title: The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)

text: The next recording of "It's in His Kiss" was made in Los Angeles by Ramona King, an R&B singer from San Francisco: this version was produced by Joe Saraceno and former Phil Spector associate Jerry Riopelle and released on Warner Brothers in February 1964, the week prior to the release of Everett's version. Although Everett's single was more likely to receive airplay due to her being an established hitmaker (with "You're No Good"), Vee-Jay feared losing sales to the King version and opted to distinguish Everett's version by issuing it under the title "The Shoop Shoop Song" referring to the song's background vocals.


title: The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)

text: "The Shoop Shoop Song" first became a major UK hit in 1975 via a disco version entitled "It's in His Kiss" by British vocalist Linda Lewis recorded at Mediasound Studios in New York City with producers Bert de Couteaux and Tony Silvester in a session which also yielded Lewis' recording of her own composition "Rock and Roller Coaster". Lewis would recall: "Clive [Davis]" - Arista Records founder and president - "sent me over to New York [City] to work with Bert DeCoteaux, who’d [produced] Sister Sledge and people like thatAnd I had all these amazing backing vocalists, like Deniece Williams and Luther Vandross in the studio. I was like, 'Oh, my God!' I’m just this little girl from the East EndI just went in the studio and just hit the nail on the head, apparently." Clive Davis had the idea of Lewis remaking a classic hit song disco-style and had several "oldies" played for Lewis in the studio: "As soon as ['It's in His Kiss'] came on we all said 'That's the one!'" Lewis would state: "I always loved the song and used to sing it in the bath" while opining that making a disco record "isn't really me".


title: The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)

text: Issued as "It's in His Kiss" — despite containing a variant of the "shoop shoop" background vocal – Lewis' version became a UK Top Ten hit in August 1975:. on July 26, 1975, the track had been ranked at number 13 in its third charting week, its advance to number 8 on the August 2, 1975 chart being assisted by Lewis' performance of the song on the "TOTP" episode dated July 24, 1975, with the track reaching its UK chart peak of number 6 on August 9, 1975, with a third and final Top Ten ranking at number 9 on August 16, 1975. "It's in His Kiss" also afforded Lewis an Irish Top Ten hit at number 9, and in the US ranked as high as number 11 in club play with peripheral cross-over to the R&B chart in "Billboard" at number 96, while the track almost reached the "Billboard" Hot 100, "bubbling under" at number 107. "It's in His Kiss" was included on Lewis' debut Arista Records album release "Not a Little Girl Anymore" which reached number 40 in the UK Albums Chart.


title: The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)

text: On the episode of "Saturday Night Live" broadcast May 19, 1979, Linda Ronstadt and Phoebe Snow performed "The Shoop Shoop Song" as a duet; in an October 2008 interview Snow stated that she and Ronstadt "always talked about" recording "The Shoop Shoop Song", adding: "Maybe we still will"; although the duet remained unrecorded at the time of Snow's April 26, 2011, death. When Ronstadt participated in two benefit concerts for Jerry Brown on December 21–22, 1979, she performed "The Shoop Shoop Song". That number – featuring vocal accompaniment from Nicolette Larson – was one of six songs performed by Ronstadt which were announced as tracks on her upcoming album "Mad Love": however, "Mad Love" was issued in February 1980 without the inclusion of "The Shoop Shoop Song". Ronstadt performed "The Shoop Shoop Song" as a guest on an episode of "The Muppet Show" broadcast October 26, 1980. At the Rally For Nuclear Disarmament concert held in Central Park on June 12, 1982, Ronstadt's set included "The Shoop Shoop Song": vocal accompaniment was provided by Nicolette Larson and Rosemary Butler. Had Ronstadt recorded "The Shoop Shoop Song" for her "Mad Love" album it would have been produced by Peter Asher, who would eventually produce the 1990 international smash hit cover by Cher.


title: The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)

text: Cher's cover was for the soundtrack of her 1990 film "Mermaids" in which it played under the closing credits, and the single's U.S. release coincided with the November release of the film. It peaked at number thirty-three on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and number one in the United Kingdom. The song was Cher's first solo number one single; her only previous number one in the United Kingdom had been in 1965 with her then-husband Sonny Bono and their first hit, "I Got You Babe".


title: The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)

text: Cher's "The Shoop Shoop Song" also topped the charts in Austria, Ireland and Norway; the single achieved a number two peak in Belgium and top ten status in France, Germany, New Zealand, Australia, Switzerland, Netherlands and Sweden.


title: The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)

text: The success of the single in the United Kingdom and Continental Europe was reflected in its addition to "Love Hurts", her subsequent album, as released in those parts of the world, Australia and New Zealand. "The Shoop Shoop Song" was also included in the album's Canadian release but in the U.S. "The Shoop Shoop Song" was not available on a Cher album until the 1999 release of "".


title: The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)

text: Larry Flick from "Billboard" wrote, "Fun and faithful cover of Betty Everett's pop nugget is lifted from the soundtrack to Cher's new film, ""Mermaids"". Truly irresistible."


title: The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)

text: The original video for "The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)" was directed by Marty Callner, and made to promote the movie "Mermaids". The video features Cher with Winona Ryder and Christina Ricci, who played her daughters in the film, in a music studio in the clothes and styles of the 1960s period of the film, clips of which are shown throughout. Near the end Cher and the girls are shown in an alley spray-painting a wall. A revised video was issued which deleted the clips of the film from the video.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Warren Bruce Cuccurullo (born December 8, 1956) is an American musician, singer-songwriter, restaurant owner and former body builder who first worked with Frank Zappa during the 1970s. He was also a founding member of Missing Persons in the 1980s. In 1986, Cuccurullo joined Duran Duran, becoming a long-term member of the band until 2001. In 2022, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Duran Duran.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Warren Bruce Cuccurullo is the son of Jerry and Ellen Cuccurullo, the oldest child of four. He has two brothers, Jerry and Robert and a sister, Stephanie. His Italian-American heritage has its roots in Nocera Inferiore in Campania, Italy, and he also has some Greek ancestry. He grew up in the Canarsie neighborhood of Brooklyn, and began playing drums and guitar as a young child. He graduated from Canarsie High School in 1974.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Cuccurullo has one adopted child, Mayko Cuccurullo (born 1983) who lives in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, who is actually the son of Claudia Bueno (Warren's former longtime girlfriend). Mayko is featured in the Duran Duran video "Breath After Breath," filmed in Argentina in 1993 and contributed some minor vocal work on the "N'Liten Up" project.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Cuccurullo returned to the United States in 2001 and lives in Venice, California. His current focus is on film score compositions.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: In his teen years, Cuccurullo became a devoted fan of Frank Zappa and began traveling to every show within 500 miles of his Brooklyn home. During the mid-1970s, he befriended several members of Zappa's band, including Terry Bozzio and Patrick O'Hearn. Over the next three years, he appeared with the band on stage at a couple of shows as well as in the 1979 Zappa film "Baby Snakes" (filmed October 1977). He impressed Frank Zappa by knowing the guitar parts to every Zappa song in the catalog, including the strangest sounds and most bizarre time signatures.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: In December 1978, at the age of 22, Cuccurullo was invited to audition as a guitarist for Zappa's new road band, in which many members were replaced (including Bozzio and O'Hearn). Several shows on the early 1979 "Human Jukebox" European/Asian tour were recorded for Zappa's live albums. After the tour, Cuccurullo returned to the studio with Zappa to work on the "Joe's Garage" albums, for which he provided rhythm guitar and several vocal parts. Terry Bozzio's wife Dale Bozzio also contributed vocal parts to the album. Cuccurullo and Dale Bozzio began writing songs together, and eventually they convinced Terry Bozzio that the three of them should launch their own band.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Zappa asked Cuccurullo to play on his 1988 tour, but the latter's involvement with Duran Duran had begun by then and so he declined.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Cuccurullo is name-checked four times on Zappa's "Joe's Garage", first by (Dale Bozzio's character) Mary in "Catholic Girls", by Zappa (in character here as Larry) in "Crew Slut", when reassuring Mary, "of "course" I'll introduce you to Warren!", in the track "Sy Borg" when Ike Willis sings "little leather cap and trousers – they look so gay... Warren just bought some," and once again by Zappa during "A Little Green Rosetta" 'Then everybody moves to New York and goes to a party with Warren. hey!'


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: In 1980, Cuccurullo and the two Bozzios formed Missing Persons, recording a 4-song EP called "Missing Persons" with session musicians, including future keyboardist Chuck Wild. They then toured to promote the EP and appeared in the movie "Lunch Wagon". By 1981, the group had added fellow Zappa alumnus Patrick O'Hearn, and Chuck Wild had become an official bandmember. Two years of hard work led to a signing with Capitol Records in 1982, the release of the album "Spring Session M", and the subsequent success of Missing Persons on radio and MTV. The singles "Mental Hopscotch", "Destination Unknown," "Walking in L.A.," "Words," and "Windows" all met with success. They appeared at the three-day Southern California concert, the US Festival in May 1983.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: In 1984, Cuccurullo invented a new type of guitar he called the "Missing Link", and used it on the experimental album "Rhyme & Reason" (1984). The band followed up with the more conventional "Color in Your Life" in June 1986, but during the short-lived promotional tour, increasing tensions between then-husband and wife Terry and Dale Bozzio led to the end of the tour and the band.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: On his own again, Cuccurullo began recording some music in his bedroom that was eventually released on his solo album "Machine Language".


