attended the Horace Mann School. Blinken graduated "magna cum laude" with a bachelor's degree in economics from Harvard University in 1948, after serving in the United States Army Air Corps during World War II in 1944.


title: Donald M. Blinken

text: Blinken met Mark Rothko in 1956 and became an art collector. He was president of the Mark Rothko Foundation from 1976 to 1989. In 1984, the foundation distributed 1,000 art pieces to museums, including to the National Gallery of Art.


title: Donald M. Blinken

text: In 1966, Blinken co-founded E. M. Warburg Pincus & Company, an investment bank in New York. He served as a director for Warburg Pincus, and served as chairman of the board of directors. From 1970 to 1976, Blinken was president of the Brooklyn Academy of Music. He was appointed to the board of trustees for the State University of New York by Governor Hugh Carey in September 1976 and was appointed the board's chairman in 1978. The board clashed with Governor Mario Cuomo as Cuomo wanted the board to cut spending. Blinken announced his resignation from the board in October 1989, which took effect with the confirmation of his successor in 1990.


title: Donald M. Blinken

text: During the presidency of Jimmy Carter, Blinken served on a special nomination panel for the U.S. Court of Appeals. In 1994, President Bill Clinton nominated Blinken to be the United States Ambassador to Hungary. He was confirmed by the U.S. Senate and served in the role until 1997. From 2000 to 2004, Blinken was the secretary-general of the World Federation of United Nations Associations.


title: Donald M. Blinken

text: Blinken was married to Judith Frehm from 1958 until their divorce in 1971, and then married Vera Ermer in 1975. Vera was a Holocaust survivor in Hungary during World War II; in 2009, the couple published a memoir about her escape from Communist Hungary and their time back in Hungary during his term as the U.S. Ambassador.


title: Donald M. Blinken

text: In 2015, the Open Society Archives in Hungary was renamed the Vera and Donald Blinken Open Society Archives after receiving a major donation from the couple.


title: Donald M. Blinken

text: His son, Antony Blinken, from his first marriage, is the United States Secretary of State in the presidency of Joe Biden.


title: Tabitha St. Germain

text: Tabitha St. Germain (born 30 October 1964), formerly known as Paulina Gillis Germain and also known as Tabitha or Kitanou St. Germain, is a Canadian actress and comedian. She is known for a variety of roles across many different shows. She has been actively doing voice-overs for animated series and films, video games, and commercials since 1985.


title: Tabitha St. Germain

text: As Paulina Gillis, she won a Dora Award in 1995 for her performance in "Assassins", the Stephen Sondheim musical. She legally changed her name to Tabitha St. Germain in November 1997.


title: Furry convention

text: A furry convention (also furry con or fur con) is a formal gathering of members of the furry fandom — people who are interested in the concept of fictional non-human animal characters with human characteristics. These conventions provide a place for fans to meet, exchange ideas, transact business and engage in entertainment and recreation centered on this concept. Originating in California, United States, during the mid-1980s, as of 2016 there are over 50 furry conventions worldwide each year.


title: Furry convention

text: As of 2017, the largest furry convention is Midwest FurFest in suburban Chicago, Illinois. It had a self-reported attendance of 13,641 in 2022.


title: Furry convention

text: Furry conventions offer a range of volunteer-led programming, usually focusing on anthropomorphic art, crafts, music and literature. Some raise money for charity. Attendees often dress up in fursuits and wear artistic name badges for identification, though the majority do not. They may also spend money on the work of amateur and professional artists, both directly and at auction.


title: Furry convention

text: Furry conventions started in mid-1986 with parties at popular science fiction conventions, such as Westercon and BayCon in the San Francisco Bay Area. Over time, these parties split off into conventions of their own, starting with ConFurence 0 in 1989. Attendance at furry conventions has been growing, with the number of conventions, total attendance of all conventions and maximum size of a single convention all doubling over the period 2000–2006.


title: Furry convention

text: Furry conventions sometimes start out as furmeets, where groups of local fans meet at a regular location, often on a scheduled basis. As the local community grows, these groups may put on events that attract dealer attention or significant fan activity and which become recognized as fully-fledged conventions. Other conventions spring up in the wake of discontinued events; for example, Califur was founded in 2004 following the final ConFurence in 2003, in order to keep a furry convention in the Los Angeles Basin.


title: Furry convention

text: Convention programming includes presentations, panels, workshops and tutorials on anthropomorphic culture, from literature, fiction and art to science, technology and spirituality. The convention will often provide space for stand-up comedy routines by entertainers like Uncle Kage and ; filk music, many kinds of gaming, and roleplaying sessions, as well as numerous puppeteering and performing arts events. A unifying theme is common for larger events.


title: Furry convention

text: Most conventions will feature some kind of an art show, in which artists' work is displayed, often for direct purchase or auction during the convention. There will often be a "Dealers' Den" where art and comic book distributors and other merchants can sell their wares for a fee, and an "Artists' Alley" where individual artists are given space for no fee or a token fee, usually on the condition that they sell only their own work. Artists may also trade art between each other using sketchbooks. Erotic art is typically allowed if kept separate from other pieces, and shown only to adult attendees; a few conventions are rated strictly PG-13 but furry conventions are usually for all ages.


title: Furry convention

text: Individual transactions are relatively small (usually around US$10–$50 for sketches or badges, $10–$200 for auction pieces), but the total can approach US$100,000 at the largest events (excluding professional dealers).


title: Furry convention

text: Major conventions tend to have a rave on at least one evening. Often there is a "fursuit-friendly" dance prior to the main event, with raised lighting and slower music to offset fursuiters' reduced vision and mobility. The use of glowsticks and illuminated poi are popular once the lights are dimmed. A furry convention is also an opportunity to socialize, and private parties for subgroups of the fandom are common.


title: Furry convention

text: Conventions with significant numbers of fursuiters may offer an event known as the "furry games", "furry races", or "critterlympics". These focus on feats of dexterity suited to multiple players in teams, such as dragging a sled filled with plush toys or other fursuiters around a marked track, or racing back and forth while tethered to one another with a hula hoop.


title: Furry convention

text: Some conventions have established charity auctions, which (in the US) usually raise several thousand dollars for the convention's yearly charity, typically a wildlife refuge, nature reserve, animal shelter, sanctuary or rescue group. Organizers may also donate from the convention's own funds. In total, furry conventions raised over US$50,000 for charity in 2006, with "Further Confusion" and "Anthrocon" raising over US$60,000 throughout their history.


title: Furry convention

text: Attendees include artists and dealers offering products and services for sale to fans, and those who wish to buy them. Others come for the programming, or to meet friends or other furry fans in general. Many attend for all of these reasons. Some later publish a "con report" detailing their experiences.


title: Furry convention

text: Attendees of major conventions receive a bag with the convention book (or "conbook"), a lavishly illustrated volume featuring themed artwork, fiction and articles submitted by members and the Guests of Honor, along with a description of the event's programming, staff, rules, guests and any charity being supported by the convention. Local restaurant information and a combination pocket schedule and map may also be included. Sponsors often receive additional items such as T-shirts, pins or ribbons, as well as faster registration badge pick-up and on-site meals (some conventions provide a "con suite" with basic refreshments for all members). They may also be displayed prominently in convention publications.


title: Furry convention

text: Fans may wear a full or partial fursuit or another costume to express their identity and entertain others, though typically less than 15% of attendees bring a costume, and few of these wear them all the time. Others may wear accessories such as ears or a tail, particularly outside the main convention area. Nearly all will wear one or more custom convention badges featuring a depiction of their anthropomorphic persona, some with attached ribbons providing an indicator of social status, such as a notice of affiliation, or sponsorship of the convention. Sales of such accessories form a part of the commerce at furry conventions.


