title: Virology

text: Virology is the scientific study of biological viruses. It is a subfield of microbiology that focuses on their detection, structure, classification and evolution, their methods of infection and exploitation of host cells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy.


title: Virology

text: The identification of the causative agent of tobacco mosaic disease (TMV) as a novel pathogen by Martinus Beijerinck (1898) is now acknowledged as being the official beginning of the field of virology as a discipline distinct from bacteriology. He realized the source was neither a bacterial nor a fungal infection, but something completely different. Beijerinck used the word "virus" to describe the mysterious agent in his 'contagium vivum fluidum' ('contagious living fluid'). Rosalind Franklin proposed the full structure of the tobacco mosaic virus in 1955.


title: Virology

text: Virology began when there were no methods for propagating or visualizing viruses or specific laboratory tests for viral infections. The methods for separating viral nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) and proteins, which are now the mainstay of virology, did not exist. Now there are many methods for observing the structure and functions of viruses and their component parts. Thousands of different viruses are now known about and virologists often specialize in either the viruses that infect plants, or bacteria and other microorganisms, or animals. Viruses that infect humans are now studied by medical virologists. Virology is a broad subject covering biology, health, animal welfare, agriculture and ecology.


title: Virology

text: Louis Pasteur was unable to find a causative agent for rabies and speculated about a pathogen too small to be detected by microscopes. In 1884, the French microbiologist Charles Chamberland invented the Chamberland filter (or Pasteur-Chamberland filter) with pores small enough to remove all bacteria from a solution passed through it. In 1892, the Russian biologist Dmitri Ivanovsky used this filter to study what is now known as the tobacco mosaic virus: crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remained infectious even after filtration to remove bacteria. Ivanovsky suggested the infection might be caused by a toxin produced by bacteria, but he did not pursue the idea. At the time it was thought that all infectious agents could be retained by filters and grown on a nutrient medium—this was part of the germ theory of disease.


title: Virology

text: In 1898, the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck repeated the experiments and became convinced that the filtered solution contained a new form of infectious agent. He observed that the agent multiplied only in cells that were dividing, but as his experiments did not show that it was made of particles, he called it a "contagium vivum fluidum" (soluble living germ) and reintroduced the word "virus". Beijerinck maintained that viruses were liquid in nature, a theory later discredited by Wendell Stanley, who proved they were particulate. In the same year, Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch passed the first animal virus, aphthovirus (the agent of foot-and-mouth disease), through a similar filter.


title: Virology

text: In the early 20th century, the English bacteriologist Frederick Twort discovered a group of viruses that infect bacteria, now called bacteriophages (or commonly 'phages'), and the French-Canadian microbiologist Félix d'Herelle described viruses that, when added to bacteria on an agar plate, would produce areas of dead bacteria. He accurately diluted a suspension of these viruses and discovered that the highest dilutions (lowest virus concentrations), rather than killing all the bacteria, formed discrete areas of dead organisms. Counting these areas and multiplying by the dilution factor allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the original suspension. Phages were heralded as a potential treatment for diseases such as typhoid and cholera, but their promise was forgotten with the development of penicillin. The development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics has renewed interest in the therapeutic use of bacteriophages.


title: Virology

text: By the end of the 19th century, viruses were defined in terms of their infectivity, their ability to pass filters, and their requirement for living hosts. Viruses had been grown only in plants and animals. In 1906 Ross Granville Harrison invented a method for growing tissue in lymph, and in 1913 E. Steinhardt, C. Israeli, and R.A. Lambert used this method to grow vaccinia virus in fragments of guinea pig corneal tissue. In 1928, H. B. Maitland and M. C. Maitland grew vaccinia virus in suspensions of minced hens' kidneys. Their method was not widely adopted until the 1950s when poliovirus was grown on a large scale for vaccine production.


title: Virology

text: Another breakthrough came in 1931 when the American pathologist Ernest William Goodpasture and Alice Miles Woodruff grew influenza and several other viruses in fertilised chicken eggs. In 1949, John Franklin Enders, Thomas Weller, and Frederick Robbins grew poliovirus in cultured cells from aborted human embryonic tissue, the first virus to be grown without using solid animal tissue or eggs. This work enabled Hilary Koprowski, and then Jonas Salk, to make an effective polio vaccine.


title: Virology

text: The first images of viruses were obtained upon the invention of electron microscopy in 1931 by the German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll. In 1935, American biochemist and virologist Wendell Meredith Stanley examined the tobacco mosaic virus and found it was mostly made of protein. A short time later, this virus was separated into protein and RNA parts.


title: Virology

text: The tobacco mosaic virus was the first to be crystallised and its structure could, therefore, be elucidated in detail. The first X-ray diffraction pictures of the crystallised virus were obtained by Bernal and Fankuchen in 1941. Based on her X-ray crystallographic pictures, Rosalind Franklin discovered the full structure of the virus in 1955. In the same year, Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley Williams showed that purified tobacco mosaic virus RNA and its protein coat can assemble by themselves to form functional viruses, suggesting that this simple mechanism was probably the means through which viruses were created within their host cells.


title: Virology

text: The second half of the 20th century was the golden age of virus discovery, and most of the documented species of animal, plant, and bacterial viruses were discovered during these years. In 1957 equine arterivirus and the cause of Bovine virus diarrhoea (a pestivirus) were discovered. In 1963 the hepatitis B virus was discovered by Baruch Blumberg, and in 1965 Howard Temin described the first retrovirus. Reverse transcriptase, the enzyme that retroviruses use to make DNA copies of their RNA, was first described in 1970 by Temin and David Baltimore independently. In 1983 Luc Montagnier's team at the Pasteur Institute in France, first isolated the retrovirus now called HIV. In 1989 Michael Houghton's team at Chiron Corporation discovered hepatitis C.


title: Virology

text: One main motivation for the study of viruses is because they cause many infectious diseases of plants and animals. The study of the manner in which viruses cause disease is viral pathogenesis. The degree to which a virus causes disease is its virulence. These fields of study are called plant virology, animal virology and human or medical virology.


title: Virology

text: There are several approaches to detecting viruses and these include the detection of virus particles (virions) or their antigens or nucleic acids and infectivity assays.


title: Virology

text: Viruses were seen for the first time in the 1930s when electron microscopes were invented. These microscopes use beams of electrons instead of light, which have a much shorter wavelength and can detect objects that cannot be seen using light microscopes. The typical magnification obtained using electron microscopes is up to 10,000,000 times whereas the highest magnification obtainable with light microscopes is around 1,500 times.


title: Virology

text: Virologists often use negative staining to help visualise viruses. In this procedure, the viruses are suspended in a solution of metal salts such as uranium acetate. The atoms of metal are opaque to electrons and the viruses are seen as suspended in a dark background of metal atoms. This technique has been in use since the 1950s. Many viruses were discovered using this technique and negative staining electron microscopy is still a valuable weapon in a virologist's arsenal.


title: Virology

text: Traditional electron microscopy has disadvantages in that viruses are damaged by drying in the high vacuum inside the electron microscope and the electron beam itself is destructive. In cryogenic electron microscopy the structure of viruses is preserved by embedding them in an environment of vitreous water. This allows the determination of biomolecular structures at near-atomic resolution, and has attracted wide attention to the approach as an alternative to X-ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy for the determination of the structure of viruses.


title: Virology

text: Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites and because they only reproduce inside the living cells of a host these cells are needed to grow them in the laboratory. For viruses that infect animals (usually called "animal viruses") cells grown in laboratory cell cultures are used. In the past, fertile hens' eggs were used and the viruses were grown on the membranes surrounding the embryo. This method is still used in the manufacture of some vaccines. For the viruses that infect bacteria, the bacteriophages, the bacteria growing in test tubes can be used directly. For plant viruses, the natural host plants can be used or, particularly when the infection is not obvious, so-called indicator plants, which show signs of infection more clearly.


title: Virology

text: Viruses that have grown in cell cultures can by indirectly detected by the detrimental effect they have on the host cell. These cytopathic effects are often characteristic of the type of virus. For instance, herpes simplex viruses produce a characteristic "ballooning" of the cells, typically human fibroblasts. Some viruses, such as mumps virus cause red blood cells from chickens to firmly attach to the infected cells. This is called "haemadsorption" or "hemadsorption". Some viruses produce localised "lesions" in cell layers called plaques, which are useful in quantitation assays and in identifying the species of virus by plaque reduction assays.