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Missing Persons shared their label Capitol Records with British band Duran Duran. As Missing Persons fell apart, Bozzio and O'Hearn were approached by Duran Duran guitarist Andy Taylor in Los Angeles for work on a solo album. In this way, Cuccurullo learned that Taylor did not intend to rejoin Duran Duran in England to work on their next album, even before the rest of Duran Duran knew. Cuccurullo sent a tape and a request for an audition, but was turned down, with some puzzlement.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: As it became clear that neither enticements nor lawsuits would get Taylor back in the studio, Duran Duran hired Cuccurullo as a session guitarist to complete the album "Notorious". He went on to tour with the band, and returned to contribute his increasingly experimental guitar work to the album "Big Thing". At the end of the grueling ten-month Big Thing world tour (in June 1989), Cuccurullo was made an official member of the band, and moved to London. Shifting record label politics and the unsuccessful album "Liberty" almost derailed the band, but after Cuccurullo offered them the use of his home studio (named "Privacy") in Battersea, Duran Duran was able to shift to a more comfortable and controlled music-making style.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Cuccurullo's songwriting, guitar skills and driving personality contributed to the band's return to fame with 1993's "Wedding Album". He earned co-writing credits on the hit singles "Ordinary World" and "Come Undone", although the lyrics were written by Simon Le Bon. He created new arrangements for many of the band's old hits for the acoustic-flavored tour that followed, as well as arranging full acoustic pieces for the piano and six-piece string section that performed with them on the "MTV Unplugged" show. After Frank Zappa's death in December 1993, Cuccurullo performed the instrumental guitar piece "Watermelon in Easter Hay" (from the "Joe's Garage" album) in his honor at several Duran Duran shows.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Tentative plans for a Missing Persons reunion in 1994 were shelved over remaining tensions between former band members.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Cuccurullo and keyboardist Nick Rhodes continued to hold Duran Duran together during the band's lean times in the 1990s. The covers album "Thank You" (1995) was an attempt to keep the peace among band members who had increasing trouble writing music together. "Medazzaland" (1997) and "Pop Trash" (2000)—written after the departure of bassist John Taylor and Duran Duran's separation from Capitol Records—featured mostly new Cuccurullo/Rhodes songs and reworked TV Mania material, but failed to dent the charts even though the band sold out multiple nights in most cities on the 2000/2001 tour.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: In early 2001, Cuccurullo was asked to leave the band so that the original members of Duran Duran could reunite. At first the split was amicable, hinging on a financial settlement which granted him compensation from the band's forthcoming reunion album (to which he was not expected to contribute). Two years later relations soured considerably during the reunited band's American tour when he was asked by management not to attend the Los Angeles show after the band had invited him (no reason was given), and he began confirming some of the rumors that had spread about the 2001 split. Cuccurullo claimed that he was fired from Duran Duran by letter because Rhodes and Le Bon feared his reaction, though he told Duran Duran biographer Steve Malins, "I would never get aggressive in a situation like that. There were things that had to be sorted out in a professional manner, so that's what I did." Cucurrullo remained on good terms with Rhodes, however, and in 2013 they released an album containing material from their Duran Duran side project, TV Mania.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Beginning in the early 1990s, Cuccurullo collaborated with Duran Duran bandmate Nick Rhodes, calling themselves TV Mania, and began writing an experimental rock opera trilogy called "Bored With Prozac and the Internet?" (initially unreleased save for a few songs on Cuccurullo's website and in the movie "Trollywood"). Rhodes and Cuccurullo wrote and recorded a song called "Tomorrow Never Dies" with vocalist Tessa Niles for the James Bond film "Tomorrow Never Dies". The song wasn't chosen, so Duran Duran re-recorded it for the "Pop Trash" album with new lyrics under the title "Last Day on Earth". In December 1996, Rhodes and Cuccurullo wrote and produced two songs for a never-completed Blondie project ("Pop Trash Movie" and "Studio 54"); the re-recording of the former gave the "Pop Trash" album its name.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: The Duran Duran albums "Medazzaland" and "Pop Trash" were made up of reworked TV Mania songs, with Rhodes writing all lyrics to the songs on "Pop Trash" except for Someone Else, Not Me.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: The full, 11-track album "Bored With Prozac and the Internet?" was given an official release on March 11, 2013.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: During breaks in Duran Duran's 1989–1990 tour schedule, Cuccurullo worked with Tetsuya Komuro, Shenkar and Patrick O'Hearn.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: In 1994, the preparations for a solo show near his hometown led to a burst of creativity; he recorded and mixed the "Thanks 2 Frank" album in less than ten days, with bassists Pino Palladino and Nick Beggs and ex-Zappa drummer Vinnie Colaiuta. The album was released on Imago Records in 1996.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: In 1997 Cuccurullo completed "Machine Language", an ambient instrumental guitar album, also released on Imago. He followed up with a live album, "Roadrage" in 1998 (on Bandai Records). "The Blue" (recorded with Shenkar in 1992) was self-released in 2000. Another ambient album, "Trance Formed", was released on One Way Records in 2003.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Cuccurullo also completed a concept album titled "N'Liten Up", recorded at The Village studios in West Los Angeles by Kent Huffnagle and produced by Simone Sello.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: "Spring Session M" was released on CD in 1995, followed by "Rhyme and Reason" and "Color in Your Life" in 2000. Each of the three studio CDs were newly augmented by six rare B-sides or live tracks. "Classic Remasters" is a compilation of remastered tracks and dance mixes issued by Capitol Records with no band involvement.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Beginning in 1997, Cuccurullo began work on his "Missing Persons Archival Trilogy" project. The first CD to be released was "Late Nights Early Days" in 1998, a live concert recorded in 1981 with the added 1980 studio track "Action/Reaction." This was followed up by a compilation of modern remixes of classic MP tracks, "Missing Persons Remixed Hits" (1999) which included the TV Mania remix of "Destination Unknown." In 2002 "Lost Tracks" was released, a collection of extremely rare Missing Persons live tracks from five different eras of the band.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Meanwhile, in late 2000, Cuccurullo and Dale Bozzio again began discussing a Missing Persons reunion to feature original members Warren, Dale Bozzio and Terry Bozzio, with new keyboardist Ron Poster (of Dale Bozzio's band) and bassist Wes Wehmiller (formerly in Cuccurullo's solo band and Duran Duran's tour bassist from 1997 to 2001). The short-lived, official reunion consisted of promotional activities and three live performances in July 2001.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Late 2002/early 2003 brought us "Missing Persons Featuring Dale Bozzio and Warren Cuccurullo." Filling in were keyboardist Ron Poster, bassist Wes Wehmiller and drummer Joe Travers (formerly in Cuccurullo's solo band and Duran Duran's tour drummer from 1999 to 2001). This version of Missing Persons was featured on Access Hollywood (performing "Destination Unknown") and did three live performances in February 2003. Following this, Dale Bozzio returned to touring as "Missing Persons" with hired musicians. In 2011 Cuccurullo rejoined Bozzio as part of another short-lived Missing Persons reunion tour.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: In mid-2002, Cuccurullo purchased an Italian restaurant called Via Veneto in Santa Monica, California. More recently, he also funded the opening of a restaurant called Hidden and Vietnamese cuisine restaurants with Michael "Bao" Huynh.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Re-focusing on his music, Cuccurullo started a new collaborative project with composer Eric Alexandrakis, drummer Steve Ferrone, and producer Anthony J. Resta. Explaining the purpose of that project in a Modern Drummer news release Alexandrakis said, "The four of us decided to create a scoring collective to pursue scoring projects in TV themes, film, and advertising…"


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Cuccurullo released the debut album from his collaborative effort with vocalist Neil Carlill, Chicanery, on May 11, 2010. Recorded a few years earlier, the album, also titled "Chicanery", was released on CD and digital media through Recordings. Musicians who joined Cuccurullo and Carlill for selected sessions on the "Chicanery" album included among others, Terry Bozzio, Joe Travers, sarangi virtuoso Ustad Sultan Khan, and producer Simone Sello.


title: Warren Cuccurullo

text: Also in 2010, Cuccurullo formed a local free jazz group called Theoretical 5 in Mar Vista, Los Angeles with Frank Zappa alumni Arthur Barrow (bass) and Tommy Mars (keyboards, vocals), and also Larry Klimas (saxophone), and Andy Kravitz (drums, percussion).


title: Shawn Oakman

text: Shawn Michael Oakman (born April 7, 1992) is a Canadian football defensive end for the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League (CFL). He played college football for the Baylor Bears. Oakman has been a member of the Triangle Torch and the West Virginia Roughriders of the American Arena League, the Bismarck Bucks of Champions Indoor Football, and the Los Angeles Wildcats of the XFL.


title: Shawn Oakman

text: Oakman attended Penn Wood High School in Lansdowne, Pennsylvania. He played both football and basketball. He committed to play college football at Penn State University in July 2010.


title: Shawn Oakman

text: On February 27, 2012, Penn State announced that Oakman had been dismissed from the Nittany Lions football team for an unspecified violation of team rules. (See Personal life.)


title: Shawn Oakman

text: As per NCAA transfer rules, Oakman took the entire 2012 season off. Oakman played in 13 games as a backup defensive end in 2013. He recorded 33 tackles and two sacks. In his first year as a starter, Oakman had a breakout season in 2014. He finished the season with 25.5 tackles for loss and 11.0 sacks. He earned third-team All-America honors from the Associated Press and was a consensus All-Big 12 selection. Oakman was projected by some analysts and scouts to be a first round pick in the 2015 NFL Draft. Instead of declaring for the draft, he decided to return to Baylor for his senior season. In 2015, Oakman was not able to match his successful 2014 season. He recorded only 4.5 sacks in 2015.