title: Furry convention

text: Attendees under the age of majority are commonly allowed to attend with a notarized parental permission slip or accompanied by an adult. European and Australian conventions usually only admit those above 18. Underage attendees are usually given a distinctive badge to allow staff and dealers to restrict access to mature content. Government-issued photo ID is usually required.


title: Furry convention

text: Furry conventions are usually run and staffed by volunteers, though venues may require certain activities to be contracted out. Event funding typically relies on convention registrations. Many of the larger conventions are incorporated as non-profit organizations, usually to achieve tax-exempt status and safeguard the organizers' personal assets - in the US, some are 501(c)(3) charities, while others are registered as recreational clubs. The largest events may require up to a hundred volunteers, not including gofers. Volunteers are thanked for their participation during the closing ceremonies, which are usually well-attended, and often receive T-shirts or other benefits.


title: Furry convention

text: Most furry conventions take place over a weekend, with events scheduled between Friday evening and Sunday afternoon. Saturday is typically the busiest day, as most fans must return home on Sunday. One-day passes are sometimes sold at a reduced price.


title: Furry convention

text: As a given convention expands in growth over the years, increased demand for programming often results in events scheduled late into the night. Convention activities may also be extended to Thursday and early Friday for early arrivals. Unofficial activities are frequently coordinated by groups of people on Sunday evening and Monday morning, usually open to anyone who wishes to join, and may include bowling, bar hopping, visits to arcades, shopping malls, theme parks, zoos, dinner or morning brunch.


title: Furry convention

text: One public misconception, popularized by the "" episode "Fur and Loathing", is that furry conventions are places for people to dress up as animals and perform sexual acts with each other. In an article about furries, "Vanity Fair" described some hotel guests as "stunned", with some calling convention-goers "freaks", "blatant homosexuals", and various derogatory terms. Some U.S. Army personnel present during the same convention described attendees as "a little unusual" and "people that have problems", while others considered the event "something nice to bring kids to."


title: Furry convention

text: In 2014 Midwest FurFest convention was disrupted by a chlorine gas attack which left 19 attendees hospitalized. The investigation by Rosemont Police revealed that the attack was most likely an intentional act of crime against the furry fandom.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Robert Hampton Rogers III (born May 12, 1987) is an American former professional soccer player. He played as a winger and as a left back. Rogers has also represented the United States men's national soccer team. In February 2013, Rogers came out as gay, becoming the second male soccer player in Britain to do so after Justin Fashanu in 1990. After a brief retirement, he became the first openly gay man to compete in a top North American professional sports league when he played his first match for the LA Galaxy in May 2013.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: After one season playing college soccer at the University of Maryland, Rogers attracted the interest of Dutch Eredivisie side Heerenveen. He signed for Heerenveen in August 2006 but failed to make any first-team appearances. He left the club by mutual consent in February 2007, and returned to the United States to sign for Columbus Crew. Rogers' four-year tenure at Columbus Crew was a successful one, with the player breaking through into the first-team, as well as securing an MLS Cup title in 2008 and two Supporters' Shield wins in 2008 and 2009 respectively. In December 2011, Rogers opted to leave Crew when his contract expired. He moved to England, although a series of injuries limited his appearances before he announced his retirement, and returned to the US.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Robbie Rogers was born in Rancho Palos Verdes, California, the son of Theresa and Robert Hampton Rogers II. He has one brother, Timothy, and three sisters, Nicole Camilla, Alicia, and Katie Rose. His mother's family is originally from the Columbus, Ohio area, where Rogers played for Columbus Crew. His maternal grandfather is a graduate of Ohio State University and his mother spent her early childhood years in Dublin, Ohio, before the family moved to California.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: When growing up, Rogers enjoyed surfing, and he still surfs. He also enjoys playing table tennis and has a strong interest in music. Rogers said that his favorite athlete is Zlatan Ibrahimović.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Rogers was accepted to study at the London College of Fashion and is a co-owner of Halsey, a menswear fashion company. He designs, and models for the company; and blogs about men’s fashion at "Rogers & Becker" with friend and stylist Warren Becker.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Rogers started playing soccer at age four-and-a-half at the American Youth Soccer Organization. At the age of seven, Rogers played soccer in the Coast Soccer league, as well as in various Hispanic leagues. He attended Mater Dei High School in Santa Ana, California, where he was a two-time High School All-American in soccer. Rogers made three appearances for Orange County Blue Star of the USL Premier Development League in 2005, leaving upon deciding to attend university in the fall. He played one season of college soccer at the University of Maryland, alongside his future Columbus Crew teammate Jason Garey, helping lead the team to the 2005 NCAA Championship. During his one season at UMD, he scored seven times and assisted a further five goals. He was also named in the ACC All-Conference Freshman team, as well as the Soccer Rookie Team of the Year.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: After impressing during his one year of college soccer for Maryland Terrapins, Rogers attracted the interest of Dutch Eredivisie side Heerenveen. In the summer of 2006, Heerenveen invited Rogers to the club for a three-week trial, an option that he ultimately took up. The trial period was successful, and he signed a two-year professional contract with the Dutch side in August 2006, his first professional deal. Rogers admitted that the decision to turn professional, and turn down three remaining years of eligibility at Maryland, was "the toughest of his life", but also stated that it was "an opportunity he could not pass up". However, Rogers failed to make a first-team appearance for the club, although played frequently for the reserve side that went on to win their respective league during the 2006–07 season. He left Heerenveen by mutual consent in February 2007.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Following his release, Rogers returned to the United States, and was subsequently signed by MLS side Columbus Crew ahead of the 2007 MLS season. Columbus Crew acquired Rogers after they had won a Draft Lottery for the player in March 2007. He scored his first goal for the club on June 17, 2007, netting the opening goal of the game in a 3–3 draw away to New England Revolution. Rogers scored two further times during the 2007 campaign, both of which came in a 3–2 victory over D.C. United at RFK Stadium. He made ten appearances during his first season with Crew, scoring three times and making one assist.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: The 2008 season would be Rogers' breakthrough season as a professional. He started the campaign playing regularly for Crew, scoring his first goals of the season in a 4–3 home win over CD Chivas USA on April 13, 2008. He went on to score the winning goal in a 2–1 win against Kansas City Wizards on May 4, 2008, before netting twice a week later as Crew defeated San Jose Earthquakes 3–2 to take their winning streak to five matches. Following his two goals against Earthquakes, Rogers was awarded the MLS Player of the Week award for week seven. Rogers' sixth goal of the campaign came in a 3–1 home win against New York Red Bulls at Columbus Crew Stadium in September 2008. He went on to score a further goal in the 2008 MLS Cup Playoffs, scoring the club's second in a 2–0 win over Kansas City Wizards; a win that ensured Crew progressed to the Conference final. Rogers played in all four of Crew's MLS Cup games, including in the final, where they defeated New York Red Bulls 3–1 at The Home Depot Center in November 2008. The season was successful both individually and collectively for Rogers, as he was named in the MLS Best XI team for the year, as well as picking up Supporters' Shield and MLS Cup silverware. He made 33 appearances during the 2008 campaign, scoring seven times, and assisting three goals.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: It took Rogers five months to score his first goal of the 2009 season as Crew started the season without a win in seven games; Rogers eventually netting in a 3–0 win over San Jose Earthquakes at Buck Shaw Stadium on August 9, 2009. It was his only goal of the 2009 MLS season, although he did score two goals in two CONCACAF Champions League matches against Puerto Rico Islanders and Deportivo Saprissa respectively. During the season, Rogers picked up his second Supporters' Shield title after Crew finished first in the overall standings despite their slow start, finishing a point ahead of second placed Los Angeles Galaxy. The club, however, failed to retain their MLS Cup crown following a Conference semi-final defeat to Real Salt Lake, losing 4–2 on aggregate, with Rogers playing in both games. He made 31 appearances in all competitions, and scored three goals.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: During the following season, Rogers' fourth at Columbus Crew, he made 34 appearances and scored twice. His first goal of the campaign came in a 3–2 win over New England Revolution in May 2010, with Rogers' goal coming in the 91st minute of the match. He also netted in a 2–1 win over Colorado Rapids in the MLS Cup Conference semi-final. Despite Rogers' goal, eventual champions Rapids would go on to win the tie 5–4 on penalties after extra-time. Rogers opened his account for the 2011 season in the club's first game of the season, scoring a late consolation penalty as Crew went down 3–1 to D.C. United. A month later, in April 2011, he scored the only goal of the game in a 1–0 home victory over Sporting Kansas City at Columbus Crew Stadium. It was to be his last goal for the club, in a season where he played 30 times. His last game for the club was in a 1–0 defeat to Colorado Rapids in the MLS Cup wildcard game on October 28, 2011. During his last season with the club, he led the team in assists and was also awarded the 'Crew Hardest Working Player' award. In December 2011, it was announced that Rogers was a free agent after he rejected the offer of a contract extension at Columbus Crew. During his five seasons at Crew, he made 138 appearances and scored 17 times.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: After Rogers left Columbus Crew, he joined Leeds United on an initial two-week trial period in December 2011, before signing on a permanent basis a month later, in January 2012. Rogers explained his national team coach Jürgen Klinsmann recommended him to then Leeds manager Simon Grayson, who in-turn invited Rogers for a trial at Elland Road. His work permit was granted a week after signing for the club. He made his debut on February 18, 2012, coming as a 79th-minute substitute in an eventual 3–2 home win over Doncaster Rovers. However, he had to be substituted just ten minutes into his debut after suffering a severe clash of heads with Doncaster defender Tommy Spurr. The head injury ultimately ruled Rogers out of first-team action for several weeks.<ref name="Games played by Robbie Rogers in 2011/2012"></ref> Rogers returned to the first-team in April 2012, making his first appearance under new manager Neil Warnock—with the player coming on as an 85th-minute substitute in a 2–0 defeat to promotion chasing Reading at the Madejski Stadium. He was handed the captain's armband during the match after replacing Robert Snodgrass. A week later, on April 14, Rogers made his first start for the club in a home fixture against Peterborough United. Similarly to his debut, he was substituted after just ten minutes due to sustaining an ankle injury. The ankle injury would ultimately rule him out for the remainder of the season. Rogers made four appearances during the second half of the 2011–12 season, with his first few months at the club blighted by injury.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Ahead of the 2012–13 season, manager Neil Warnock stated that he was hopeful Rogers would be able to get a full pre-season under his belt. In June 2012, Rogers returned to the United States to take part in a rehabilitation program, as well as spending two weeks training with the Los Angeles Galaxy squad. He returned to Leeds at the beginning of July 2012, and featured in a number of the club's pre-season friendlies; scoring in comprehensive victories over Farsley and Tavistock respectively. Shortly before the start of the new season, on August 9, manager Neil Warnock revealed that Rogers, along with teammate Danny Pugh, had been placed on the transfer list in order to generate funds for a new striker.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Rogers joined League One side Stevenage on August 23, on a loan deal until January 2013. Stevenage manager Gary Smith, previously manager of MLS side Colorado Rapids, stated that Rogers always impressed him during his time managing in the United States. He made his debut for Stevenage two days after signing, on August 25, coming on as a late substitute in the club's 1–0 away victory against Oldham Athletic. Rogers made nine appearances in all competitions during his five-month loan spell, with his time at the club "hampered by injury". He returned to his parent club on January 15, 2013.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: On his return to Leeds, it was announced that Rogers had left the club by mutual consent and was available on a free transfer. He made just four appearances during his time at the club, of which three were as a substitute.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Weeks after being released by Leeds United, on February 15, 2013, Rogers announced his retirement from professional soccer at age 25 and announced he was gay, making him the first professional soccer player based in Britain to come out since Justin Fashanu did so in 1990. He announced his retirement and sexuality with a 408-word post on his personal blog, robbiehrogers.com, in which Rogers wrote, "I'm a soccer player, I'm Christian, and I'm gay. Those are things that people might say wouldn't go well together. But my family raised me to be an individual and to stand up for what I believe in."