title: Virology

text: Viruses growing in cell cultures are used to measure their susceptibility to validated and novel antiviral drugs.


title: Virology

text: Viruses are antigens that induce the production of antibodies and these can antibodies can be used in laboratories to study viruses. Related viruses often react with each other's antibodies and some viruses can be named based on the antibodies they react with. The use of the antibodies which were once exclusively derived from the serum (blood fluid) of animals is call serology. Once and antibody–reaction as taken place in a test, other methods are needed to confirm this. Older methods included complement fixation tests, hemagglutination inhibition and virus neutralisation. Newer methods us enzyme- immunoassays (EIA).


title: Virology

text: In the years before PCR was invented immunofluorescence was used to quickly confirm viral infections. It is an infectivity assay that is virus species specific because antibodies are used. The antibodies are tagged with a dye that is luminescencent and when using an optical microscope with a modified light source, infected cells glow in the dark.


title: Virology

text: PCR is a mainstay method for detecting viruses in all species including plants and animals. It works by detecting traces of virus specific RNA or DNA. It is very sensitive and specific, but can be easily compromised by contamination. Most of the tests used in veterinary virology and medical virology are based on PCR or similar methods such as transcription mediated amplification. When a novel virus emerges, such as the covid coronavirus, a specific test can be devised quickly so long as the viral genome has been sequenced and unique regions of the viral DNA or RNA identified. The invention of microfluidic tests as allowed for most of these tests to be automated, Despite its specificity and sensitivity, PCR has a disadvantage in that it does not differentiate infectious and non-infectious viruses and "tests of cure" have to be delayed for up to 21 days to allow for residual viral nucleic acid to clear from the site of the infection.


title: Virology

text: In laboratories many of the diagnostic test for detecting viruses are nucleic acid amplification methods such as PCR. Some tests detect the viruses or their components as these include electron microscopy and enzyme-immunoassays. The so-called "home" or "self"-testing gadgets are usually lateral flow tests, which detect the virus using a tagged monoclonal antibody. These are also used in agriculture, food and environmental sciences.


title: Virology

text: Counting viruses (quantitation) has always had an important role in virology and has become central to the control of some infections of humans where the viral load is measured. There are two basic methods: those that count the fully infective virus particles, which are called infectivity assays, and those that count all the particles including the defective ones.


title: Virology

text: Infectivity assays measure the amount (concentration) of infective viruses in a sample of known volume. For host cells, plants or cultures of bacterial or animal cells are used. Laboratory animals such as mice have also been used particularly in veterinary virology. These are assays are either quantitative where the results are on a continuous scale or quantal, where an event either occurs or it does not. Quantitative assays give absolute values and quantal assays give a statistical probability such as the volume of the test sample needed to ensure 50% of the hosts cells, plants or animals are infected. This is called the median infectious dose or ID . Infective bacteriophages can be counted by seeding them onto "lawns" of bacteria in culture dishes. When at low concentrations, the viruses form holes in the lawn that can be counted. The number of viruses is then expressed as plaque forming units. For the bacteriophages that reproduce in bacteria that cannot be grown in cultures, viral load assays are used.


title: Virology

text: The focus forming assay (FFA) is a variation of the plaque assay, but instead of relying on cell lysis in order to detect plaque formation, the FFA employs immunostaining techniques using fluorescently labeled antibodies specific for a viral antigen to detect infected host cells and infectious virus particles before an actual plaque is formed. The FFA is particularly useful for quantifying classes of viruses that do not lyse the cell membranes, as these viruses would not be amenable to the plaque assay. Like the plaque assay, host cell monolayers are infected with various dilutions of the virus sample and allowed to incubate for a relatively brief incubation period (e.g., 24–72 hours) under a semisolid overlay medium that restricts the spread of infectious virus, creating localized clusters (foci) of infected cells. Plates are subsequently probed with fluorescently labeled antibodies against a viral antigen, and fluorescence microscopy is used to count and quantify the number of foci. The FFA method typically yields results in less time than plaque or fifty-percent-tissue-culture-infective-dose (TCID) assays, but it can be more expensive in terms of required reagents and equipment. Assay completion time is also dependent on the size of area that the user is counting. A larger area will require more time but can provide a more accurate representation of the sample. Results of the FFA are expressed as focus forming units per milliliter, or FFU/


title: Virology

text: When an assay for measuring the infective virus particle is done (Plaque assay, Focus assay), viral titre often refers to the concentration of infectious viral particles, which is different from the total viral particles. Viral load assays usually count the number of viral genomes present rather than the number of particles and use methods similar to PCR. Viral load tests are an important in the control of infections by HIV. This versatile method can be used for plant viruses.


title: Virology

text: Molecular virology is the study of viruses at the level of nucleic acids and proteins. The methods invented by molecular biologists have all proven useful in virology. Their small sizes and relatively simple structures make viruses an ideal candidate for study by these techniques.


title: Virology

text: For further study, viruses grown in the laboratory need purifying to remove contaminants from the host cells. The methods used often have the advantage of concentrating the viruses, which makes it easier to investigate them.


title: Virology

text: Centrifuges are often used to purify viruses. Low speed centrifuges, ie. those with a top speed of 10,000 revolutions per minute (rpm) are not powerful enough to concentrate viruses, but ultracentrifuges with a top speed of around 100,000 rpm, are and this difference is used in a method called differential centrifugation. In this method the larger and heavier contaminants are removed from a virus mixture by low speed centrifugation. The viruses, which are small and light and are left in suspension, are then concentrated by high speed centrifugation.


title: Virology

text: Following differential centrifugation, virus suspensions often remain contaminated with debris that has the same sedimentation coefficient and are not removed by the procedure. In these cases a modification of centrifugation, called buoyant density centrifugation, is used. In this method the viruses recovered from differential centrifugation are centrifuged again at very high speed for several hours in dense solutions of sugars or salts that form a density gradient, from low to high, in the tube during the centrifugation. In some cases, preformed gradients are used where solutions of steadily decreasing density are carefully overlaid on each other. Like an object in the Dead Sea, despite the centrifugal force the virus particles cannot sink into solutions that are more dense than they are and they form discrete layers of, often visible, concentrated viruses in the tube. Caesium chloride is often used for these solutions as it is relatively inert but easily self-forms a gradient when centrifuged at high speed in an ultracentrifuge. Buoyant density centrifugation can also be used to purify the components of viruses such as their nucleic acids or proteins.


title: Virology

text: The separation of molecules based on their electric charge is called electrophoresis. Viruses and all their components can be separated and purified using this method. This is usually done in a supporting medium such as agarose and polyacrylamide gels. The separated molecules are revealed using stains such as coomasie blue, for proteins, or ethidium bromide for nucleic acids. In some instances the viral components are rendered radioactive before electrophoresis an are revealed using photographic film in a process known as autoradiography.


title: Virology

text: As most viruses are too small to be seen by a light microscope, sequencing is one of the main tools in virology to identify and study the virus. Traditional Sanger sequencing and next-generation sequencing (NGS) are used to sequence viruses in basic and clinical research, as well as for the diagnosis of emerging viral infections, molecular epidemiology of viral pathogens, and drug-resistance testing. There are more than 2.3 million unique viral sequences in GenBank. NGS has surpassed traditional Sanger as the most popular approach for generating viral genomes. Viral genome sequencing as become a central method in viral epidemiology and viral classification.


title: Virology

text: Data from the sequencing of viral genomes can be used to determine evolutionary relationships and this is called phylogenetic analysis. Software, such as PHYLIP, is used to draw phylogenetic trees. This analysis is also used in studying the spread of viral infections in communities, (epidemiology).


title: Virology

text: When purified viruses or viral components are needed for diagnostic tests or vaccines, cloning can be used instead of growing the viruses. At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic the availability of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 RNA sequence enabled tests to be manufactured quickly. There are several proven methods for cloning viruses and their components. Small pieces of DNA called cloning vectors are often used and the most common ones are laboratory modified plasmids (small circular molecules of DNA produced by bacteria). The viral nucleic acid, or a part of it, is inserted in the plasmid, which is the copied many times over by bacteria. This recombinant DNA can then be used to produce viral components without the need for native viruses.