title: Shawn Oakman

text: Several early mock drafts projected Oakman to be a first round pick in the 2016 NFL Draft. Chris Burke of "Sports Illustrated" penciled in Oakman as the first overall pick in his "2016 NFL Mock Draft 1.0," which was published a few days after the conclusion of the 2015 NFL Draft. Oakman's production dropped in 2015 and his draft stock fell throughout the season. One AFC area scout commented that he would not select Oakman in the first three rounds of the draft. Some of the concerns about Oakman were his skinny lower body, lack of pass-rush technique, and "inconsistent motor chasing plays and inability to make plays against better competition." After Oakman's arrest on a sexual assault charge, which occurred only two weeks before the 2016 NFL Draft, an NFC executive told Lance Zierlein of NFL.com that Oakman was "undraftable now" because the case is unlikely to be resolved before the start of the draft. Zierlein believed the arrest would likely result in Oakman being removed from all NFL team boards.


title: Shawn Oakman

text: Oakman went undrafted in the 2016 NFL Draft. After the draft, he wasn't expected to get signed as an undrafted free agent due to the legal issues he was facing at the time. He was subsequently found not guilty of the alleged sexual assault.


title: Shawn Oakman

text: On October 16, 2019, Oakman was drafted to the Los Angeles Wildcats of the XFL. He was waived on December 17, 2019. The Wildcats re-signed Oakman on January 24, 2020. In his debut game, Oakman had a sack and a pass deflected. He had his contract terminated when the league suspended operations on April 10, 2020.


title: Shawn Oakman

text: Oakman also played in Fan Controlled Football as a late addition to the roster in March 2021, appearing in the People's Championship.


title: Shawn Oakman

text: On February 25, 2012, Oakman was involved in an incident at a Penn State dining hall, and was eventually charged by PSU police with disorderly conduct, harassment, and retail theft. According to police, Oakman fled the scene after shoving a cashier who refused to return his student ID over unpaid items. In a later interview, Oakman stated that the cashier withheld his ID after she found that there were no points on his meal card and that he had only grabbed her wrist to retrieve it and return to his dorm room. According to Oakman, this incident led to his dismissal from the Penn State football team by then head coach Bill O'Brien.


title: Shawn Oakman

text: Oakman was named in a January 2013 Waco police incident report alleging he physically assaulted a woman. According to the report, Oakman grabbed the alleged victim under her armpits and shoved her into brick walls and cabinets at her South Waco apartment. The alleged incident was about six months after Oakman enrolled at Baylor after being kicked off the football team at Penn State University for physically assaulting a female cashier who reportedly tried to stop him from stealing food from a campus store.


title: Shawn Oakman

text: On April 13, 2016, Oakman was arrested in Waco and charged after a woman accused him of sexual assault. According to a police affidavit, Oakman met the accuser at a bar and asked if she wanted to go to his off-campus residence. They walked to Oakman's duplex where, according to the woman, he forced her into a bedroom, forcibly removed her clothes, forced her onto the bed, and sexually assaulted her. On July 20, 2016, a grand jury in McLennan County indicted Oakman on charges of second-degree felony sexual assault. The trial of the case began February 26, 2019. On February 28, 2019, after the jury deliberated for 45 minutes, Oakman was found not guilty of sexual assault.


title: Shawn Oakman

text: At the Cotton Bowl Classic on January 1, 2015, a picture of Oakman on the jumbotron at AT&T Stadium went viral across social media, including social media site Twitter. The image became "an internet sensation" overnight because of his intimidating build, with Oakman standing at .


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Russia–United Kingdom relations, also Anglo-Russian relations, are the bilateral relations between Russia and the United Kingdom. Formal ties between the courts started in 1553. Russia and Britain became allies against Napoleon in the early-19th century. They were enemies in the Crimean War of the 1850s, and rivals in the Great Game for control of central Asia in the latter half of the 19th century. They allied again in World Wars I and II, although the Russian Revolution of 1917 strained relations. The two countries were at sword's point during the Cold War (1947–1989). Russia's big business tycoons developed strong ties with London financial institutions in the 1990s after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The two countries share a history of intense espionage activity against each other, with the Soviet Union succeeding in penetration of top echelons of the British intelligence and security establishment in the 1930s–1950s while concurrently, the British co-opted top Russian intelligence officers throughout the period including the 1990s whereby British spies such as Sergei Skripal acting within the Russian intelligence establishment passed on extensive details of their intelligence agents operating throughout Europe. Since the 19th century, England has been a popular destination for Russian political exiles, refugees, and wealthy fugitives from the Russian-speaking world.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In the early-21st century, especially following the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko in 2006, relations became strained, and since 2014 have grown increasingly unfriendly due to the Russo-Ukrainian War (2014–present) and the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in 2018. In the wake of the poisoning, 28 countries expelled suspected Russian spies acting as diplomats. In June 2021, a confrontation occurred between and the Russian Armed Forces in the 2021 Black Sea incident.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, relations between the two nuclear powers collapsed entirely; the United Kingdom imposed economic sanctions on Russian outlets, seized the assets of Russian oligarchs, recalled its citizens and severed all business ties with Russia. Russia retaliated with its own sanctions against the UK and accused it of involvement in attacks against Sevastopol Naval Base, the Nord Stream gas pipeline and the Crimean Bridge. The UK is one of the largest donors of financial and military aid to Ukraine and was the first country in Europe to donate lethal military aid.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: As the relations between the two nations were getting worse, on December 2022 the Russian Ambassador to United Kingdom Andrey Kelin said in an interview with Russia’s Izvestia that a termination of diplomatic relations between Russia and the United Kingdom is not in the interests of both parties.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The Kingdom of England and Tsardom of Russia established relations in 1553 when English navigator Richard Chancellor arrived in Arkhangelsk – at which time Mary I ruled England and Ivan the Terrible ruled Russia. He returned to England and was sent back to Russia in 1555, the same year the Muscovy Company was established. The Muscovy Company held a monopoly over trade between England and Russia until 1698. Tsar Alexei was outraged by the Execution of Charles I of England in 1649, and expelled all English traders and residents from Russia in retaliation.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In 1697–1698 during the Grand Embassy of Peter I the Russian tsar visited England for three months. He improved relations and learned the best new technology especially regarding ships and navigation.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800) and later the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922) had increasingly important ties with the Russian Empire (1721–1917), after Tsar Peter I brought Russia into European affairs and declared himself an emperor. From the 1720s Peter invited British engineers to Saint Petersburg, leading to the establishment of a small but commercially influential Anglo-Russian expatriate merchant community from 1730 to 1921. During the series of general European wars of the 18th century, the two empires found themselves as sometime allies and sometime enemies. The two states fought on the same side during War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48), but on opposite sides during Seven Years' War (1756–63), although did not at any time engage in the field.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger was alarmed at Russian expansion in Crimea in the 1780s at the expense of his Ottoman ally. He tried to get Parliamentary support for reversing it. In peace talks with the Ottomans, Russia refused to return the key Ochakov fortress. Pitt wanted to threaten military retaliation. However Russia's ambassador Semyon Vorontsov organised Pitt's enemies and launched a public opinion campaign. Pitt won the vote so narrowly that he gave up and Vorontsov secured a renewal of the commercial treaty between Britain and Russia.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The outbreak of the French Revolution and its attendant wars temporarily united constitutionalist Britain and autocratic Russia in an ideological alliance against French republicanism. Britain and Russia attempted to halt the French but the failure of their joint invasion of the Netherlands in 1799 precipitated a change in attitudes.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Britain created Malta Protectorate in 1800, while the Emperor Paul I of Russia was Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller. That led to the never-executed Indian March of Paul, which was a secret project of a planned allied Russo-French expedition against the British possessions in India.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In 1805 both countries again attempted to combine operations with British expeditions to North Germany and Southern Italy in concert with Russian expeditionary corps were intended to create diversions in favour of Austria. However several spectacular French victories in central Europe ended the Third Coalition.