title: Robbie Rogers

text: In a March 2013 interview with "The Guardian", Rogers said he retired to avoid the pressure and scrutiny from the press and fans, which he called "the circus". Rogers said, "Are people coming to see you because you're gay? Would I want to do interviews every day, where people are asking: 'So you're taking showers with guys—how's that?'"


title: Robbie Rogers

text: After basketball player Jason Collins came out as gay in April 2013, he sought out Rogers for advice on dealing with the media.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: On May 1, 2013, Rogers joined Los Angeles Galaxy of Major League Soccer in training as a "special guest". Rogers said he made the decision to return in April 2013, after speaking in front of a crowd of 500 at an LGBT youth event in Portland, Oregon, during which he "seriously felt like a coward". Rogers told "USA TODAY Sports", "These kids are standing up for themselves and changing the world, and I'm 25, I have a platform and a voice to be a role model. How much of a coward was I to not step up to the plate?" He contacted Galaxy coach Bruce Arena, who extended him an invitation to train in Los Angeles.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: On May 24, 2013, Rogers agreed to terms with the Galaxy, pending the trade of his MLS rights from Chicago Fire SC in exchange for Mike Magee. Although the Fire held his MLS rights, Rogers had said in a radio interview that he had no intention of playing for Chicago, as he preferred to be close to his family in Southern California.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: On May 26, 2013, Rogers played his first match as a substitute for the Galaxy in a 4–0 win over the Seattle Sounders FC, becoming the first openly gay man to play in a top North American professional sports league (Collins, who had come out earlier in the month, was a free agent at the time of his announcement).