title: Virology

text: The viruses that reproduce in bacteria, archaea and fungi are informally called "phages", and the ones that infect bacteria – bacteriophages – in particular are useful in virology and biology in general. Bacteriophages were some of the first viruses to be discovered, early in the twentieth century, and because they are relatively easy to grow quickly in laboratories, much of our understanding of viruses originated by studying them. Bacteriophages, long known for their positive effects in the environment, are used in phage display techniques for screening proteins DNA sequences. They are a powerful tool in molecular biology.


title: Virology

text: All viruses have genes which are studied using genetics. All the techniques used in molecular biology, such as cloning, creating mutations RNA silencing are used in viral genetics.


title: Virology

text: Reassortment is the switching of genes from different parents and it is particularly useful when studying the genetics of viruses that have segmented genomes (fragmented into two or more nucleic acid molecules) such as influenza viruses and rotaviruses. The genes that encode properties such as serotype can be identified in this way.


title: Virology

text: Often confused with reassortment, recombination is also the mixing of genes but the mechanism differs in that "stretches" of DNA or RNA molecules, as opposed to the full molecules, are joined together during the RNA or DNA replication cycle. Recombination is not as common as reassortment in nature but it is a powerful tool in laboratories for studying the structure and functions of viral genes.


title: Virology

text: Reverse genetics is a powerful research method in virology. In this procedure complimentary DNA (cDNA) copies of virus genomes called "infectious clones" are used to produce genetically modified viruses that can be then tested for changes in say, virulence or transmissibility.


title: Virology

text: A major branch of virology is virus classification. It is artificial in that it is not based on evolutionary phylogenetics but it is based shared or distinguishing properties of viruses. It seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities. In 1962, André Lwoff, Robert Horne, and Paul Tournier were the first to develop a means of virus classification, based on the Linnaean hierarchical system. This system based classification on phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Viruses were grouped according to their shared properties (not those of their hosts) and the type of nucleic acid forming their genomes. In 1966, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) was formed. The system proposed by Lwoff, Horne and Tournier was initially not accepted by the ICTV because the small genome size of viruses and their high rate of mutation made it difficult to determine their ancestry beyond order. As such, the Baltimore classification system has come to be used to supplement the more traditional hierarchy. Starting in 2018, the ICTV began to acknowledge deeper evolutionary relationships between viruses that have been discovered over time and adopted a 15-rank classification system ranging from realm to species. Additionally, some species within the same genus are grouped into a "genogroup".


title: Virology

text: The ICTV developed the current classification system and wrote guidelines that put a greater weight on certain virus properties to maintain family uniformity. A unified taxonomy (a universal system for classifying viruses) has been established. Only a small part of the total diversity of viruses has been studied. As of 2021, 6 realms, 10 kingdoms, 17 phyla, 2 subphyla, 39 classes, 65 orders, 8 suborders, 233 families, 168 subfamilies, 2,606 genera, 84 subgenera, and 10,434 species of viruses have been defined by the ICTV.


title: Virology

text: The general taxonomic structure of taxon ranges and the suffixes used in taxonomic names are shown hereafter. As of 2021, the ranks of subrealm, subkingdom, and subclass are unused, whereas all other ranks are in use.


title: Virology

text: The Baltimore classification of viruses is based on the mechanism of mRNA production. Viruses must generate mRNAs from their genomes to produce proteins and replicate themselves, but different mechanisms are used to achieve this in each virus family. Viral genomes may be single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds), RNA or DNA, and may or may not use reverse transcriptase (RT). In addition, ssRNA viruses may be either sense (+) or antisense (−). This classification places viruses into seven groups:


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The game began development as a sequel to the original "Street Fighter" released in 1987, under the working title but the genre was switched from a fighting game to a beat 'em up and the title was changed to "Final Fight" following the success of "Double Dragon". "Final Fight" was ported to various home computers and consoles, including the ZX Spectrum, Super NES and Sega CD.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: It became a major commercial success in arcades, selling 30,000 arcade units worldwide while becoming the highest-grossing arcade game of 1990 in Japan and the year's highest-grossing arcade conversion kit in the United States. The Super NES version also sold cartridges worldwide. It spawned the "Final Fight" series, followed by several sequels. Its development team later worked on the original "Street Fighter II", and some of the characters from "Final Fight" later appeared as playable fighters in other entries of the franchise, such as the "Street Fighter Alpha" sub-series.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: "Final Fight" can be played by up to two players simultaneously. Before the game begins, the player chooses between the three main characters: Haggar, Cody, and Guy. Each has his own fighting style and attributes. Health gauges are displayed for both player and enemy characters.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The controls for "Final Fight" consist of an eight-way joystick and two buttons for attacking and jumping respectively. Pressing the attack button repeatedly when attacking an enemy or multiple enemies will cause the player character to perform a combo. The final blow of the combo can be changed to a throw if the player moves the joystick in the opposite direction just before landing it. The player can also perform jump attacks. Pressing the attack and jump buttons simultaneously allows the player to perform a special attack that strikes all surrounding enemies, but will drain a small portion of the player's health.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: Enemies can be grabbed simply by walking into one of them. When an enemy is grabbed, the player can perform a grab attack by pressing the attack button or perform a throw by tilting the joystick left or right. A thrown enemy can be tossed at another for additional damage. Items such as weapons, health recovery items, and items awarding extra points can be picked up by standing over one and pressing the attack button. Weapons have limited uses and will disappear if the player is disarmed by an enemy too much or when the player moves to a new area.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: "Final Fight" consists of six stages or "rounds", as well as two bonus rounds. Each round takes place in a different section of Metro City such as the Slums and the Subway, with most rounds featuring more than one level. At the end of each round the player will face a boss character unique to that round.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The game is set in a fictional city on the Atlantic coast in the United States named Metro City (analogous with New York City). According to the game's intro, in the 1990s (or 1989 in the Japanese version), the city's crime rate reached alarming levels, but since the election of pro wrestler turned politician Mike Haggar as the new Mayor, Metro City was changed and cleaned up drastically. Under his term, Haggar managed to suppress the crime rate of the city to its lowest points. While the citizens of Metro City were thankful for Haggar's hard work in curbing crime, the Mad Gear Gang, who had served as the dominant criminal organization of Metro City, would not go down so easily. Under the leadership of the crooked businessman Belger, the group attempted to bribe Haggar with a large payoff to keep him from going after them, to which Haggar refused. Still determined to bring Haggar under their rule like the last mayor before him, Mad Gear proceeded to kidnap his daughter Jessica and create further unrest among the citizens. When Haggar finds out about his daughter's abduction, he becomes furious and decides to take his fight against Mad Gear to a personal level. Seeking additional manpower, Haggar recruits Cody Travers: an expert fighter and Jessica's boyfriend, as well as Guy: a ninja in training and Cody's good friend/rival. The three dedicate themselves to the complete eradication of the Mad Gear Gang, and to rescue Jessica from their clutches.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The game gained notoriety for its unique continue screen, where the player character is shown tied to a chair with a bundle of dynamite on the table in front of him; the character struggles to escape as the 10-second time limit counts down. If the player activates the continue option, a knife falls from the ceiling, disconnecting the fuse from the bomb.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The game was designed by Akira Nishitani, and produced by Yoshiki Okamoto. When coming up with the game's concept, Okamoto cited the arcade game "" (1988) as his basis for "Final Fight". The game was originally shown at trade shows under the title of "Street Fighter '89". According to Okamoto, the sales division of Capcom originally requested a "Street Fighter" sequel, so his team decided to promote "Final Fight" as a "Street Fighter" sequel at trade shows (going as far to refer to one of the main characters as a "former Street Fighter"). The title was changed to "Final Fight" before its official release after feedback from operators stating that the game was nothing like "Street Fighter".


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: According to the developers, they were originally planning to have Ryu and Ken Masters from the original "Street Fighter" as the main protagonists, but that idea was scrapped for a new plot and new settings, involving the kidnapping of an attractive young woman by a city gang. Capcom's president wanted the team to develop the game as if it was a film, so he made the team watch a number of films. Nishitani's team then approached the "planning and design as if it were a movie."