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Following the heavy Russian defeat at Friedland, Russia was obliged to enter Napoleon's continental system, barring all trade with Britain. Subsequently, both countries entered into a state of limited war, the Anglo-Russian War (1807–12), although neither side actively persecuted operations against each other.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In 1812 Britain and Russia once again became allies against Napoleon in the Napoleonic Wars. The United Kingdom gave financial and material support to Russia during the French invasion in 1812, following which both countries pledged to keep 150,000 men in the field until Napoleon had been totally defeated. They both played major cooperative roles at the Congress of Vienna in 1814–1815 establishing a twenty-year alliance to guarantee European peace.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: From 1820 to 1907, geopolitical disputes led to a gradual deterioration in Anglo-Russian relations. Popular sentiment in Britain turned increasingly hostile to Russia, with a high degree of anxiety for the safety of British rule in India. The result was a long-standing rivalry in Central Asia. In addition, there was a growing concern that Russia would destabilise Eastern Europe by its attacks on the faltering Ottoman Empire. This fear was known as the Eastern Question. Russia was especially interested in getting a warm water port that would enable its navy. Getting access out of the Black Sea into the Mediterranean was a goal, which meant access through the Straits controlled by the Ottomans.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Both intervened in the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829), eventually forcing the London peace treaty on the belligerents. The events heightened British Russophobia. In 1851 the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations held in London's Crystal Palace, including over 100,000 exhibits from forty nations. It was the world's first international exposition. Russia took the opportunity to dispel Russophobia in Britain by refuting stereotypes of Russia as a backward, militaristic repressive tyranny. Its sumptuous exhibits of luxury products and large 'objets d'art' with little in the way of advanced technology, however, did little to change its reputation. Britain considered its navy too weak to worry about, but saw its large army as a major threat.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The Russian pressures on the Ottoman Empire continued, leaving Britain and France to ally with the Ottomans and push back against Russia in the Crimean War (1853–1856). Russophobia was an element in generating popular support in Britain for the far-off conflict. Public opinion in Britain, especially among Whigs, supported Polish revolutionaries who were resisting Russian rule in Poland, after the November Uprising of 1830. The British government watched nervously as Saint Petersburg suppressed the subsequent Polish revolts in the early 1860s, yet refused to intervene.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: London hosted the first Russian-language censorship-free periodicals — , Golosa iz Rossii, and Kolokol (″The Bell″) — were published by Alexander Herzen and Nikolai Ogaryov in 1855–1865, which were of exceptional influence on Russian liberal intellectuals in the first several years of publication. The periodicals were published by the Free Russian Press set up by Herzen in 1853, on the eve of the Crimean War, financed by the funds Herzen had managed to expatriate from Russia with the help of his bankers, the Paris branch of the Rothschild family.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Russia's defeat in the Crimean War had been widely perceived by Russians as a humiliation and sharpened their desire for revenge. Tensions between the governments of Russia and Britain grew during the mid-century period. Since 1815 there had been an ideological cold war between reactionary Russia and liberal Britain. The Russians helped Austria brutally suppress the liberal Hungarian revolt during the Revolutions of 1848-49 to the dismay of the British. Russian leaders felt their nation's leniency in the 1820s allowed liberalism to spread in the West.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: They deplored the liberal revolutions of 1830 in France, Belgium, central Europe; worst of all was the anti-Russian revolt that had to be crushed in Poland. New strategic and economic competition heightened tensions in the late 1850s, as the British moved into Asian markets. Russia's suppression of tribal revolts in the Caucasian region released troops for campaigns to expand Russian influence in central Asia, which the British interpreted as a long-term threat to the British Empire in India. There was strong hostility among British government officials to the repeated Russian threats to the Ottoman Empire with the goal of controlling the Dardanelles connecting the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Beginning from the early 19th century, depictions of Russia in the UK media, largely drawing on the reports of British travel writers and newspaper correspondents, frequently presented a "distorted picture" of the country; scholar Iwona Sawkowicz argues that this was due to the "brief visits" of these writers and correspondents, many of whom did not speak Russian and were "looking mostly for cultural differences." These depictions had the effect of increasing Russophobia in Britain despite growing economic and political ties between the two countries. In 1874, tension lessened as Queen Victoria's second son Prince Alfred married Tsar Alexander II's only daughter Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna, followed by a cordial state visit by the tsar. The goodwill lasted no more than three years, when structural forces again pushed the two nations to the verge of war.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Anglo-Russian rivalries grew steadily over Central Asia during the so-called "Great Game" of the late 19th century. Russia desired warm-water ports on the Indian Ocean while Britain wanted to prevent Russian troops from gaining a potential invasion route to India. In 1885 Russia annexed part of Afghanistan in the Panjdeh incident, which caused a war scare. After nearly completing the Russian conquest of Central Asia (Russian Turkestan) the Russians captured an Afghan border fort. Seeing a threat to India, Britain came close to threatening war but both sides backed down and the matter was settled by diplomacy.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The effect was to stop further Russian expansion in Asia, except for the Pamir Mountains, and to define the north-western border of Afghanistan. However, Russia's foreign minister Nikolay Girs and her ambassador to London Baron de Staal in 1887 set up a buffer zone in Central Asia. Russian diplomacy thereby won grudging British acceptance of its expansionism. Persia was also an arena of tension, but without warfare.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Although Britain had serious disagreements with Russia regarding Russia's threat to the Ottoman Empire, and perhaps even to India, tensions were much lower in the Far East. London tried to maintain friendly relations in the 1860-1917 period and did reach a number of accommodations with Russia in northeastern Asia. Both nations were expanding in that direction. Russia built the Trans-Siberian Railway in the 1890s, and the British were expanding their large-scale commercial activities in China using Hong Kong, and the treaty ports of China. Russia sought a year-round port south of its main base in Vladivostok.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The key ingredient was that both nations were more fearful of Japanese plans than they were of each other; they both saw the need to collaborate. They cooperated with each other (and France) in forcing Japan to disgorge some of its gains after it won the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894. Russia increasingly became a protector of China against Japanese intentions. The Open Door policy promoted by the United States and Britain was designed to allow all nations on an equal footing to trade with China and was accepted by Russia. All the major powers collaborated in the Eight-Nation Alliance defending their diplomats during the Boxer Rebellion.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The British signed a military alliance with Japan in 1902, as well as an agreement with Russia in 1907 that resolved their major disputes. After Russia was defeated by Japan in 1905, those two countries work together on friendly terms to divide up Manchuria. Thus by 1910 the situation among the great powers in the Far East was generally peaceful with no troubles in sight. When the First World War broke out in 1914, Britain, Russia, Japan and China all declared war on Germany, and cooperated in defeating and dividing up its Imperial holdings.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: At the same time, Russophilia flourished in Britain, founded on the popularity of Russian novelists such as Lev Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and sympathetic views of Russian peasants.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Following the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881, exiles from the radical Narodnaya Volya party and other opponents of Tsarism found their way to Britain. Sergei Stepniak and Felix Volkhovsky set up the Russian Free Press Fund, along with a journal, Free Russia, to generate support for reforms to, and abolition of, Russian autocracy. They were supported by liberal, nonconformist and left-wing Britons in the Society of Friends of Russian Freedom. There was also considerable support for victims of the Russian famine of 1891-2 and the Jewish and Christian victims of Tsarist persecution.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: There was cooperation in Asia, however, as the UK & Russia joined many others to protect their interests in China during the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901).