title: Robbie Rogers

text: In 2014, Rogers became the first openly gay male athlete to win a major professional team sports title in the United States when the Galaxy were crowned MLS Cup champions.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: On June 24, 2015, Rogers scored his first goal for the Galaxy in a 5-0 victory over the Portland Timbers. The goal had special meaning to Rogers as it took place on the Galaxy's 2nd Annual LGBT Pride Night.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: On November 7, 2017 Rogers retired permanently due to a series of injuries that forced him to miss the entire 2017 season.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Rogers made eight appearances for the United States U18 team, scoring three goals and assisting a further two, though all were in unofficial friendly matches. He then went on to play regularly for the United States U20 side from 2004 to 2007. He was part of the side that played in the 2006 Milk Cup, as well as representing his country at the 2007 FIFA U20 World Cup—playing in all five of his country's games throughout the tournament. He made 15 appearances for the U20 side, scoring three goals.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: He was called up to take part in the United States U23 team's two-game tour of China in 2007; in preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympics, held in Beijing. During the tour, he scored one goal and assisted another in a 3–3 draw with China U23. He was subsequently called up by coach Piotr Nowak to be part of the 18-man U23 Olympic squad, and played in all three games for the U.S. as they departed the tournament in the preliminary round.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: In October 2008, then head coach Bob Bradley called Rogers up for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Trinidad and Tobago. However, he had to withdraw from the squad due to a back injury, and was consequently replaced by Chris Rolfe. Rogers was then included in a 25-man January camp ahead of a friendly against Sweden on January 24, 2009. He started the match, his first cap for his country at senior level, playing 69 minutes in a 3–2 win at The Home Depot Center. He was named in the United States 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup squad. He started in his country's first match of the tournament, assisting the first two goals before scoring the third in an eventual 4–0 win against Grenada on July 5, 2009. Rogers made five appearances throughout the tournament, including a starting appearance in the final, which the U.S. lost to Mexico.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: After impressing during the Gold Cup, Rogers was called up to play in the United States' final two 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification matches in October 2009. Although he was not named in the squad for the 3–2 win over Honduras on October 11, 2009, he did appear as a second-half substitute in a 2–2 draw with Costa Rica four days later. Rogers came on when the U.S. were losing 2–0, and provided assists for both Michael Bradley and Jonathan Bornstein to tie the game at 2–2. Rogers made two further appearances in friendly matches against Slovakia and Denmark in November 2009, taking his senior team appearance tally to nine.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Rogers began 2010 by featuring in two friendlies against CONCACAF rivals Honduras and El Salvador, as the U.S. began preparing for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. In May 2010, Bradley selected Rogers for the 30-man preliminary roster for the World Cup, and he played in a warm-up friendly against Czech Republic on May 25, 2010, appearing as a second-half substitute. A day later, he was one of seven players that were cut from the final squad. He made one further appearance in 2010, starting in a 1–0 win over South Africa in a friendly played in Cape Town on November 17, 2010.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Rogers was included in the 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup squad, and started in a warm-up friendly against World champions Spain four days before the start of the tournament, his 14th cap. However, he made no appearances during the tournament as the U.S. lost out to Mexico in the final for the second consecutive time. In August 2011, he scored in a 1–1 draw against Mexico in a friendly played at the Lincoln Financial Field, in Jürgen Klinsmann's first match as U.S. head coach. Rogers' goal came with his first touch having just come on as a substitute, prodding in Brek Shea's low cross to restore parity. He went on to make three further appearances for the U.S. in 2011, all of which in friendly matches. As of December 2014, Rogers has made 18 appearances for his country, scoring two goals.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: ESPN.com writer Jeff Carlisle has noted Rogers's wing play as an asset, particularly "his ability to attack defenders one-on-one", as well as his crossing ability.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: In January 2018, it was announced that Rogers was attached as a producer on husband Greg Berlanti's football drama television pilot. The pilot was ordered to series on May 11, 2018. The series, titled "All American", debuted in the fall of 2018. He is also executive producer in Showtime miniseries "Fellow Travelers."


title: Robbie Rogers

text: In February 2013, Rogers came out as gay. In October 2014, the American Broadcasting Company closed a deal to air "Men in Shorts", a single-camera comedy based on Rogers' career and coming out. Storyline Entertainment and Universal Television optioned the rights to his story in July 2014, and he is credited as a producer.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Rogers began dating television writer producer Greg Berlanti in 2013, and on February 18, 2016, they welcomed their first child, a son, via surrogacy. On December 31, 2016, Rogers and Berlanti announced they had become engaged. They were married on December 2, 2017, in Malibu, California. On May 13, 2019, Rogers and Berlanti had a second child, a daughter.


title: Robbie Rogers

text: Rogers is a devout Roman Catholic. He stated that "Being Catholic—and people may disagree—but we are called to love everyone. Be honest. Be true in your relationship with God. I’ve always lived that way."


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: Lavandula angustifolia, formerly "L. officinalis", is a flowering plant in the family Lamiaceae, native to the Mediterranean (Spain, France, Italy, Croatia etc.). Its common names include lavender, true lavender and English lavender (though not native to England); also garden lavender, common lavender and narrow-leaved lavender.


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: It is a strongly aromatic shrub growing as high as tall. The leaves are evergreen, long, and broad. The flowers are pinkish-purple (lavender-coloured), produced on spikes long at the top of slender, leafless stems long.


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: The species name "angustifolia" is Latin for "narrow leaf". Previously, it was known as "Lavandula officinalis", referring to its medicinal properties.


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: English lavender is commonly grown as an ornamental plant. It is popular for its colourful flowers, its fragrance, and its ability to survive with low water consumption. It does not grow well in continuously damp soil and may benefit from increased drainage provided by inorganic mulches such as gravel. It does best in Mediterranean climates similar to its native habitat, characterised by wet winters and dry summers. It is fairly tolerant of low temperatures and is generally considered hardy to USDA zone 5. It tolerates acid soils but favours neutral to alkaline soils, and in some conditions it may be short-lived.


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: The following cultivars of "L. angustifolia" and its hybrids have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: Compacta, Folgate, Dwarf Blue, Dwarf White, Hidcote Pink, Hidcote Superior, Munstead, Nana Atropurpurea, Nana Rosea, Sarah, Summerland Supreme, Lady Lavender


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: Bowles Early, Hidcote Variety, Loddon Blue, Martha Roderick, Jean Davis, Twickle Purple, Pink Perfume


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: Alba, Backhouse Purple, Biostos, Bridestowe, Graves, Gray Lady, Gwendolyn Anley, Hidcote Giant, Irene Doyle, Mailette, Middachten


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: The flowers and leaves are used as a herbal medicine, either in the form of lavender oil or as a herbal tea, to alleviate symptoms such as anxiety, and difficulty falling asleep.


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: The flowers are also used as a culinary herb, most often as part of the North American version of the French herb blend called "herbes de Provence".


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: Lavender essential oil, when diluted with a carrier oil, is commonly used as a relaxant with massage therapy. Products for home use, such as lotions, eye pillows (including lavender flowers or the essential oil itself) and bath oils, etc., are also used. Both the petals and the oil are the most popular ingredients in handmade soap.


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: Dried lavender flowers and lavender essential oil are also used as a prevention against clothing moths, which do not like their scent.


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: "Lavandula angustifolia" is included in the Tasmanian Fire Service's list of low flammability plants, indicating that it is suitable for growing within a building protection zone.


title: Lavandula angustifolia

text: "Lavandula" hybrids are referred to as lavandins. Hybrids between "L. angustifolia" and "L. latifolia" (spike lavender) are called "Lavandula × intermedia". They bloom later than the ordinary English lavenders.


title: Show Window: The Queen's House

text: Show Window: The Queen's House () is a South Korean television series starring Song Yoon-ah, Lee Sung-jae, Jeon So-min and Hwang Chan-sung. It aired from November 29, 2021, to January 18, 2022, on Channel A's Mondays and Tuesdays at 21:30 (KST) time slot for 16 episodes.


title: Show Window: The Queen's House

text: The series was a commercial hit and became one of the highest rated Korean series on cable television history. With an average nationwide viewership ratings of 10.335% for its final episode aired on January 18, 2022, it set a new record for the highest viewership ratings of any Channel A series.


title: Show Window: The Queen's House

text: It is about a woman who supports the adultery of another woman, without knowing that the affair is with her husband.


title: Show Window: The Queen's House

text: The first script reading of the cast was held in June 2021. "Show Window: The Queen's House" is labelled as "Channel A's Tenth Anniversary Special Project".


title: Baseball rules

text: The rules of baseball differ slightly from league to league, but in general share the same basic game play.


title: Baseball rules

text: The "Official Baseball Rules" govern all professional play in the United States and Canada, including the World Baseball Classic. The complete rules are published as the Official Baseball Rules at MLB.com, the official web site of Major League Baseball in the United States and Canada. The rules are also published in book form in North America by the "Sporting News". Many amateur and youth leagues use the "OBR" with only a few modifications for safety.