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The street gang the player faces in the game, the Mad Gear Gang, takes their name from the 1987 overhead racing game "Mad Gear" by Capcom; the game was released as "" outside Japan. Many of the characters are named after 1980s rock musicians such as Axl Rose (Axl), Slash (Slash), Gene Simmons (Simons), Sid Vicious (Sid), Billy Idol (Billy), King Diamond (Abigail, named after King Diamond's second album, also dons facepaint similar to King Diamond's), Sodom (Sodom), Roxy Music (Roxy), The Damned (Damnd) and Poison (Poison), with another, 2P (Two.P), being from the Capcom game "Forgotten Worlds". Hugo Andore, another notable enemy character, is based on André the Giant. Because Capcom believed that "players would feel bad beating up a woman", they noted in the manual that the female opponent Poison was a "newhalf".


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The soundtrack was the work of seven sound composers: Manami Matsumae, Yoshihiro Sakaguchi, Harumi Fujita, Junko Tamiya, Yasuaki Fujita (in his first work for Capcom), Hiromitsu Takaoka and Yoko Shimomura. Despite this, Sakaguchi is the only composer credited in the game (as "Youkichan's Papa"). The other six were confirmed as having worked on "Final Fight" in 2014 when the Clarice Disk imprint of City Connection released the "Final Fight Original Sound Collection", which featured the original soundtracks to the three original "Final Fight" games and its accompanying ports.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: In a 2007 interview, "Retro Gamer" magazine asked Akira Nishitani about the game's similarities to the 1984 film "Streets of Fire". Nishitani said that, at the time, the team were not "aware of "Streets of Fire", but I've Googled it and there does indeed seem to be something familiar about it" but that "this style of story was very popular back then" and many "fighting games made use of it" so "I guess we were part of that crowd!"


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: A port of "Final Fight" for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System was released as a launch title for the platform in Japan in 1990 and later in North America in 1991 and then in the PAL region in 1992. It was released for the Wii's Virtual Console service in 2007 and the Wii U's Virtual Console in 2013. The SNES port removed the two-player co-op option, the Industrial Area level and playable character Guy. Most of the scene transitions were also edited out. In the arcade version, the player characters would be seen exiting the levels and breaking through doors unlike the SNES version. Due to hardware limitations the SNES version could only display two or three enemies on-screen, in contrast to the CPS arcade version, which could display up to nine or ten enemies on-screen; to make up for this difference, the SNES version features more stopping points than the arcade version and the enemy placement is vastly different.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The English localization of the SNES port was censored for its content and features several differences from its Japanese Super Famicom counterpart: the first two bosses, Damnd and Sodom, were renamed Thrasher and Katana respectively; Belger's wheelchair was redrawn to look like an office chair; Poison, a woman with pink hair, and Roxy, a woman with red hair, were replaced with two male enemies named Billy and Sid; all alcoholic references were removed, with two health-recovering items replaced; the line "Oh! My God", spoken by an enemy when his car is destroyed during the first bonus stage, was changed to "Oh! My Car"; the blood splash effect shown when a character is stabbed was replaced by a generic explosion; and some of the darker skinned enemy characters were given lighter skin tones. The original soundtrack was ported for the Super NES by Toshio Kajino (credited as "Bull").


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: A revised edition of the SNES port, titled Final Fight Guy, was released in Japan in 1992. This version replaced Cody with Guy as a selectable character (with a new opening and ending sequence explaining Cody's absence), included four difficulty settings, and added other new features such as two new power-ups, although the Industrial Area stage and the Two-Player mode were still omitted. An American version of the game (featuring the same changes in the localization as in the first game) was released in June 1994 as a rental-only game that was initially available at Blockbuster stores, although it was later given a limited release. Kajino's music port was retained for that version.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: U.S. Gold released ports of "Final Fight" for the Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC for the European market in 1991. These ports were developed by Creative Materials. In February 1993, the ZX Spectrum version was released as part of the "Super Fighter" compilation with "Pit Fighter" and "WWF WrestleMania".


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The Sharp X68000 version was released by Capcom exclusively in Japan on July 17, 1992. This version is a relatively close conversion of the arcade game, with the only notable changes being different music (with a choice between a MIDI soundtrack and one using the X68000's internal sound chip) and a lower maximum on-screen enemies. The game came packaged with a CD soundtrack with all new remixed tunes.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The Mega-CD/Sega CD version, titled "Final Fight CD", was ported by A Wave and published by Sega under license from Capcom in 1993. This version retains nearly all the features of the arcade game that were removed in the two SNES ports (namely the two-player mode, the Industrial Area stage and the ability to play as any of the three main characters) and adds voice acting to the game's opening and ending sequences, an arranged version of the original soundtrack, and an exclusive time attack mode. However the maximum number of on-screen enemies were still lower than the arcade version and the combo attacks of Cody and Guy are much slower. Furthermore, the graphics suffered from a more limited color palette, as well as fewer background details. Like the SNES version, the Mega-CD version was censored for the English localization with many of the same changes. Poison and Roxy were kept, but were redrawn with less revealing clothing.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The Game Boy Advance version that was developed by Sun-Tec, titled "Final Fight One", was released in 2001. "Final Fight One" features all three characters and the Industrial Area stage that was missing from the SNES version. The 2-player cooperative mode is also featured via link cable. Dialogue scenes prior to each boss battle have been added and the "Street Fighter Alpha 3" renditions of Cody and Guy are featured as hidden playable characters. Other unlockable features include alternate palettes for each player character and the ability for two players to use the same character. The character and background designs are lifted from the SNES versions rather than the original arcade version, with the enemy placement being similar to "Final Fight Guy", although the maximum number of on-screen enemies was increased and all the transition sequences were restored. The same new power-up items introduced in "Final Fight Guy" are also present in this version, along with a new Cody doll item. The English localization of the game featured the same changes as the two SNES versions.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: "Final Fight" is included in the 2005 compilation "Capcom Classics Collection Volume 1" for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox and in the 2006 portable version "Capcom Classics Collection Remixed" for the PlayStation Portable. The game is emulated from the original CP System arcade version and features very little differences from the arcade game. The compilation includes tips, character profiles, an art gallery and a sound test as bonus features.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The arcade version is also included as a hidden bonus game in the 2006 game "" for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox. However, the emulation in this version was programmed by Ultracade, rather than Digital Eclipse (the developers of "Capcom Classics Collection" series). The controls cannot be adjusted and the quality is lower than other emulated versions.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The arcade version of "Final Fight" was released in a two-in-one bundle titled "Final Fight: Double Impact", alongside the arcade game "Magic Sword", released digitally for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. Added features include various graphic filters, including an arcade cabinet view; online drop-in multiplayer; an arranged soundtrack composed by Simon Viklund; and extra content such as concept art, fan art, "Street Fighter" comic pages featuring "Final Fight" characters and the "Final Fight" episode of the "Street Fighter" animated series, which are unlocked by completing certain in-game challenges. The game was ported and developed by Proper Games and released for Xbox Live Arcade for 800 Microsoft points and April 15, 2010 for PlayStation Network for $9.99. The PS3 version features a very restrictive DRM protection which circumvents the ability other PSN games have to be shared among several PSN accounts. The DRM protection was met with a negative response as it had not been disclosed previous to the game's release. On March 27, 2012, "Double Impact" was released as part of the "Capcom Digital Collection" for the Xbox 360.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: On September 15, 2011, "Final Fight" was released into Apple's iTunes Store. This version includes all three characters from the Arcade version, a multiplayer feature that can only be used with Wi-Fi and a special items where one can turn on Extra Lives, Super Special, and Meat Explosion. However, the game no longer became available after the latest iOS updates from Apple.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: In 2018, "Final Fight" was re-released alongside "Captain Commando", "The King of Dragons", "Knights of the Round", "Warriors of Fate", "Armored Warriors" and "Battle Circuit" in "Capcom Beat 'Em Up Bundle" for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch and Microsoft Windows.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: In Japan, "" listed "Final Fight" on their January 15, 1990 issue as being the second most successful table arcade cabinet of the month. It went on to be the highest-grossing arcade game of 1990 in Japan (according to the annual "Gamest" charts), as well as Japan's second highest-grossing arcade game of 1991 (just below "Street Fighter II").