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Britain was an ally of Japan after 1902, but remained strictly neutral and did not participate in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–5. However, there was a brief war scare in the Dogger Bank incident in October 1905 when the Imperial Russian Navy's Baltic Fleet, headed to the Pacific Ocean to fight the Imperial Japanese Navy, mistakenly engaged a number of British fishing vessels in the North Sea fog. The Russians thought they were Japanese torpedo boats, and sank one, killing three fishermen. The British public was angry but Russia apologised and damages were levied through arbitration.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Diplomacy became delicate in the early 20th century. Russia was troubled by the Entente Cordiale between Great Britain and France signed in 1904. Russia and France already had a mutual defense agreement that said France was obliged to threaten Britain with an attack if Britain declared war on Russia, while Russia was to concentrate more than 300,000 troops on the Afghan border for an incursion into India in the event that Britain attacked France.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The solution was to bring Russia into the British-French alliance. The Anglo-Russian Entente and the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 made both countries part of the Triple Entente. The Convention was a formal treaty demarcating British and Russian spheres of influence in Central Asia. It enabled Britain to focus on the growing threat from Germany at sea and in central Europe.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The Convention ended the long-standing rivalry in central Asia, and then enabled the two countries to outflank the Germans, who were threatening to connect Berlin to Baghdad with a new railroad that would probably align the Turkish Empire with Germany. The Convention ended the long dispute over Persia. Britain promised to stay out of the northern half, while Russia recognized southern Persia as part of the British sphere of influence. Russia also promised to stay out of Tibet and Afghanistan. In exchange London extended loans and some political support. The Convention led to the formation of the Triple Entente.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Both countries were then part of the subsequent alliance against the Central Powers in World War I. In the summer of 1914, Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia, Russia promised to help Serbia, Germany promised to help Austria, and war broke out between Russia and Germany. France supported Russia. Under Foreign Minister Sir Edward Gray Britain felt its national interest would be badly hurt if Germany conquered Belgium and France. It was neutral until Germany suddenly invaded Belgium and France. Britain declared war becoming an ally of France and Russia against Germany and Austria.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The alliance lasted when the February 1917 Revolution in Russia overthrew Tsar Nicholas II and the Russian monarchy. However When the Bolsheviks under Lenin took power in November, they made peace with Germany—the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was in effect a surrender with massive loss of territory. Russia ended all diplomatic and trade relations with Britain, and repudiated all debts to London and Paris. The British supported the anti-Bolshevik forces during the Russian Civil War, but they lost, and Britain restored trade relations in 1921.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In 1918, with the German Army advancing toward Moscow in Operation Faustschlag, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic under Lenin made many concessions to the German Empire in return for peace. The Allies felt betrayed by the Treaty of Brest Litovsk signed on 3 March 1918. Towards the end of World War I, Britain began to send troops to Russia to participate in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War which lasted up to 1925, aiming to topple the newly-formed socialist government the Bolsheviks had created. As late as 1920, Grigory Zinoviev called for a "holy war" against British imperialism at a rally in Baku.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Following the withdrawal of British troops from Russia, negotiations for trade began, and on 16 March 1921, the Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement was concluded between the two countries. Lenin's New Economic Policy downplayed socialism and emphasised business dealings with capitalist countries, in an effort to restart the sluggish Russian economy. Britain was the first country to accept Lenin's offer of a trade agreement. It ended the British blockade, and Russian ports were opened to British ships. Both sides agreed to refrain from hostile propaganda. It amounted to de facto diplomatic recognition and opened a period of extensive trade.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Britain formally recognised the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR or Soviet Union, 1922–1991) on 1 February 1924. However, Anglo-Soviet relations were still marked by distrust and contention, culminating in a diplomatic break in 1927. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were severed at the end of May 1927 after a police raid on the All Russian Co-operative Society whereafter Conservative British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin presented the House of Commons with deciphered Soviet telegrams that proved Soviet espionage activities. After the 1929 general election, the incoming Labour government of Ramsay MacDonald successfully established permanent diplomatic relations.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In 1938, Britain and France negotiated the Munich Agreement with Nazi Germany. Stalin opposed the pact and refused to recognize the German annexation of the Czechoslovak Sudetenland.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The USSR and Germany signed the Non-aggression Pact in late August 1939, which promised the Soviets control of about half of Eastern Europe, and removed the risk to Germany of a two-front war. Germany invaded Poland on 1 September, and the Soviets followed sixteen days later. Many members of the Communist Party in Britain and sympathisers were outraged and quit. Those who remained strove to undermine the British war effort and campaigned for what the Party called a 'people's peace', i.e. a negotiated settlement with Hitler. Britain, along with France, declared war on Germany, but not the USSR. The British people were sympathetic to Finland in her Winter War against the USSR. The USSR furthermore supplied oil to the Germans which Hitler's Luftwaffe needed in its Blitz against Britain in 1940.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In June 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, attacking the USSR. Britain and the USSR agreed an alliance the following month with the Anglo-Soviet Agreement. The Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in August overthrew Reza Shah and secured the oil fields in Iran from falling into Axis hands. The Arctic convoys transported supplies between Britain and the USSR during the war. Britain was quick to provide limited materiel aid to the Soviet Union - including tanks and aircraft - via these convoys in order to try to keep her new ally in the war against Germany and her allies.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: One major conduit for supplies was through Iran. The two nations agreed on a joint occupation of Iran, to neutralize German influence. After the war, there were disputes about the Soviet delayed departure from Iran, and speculation that it planned to set up a puppet state along its border. That problem was resolved completely in 1946. The Soviet Union joined the Second Inter-Allied Meeting in London in September. The USSR thereafter became one of the "Big Three" Allies of World War II along with Britain and, from December, the United States, fighting against the Axis Powers.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: A twenty-year mutual assistance agreement, the Anglo-Soviet Treaty was signed in May 1942, reasserting the military alliance until the end of the war and formalizing a political alliance between the Soviet Union and the British Empire for 20 years.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In August 1942, Winston Churchill, accompanied by American W. Averell Harriman, went to Moscow and met Stalin for the first time. The British were nervous that Stalin and Hitler might make separate peace terms; Stalin insisted that would not happen. Churchill explained how Arctic convoys bringing munitions to Russia had been intercepted by the Germans; there was a delay now so that future convoys would be better protected. He apologetically explained there would be no second front this year—no British-American invasion of France—which Stalin had been urgently requesting for months. The will was there, said Churchill, but there was not enough American troops, not enough tanks, not enough shipping, not enough air superiority. Instead the British, and soon the Americans, would step up bombing of German cities and railways. Furthermore, there would be "Operation Torch" in November. It would be a major Anglo-American invasion of North Africa, which would set the stage for an invasion of Italy and perhaps open the Mediterranean for munitions shipments to Russia through the Black Sea. The talks started out on a very sour note but after many hours of informal conversations, the two men understood each other and knew they could cooperate smoothly.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Stalin was adamant about British support for new boundaries for Poland, and Britain went along. They agreed that after victory Poland's boundaries would be moved westward, so that the USSR took over lands in the east while Poland gained lands in the west that had been under German control.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The U.S. and Britain each approached Moscow in its own way; there was little coordination. Churchill wanted specific, pragmatic deals, typified by the percentage arrangement. Roosevelt's highest priority was to have the Soviets eagerly and energetically participate in the new United Nations, and he also wanted them to enter the war against Japan.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In October 1944, Churchill and foreign minister Anthony Eden met Stalin and his foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov in Moscow. They discussed who would control what in the rest of postwar Eastern Europe. The Americans were not present, were not given shares, and were not fully informed. After lengthy bargaining the two sides settled on a long-term plan for the division of the region, The plan was to give 90% of the influence in Greece to Britain and 90% in Romania to Russia. Russia gained an 80%/20% division in Bulgaria and Hungary. There was a 50/50 division in Yugoslavia, and no Russian share in Italy.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Following the end of the Second World War, relations between the Soviet and the Western Bloc deteriorated quickly. Former British Prime Minister Churchill claimed that the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe after World War II amounted to 'an iron curtain has descended across the continent.' Relations were generally tense during the ensuing Cold War, typified by spying and other covert activities. The British and American Venona Project was established in 1942 for cryptanalysis of messages sent by Soviet intelligence. Soviet spies were later discovered in Britain, such as Kim Philby and the Cambridge Five spy ring, which was operating in England until 1963.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The Soviet spy agency, the KGB, was suspected of the murder of Georgi Markov in London in 1978. A High ranking KGB official, Oleg Gordievsky, defected to London in 1985.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: British prime minister Margaret Thatcher pursued a strong anti-communist policy in concert with Ronald Reagan during the 1980s, in contrast with the détente policy of the 1970s. During the Soviet–Afghan War the British conducted covert military support as well as sending arms and supplies to the Afghan Mujahideen.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Relations improved considerably after Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union in 1985 and launched perestroika. They remained relatively warm after the collapse of the USSR in 1991 – with Russia taking over the international obligations and status from the demised superpower.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In October 1994, Queen Elizabeth II made a state visit to Russia, the first time a British monarch ever set foot on Russian soil.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Relations between the countries began to grow tense again shortly after Vladimir Putin was elected as President of the Russian Federation in 2000, with the Kremlin pursuing a more assertive foreign policy and imposing more controls domestically. The major irritant in the early-2000s was the UK's refusal to extradite Russian citizens, self-exiled businessman Boris Berezovsky and Chechen separatist leader Akhmed Zakayev, whom the UK granted political asylum.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In late 2006, former FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko was poisoned in London by radioactive metalloid, Polonium-210 and died three weeks later. The UK requested the extradition of Andrei Lugovoy from Russia to face charges over Litvinenko's death. Russia refused, stating their constitution does not allow extradition of their citizens to foreign countries. As a result of this, the United Kingdom expelled four Russian diplomats, shortly followed by Russia expelling four British diplomats. The Litvinenko affair remains a major irritant in British-Russian relations.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In July 2007, the Crown Prosecution Service announced that Boris Berezovsky would not face charges in the UK for talking to "The Guardian" about plotting a "revolution" in his homeland. Kremlin officials called it a "disturbing moment" in Anglo-Russian relations. Berezovsky remained a wanted man in Russia until his death in March 2013; having been accused of embezzlement and money laundering.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Russia re-commenced long range air patrols of the Tupolev Tu-95 bomber aircraft in August 2007. These patrols neared British airspace, requiring RAF fighter jets to "scramble" and intercept them.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In January 2008, Russia ordered two offices of the British Council situated in Russia to shut down, accusing them of tax violations. Eventually, work was suspended at the offices, with the council citing "intimidation" by the Russian authorities as the reason. However, later in the year a Moscow court threw out most of the tax claims made against the British Council, ruling them invalid.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: During the 2008 South Ossetia war between Russia and Georgia, then-UK Foreign Secretary, David Miliband, visited the Georgian capital city of Tbilisi to meet with the Georgian President and said the UK's government and people "stood in solidarity" with the Georgian people.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Earlier in 2009, then Solicitor-General, Vera Baird, personally decided that the property of the Russian Orthodox Church in the United Kingdom, which had been the subject of a legal dispute following the decision of the administering Bishop and half its clergy and lay adherents to move to the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, would have to remain with the Moscow Patriarchate. She was forced to reassure concerned Members of Parliament that her decision had been made only on legal grounds, and that diplomatic and foreign policy questions had played no part. Baird's determination of the case was however endorsed by the Attorney-General Baroness Patricia Scotland. It attracted much criticism. However, questions continue to be raised that Baird's decision was designed not to offend the Putin government in Russia.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In November 2009, David Miliband visited Russia and described the state of relations between the two countries as "respectful disagreement".