title: Baseball rules

text: Other slightly modified versions of the "Official Baseball Rules" are used in competitions operated by the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC), including the Olympics, World Cup, and WBSC Premier 12, most leagues outside North America (such as Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball), and youth baseball organizations such as Little League, PONY League, and Cal Ripken League.


title: Baseball rules

text: The baseball rulebook of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), aside from governing the games of that organization's members, is also used by several other competitions involving college-aged players.


title: Baseball rules

text: U.S. high school and high school-age baseball is governed by the rules of the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS).


title: Baseball rules

text: For the origins of the game, see Origins of baseball. Unlike many other sports, the Official Baseball Rules have remained mainly static during the modern era of the game. Many baseball players, fans, and administrators view the rules and traditions of professional baseball as time-tested and nearly sacrosanct.


title: Baseball rules

text: This was not the case during baseball's early days, particularly in the late 19th century, when rules were changed significantly and often yearly. The game as we know it today really began to take shape only in the late 1880s, and even after that, many significant rule changes were made during the rest of that century.


title: Baseball rules

text: In 1857, under the NABBP Rules which governed until 1870, the current 9-inning format was adopted, replacing the previous rule that the first team to score 21 runs won. The next year called strikes were recognized, and a batter was out if a ball, fair or foul, was caught on the fly or after one bounce. Called balls and the walk were introduced in 1863. In 1867, the batter had the right to call for a high or low pitch, to be determined by the umpire.


title: Baseball rules

text: The National League formed in 1876. Its rules changed almost yearly for the next quarter century. In 1880, a batter was out if the catcher caught the third strike; otherwise, the batter got four strikes. Before 1883, pitchers were required to deliver pitches with their hand below their hips; in that year, the rule was changed to allow shoulder-high deliveries. Until 1887, batters could call for either a high or low pitch, and the strike zone was either above or below the waist. In 1885, the rules changed, to allow bats to be flat on one side; beginning in 1893, they had to be round. In 1887, the rules changed so that batters could no longer call for a pitch; and the strike zone was defined as from the shoulders to the knees. During this period, the pitcher's mound was much closer to home plate, foul balls were not counted as strikes, batters got four strikes, and the number of "called balls" resulting in a walk—which initially included strikes and foul balls- went from 9 to 8 to 7 to 6 to 5 and, in 1889, to 4. In that same year, the number of strikes went from 4 to 3. In 1887, a rule was adopted for that year counting only walks as hits, which played havoc with statistics. In 1892, the 154 game schedule was adopted. In 1893, the pitching position was changed from behind a line 50 feet from home plate to contact with a rubber slab 60.5 feet away. In 1894, foul bunts were made strikes, and the infield fly rule was adopted with one out. In 1895, foul tips were made strikes, but not foul balls. In 1898, the first modern balk rule was adopted, as well as the modern rule for recognizing stolen bases. In 1901, the infield fly rule was extended to apply when there were no outs.


title: Baseball rules

text: Because of the frequent and often radical rule changes during this early period, the "modern era" is generally considered to have begun in 1901, when the American League was also formed.


title: Baseball rules

text: Some significant rule changes continued in the first quarter of the 20th century but were much less frequent. In 1903, the American League adopted the foul strike rule. In 1907, the sacrifice fly rule was adopted. In 1910, cork centers were added to balls. In 1925, the minimum distance for a home run was made 250 feet. Until 1929 (AL) and 1931 (NL), a ball that bounced over the outfield fence in fair territory was a home run, not a double.


title: Baseball rules

text: After that, the rules remained virtually static for decades. In 1961, the 162-game schedule was adopted. In 1969, the pitcher's mound dropped five inches and the strike zone reduced: from the armpits to the top of the knees. In 1973, the American League adopted the designated hitter rule. This was probably the most controversial rule change in baseball's history and is still subject to lively debate. It was not adopted by the National League until 2022. Also controversial when adopted was the later introduction of interleague play. The most recent significant rule changes, banning the use of steroids and other performance-enhancing substances, have had widespread support as protecting the integrity of the game. The use of steroids by many players over the last two decades has called into question records for both hitting and pitching.


title: Baseball rules

text: Baseball is played between two teams with nine players in the field from the team that is not batting at that point (the batting team would have one batter in play at "home plate" on the field). On a baseball field, the game is under the authority of several umpires. There are usually four umpires in major league games; up to six (and as few as one) may officiate depending on the league and the importance of the game. There are three "bases". Numbered counterclockwise, first, second, and third bases are cushions (sometimes informally referred to as "bags") shaped as 15 in (38 cm) squares which are raised a short distance above the ground; together with home plate, the fourth "base", they form a square with sides of 90 ft (27.4 m) called the diamond. Home plate is a pentagonal rubber slab 17 in (43.2 cm) wide. The playing field is divided into three main sections:


title: Baseball rules

text: The pitcher's mound is located in the center of the infield. It is an 18 ft (5.5 m) diameter mound of dirt no higher than 10 in (25.4 cm). Near the center of the mound is the pitching rubber, a rubber slab positioned 60 ft 6 in (18.4 m) from home plate. The pitcher must have one foot on the rubber at the start of every pitch to a batter, but the pitcher may leave the mound area once the ball is released.


title: Baseball rules

text: At the college/professional level, baseball is played in nine innings in which each team gets one turn to bat and tries to score "runs" while the other pitches and defends in the field. High school baseball plays seven innings and Little League uses six-inning games. An inning is broken up into two halves in which the away team bats in the top (first) half, and the home team bats in the bottom (second) half. In baseball, the defense always has the ball—a fact that differentiates it from most other team sports. The teams switch every time the defending team gets three players of the batting team "out". The winner is the team with the most runs after nine innings. If the home team is ahead after the top of the ninth, play does not continue into the bottom half. When this happens, an X is put on the scoreboard for the home team's score in the ninth inning. In the case of a tie, additional innings are played until one team comes out ahead at the end of an inning. If the home team takes the lead anytime during the bottom of the ninth or of any inning after that, play stops and the home team is declared the winner. This is known as a walk-off.


title: Baseball rules

text: The basic contest is always between the "pitcher" for the fielding team and a "batter". The pitcher throws—"pitches"—the ball towards home plate, where the "catcher" for the fielding team waits (in a crouched stance) to receive it. Behind the catcher stands the home plate umpire. The batter stands in one of the batter's boxes and tries to hit the ball with a bat. The pitcher must keep one foot in contact with the top or front of the pitcher's rubber—a 24×6 in (61×15 cm) plate located atop the pitcher's mound—during the entire pitch, so he can take only one step backward and one forward in delivering the ball. The catcher's job is to receive any pitches that the batter does not hit and to "call" the game by a series of hand movements that signal to the pitcher what pitch to throw and where. The catcher also usually signals the desired location of the ball within the strike zone and "sets up" behind the plate or holds his glove up in the desired location as a target. The catcher's role becomes more crucial depending on how the game is going, and how the pitcher responds to a given situation. Each pitch begins a new "play", which might consist of nothing more than the pitch itself.


title: Baseball rules

text: Each half-inning, the goal of the defending team is to get three members of the other team out. A player who is out must leave the field and wait for his next turn at bat. There are many ways to get batters and baserunners out; some of the most common are catching a batted ball in the air, tag outs, force outs, and strikeouts. After the fielding team has put out three players from the opposing team, that half of the inning is over and the team in the field and the team at bat switch places; there is no upper limit to the number that may bat in rotation before three outs are recorded. Going through the entire order in an inning is referred to as "batting around" and it is indicative of a high-scoring inning. A complete inning consists of each opposing side having a turn (three outs) on offense.