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: Overseas, the game had a successful launch in North America and Europe. In the United States, it was a blockbuster hit, becoming the top-grossing new video game on the "RePlay" arcade charts in February 1990, and then the top-grossing software conversion kit for eight months in 1990, from March to April, then from June to October, and then December. During November and December, weekly coin drop earnings averaged $183.50 per kit. It ended the year as America's highest-grossing arcade conversion kit of 1990. "Final Fight" sold a total of 30,000 arcade units worldwide.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The Super NES version was also a commercial success. It sold 1.5 million copies worldwide, becoming one of Capcom's best-selling games on the platform.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: The game was acclaimed by critics. "Mega" magazine compared the Mega CD version of the game favorably against the incomplete and "poor" Super NES version and placed it top of their list of the best Mega CD games of all time. The four reviewers of "Electronic Gaming Monthly" declared it a strong conversion of a game with "solid fighting action", though two of them also commented that "the necessity of the CD is questionable at best."


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: Bran D. Butter reviewed the SNES version, giving it a generally favorable review, calling it a "classy beat 'em" and praising the "superb" graphics. However, the review criticized missing features from the arcade original, including the lack of two-player, missing levels, and the missing player character Guy. On release of the Game Boy Advance version of the game, "Famitsu" magazine scored it a 31 out of 40.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: In the February 1991 issue of the Japanese coin-operated video game magazine "Gamest", "Final Fight" took the No. 1 spot as the Best Game of 1990 in the 4th Annual Grand Prize. "Final Fight" also won the category of Best Action Game, placed No. 4 in Best Video Game Music, No. 9 in Best Graphics, No. 2 in Best Direction, and No. 5 in Best Album. The character Mike Haggar was displayed on the cover of this issue, who took the No. 1 spot in the Top 50 Characters of the year, with Guy in second place, Cody at No. 7, Poison at No. 26, Sodom at No. 33 and Jessica at No. 40. In a 1991 "Gamest" reader poll, "Final Fight" was voted the second best arcade game of all time, just below "Valkyrie no Densetsu" (1990). In 1995, Total! ranked the game 87th on its Top 100 SNES Games writing: "Tragically, it's missing one of the main characters but this was still a stonking conversion."


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: "Crash" gave the ZX Spectrum port a "Crash Smash" award. "MegaTech" gave the Sega Mega-CD port a "Hyper Game" award.


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: In 1997, "Nintendo Power" ranked the SNES version as the 97th best game on any Nintendo platform. "Retro Gamer" included it among top ten Mega CD games, describing it as "arguably the best home console conversion (aside from recent emulated ports)" of "unquestionably the quintessential arcade hit of the late Eighties." IGN ranked the SNES version 100th on their Top 100 SNES Games of All Time. In 2018, Complex ranked Final Fight 87th on their "The Best Super Nintendo Games".


title: Final Fight (video game)

text: "Final Fight" was followed by a few sequels. The total sales of the "Final Fight" series have totaled 3.4 million units for home systems.


title: Post-industrial society

text: In sociology, the post-industrial society is the stage of society's development when the service sector generates more wealth than the manufacturing sector of the economy.


title: Post-industrial society

text: The term was originated by Alain Touraine and is closely related to similar sociological theoretical concepts such as post-Fordism, information society, knowledge economy, post-industrial economy, liquid modernity, and network society. They all can be used in economics or social science disciplines as a general theoretical backdrop in research design.


title: Post-industrial society

text: Daniel Bell popularized the term through his 1974 work "The Coming of Post-Industrial Society". Although some have credited Bell with coining the term, French sociologist Alain Touraine published in 1969 the first major work on the post-industrial society. The term was also used extensively by social philosopher Ivan Illich in his 1973 paper "Tools for Conviviality" and appears occasionally in Leftist texts throughout the mid-to-late 1960s.


title: Post-industrial society

text: The term has grown and changed as it became mainstream. The term is now used by marketers such as Seth Godin, public policy PhDs such as Keith Boeckelman, and sociologists such as Neil Fligstein and Ofer Sharone. U.S. President Bill Clinton used the term to describe Chinese growth in a round-table discussion in Shanghai in 1998.


title: Post-industrial society

text: The post-industrialized society is marked by an increased valuation of knowledge. This itself is unsurprising, having been foreshadowed in Daniel Bell's presumption as to how economic employment patterns will evolve in such societies. He asserts employment will grow faster in the tertiary (and quaternary) sector relative to employment in the primary and secondary sector and that the tertiary (and quaternary) sectors will take precedence in the economy. This will continue to occur such that the “impact of the expert” will expand and power will be monopolized by knowledge.


title: Post-industrial society

text: As tertiary and quaternary sector positions are essentially knowledge-oriented, this will result in a restructuring of education, at least in its nuances. The “new power… of the expert” consequently gives rise to the growing role of universities and research institutes in post-industrial societies. Post-industrial societies themselves become oriented around these places of knowledge production and production of experts as their new foci. Consequently, the greatest beneficiaries in the post-industrial society are young urban professionals. As a new, educated, and politicized generation more impassioned by liberalism, social justice, and environmentalism the shift of power into their hands, as a result of their knowledge endowments, is often cited as a good thing.


title: Post-industrial society

text: The increasing importance of knowledge in post-industrial societies results in a general increase in expertise through the economy and throughout society. In this manner, it eliminates what Alan Banks and Jim Foster identify as “undesirable work as well as the grosser forms of poverty and inequality.” This effect is supplemented by the aforementioned movement of power into the hands of young educated people concerned with social justice.


title: Post-industrial society

text: Economists at Berkeley have studied the value of knowledge as a form of capital, adding value to material capital, such as a factory or a truck. Speaking along the same lines of their argument, the addition or 'production' of knowledge, could become the basis of what would undoubtedly be considered 'post-industrial' policies meant to deliver economic growth.


title: Post-industrial society

text: The valuation of specifically scientific knowledge and technology can paradoxically be devalued by individuals in a post-industrial society as they still expect its benefits but are more sensitized to moral trade-offs and risks.


title: Post-industrial society

text: Similarly, post-industrial society has serviced the creative culture. Many of those most well-equipped to thrive in an increasingly technological society are young adults with tertiary education. As education itself becomes more and more oriented towards producing people capable of answering the need for self-actualization, creativity, and self-expression, successive generations become more endowed with the ability to contribute to and perpetuate such industries. This change in education, as well among the emerging class of young professionals, is initiated by what James D Wright identifies as an “unprecedented economic affluence and the satiation of basic material needs.” Ellen Dunham-Jones as well observes this feature of post-industrial society where “abundant goods [are] equitably distributed [in order that] laborless leisure and self-determination” can be consumed.


title: Post-industrial society

text: The post-industrial society is stressed to be one where knowledge is power and technology is the instrument. Naturally, where one is creatively inclined, they are advantaged by such a society. The doctrine of “speed, mobility, and malleability” is well suited to a dynamic creative industry and as industries of good production decrease in precedence, the way is paved for artists, musicians, and other such types, whose skills are better utilized by the tertiary and quaternary sector. Urban geographer Trevor Barnes, in his work outlining the Vancouver experience in post-war development, evokes the post-industrial condition, citing the emergence and consolidation of a significant video games industry as a constituent of the elite service sector.


title: Post-industrial society

text: This increased faculty of the post-industrialist society with respects to the creative industry is reflected by the economic history of post-industrial societies. As economic activities shift from primarily primary and secondary sector-based to tertiary, and later quaternary, sector-based, cities in which this shift occurs become more open to exchanges of information. This is necessitated by the demands of a tertiary and quaternary sector: in order to better service an industry focused on finance, education, communication, management, training, engineering, and aesthetic design, the city must become points of exchange capable of providing the most updated information from across the globe. Conversely, as cities become a convergence of international ideas, the tertiary and quaternary sector can be expected to grow.


title: Post-industrial society

text: A virtual cult of 'creatives' have sprung up embodying and often describing and defending the post-industrial ethos. They argue that businesses that create intangibles have taken a more prominent role in the wake of manufacturing's decline.