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Meanwhile, both the UK and Russia declassified a large amount of contemporary material from the highest levels of the political power. In 2004, Alexander Fursenko of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) and Arne Westad of the London School of Economics started a project to disclose British–Soviet relations during the Cold War. Four years, the project's direction passed to the historian Alexandr Chubarian, also a member of the RAS, who in 2016 completed the documentation covering from 1943 to 1953.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In 2014, relations soured drastically following the Russo-Ukrainian War, with the British government, along with the United States and the European Union, imposing punitive sanctions on Russia. In March 2014, The UK suspended all military cooperation with Russia and halted all extant licences for direct military export to Russia. In September 2014, there were more rounds of sanctions imposed by the EU, targeted at Russian banking and oil industries, and at high officials. Russia responded by cutting off food imports from the UK and other countries imposing sanctions. UK Prime Minister David Cameron and U.S. president Barack Obama jointly wrote for "The Times" in early September: "Russia has ripped up the rulebook with its illegal, self-declared annexation of Crimea and its troops on Ukrainian soil threatening and undermining a sovereign nation state".


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In 2016, 52% of British people decided to vote in favor for the country's exit from the European Union, which was known as Brexit. As shockwave were sent across the country, both Cameron and British officials accused Russia of meddling the vote. Future British Prime Minister, Boris Johnson, was accused of being a Russian stooge and underestimating Russian interference.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In early 2017, during her meeting with U.S. president Donald Trump, the UK prime minister Theresa May appeared to take a line harsher than that of the U.S. on the Russian sanctions.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In April 2017, Moscow's ambassador to the UK Alexander Yakovenko said UK-Russia relations were at an all-time low.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In mid-November 2017, in her Guildhall speech at the Lord Mayor's Banquet, prime minister May called Russia ″chief among those today, of course″ who sought to undermine the ″open economies and free societies″ Britain was committed to, according to her. She went on to elaborate: ″[Russia] is seeking to weaponise information. Deploying its state-run media organisations to plant fake stories and photo-shopped images in an attempt to sow discord in the West and undermine our institutions. So I have a very simple message for Russia. We know what you are doing. And you will not succeed.″ In response, Russian parliamentarians said Theresa May was "making a fool of herself" with a "counterproductive" speech; Russia's embassy reacted to the speech by posting a photograph of her from the Banquet drinking a glass of wine, with the tweet: "Dear Theresa, we hope, one day you will try Crimean #Massandra red wine". Theresa May's Banquet speech was compared by some Russian commentators to Winston Churchill's Iron Curtain speech in Fulton in March 1946; it was hailed by Andrew Rosenthal in a front-page article run by "The New York Times" that contrasted May's message against some statements about Putin made by Donald Trump, who, according to Rosenthal, ″far from denouncing Putin's continuous assaults on human rights and free speech in Russia, [...] praised [Putin] as being a better leader than Obama.″


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In March 2018, as a result of the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in Salisbury, relations between the countries deteriorated still further, both countries expelling 23 diplomats each and taking other punitive measures against one another. Within days of the incident, the UK government's assessment that it was ″highly likely″ that the Russian state was responsible for the incident received the backing of the EU, the US, and Britain's other allies. In what the Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson called the "extraordinary international response" on the part of the UK's allies, on 26 and 27 March 2018 there followed a concerted action by the U.S., most of the EU member states, Albania, Australia, Canada, Macedonia, Moldova, and Norway, as well as NATO to expel a total of over 140 Russian accredited diplomats (including those expelled by the UK).


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Additionally, in July 2018, the COBR committee were assembled following a poisoning of two other British citizens in the town of Amesbury, not far from Salisbury, the location of the Skripals' poisoning. It was later confirmed by Porton Down that the substance was a Novichok agent. Sajid Javid, the United Kingdom's home secretary insisted in the house of commons that he was letting the investigation teams conduct a full investigation into what had happened before jumping to a major conclusion. He then re-iterated the initial question to Russia regarding the Novichok agent, accusing them of using the United Kingdom as a 'dumping ground'


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In his speech at the RUSI Land Warfare Conference in June 2018, the Chief of the General Staff Mark Carleton-Smith said that British troops should be prepared to "fight and win" against the "imminent" threat of hostile Russia. Carleton-Smith said: "The misplaced perception that there is no imminent or existential threat to the UK - and that even if there was it could only arise at long notice - is wrong, along with a flawed belief that conventional hardware and mass are irrelevant in countering Russian subversion...". In a November 2018 interview with the "Daily Telegraph", Carleton-Smith said that "Russia today indisputably represents a far greater threat to our national security than Islamic extremist threats such as al-Qaeda and ISIL. ... We cannot be complacent about the threat Russia poses or leave it uncontested."


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Conservative Party leader Boris Johnson's victory in the 2019 United Kingdom general election received a mixed response from Russia. Press Secretary Dmitry Peskov questioned "how appropriate ... hopes are in the case of the Conservatives" of good relations following the election. However, Putin praised Johnson, stating that "he felt the mood of British society better than his opponents".


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In March 2020, the British government declared Russia the most "acute" threat to UK security in the Integrated Review, which defines the government's foreign, defence, security and international development policies.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In June 2021, a confrontation occurred between and the Russian Armed Forces in the 2021 Black Sea incident.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 the UK government applied economic sanctions on Russian banks and individual citizens and banned Aeroflot aeroplanes from entering British airspace, in retaliation the Russian government banned British aeroplanes from entering Russian airspace.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Britain also supplied the Ukrainians with military equipment; most notably sending NLAW missiles to Ukraine, commencing in January 2022 in anticipation of the Russian invasion. As of 16 March 2022, the UK confirmed that it had delivered more than 4,000 NLAWs to Ukraine. In addition the UK commenced supplying Ukraine with Starstreak missiles (HVM) to help prevent Russian air supremacy. British soldiers were sent via Poland to help train Ukrainian forces. These were sent as an interim measure until the arrival of the Sky Sabre missile defence system.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: On 26 February 2022, Britain and its partners took "decisive action" to block Russia's banks' access to the SWIFT international payment system, according to British Prime Minister Boris Johnson.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: On 5 March 2022, Britain warned that Russia's suggested ceasefire in Mariupol, Ukraine, was most likely a ploy to distract international attention while reorganizing its forces in preparation for a fresh onslaught. "By accusing Ukraine of breaking the agreement, Russia is likely seeking to shift responsibility for current and future civilian casualties in the city," stated the British defence ministry in an intelligence briefing. Britain also urged its citizens to consider fleeing the country. "If your presence in Russia is not essential, we strongly advise that you consider leaving by remaining commercial routes," announced the British government in a statement.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: On 11 March 2022, the United Kingdom imposed sanctions on 386 members of Russia's lower house of parliament and announced that it will attempt to prohibit the export of luxury products to Russia in order to raise diplomatic pressure on Russian President Vladimir Putin over the invasion of Ukraine.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: On 12 March 2022, France, the United Kingdom, and Germany cautioned Russia that its demands for economic guarantees with Iran could jeopardize an almost-completed nuclear deal.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: On 17 March 2022, the United Kingdom said it had "very, very strong evidence" of war crimes in Ukraine, and that Russian President Vladimir Putin was orchestrating them.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: On 24 March 2022, the Kremlin declared Prime Minister Boris Johnson as the most active anti-Russian leader. Downing Street rejected these claims and stated that the Prime Minister was "anti-Putin" and had no issue with the Russian people.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: On 3 May 2022, Russia aired a segment titled "The Sinkable Island." During the segment, hosted by Dmitry Kiselyov, a simulation showing a hypothetical nuclear attack on Great Britain was shown.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: On 8 May 2022, British Prime Minister Boris Johnson's office stated that G7 leaders agreed that the world should increase economic pressure on Russian President Vladimir Putin in whatever manner feasible.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Besides supplying lethal aid to Ukraine, the UK has stated intent to mobilise for the possible event of direct involvement in a broader conflict with Russia as announced by General Sir Patrick Sanders on 28 June 2022 in the form of Operation Mobilise (2022).


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: On 29 September 2022, a Russian Su-37 fighter "released" a missile in the vicinity of a Royal Air Force Boeing RC-135 Rivet Joint which was carrying out a routine patrol over the Black Sea. Both the UK and Russia agreed that it was due to a technical malfunction, rather than a deliberate escalation. Patrols were temporarily suspended by the RAF following the incident but later resumed with fighter escorts.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: On 29 October 2022, Russia accused the UK of involvement in the 2022 Nord Stream pipeline sabotage, which it claimed were carried out by the Royal Navy, in addition to involvement in the drone strikes on the Sevastopol Naval Base. The UK Ministry of Defence released a statement denouncing the claims and stated that Russia was "peddling lies on an epic scale". Earlier in the month, Russia had also accused the UK of involvement in the Crimean Bridge explosion.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In June 2010, UK intelligence officials were saying that Russian spying activity in the UK was back at the Cold War level and that MI5 had been for a few years building up its counter-espionage capabilities against Russians; it was also noted that Russia's focus was ″largely directed on ex-patriots.″ In mid-August 2010, Sir Stephen Lander, Director-General of MI5 (1996–2002), said this of the level of Russian intelligence's activity in the UK: ″If you go back to the early 90s, there was a hiatus. Then the spying machine got going again and the SVR [formerly the KGB], they've gone back to their old practices with a vengeance. I think by the end of the last century they were back to where they had been in the Cold War, in terms of numbers.″


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Directing non-domestic policy within overseas intelligence is a key but not a sole purpose of such information, its capability based on the information it can act on needs to be understood on its own. Separating its own capability from that gained from intelligence outsourcing and thus serves its purpose as explained.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: In January 2012, Jonathan Powell, prime minister Tony Blair's chief of staff in 2006, admitted Britain was behind a plot to spy on Russia with a device hidden in a fake rock that was discovered in 2006 in a case that was publicised by Russian authorities; he said: ″Clearly they had known about it for some time and had been saving it up for a political purpose.″ Back in 2006, the Russian security service, the FSB, linked the rock case to British intelligence agents making covert payments to NGOs in Russia; shortly afterwards, president Vladimir Putin introduced a law that tightened regulation of funding non-governmental organisations in Russia.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: The Embassy of Russia is located in London, United Kingdom. The Embassy of the United Kingdom is located in Moscow, Russia.