title: Baseball rules

text: The goal of the team at bat is to score more runs than the opposition; a player may do so by batting, then becoming a baserunner, touching all the bases in order (via one or more plays), and finally touching home plate. A player may also become a baserunner by being inserted as a pinch-runner. To that end, the goal of each batter is to enable baserunners to score or to become a baserunner himself. The batter attempts to hit the ball into fair territory—between the baselines—in such a way that the defending players cannot get them or the baserunners out. In general, the pitcher attempts to prevent this by pitching the ball in such a way that the batter cannot hit it cleanly or, ideally, at all.


title: Baseball rules

text: A baserunner who has successfully touched home plate without being retired (called out) after touching all previous bases scores a "run". In an enclosed field, a fair ball hit over the fence on the fly is an automatic "home run", which entitles the batter and all runners to touch all the bases and score. On a field with foul poles, a ball that hits a pole is also a home run. A home run hit with all bases occupied ('bases loaded') is called a "grand slam".


title: Baseball rules

text: The squad in the field is the defensive team; they attempt to prevent the baserunners from scoring. There are nine defensive positions, but only two have a mandatory location (pitcher and catcher). The locations of the other seven fielders are not specified by the rules, except that at the moment the pitch is delivered, they must be positioned in fair territory and not in the space between the pitcher and the catcher. These fielders often shift their positioning in response to specific batters or game situations, and they may exchange positions with one another at any time.


title: Baseball rules

text: The nine positions most commonly used (with the number scorekeepers use) are: pitcher (1), catcher (2), first baseman (3), second baseman (4), third baseman (5), shortstop (6), left fielder (7), center fielder (8), and right fielder (9). Note that, in rare cases, teams may use dramatically differing schemes, such as switching an outfielder for an infielder. The numbering convention was established by Henry Chadwick. The reason the shortstop seems out of order has to do with the way fielders positioned themselves in the early years of the game; the shortstop was positioned in the shallow outfield. Each position is weighted on the defensive spectrum in terms of difficulty. The most difficult position is the catcher, while the least difficult is first base. Designated hitter, while on the scale, is not part of the defense at all. Pitchers, while part of the active defense, are so specialized in their role that they usually make only routine plays.


title: Baseball rules

text: The "battery" is composed of the "pitcher", who stands on the rubber of the mound, which is also known as the pitching plate, and the "catcher", who squats behind home plate. These are the two fielders who always deal directly with the batter on every pitch, hence the term "battery", coined by Henry Chadwick and later reinforced by the implied comparison to artillery fire.


title: Baseball rules

text: The pitcher's main role is to pitch the ball toward home plate with the goal of getting the batter out. Pitchers also play defense by fielding batted balls, covering bases (for a potential tag out or force out on an approaching runner), or backing up throws. The catcher's main role is to receive the pitch if the batter does not hit it. Together with the pitcher and coaches, the catcher plots game strategy by suggesting different pitches and by shifting the starting positions of the other fielders. Catchers are also responsible for defense in the area near home plate (such as dropped third strikes and wild pitches) or baserunning plays, most commonly when an opposing player attempts to steal a base. Due to the exceptional difficulty of the position, catchers are universally valued for their defensive prowess as opposed to their ability to hit.


title: Baseball rules

text: The four infielders are the "first baseman", "second baseman", "shortstop", and "third baseman". Originally the first, second and third basemen played very near their respective bases, and the shortstop generally played "in" (hence the term), covering the area between second, third, and the pitchers box, or wherever the game situation required. As the game evolved, the fielding positions changed to the now-familiar "umbrella", with the first and third baseman generally positioned a short distance toward second base from their bases, the second baseman to the right side of second base standing farther away from the base than any other infielder, and the shortstop playing to the left of second base, as seen from the batter's perspective.


title: Baseball rules

text: The first baseman's job consists largely of making plays at first base on ground balls hit to the other infielders. When an infielder picks up a ball from the ground hit by the batter, he must throw it to the first baseman who must catch the ball and maintain contact with the base before the batter gets to it for the batter to be out. The need to do this quickly often requires the first baseman to stretch one of his legs to touch first base while catching the ball simultaneously. The first baseman must be able to catch the ball very well and usually wears a specially designed mitt. The first baseman fields balls hit near first base. The first baseman also has to receive throws from the pitcher in order to tag runners out who have reached base safely. The position is less physically challenging than the other positions, but there is still a lot of skill involved. Infielders don't always make good throws to first base, so it is the first baseman's job to field any ball thrown toward him cleanly. Older players who can no longer fulfill the demands of their original positions also often become first basemen.


title: Baseball rules

text: The second baseman covers the area to the first-base side of second base and provides backup for the first baseman in bunt situations. He also is a cut-off for the outfield. The cut-off provides an intermediary between an outfielder and the infield so that the outfielder does not have to throw the entire distance if they've been forced to field the ball near the outer edge of the outfield. The shortstop fills the critical gap between second and third bases—where right-handed batters generally hit ground balls—and also covers second or third base and the near part of left field. This player is also a cut-off for the outfield. This position is the most demanding defensively, so a good shortstop doesn't need to necessarily be a good batter, though this has changed in modern times. The third baseman's primary requirement is a strong throwing arm, in order to make the long throw across the infield to the first baseman. Quick reaction time is also important for third basemen, as they tend to see more sharply-hit balls than do the other infielders, thus the nickname for third base as the "hot corner". Also, because there are far more right-handed hitters than lefties, there are more ground balls hit to the left side of the infield due to the natural motion of the batter's swing.


title: Baseball rules

text: The three outfielders, "left fielder", "center fielder", and "right fielder", are so named from the catcher's perspective looking out onto the field. The right fielder generally has the strongest arm of all the outfielders due to the need to make throws on runners attempting to take third base. The center fielder has more territory to cover than the corner outfielders, so this player must be quick and agile with a strong arm to throw balls into the infield; as with the shortstop, teams tend to emphasize defense at this position. Also, the center fielder is considered the outfield leader, and left- and right-fielders often cede to his direction when fielding fly balls. Of all outfielders, the "left fielder" often has the weakest arm, as they generally do not need to throw the ball as far in order to prevent the advance of any baserunners. The left fielder still requires good fielding and catching skills, and tends to receive more balls than the right fielder due to the fact that right-handed hitters, who are much more common, tend to "pull" the ball into left field. Each outfielder runs to "back up" a nearby outfielder who attempts to field a ball hit near both their positions. Outfielders also run to back up infielders on batted balls and thrown balls, including pick-off attempts from the pitcher or from the catcher.


title: Baseball rules

text: Effective pitching is critical to a baseball team, as pitching is the key for the defensive team to retire batters and to prevent runners from getting on base. A full game usually involves over one hundred pitches thrown by each team. However, most pitchers begin to tire before they reach this point. In previous eras, pitchers would often throw up to four complete games (all nine innings) in a week. With new advances in medical research and thus a better understanding of how the human body functions and tires out, starting pitchers tend more often to throw fractions of a game (typically six or seven innings, depending on their performance) about every five days (though a few complete games do still occur each year).


title: Baseball rules

text: A single game often requires multiple pitchers, including the starting pitcher and relief pitcher(s). Pitchers are substituted for one another like any other player (see above), and the rules do not limit the number of pitchers that can be used in a game; the only limiting factor is the size of the squad, naturally. In general, starting pitchers are not used in relief situations except sometimes during the post-season when every game is vital. If a game runs into many extra innings, a team may well empty its bullpen. If it then becomes necessary to use a "position player" as a pitcher, major league teams generally have certain players designated as emergency relief pitchers, to avoid the embarrassment of using a less skillful player. In baseball's early years, squads were smaller, and relief pitchers were relatively uncommon, with the starter normally remaining for the entire game unless he was either thoroughly ineffective or became injured; today, with a much greater emphasis on pitch count, over the course of a single game each team will frequently use from two to five pitchers. In the 2005 ALCS, all four of the Chicago White Sox victories were complete games by the starters, a highly noteworthy event in the modern game.