title: Post-industrial society

text: Actor and then-artistic director of the Old Vic Theatre, Kevin Spacey, has argued the economic case for the arts in terms of providing jobs and being of greater importance in exports than manufacturing (as well as an educational role) in a guest column he wrote for "The Times".


title: Post-industrial society

text: Post-industrialism is criticized for the amount of real fundamental change it produces in society, if any at all. A mild view held by Alan Banks and Jim Foster contends that representations of post-industrial society by advocates assume professional, educated elites were previously less relevant than they have become in the new social order, and that changes that have occurred are minor but greatly embellished. More critical views see the entire process as the highest evolution of capitalism, wherein the system produces commodities as opposed to practical goods and is determined privately instead of socially. This view is complemented by the assertion that “the characteristic feature of a modern [that is, post-industrial] society is that it is a technocracy.” Such societies then become notable for their ability to subvert social consciousness through powers of manipulation rather than powers of coercion, reflective of the “ideology of the ruling class [as] … predominantly managerial.”


title: Post-industrial society

text: In line with the view that nothing fundamental has changed in the transition from industrial societies to post-industrial societies is the insistence of lingering problems from past development periods. Neo-Malthusian in essence, this outlook focuses on post-industrial society's continuing struggle with issues of resource scarcity, overpopulation, and environmental degradation, all of which are remnants from its industrial history. This is exacerbated by a “corporate liberalism” that seeks to continue economic growth through “the creation and satisfaction of false needs,” or as Christopher Lasch more derisively refers to it, “subsidized waste.”


title: Post-industrial society

text: Urban development (UD) in the context of post-industrialism is also a point of contention. In opposition to the view that the new leaders of post-industrial society are increasingly environmentally aware, this critique asserts that UD rather leads to environmental degradation, which is rooted in the patterns of development. Urban sprawl, characterised behaviourally by cities “expanding at the periphery in even lower densities” and physically by “office parks, malls, strips, condo clusters, corporate campuses, and gated communities,” is singled out as the main issue. Resulting from a post-industrialist culture of “mobile capital, the service economy, post-Fordist disposable consumerism and banking deregulation,” urban sprawl has caused post-industrialism to become environmentally and socially regressive. Of the former, environmental degradation results from encroachment as cities meet demands on low-density habitation; the wider spread of population consumes more of the environment while necessitating more energy consumption in order to facilitate travel within the ever-growing city, incurring greater pollution. This process evokes the neo-Malthusian concerns of overpopulation and resource scarcity that inevitably lead to environmental deterioration. Of the latter, “post-industrialism’s doctrine of … mobility and malleability” encourage a disconnect between communities where social belonging falls into the category of things considered by the “post-Fordist disposable consumer[ist]” attitude as interchangeable, expendable, and replaceable.


title: Post-industrial society

text: Post-industrialism as a concept is highly Western-centric. Theoretically and effectively, it is only possible in the Global West, which its proponents assume to be solely capable of fully realizing industrialization and then post-industrialization. Herman Kahn optimistically predicted the “economic growth, expanded production and growing efficiency” of post-industrial societies and the resultant “material abundance and… high quality of life” to extend to “almost all people in Western societies” and only “some in Eastern societies.” This prediction is treated elsewhere by contentions that the post-industrial society merely perpetuates capitalism.


title: Post-industrial society

text: Recalling the critical assertion that all modern societies are technocracies, T. Roszak completes the analysis by stating that “all societies are moving in the direction of technocracies.” From this, the foremost “suave technocracies” reside in the West, whereas all others are successively graded in descending order: “vulgar technocracies,” “teratoid technocracies,” and finally “comic opera technocracies.” This view importantly presumes one transition and furthermore one path of transition for societies to undergo, i.e. the one that Western societies are slated to complete. Much like the demographic transition model, this prediction does not entertain the idea of an Eastern or other alternative models of transitional development.


title: Post-industrial society

text: When historians and sociologists considered the revolution that followed the agricultural society they did not call it a "post-agricultural society". "Post-industrial society" signifies only a departure, not a positive description.


title: Post-industrial society

text: One of the word's early users, Ivan Illich, prefigured this criticism and invented the term Conviviality, or the Convivial Society, to stand as a positive description of his version of a post-industrial society.


title: Post-industrial society

text: A group of scholars (including Allen Scott and Edward Soja) argue that industry remains at the center of the whole process of capitalist accumulation, with services not only becoming increasingly industrialized and automated but also remaining highly dependent on industrial growth.


title: Post-industrial society

text: Some observers, including Soja (building on the theories of the French philosopher of urbanism Henri Lefebvre), suggest that although industry may be based outside of a "post-industrial" nation, that nation cannot ignore industry's necessary sociological importance.