title: Russia–United Kingdom relations

text: Outside Moscow, there is one British Consulate-General in Ekaterinburg. There was a British Consulate General in St. Petersburg but it was closed in 2018 due to a diplomatic fallout.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: An earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical installations with high Earth impedance to prevent shock. It detects small stray voltages on the metal enclosures of electrical equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a dangerous voltage is detected. Once widely used, more recent installations instead use residual-current devices (RCDs, RCCBs or GFCIs) which instead detect leakage current directly.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: The main purpose of Earth leakage protectors is to prevent injury to humans and animals due to electric shock.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: This is a category of devices, which are used to protect instruments, circuits and operators, while Earth leakage. Early ELCBs were voltage operated devices (VO-ELCB), detecting a voltage rise between installation metalwork, and an external electrode. These have now been replaced by current sensing devices (RCD/RCCB). In modern literature voltage sensing devices are called ELCB or VOELCB and current sensing devices are called RCCB or RCD.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: Voltage sensing ELCBs were first introduced about sixty years ago. Current sensing ELCBs were first introduced about forty years ago. For many years, the voltage operated ELCB and the differential current operated ELCB were both referred to as ELCBs because it was a simpler name to remember. But the use of a common name for two different devices gave rise to considerable confusion in the electrical industry.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: If the wrong type was used on an installation, the level of protection given could be substantially less than that intended, in particular the voltage operated type can only protect against faults or shocks to metalwork connected to the circuit ground, connected to the VOELCB, it cannot detect current leaving a live wire and running to ground by another path, such as via a person standing on the earth.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: To eliminate this confusion, the IEC decided to apply the term residual current device (RCD) to differential-current-operated ELCBs. Residual current refers to any residue when comparing current in the outbound and return currents in the circuit. In a single phase circuit this is simply the live or phase current minus the neutral current. In a 3 phase circuit all current carrying conductors must be sensed.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: An ELCB is a specialised type of latching relay that has a building's incoming mains power connected through its switching contacts so that the ELCB disconnects the power when earth leakage is detected.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: The ELCB detects fault currents from live to the Earth (ground) wire within the installation it protects. If sufficient voltage appears across the ELCB's sense coil, it will switch off the power, and remain off until manually reset. A voltage-sensing ELCB does not sense fault currents from live to any other Earthed body.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: Voltage ELCBs have been in widespread use since then, and many are still in operation but are no longer installed in new construction. A voltage-operated ELCB detects a rise in potential between the protected interconnected metalwork (equipment frames, conduits, enclosures) and a distant isolated Earth reference electrode. They operate at a detected potential of around 50 volts to open a main breaker and isolate the supply from the protected premises.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: A voltage-operated ELCB has a second terminal for connecting to the remote reference Earth connection.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: The Earth circuit is modified when an ELCB is used; the connection to the Earth rod is passed through the ELCB by connecting to its two Earth terminals. One terminal goes to the installation Earth CPC (circuit protective conductor, aka Earth wire), and the other to the Earth rod (or sometimes other type of Earth connection).


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: Compared with a current-sensing system, voltage sensing systems have several disadvantages which include:


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: RCD/RCCB is the commonly used ELCB type. An RCCB typically consists of a current transformer, which has multiple primary windings and one secondary winding. Neutral and line (or lines in multiple phase systems) wires act as the primary windings. A wire wound coil is the secondary winding. The current through the secondary winding is zero at the balanced condition. In the balanced condition, the flux due to the current through the phase wire will be neutralized by the current through the neutral wire, since the current, which flows from the phase will be returned to the neutral. When a fault occurs, a small current will flow to the ground also. This makes an imbalance between line and neutral current creating an unbalanced magnetic field. This induces a current through the secondary winding, which is connected to the sensing circuit. This will sense the leakage and send signal to tripping system.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: 1) They are less sensitive to fault conditions, and therefore have fewer nuisance trips. (This does not mean they always do, as practical performance depends on installation details and the discrimination enhancing filtering in the ELCB.) Therefore, by electrically separating cable armour from the cable circuit protective conductor, an ELCB can be arranged to protect against cable damage only, and not trip on faults in downline installations.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: 2) Voltage sensing ELCBs will also trip on DC current faults to ground which a transformer interfaced RCD/RCCB is unable to sense, with similar issues with frequencies significantly above mains frequency. This may lead to ground faults on variable speed drives between the drive electronics and motor not being detected for example.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: It is not unusual for an ELCB protected installation to have a second unintentional connection to Earth somewhere, one that does not pass through the ELCB sense coil. This can occur via metal pipework in contact with the ground, metal structural framework, outdoor home appliances in contact with soil, and so on.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: When this occurs, fault current may pass to Earth without being sensed by the ELCB. Despite this, perhaps counterintuitively, the operation of the ELCB is not compromised. The purpose of the ELCB is to prevent Earthed metalwork rising to a dangerous voltage during fault conditions, and the ELCB continues to do this just the same, the ELCB will still cut the power at the same CPC voltage level. (The difference is that higher fault current is then needed to reach this voltage.)


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: While voltage and current on the earth line is usually fault current from a live wire, this is not always the case, thus there are situations in which an ELCB can nuisance trip.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: When an installation has two connections to Earth, a nearby high current lightning strike will cause a voltage gradient in the soil, presenting the ELCB sense coil with enough voltage to cause it to trip.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: If the installation's Earth rod is placed close to the Earth rod of a neighbouring building, a high Earth leakage current in the other building can raise the local ground potential and cause a voltage difference across the two Earths, again tripping the ELCB. Close Earth rods are unsuitable for ELCB use for this reason, but in real life such installations are sometimes encountered.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: Both RCDs and ELCBs are prone to nuisance trips from normal harmless Earth leakage to some degree. On one hand ELCBs are on average older, and hence tend to have less well developed filtering against nuisance trips, and on the other hand ELCBs are inherently immune to some of the causes of false trips RCDs suffer, and are generally less sensitive than RCDs. In practice RCD nuisance trips are much more common.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: Another cause of nuisance tripping is due to accumulated or burden currents caused by items with lowered insulation resistance. This may occur due to older equipment, or equipment with heating elements, or even wiring in buildings in the tropics where prolonged damp and rain conditions can cause the insulation resistance to lower due to moisture tracking. If there is a 30 mA protective device in use and there is a 10 mA burden from various sources then the unit will trip at 20 mA. The individual items may each be electrically safe but a large number of small burden currents accumulates and reduces the tripping level. This was more a problem in past installations where multiple circuits were protected by a single ELCB.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: Heating elements of the tubular form are filled with a very fine powder that can absorb moisture if the element has not be used for some time. In the tropics, this may occur, for example if a clothes drier has not been used for a year or a large water boiler used for coffee, etc. has been in storage. In such cases, if the unit is allowed to power up without RCD protection then it will normally dry out and successfully pass inspection. This type of problem can be seen even with brand new equipment.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: Some ELCBs do not respond to rectified fault current. This issue is the same in principle with ELCBs and RCDs, but ELCBs are on average much older and specifications have improved considerably over the years, so an old ELCB is more likely to have some fault current waveform that it will not respond to.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: With any mechanical device, failures occur, and ELCBs should ideally be tested periodically to ensure they still work.


title: Earth-leakage circuit breaker

text: If either of the Earth wires become disconnected from the ELCB, it will no longer trip and the installation will often no longer be properly Earthed.


title: 1923 United Kingdom general election

text: The 1923 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday 6 December 1923. The Conservatives, led by Stanley Baldwin, won the most seats, but Labour, led by Ramsay MacDonald, and H. H. Asquith's reunited Liberal Party gained enough seats to produce a hung parliament. It is the most recent UK general election in which a third party (here, the Liberals) won over 100 seats. The Liberals' percentage of the vote, 29.7%, has not been exceeded by a third party at any general election since.


title: 1923 United Kingdom general election

text: MacDonald formed the first ever Labour government with tacit support from the Liberals. Rather than trying to bring the Liberals back into government, Asquith's motivation for permitting Labour to enter power was that he hoped they would prove to be incompetent and quickly lose support. Being a minority, MacDonald's government only lasted ten months and another general election was held in October 1924.


title: 1923 United Kingdom general election

text: In May 1923, Prime Minister Bonar Law fell ill and resigned on 22 May, after just 209 days in office. He was replaced by Chancellor of the Exchequer, Stanley Baldwin. The Labour Party had also changed leaders since the previous election, after J. R. Clynes was defeated in a leadership challenge by former leader Ramsay MacDonald.


title: 1923 United Kingdom general election

text: Having won an election just the year before, Baldwin's Conservative Party had a comfortable majority in the House of Commons and could have waited another four years, but the government was concerned. Baldwin felt the need to receive a mandate from the people, which, if successful, would strengthen his grip on the Conservative Party leadership and allow him to introduce tariff reform and imperial preference as protectionist trade policies over the objections of the free trade elements of his party.


title: 1923 United Kingdom general election

text: Parliament was dissolved on 16 November and the result backfired on Baldwin, who lost a host of seats to Labour and the Liberals, resulting in a hung parliament. A reformation of the Conservative-Liberal coalition which had governed the country until the previous year was not practical, as Baldwin had alienated both of the two most prominent Liberals, Asquith and David Lloyd George.


title: 1923 United Kingdom general election

text: Faced with the choice of supporting either a minority Conservative or Labour government on an issue-by-issue basis, Asquith ultimately chose the latter, partly because Lloyd George's faction was vehemently opposed to working with Baldwin (though Asquith's allies were themselves unenthusiastic about such a prospect), and partly because he believed that Labour's electoral success thus far was mostly the result of the previous split in the Liberal Party, and that a Labour government would expose the party's policies as unworkable, allowing for the Liberals to overtake them at the next election. The Liberals therefore combined with Labour to vote down the King's Speech prepared by Baldwin, causing his government to fall. For the first time in history, Labour formed a government.