title: Baseball rules

text: While delivering the ball, the pitcher has a great arsenal at his disposal in the variation of location, velocity, movement, and arm location (see types of pitches). Most pitchers attempt to master two or three types of pitches; some pitchers throw up to 6 types of pitches with varying degrees of control. Common pitches include a fastball, which is the ball thrown at high speed; a curveball, which is made to curve by rotation imparted by the pitcher; a change-up, which seeks to mimic the delivery of a fastball but arrives at significantly lower velocity; a splitfinger fastball, which attempts to mimic the delivery of a fastball, but has slight topspin rotation allowing the baseball to sink as it approaches the batter due to the position of the index finger and middle finger being "split" on the baseball; a slider, which is made to curve laterally by rotation imparted by the pitcher; a knuckleball, which is held either by the knuckles closest to the nails or by the nails themselves allowing the pitcher to throw a baseball with little or no spin on the ball allowing the baseball to move in any direction; a Vulcan changeup, which seeks to mimic the delivery of a fastball but arrives at a significant lower velocity due to the pitcher holding the baseball with the middle and ring fingers slightly apart; a circle changeup, which is held in the palm of the hand with the index finger curled around the side of the baseball, allowing the pitcher to mimic the delivery of a fastball but arrives at a significantly lower velocity.


title: Baseball rules

text: To illustrate pitching strategy, consider the "fastball/change-up" combination: The average major-league pitcher can throw a fastball around 90 miles per hour (145 km/h), and a few pitchers have even exceeded . The change-up is thrown somewhere between . Since the batter's timing is critical to hitting a pitch, a batter swinging to hit what looks like a fastball, would be terribly fooled (swing and miss, hopefully) when the pitch turns out to be a much slower change-up.


title: Baseball rules

text: Some pitchers choose to throw using the 'submarine style,' a very efficient sidearm or near-underhand motion. Pitchers with a submarine delivery are often very difficult to hit because of the angle and movement of the ball once released. Walter Johnson, who threw one of the fastest fastballs in the history of the game, threw sidearm (though not submarine) rather than a normal overhand. True underhanded pitching is permitted in Major League Baseball. However, it is difficult to generate enough velocity and movement with the underhand motion. Among modern Major League pitchers, Chad Bradford had the closest to an underhand delivery, with his knuckles sometimes scraping the ground. However, he is still usually considered a "submarine" pitcher.


title: Baseball rules

text: Only the pitcher's and catcher's locations are fixed, and then only at the beginning of each pitch. Thus, the players on the field move around as needed to defend against scoring a run. Many variations of this are possible, as location depends upon the situation. Circumstances such as the number of outs, the count (balls and strikes) on the batter, the number and speed of runners, the ability of the fielders, the ability of the pitcher, the type of pitch thrown, the tendencies of the hitter, and the inning cause the fielders to move to more strategic locations on the field. Common defensive strategies include: playing for the bunt, trying to prevent a stolen base, moving to a shallow position to throw out a runner at home, playing at "double play depth", and moving fielders to locations where hitters are most likely to hit the ball.


title: Baseball rules

text: The ultimate goal of the team at bat is to score runs. To accomplish this task, the team at bat successively (in a predetermined order called a "lineup" or "batting order") sends its nine players to the batter's box (adjacent to home plate) where they become batters. (Each team sets its batting lineup at the beginning of the game. Changes to the lineup are tightly limited by the rules of baseball and must be communicated to the umpires, who have the substitutions announced for the opposing team and fans. See Substitutions below.)


title: Baseball rules

text: A batter's turn at the plate is called a "plate appearance". Batters can advance to first base safely in one of seven methods: a base-hit (abbreviated 'H') or walk ('BB' for base-on-balls) are by far the most common; being hit-by-the-pitch ('HBP'), reaching by error ('E') or fielder's choice ('FC') are less common; and somewhat rarely a player may reach base by virtue of interference ('I') or a passed ball ('PB') on a strikeout, where the player is allowed to run and reach base safely if he can. When the batter hits a fair ball, he must run to first base and may continue or stop at any base unless he is put out. A successful hit occurs when the batter reaches a base: reaching only first base is a "single"; reaching second base, a "double"; third base, a "triple"; and a hit that allows the batter to touch all bases in order on the same play is a home run—whether the ball is hit over the fence does not matter (if the ball is not hit over the fence and the batter touches all bases, it is usually referred to as an "inside-the-park home run"). Once a runner is held to a base, he may attempt to advance at any time, but is not required to do so unless the batter or another runner displaces him (called a force play). A batter always drops his bat when running the bases; otherwise, the bat would slow him down and could give rise to a call of interference if it were to contact the ball or a fielder. However, if a batter hits the ball, and the batter or the dropped bat touches the ball, it is considered a dead ball.


title: Baseball rules

text: Depending on the way the ball comes off the bat, the play has different names. A batted ball is called a fly ball if it is hit in the air in an upward arc, such that a fielder might be able to catch it before it hits the ground. A batted ball is called a "ground ball" if it hits the ground within the infield before it can be caught, often due to being hit in a downward trajectory. Several different names are used to describe fly balls, depending on their trajectory. A ball hit high in the air and seemingly almost straight up is called a "pop-up". A ball hit forcefully in a fast-moving and seemingly almost straight-line trajectory is called a "line drive". A "shallow" fly ball, hit with just enough force to possibly land between the infielders and the outfielders, is often called a "blooper". A "deep" fly ball is hit with enough force to approach and possibly clear the outfield fence.


title: Baseball rules

text: When a ball is hit outside the foul lines, it is a "foul ball", requiring the batter and all runners to return to their respective bases, whether it is caught or not. Additionally, if a ground ball or a bunted ball lands in foul territory and the ball rolls back into bounds before reaching either first or third bases without being touched by either a fielder or a runner, then said ball is considered fair.


title: Baseball rules

text: Once the batter and any existing runners have all stopped at a base or been put out, the ball is returned to the pitcher, and the next batter comes to the plate. After the opposing team bats in its own order and three more outs are recorded, the first team's batting order will continue again from where it left off.


title: Baseball rules

text: When a runner reaches home plate, he scores a run and is no longer a base runner. He must leave the playing area until his spot in the order comes up again. A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can score no more than a single run.


title: Baseball rules

text: In the American, Pacific, and both Cuban leagues, there is a tenth player, a designated hitter, who bats for the pitcher.


title: Baseball rules

text: Each plate appearance consists of a series of pitches, in which the pitcher throws the ball towards home plate while a batter is standing in the batter's box (either right or left). With each pitch, the batter must decide whether to swing the bat at the ball in an attempt to hit it. The pitches arrive quickly, so the decision to swing must be made in less than a tenth of a second, based on whether the ball is hittable and in the "strike zone", a region defined by the area directly above home plate and between the hollow beneath the batter's knee and the midpoint between the top of the shoulders and the top of the uniform pants. In addition to swinging at the ball, a batter who wishes to put the ball in play may hold his bat over home plate and attempt to tap a pitch lightly; this is called a bunt. Good bunting technique has been described as "catching the ball with the bat."