title: Post-industrial society

text: Further concerns can be raised regarding the difference in mindset and objectives between those in an industrial society, and those in a post-industrial one. For instance, if the industrial society (producing the raw materials and goods consumed by its peer) were for some reason to cut off supply to the post-industrial nation, there would be little recourse for the latter to ensure that supply chains were not disrupted. Since the society based on ideas would have diminished real product output, the industrial society would be in a position to dictate terms to its counterpart. The response from the "more advanced" nation might be eventually effective or damaging, however it would be hard pressed to bridge the gap until domestic industry could makeup for the lack of imported manufactured goods.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: Gyasi A. Zardes (born September 2, 1991) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a forward for Austin FC of Major League Soccer and the United States national team.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: Born in Hawthorne, California, Zardes was part of the LA Galaxy youth academy before playing college soccer for Cal State Bakersfield. After playing three seasons with the Roadrunners, Zardes signed for the LA Galaxy as a homegrown player. In his first season, he immediately established himself as a regular in Bruce Arena's squad, and the next season he scored 16 goals as he helped the Galaxy win MLS Cup 2014. His performance for the Galaxy in 2014 helped earn Zardes his debut for the United States against Chile in January 2015.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: Prior to the 2018 season, Zardes was traded to the Columbus Crew. He was an immediate starter for head coach Gregg Berhalter as he scored 19 goals in his first season with the Crew. Zardes would be named the MLS Comeback Player of the Year Award for 2018. In 2020, Zardes helped lead the Columbus Crew to their second MLS Cup, defeating the Seattle Sounders in the final.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: Zardes was born and raised in Hawthorne, California, a suburb of Los Angeles. He was one of five children; his father Glenn is from New Orleans, while his mother Linda is from Michigan. In 2016, the City of Hawthorne unveiled a mural of Zardes at its new futsal courts, where a prohibition on soccer use was lifted.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: Zardes played in the U.S. Soccer Development Academy for the Galaxy Academy U-18s during the 2008–09 and 2009–10 DA seasons as well as with the Galaxy U-20s in the 2009 USL Super-20 campaign. After declaring himself a red shirt freshman at CSU Bakersfield, Zardes led the Galaxy U-20 team to the national championship in 2010.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: After tallying five goals and a team-best seven assists in his first season of college soccer, Zardes burst onto the scene as a sophomore in 2011, scoring 18 times in 20 games while helping lead Bakersfield to a berth in the NCAA Division I Tournament for the first time in school history. His 18 goals that season were the fourth most in Division I college soccer that year and he was selected the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation Player of the Year and a semifinalist for the MAC Hermann Trophy, which is awarded annually to the top player in college soccer.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: In 2012, Zardes followed up his breakout season by scoring 15 goals and adding nine assists, each of which were team-highs, in 17 games, while helping the Roadrunners record a winning record for the fourth consecutive season. He had two or more goals in four of his 17 games, including seven goals in a two-game stretch in mid-October.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: LA Galaxy signed Zardes as a Homegrown Player on December 20, 2012. On April 15, 2013, Zardes made his debut as a substitute for LA Galaxy Reserves in a 1–1 draw with Seattle Sounders Reserves. On April 27, 2013, Zardes made his debut for the first-team as a substitute for the Galaxy in a 2–0 win over Real Salt Lake. On May 11, 2013, Zardes came on as a substitute in 67th min and scored his first goal for the Galaxy in a 3–1 loss against Vancouver Whitecaps. Zardes scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory over Chivas USA on June 23, 2013.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: Zardes scored his first brace for the Galaxy against New England Revolution on July 16, 2014, in a 5–1 win. On September 5, 2014, Gyasi Zardes scored two goals in the Galaxy's 6–0 home win against Colorado Rapids. With his brace, Zardes made Major League Soccer history, passing Diego Fagúndez to become the highest scoring Homegrown Player in a single season.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: On December 7, 2014, Zardes became the first Homegrown Player to score in the MLS Cup final. Zardes scored in the 53rd minute after receiving a cross from Stefan Ishizaki. In extra time, captain, Robbie Keane scored as Galaxy triumphs the New England Revolution 2–1, making LA Galaxy the first team to win the trophy five times. Zardes was the sixth highest scorer of the season with 16 goals, and just three behind Robbie Keane.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: On January 20, 2018, Zardes signed for Columbus Crew SC in a swap deal that saw Ola Kamara head in the opposite direction. After an injury plagued end to his Galaxy career, Zardes found new life in Columbus; scoring 11 goals in the first 19 games of the season, narrowly missing out on the 2018 MLS All-Star Game. In response to Zardes missing the game, he garnered high praise from then Columbus coach Gregg Berhalter, who said “[a]bsolutely he should be,” “the work he does for the team has been outstanding. I think he’s one of the top strikers in the league.” Zardes ended the 2018 season with 19 goals, earning the 2018 MLS Comeback Player of the Year Award. On May 13, 2019, Zardes signed a multi-year contract extension with the Crew and was named a designated player. He would go on to tally 13 goals in 28 appearances during the 2019 season.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: On April 22, 2022, Zardes was traded to the Colorado Rapids in exchange for $300,000 in GAM with potential add-ons that could take the deal up to $1,400,000 GAM in total.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: On December 12, 2022, Zardes signed a three-year contract on free agency deal with Austin FC starting from the 2023 season.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: After a breakout 2014 season in which he scored 19 goals across all competitions, he received his first ever international call up to represent the United States in January 2015, for matches against Chile and Panama. Zardes made his international debut on January 28, 2015, when he came on as a substitute for Clint Dempsey in the 68th minute against Chile. On February 8, 2015, Zardes made his first start for USMNT in a friendly against Panama, where he provided an assist to Dempsey in the second goal as the U.S. won 2–0.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: On June 5, 2015, Zardes scored his first goal for the United States in a friendly against the Netherlands. Zardes was named to the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup roster and started in several matches, including a group stage fixture against Haiti where he provided the game-winning assist to Clint Dempsey one minute after coming on as a substitute at halftime. He scored his first international competitive goal on July 18, 2015, in the Gold Cup quarterfinals against Cuba that ended in a 6–0 victory for the United States.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: Zardes was called up in the early stages of 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification for the U.S. and scored the fifth goal in a 6–1 victory over Saint Vincent and the Grenadines on November 13, 2015. He had been involved in conceding the first goal of the match to Saint Vincent and the Grenadines after a defensive error. Zardes was named to the U.S. roster for the 2016 Copa América Centenario and scored twice in a warm-up friendly against Bolivia on May 28. He scored the winning goal in the 2–1 quarterfinal match defeat of Ecuador in Seattle, finishing a shot by Clint Dempsey that was rolling towards the goal.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: Zardes played in the 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup and did not score in the tournament, instead providing an assist to Jordan Morris in a narrow 3–2 victory over Martinique in the group stage. His next international goal would come three years later in a friendly against Ecuador on March 21, 2019, which was won 1–0 by the United States. Zardes joined the U.S. in the 2019 CONCACAF Gold Cup and scored the third of four goals in the team's opening group stage match against Guyana. A shot by Paul Arriola was deflected by a Guyanese defender, hitting Zardes in his left eye before bouncing into the goal. In the next match against Trinidad and Tobago, Zardes scored twice in three minutes while the team reached the knockout stage with a 6–0 victory. Zardes was unable to complete his hat-trick, despite having several chances to do so, including a shot that hit the post.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: Zardes scored the game winner in the semifinal match against Qatar in the 2021 CONCACAF Gold Cup in the 86th minute of play off of a cross from Nicholas Gioacchini.


title: Gyasi Zardes

text: Born in the United States, Zardes is of Ghanaian descent. In 2013, Zardes married his long-term girlfriend Madison Goodvin, a fellow student-athlete in Bakersfield. They have four children. He is a practicing Christian and has a degree in criminal justice from Cal State Dominguez Hills.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: State-sponsored terrorism is terrorist violence carried out with the active support of national governments provided to violent non-state actors. States can sponsor terrorist groups in several ways, including but not limited to funding terrorist organizations, providing training, supplying weapons, providing other logistical and intelligence assistance, and hosting groups within their borders. Because of the pejorative nature of the word, the identification of particular examples are often subject to political dispute and different definitions of terrorism.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: A wide variety of states in both developed and developing areas of the world have engaged in sponsoring terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, state sponsorship of terrorism was a frequent feature of international conflict. From that time to the 2010s there was a steady pattern of decline in the prevalence and magnitude of state support. Nevertheless, because of the increasing consequent level of violence that it could potentially facilitate, it remains an issue of highly salient international concern.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: There are at least 250 definitions of "terrorism" available in academic literature and government and intergovernmental sources, several of which include mention of state sponsorship. In a review of primary documents on international law governing armed conflict, Reisman and Antoniou identify that: The Gilmore Commission of the U.S. Congress gave the following definition of state-sponsored terrorism:


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: The U.S. Government, which has repeatedly engaged in sponsorship of terrorism as a feature of its foreign policy, provides its own definition in the U.S. State Department's list of state sponsors of terrorism. Authorities and scholars of terrorism and conflict, such as Alex P. Schmid (former Officer-in-Charge of Terrorism Prevention at the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), Daniel Byman, Richard Chasdi, and Frank Shanty, have pointed to problems in the U.S.' definition, including that it is politicized, analytically unclear, and inherently self-serving.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: The use of terrorist organizations as proxies in armed conflicts between state actors became more attractive in the mid-20th century as a result of post World War II developments like the increasing costs of traditional warfare and the risk of nuclear war. Speaking about the effect of nuclear capability on traditional military conflict KGB agent Alexander Sakharovsky said that "In today's world, when nuclear arms have made military force obsolete, terrorism should become our main weapon." Though state-sponsored terrorism persists in the post-9/11 era, some scholars have argued that it has become less significant in the age of global jihadism. On the other hand, Daniel Byman believes its importance has increased. Organizations like Hamas, Hezbollah and Palestinian Islamic Jihad are heavily dependent on state support. According to the US Counter-Terrorism Coordinator's Office this support can include "funds, weapons, materials and the secure areas" that organizations use for "planning and conducting operations".


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: The "Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law" notes that international legal institutions currently lack a mechanism to prosecute terrorist leaders who "instruct, support or succour" terrorism. At the conclusion of the Lockerbie trial, some commentators continued to harbor doubts about the legitimacy of the only conviction secured during the trial, and thus also about Libyas involvement. The domestic trial proved to be insufficient to identify those who had given the instructions.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Afghanistan's KHAD was one of four secret service agencies which were accused of perpetrating terrorist bombings in North-west Pakistan during the early 1980s; By the late 1980s, the U.S state department blamed WAD (a secret Afghan intelligence agency which was created by the KGB) for the perpetration of terrorist bombings in Pakistani cities. Between the 1970s and the 1990s, Afghanistan security agencies supported the terrorist organization called al-Zulfiqar, the terrorist group that in 1981 hijacked a Pakistan International Airlines plane from Karachi to Kabul.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: On 24 June 2017, Pakistani army chief Qamar Javed Bajwa chaired a high-level meeting in Rawalpindi and called on Afghanistan to "do more" in the fight against terrorism. According to the ISPR, the attacks in Quetta and Parachinar were linked to terrorist sanctuaries in Afghanistan which enjoyed the "patronage of Afghanistan's National Directorate of Security (NDS)"