title: Nuremberg rallies

text: The Nuremberg Rallies (officially "", meaning "Reich Party Congress") refer to a series of celebratory events coordinated by the Nazi Party in Germany. The first rally held took place in 1923. This rally was not particularly large or impactful; however, as the party grew in size, the rallies became more elaborate and featured larger crowds. They played a seminal role in Nazi propaganda events, conveying a unified and strong Germany under Nazi control. The rallies became a national event once Adolf Hitler rose to power in 1933, when they became annual occurrences. Once the Nazi dictatorship was firmly established, the party's propagandists began filming them for a national and international audience. Nazi filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl produced some of her best known work including "Triumph of the Will" (1934) and "The Victory of Faith" (1933), both filmed at the Nazi party rally grounds near Nuremberg. The party's 1938 Nuremberg rally celebrated the Anschluss that occurred earlier that year. The 1939 scheduled rally never came to pass and the Nazi regime never held another one as both the government and Nazi Party prioritized Germany's effort in the Second World War over everything else.


title: Nuremberg rallies

text: The first Nazi Party rallies took place in 1923 in Munich and in 1926 in Weimar. From 1927 on, they took place exclusively in Nuremberg. The Party selected Nuremberg for pragmatic reasons: it was in the center of the German Reich and the local "Luitpoldhain" (converted parkland) was well suited as a venue. In addition, the Nazis could rely on the well-organized local branch of the party in Franconia, then led by "Gauleiter" Julius Streicher. The Nuremberg police were sympathetic to the event.


title: Nuremberg rallies

text: Later, the location was justified by the Nazi Party by putting it into the tradition of the Imperial Diet (German "Reichstag") of the Holy Roman Empire, considered the First "Reich". After 1933, the rallies took place near the time of the Autumnal equinox, under the title of "The German people's National Party days" ("Reichsparteitage des deutschen Volkes"), which was intended to symbolize the solidarity between the German people and the Nazi Party. This point was further emphasized by the annual growth in the number of participants, which finally reached over half a million from all sections of the party, the army, and the state.


title: Nuremberg rallies

text: Official films for the rallies began in 1927, with the establishment of the NSDAP (Nazi Party) film office. The most famous films were made by Leni Riefenstahl for the rallies between 1933 and 1935. Relating to the theme of the rally, she called her first movie "Victory of Faith" ("Der Sieg des Glaubens"). This movie was taken out of circulation after the Night of the Long Knives, although a copy survived in Britain and has recently been made available on the Internet Archive for public viewing. The rally of 1934 became the setting for the award-winning "Triumph of the Will" ("Triumph des Willens"). Several generals in the "Wehrmacht" protested over the minimal army presence in the film: Hitler apparently proposed modifying the film to placate the generals, but Riefenstahl refused his suggestion. She did agree to return to the 1935 rally and make a film exclusively about the Wehrmacht, which became "".


title: Nuremberg rallies

text: The rallies for 1936 and 1937 were covered in "Festliches Nürnberg", which was shorter than the others, only 21 minutes.


title: Nuremberg rallies

text: There were two sets of official or semi-official books covering the rallies. The "red books" were officially published by the NSDAP and contained the proceedings of the "congress" as well as full texts of every speech given in chronological order.


title: Nuremberg rallies

text: The "blue books" were published initially by Julius Streicher, the "Gauleiter" of Nuremberg, later by Hanns Kerrl, not by the party press. These were larger scale books that included the text of speeches and proceedings, as well as larger photographs.


title: Nuremberg rallies

text: In addition to these, collections of Heinrich Hoffman's photographs were published to commemorate each Party congress, as well as pamphlets of Hitler's speeches. Both series of books are much sought after by collectors.


title: Nuremberg rallies

text: Hoffman created 100-image series on the 1936, 1937, and 1938 rallies in stereoscopic 3D through his Raumbild-Verlag outfit.


title: Hung parliament

text: A hung parliament is a term used in legislatures primarily under the Westminster system to describe a situation in which no single political party or pre-existing coalition (also known as an alliance or bloc) has an absolute majority of legislators (commonly known as members or seats) in a parliament or other legislature. This situation is also known as a balanced parliament, or as a legislature under no overall control (NOC), and can result in a minority government. The term is irrelevant in multi-party systems where it is rare for a single party to hold a majority.


title: Hung parliament

text: In the Westminster system, in the absence of a clear majority, no party or coalition has an automatic mandate to assume control of the executive — a status usually known in parliamentary systems as "forming (a) government". It is possible that an absolute majority may still be gained through the formation of a new coalition government, or the addition of previously unaffiliated members to a pre-existing coalition. Additionally, a minority government may instead result — that is, the party that has the most members is allowed to form government without an absolute majority, provided that it has the express, ongoing support of unaffiliated members, such as minor parties and/or independent legislators.


title: Hung parliament

text: A normal objective of parliamentary systems – especially those requiring responsible government such as the Westminster system – is the formation of a stable government (i.e. ideally one that lasts a full parliamentary term, until the next election would normally be due). This requires a government to be able to muster sufficient votes in parliament to pass motions of confidence and supply, especially motions of no-confidence and budget bills. If such motions fail, they normally result in the dissolution of parliament and a fresh election. In some parliamentary systems, however, a new government may be formed without recourse to an election – if, for example, a minor party holds the balance of power, it may publicly express for the opposition, thereby creating a new majority.


title: Hung parliament

text: The term "hung parliament" is most often used of parliaments dominated by two major parties or coalitions. General elections in such systems usually result in one party having an absolute majority and thus quickly forming a new government. In most parliamentary systems, a hung parliament is considered exceptional and is often seen as undesirable. In other contexts, a hung parliament may be seen as ideal – for example, if opinions among the voting public are polarised regarding one or more issues, a hung parliament may lead to the emergence of a compromise or consensus.


title: Hung parliament

text: If a legislature is bicameral, the term "hung parliament" is usually used only with respect to the lower house.


title: Hung parliament

text: In a multi-party system with legislators elected by proportional representation or a similar systems, it is usually exceptionally rare and difficult for any party to have an absolute majority. Under such situations, hung parliaments are often taken for granted and coalition governments are normal. However, the term may be used to describe an election in which no established coalition wins an outright majority (such as the German federal election of 2005 or the 2018 Italian general election).


title: Hung parliament

text: The term apparently emerged in the United Kingdom, around the time of the 1974 election, by analogy with a hung jury, that is, one unable to reach a verdict. . However, whereas a hung jury results in a mistrial, requiring a new trial, there is no general rule under which the absence of a clear majority requires a fresh election. In recent years, most "hung parliaments" have served their full term.


title: Hung parliament

text: Australian parliaments are modelled on the Westminster system, with a hung parliament typically defined as a lack of a lower house parliamentary majority from either the Australian Labor Party or Liberal/National Coalition.


title: Hung parliament

text: Hung parliaments are rare at the federal level in Australia, as a de facto two-party system, in which the Australian Labor Party competes against a permanent Liberal-National Coalition of the conservative parties, has existed with only brief interruptions since the early 20th century. Prior to 1910, no party had had a majority in the House of Representatives. As a result, there were frequent changes of government, several of which took place during parliamentary terms. Since 1910, when the two-party system was cemented, there have been two hung parliaments, the first in 1940, and the second in 2010. At the 1940 federal election, incumbent Prime Minister Robert Menzies secured the support of the two crossbenchers and continued to govern, but in 1941 the independents switched their support to Labor, bringing John Curtin to power.


title: Hung parliament

text: Declining support for the major parties in recent times is leading to more non-majoritarian outcomes at elections. At the 2010 federal election, which resulted in an exact 72-72 seat tie between Labor and the Liberal-National Coalition, incumbent Prime Minister Julia Gillard secured the support of four out of six Independent and Green Party crossbenchers and continued to govern.


title: Hung parliament

text: In the 2016 federal election a hung parliament was only narrowly averted with the Liberal-National Coalition winning 76 seats, the bare minimum required to form a majority government. The Liberal-National Coalition government lost its majority government status after a by-election in 2018.


title: Hung parliament

text: Hung parliaments are rather more common at a state level. The Tasmanian House of Assembly and the unicameral Parliament of the Australian Capital Territory are both elected by Hare-Clark proportional representation, thus, elections commonly return hung parliaments. In other states and territories, candidates contest single-member seats. With far fewer seats than federal parliament, hung parliaments are more likely to be elected. Recent examples include New South Wales in 1991, Queensland in 1998 and 2015, Victoria in 1999, South Australia in 1997 and 2002, Western Australia in 2008, the Australian Capital Territory in 2008, and Tasmania in 2010.


title: Hung parliament

text: Hung parliaments at either the federal and provincial level are an infrequent but not unusual occurrence in Canada. Hung Parliaments are commonly referred to as minority governments. Five of the previous seven recent federal elections have resulted in hung parliaments (the 38th, the 39th, the 40th, the 43rd, and the 44th). Following all five elections the largest party ruled as a "minority government". Although Canadian minority governments have tended to be short-lived, the two successive minorities under Prime Minister Stephen Harper managed to hold on to power from February 2006 until a no confidence vote in March 2011. The subsequent election saw a majority parliament elected with Harper's Conservative Party obtaining a 24-seat majority.


title: Hung parliament

text: While most Canadian minority governments end in dissolution via non-confidence or a snap election call, there have been recent attempts to transition to a new government without returning to the ballot box. Most notably, the 2008 Canadian Federal Election resulted in the 2008–09 Canadian parliamentary dispute. While the Conservative Party had a plurality of seats, the Liberal Party and New Democratic Party, supported by The Bloc Québécois, agreed to defeat the Conservatives in favour of a Liberal/NDP coalition government. On 4 December 2008, Governor General Michaëlle Jean granted Prime Minister Stephen Harper a prorogation on the condition that parliament reconvene early in the new year. The first session of the 40th parliament thus ended, delaying and ultimately avoiding a vote of non-confidence.