title: Baseball rules

text: On any pitch, if the batter swings at the ball and misses, he is charged with a "strike". If the batter does not swing, the home plate umpire judges whether the ball passed through the strike zone. If the ball, or any part of it, passed through the zone, it is ruled a strike; otherwise, it is called a "ball". The number of balls and strikes thrown to the current batter is known as the count; the count is always given balls first, then strikes (such as 3–2 or "three and two", also known as a "full count", which would be 3 balls and 2 strikes).


title: Baseball rules

text: If the batter swings and makes contact with the ball, but does not put it in play in fair territory—a "foul ball"—he is charged with an additional strike, except when there are already two strikes. Thus, a foul ball with two strikes leaves the count unchanged. (However, a noted exception to this rule is that a ball bunted foul with two strikes is a strikeout.) If a pitch is batted foul or fair and a member of the defensive team is able to catch it, before the ball strikes the ground, the batter is declared out. In the event that a bat deflects the ball sharply and directly back toward the catcher's box, it is a "foul tip". If a ball ruled as a foul tip is caught, with two strikes in the count, it is considered a counted third strike and an out; if not initially caught by the catcher, it remains a foul ball with two strikes.


title: Baseball rules

text: When three strikes occur on a batter, it is a "strikeout" and the batter is automatically out unless the pitch is not caught by the catcher or if the pitch bounces before it is caught. It is then ruled an uncaught third strike, an exception to the third strike rule: If the catcher drops the third strike, the batter is permitted to attempt to advance to first base if there are two outs in the inning or if it is unoccupied. In this case, the batter is not out (although the pitcher is awarded a strikeout). The catcher can try to get the batter out by tagging him with the ball or throwing the ball to first base to put him out. (See Doug Eddings (2005 ALCS) and Mickey Owen (1941 World Series) for famous examples of dropped third strikes that dramatically altered the course of post-season series.)


title: Baseball rules

text: On the fourth ball, it is called a walk, and the batter becomes a runner, and is entitled to advance to first base without risk of being put out, called a "base on balls" or a "walk" (abbreviated BB). If a pitch touches the batter (or the batter's clothes), the umpire declares a "hit by pitch" (abbreviated HBP) and the batter is awarded first base, unless the umpire determines that the ball was in the strike zone when it hit the batter, or that the batter did not attempt to avoid being hit. In practice, neither exception is ever called unless the batter obviously tries to get hit by the pitch; even standing still in the box will virtually always be overlooked, and the batter awarded first. In addition, if the batter swings at a pitch that hits him, it counts as a strike. If the catcher's mitt, catcher's mask, or any part of the catcher comes in contact with the batter and/or the batter's bat as the batter is attempting to hit a pitch, the batter is awarded first base, ruled "catcher's interference".


title: Baseball rules

text: Once a batter becomes a runner and reaches first base safely, he is said to be "on" that base until he attempts to advance to the next base, until he is put out, or until the half-inning ends. In order to be safe a runner must beat the ball to the bag. When two or more runners are on the basepaths, the runner farther along is called a "lead runner" or a "preceding runner"; any other runner is called a "trailing runner" or a "following runner". Runners on second or third base are considered to be in "scoring position" since ordinary hits, even singles, will often allow them to score.


title: Baseball rules

text: A runner legally touching a base is "safe"—in most situations he may not be put out. Runners may attempt to advance from base to base at any time (except when the ball is dead). A runner that must attempt to advance is forced , when all previous bases are occupied and a batted ball that touches the ground is a fair ball. The runner forced to advance toward the next base is considered "forced out" if a fielder holding the baseball touches the intended base before the baserunner arrives. When a batted ball is hit in the air, i.e., a "fly ball", and caught by the defending team, runners must return and "retouch" the base they occupied at the time of the pitch. The common name for this requirement is "tagging up." If the runner retouches the origin base at any time after the fly ball is first touched by a fielder, he may attempt to advance to the next base or bases at his own risk. The penalty for failing to retouch (if the defensive team notices this) is that the advancing runner can be put out on a live appeal in which the defensive team player with the ball touches the base from which that runner departed prematurely. If a runner tagged up and tries to run to the next base in sequence, they are deemed out if tagged by an infielder at any point before reaching the base or the ball arrives at the base ahead of the runner. However, if the runner is not forced to run to the next base in sequence, they are not deemed out until they are tagged. This often leads to a runner being trapped between two or more infielders trying to tag them before reaching any base: a situation known as being "caught in no-man's-land".


title: Baseball rules

text: Only one runner may occupy a base at a time; if two runners are touching a base at once, the trailing runner is in jeopardy and will be out if tagged. However, if the trail runner reached the base having been forced there, it is the lead runner who will be out when tagged for failing to reach his force base. Either such occurrence is very rare. Thus, after a play, at most three runners may be on the basepaths, one on each base—first, second, and third. When three runners are on base, this is called "bases loaded".


title: Baseball rules

text: Baserunners may attempt to advance, or steal a base, while the pitcher is preparing to make a pitch, while he is making a pitch, or while waiting for a return throw from the catcher after a pitch. The pitcher, in lieu of delivering the pitch, may try to prevent this by throwing the ball to one of the infielders in order to tag the runner; if successful, it is called a "pick-off". He may also, as part of a planned sequence, throw a pitch well outside and high of the strike zone to his catcher who is waiting for it upright there, and is thus better prepared to throw out a runner trying to steal; this sequence is called a "pitchout." If the runner attempts to steal the next base but is tagged out before reaching it safely, he is "caught stealing". An illegal attempt by the pitcher to deceive a runner, among other pitching violations, is called a balk, allowing all runners to advance one base without risk of being put out.


title: Baseball rules

text: Another fundamental tenet of the rules of baseball is that a runner who was initially ruled out can subsequently be ruled safe, but once a runner is ruled safe he cannot be called out on the same play, unless he overruns the base. For example, if a baserunner steals second base, beating the throw, an umpire might make the quick call of safe, but if the runner then slides beyond the base and is tagged before he can retreat to it the umpire has the right to change the call. A runner initially called out can be subsequently ruled safe if the fielder putting the runner out drops the ball (on either a tag or force play), pulls his foot off the base (in the case of a force play), or otherwise illegally obstructs a runner from reaching a base that he otherwise would have reached safely.


title: Baseball rules

text: The goal of each batter is to become a base runner himself (by a base hit, a base on balls, being hit by the pitch, a fielding error, or fielder's choice) or to help move other base runners along (by another base hit, a sacrifice bunt, sacrifice fly, or hit and run).


title: Baseball rules

text: Batters attempt to "read" pitchers through pre-game preparation by studying the tendencies of pitchers and by talking to other batters that previously faced the pitcher. While batting, batters attempt to "read" pitches by looking for clues that the pitcher or catcher reveal. These clues (also referred to as "tipping pitches") include movements of the pitcher's arms, shoulders, body, etc., or the positioning of the catcher's feet and glove. Batters can attempt to "read" the spin of a ball early in the pitch to anticipate its trajectory.


title: Baseball rules

text: Batters also remain keenly aware of the count during their at bat. The count is considered to be in the batter's favor when there are more balls than strikes (e.g., two balls and no strikes). This puts pressure on the pitcher to throw a strike to avoid a walk so the batter is more likely to get an easier pitch to hit and can look for a particular pitch in a particular zone or take a riskier or bigger swing. The count is considered to be in the pitcher's favor when there are fewer balls than strikes (e.g., no balls and two strikes). This gives the pitcher more freedom to try enticing the batter to swing at a pitch outside the strike zone or throwing a pitch that is harder to control (e.g. a curve, slider or splitter), but that is also harder to hit. Thus the batter will take a more protective swing.