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: India has accused China of supporting the Naxalites in the Naxalite–Maoist insurgency. In 2011, Indian police accused the Chinese government of providing sanctuary to the movement's leaders, and accused Pakistani ISI of providing financial support. India has also reported of China supporting rebel groups in its Northeast states of Manipur, Nagaland and Mizoram.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: The Chinese government has blocked UN Security Council Sanctions Committee listing of Masood Azhar, the founder and leader of the Pakistan based terrorist organization Jaish-e-Mohammed as a terrorist, thwarting international efforts to disrupt the activities of his group.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Starting 2009, there have been 4 attempts to put Masood Azhar in the UN Security Council's counter-terrorism sanctions list. All the attempts were vetoed by China, citing 'lack of evidence'. China moved to protect Azhar again in October 2016 when it blocked India's appeal to the United Nations to label him as a terrorist.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: China also blocked a US move to get Azhar banned by the UN in February 2017. The most recent attempt was on 13 March 2019. However, China pulled the blockade in May 2019, finally resulting listing of Masood Azhar as a global terrorist.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: In mid-2020, Myanmar accused China of arming the Arakan Army, which was legally considered a terrorist organisation by the Myanmar government from 2019 to 2021. China has allegedly given the Arakan Army assault rifles, machine guns and FN-6 Chinese Manpads capable of shooting down helicopters, drones and combat aircraft.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: India's Research and Analysis Wing trained and armed the Sri Lankan Tamil group LTTE which want an independent country for Tamils of Sri lanka, due to the continuous discrimination and violent persecution against Sri Lankan Tamils by the Sinhalese dominated Sri Lankan Government during the 1970s, but it later withdrew its support in the late 1980s when the terrorist activities of LTTE became serious and it formed alliances with separatist groups in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. From August 1983 to May 1987, India, through its intelligence agency Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW), provided arms, training and monetary support to six Sri Lankan Tamil insurgent groups including the LTTE. During that period, 32 terror training camps were set up in India to train these 495 LTTE insurgents, including 90 women who were trained in 10 batches. The first batch of Tigers were trained in Establishment 22 based in Chakrata, Uttarakhand. The second batch, including LTTE intelligence chief Pottu Amman, trained in Himachal Pradesh. Prabakaran visited the first and the second batch of Tamil Tigers to see them training. Eight other batches of LTTE were trained in Tamil Nadu. Thenmozhi Rajaratnam "alias" Dhanu, who carried out the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi and Sivarasan—the key conspirator were among the militants trained by R&AW, in Nainital, India. In April 1984, the LTTE formally joined a common militant front, the Eelam National Liberation Front (ENLF), a union between LTTE, the Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization (TELO), the Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students (EROS), the People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE) and the Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF). On 4 June 1987, when the Tamil Tiger-held Jaffna Peninsula was under siege by the Sri Lankan army, India provided airdrop of relief supplies to LTTE.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: India has been accused by Pakistan of supporting terrorism and carrying out "economic sabotage". In November 2020, the Foreign Office of Pakistan made public a dossier allegedly containing 'irrefutable proofs' of the Indian sponsorship of terrorism in Pakistan. It allegedly contained proof of India's financial and material sponsorship of multiple terrorist organisations, including UN-designated terrorist organisations Balochistan Liberation Army, Jamaat-ul-Ahrar, and Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Pakistan has also accused Indian consulates in Kandahar and Jalalabad, Afghanistan, of providing arms, training and financial aid to the Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) in an attempt to destabilize Pakistan. Brahamdagh Bugti stated in a 2008 interview that he would accept help from India. Pakistan has repeatedly accused India of supporting Baloch rebels, and Wright-Neville writes that outside Pakistan, some Western observers also believe that India secretly funds the BLA. In August 2013 US Special Representative James Dobbins said Pakistan's fears over India's role in Afghanistan were “not groundless". A diplomatic cable sent on December 31, 2009, from the U.S. consulate in Karachi and obtained by WikiLeaks said it was "plausible" that Indian intelligence was helping the Baluch insurgents. An earlier 2008 cable, discussing the Mumbai attacks reported fears by British officials that "intense domestic pressure would force Delhi to respond, at the minimum, by ramping up covert support to nationalist insurgents fighting the Pakistani army in Baluchistan." Another cable dating back to 2009 showed that UAE officials believed India was secretly supporting Tehrik-e-Taliban insurgents and separatists in northwest Pakistan.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Former United States President George W. Bush accused the Iranian government of being the "world's primary state sponsor of terror."


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps was instrumental in founding, training, and supplying Hezbollah, a group designated a "Foreign Terrorist Organization" by the United States Department of State, and likewise labeled a terrorist organization by Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Gulf Cooperation Council. This view is not universal, however; for example, the European Union differentiates between the political, social, and military wings of Hezbollah, designating only its military wing as a terrorist organization, while various other countries maintain relations with Hezbollah.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: The State of Israel has been accused of being a state-sponsor of terrorism, and also committing acts of state terrorism.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Several sovereign countries have at some point officially alleged that Israel is a proponent of state-sponsored terrorism, including Iran, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, and Yemen.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Kuwait is listed as sources of militant money in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Kuwait is described as a "source of funds and a key transit point" for al-Qaeda and other militant groups.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: After the military overthrow of King Idris in 1969 the Libyan Arab Republic (later the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), the new government supported (with weapon supplies, training camps located within Libya and monetary finances) an array of armed paramilitary groups largely left as well as some right-wing. Leftist and socialist groups included the Provisional Irish Republican Army, the Basque Fatherland and Liberty, the Umkhonto We Sizwe, the Polisario Front, the Kurdistan Workers' Party, the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement, the Palestine Liberation Organization, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, Free Aceh Movement, Free Papua Movement, Fretilin, Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front, Republic of South Maluku and the Moro National Liberation Front of the Philippines.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: In 2006, Libya was removed from the United States list of terrorist supporting nations after it had ended all of its support for armed groups and the development of weapons of mass destruction.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Citing Operation Merdeka, an alleged Philippine plot to incite unrest in Sabah and reclaimed the disputed territory, Malaysia funded and trained secessionists groups such as the Moro National Liberation Front in retaliation.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Pakistan has been accused by India, Afghanistan, Israel, the United Kingdom, and the United States of involvement in Jammu and Kashmir as well as Afghanistan. Poland has also alleged that terrorists have "friends in Pakistani government structures". In July 2009, the then President of Pakistan Asif Ali Zardari admitted that the Pakistani government had "created and nurtured" terrorist groups to achieve its short-term foreign policy goals in the 80’s under Zia. According to an analysis published by the Saban Center for Middle East Policy at Brookings Institution in 2008, Pakistan was the worlds 'most active' state sponsor of terrorism including aiding groups which were considered a direct threat to the United States.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: The Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) has stated that it was training more than 3,000 militants from various nationalities. According to some reports published by the Council of Foreign Relations, the Pakistan military and the ISI have provided covert support to terrorist groups active in Kashmir, including the al-Qaeda affiliate Jaish-e-Mohammed". Pakistan has denied any involvement in terrorist activities in Kashmir, arguing that it only provides political and moral support to the secessionist groups who wish to escape Indian rule. Many Kashmiri militant groups also maintain their headquarters in Pakistan-administered Kashmir, which is cited as further proof by the Indian government. Many of the terrorist organisations are banned by the UN, but continue to operate under different names.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: The United Nations organization has publicly increased pressure on Pakistan on its inability to control its Afghanistan border and not restricting the activities of Taliban leaders who have been designated by the UN as terrorists. Many consider that Pakistan has been playing both sides in the US "War on Terror".


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Ahmed Rashid, a noted Pakistani journalist, has accused Pakistan's ISI of providing help to the Taliban. Author Ted Galen Carpenter echoed that statement, stating that Pakistan "... assisted rebel forces in Kashmir even though those groups have committed terrorist acts against civilians" Author Gordon Thomas stated that whilst aiding in the capture of al-Qaeda members, Pakistan "still sponsored terrorist groups in the disputed state of Kashmir, funding, training and arming them in their war on attrition against India." Journalist Stephen Schwartz notes that several militant and criminal groups are "backed by senior officers in the Pakistani army, the country's ISI intelligence establishment and other armed bodies of the state." According to one author, Daniel Byman, "Pakistan is probably today's most active sponsor of terrorism."


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: The Inter-Services Intelligence has often been accused of playing a role in major terrorist attacks across the world including the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, terrorism in Kashmir, Mumbai Train Bombings, Indian Parliament Attack, Varanasi bombings, Hyderabad bombings and Mumbai terror attacks. The ISI is also accused of supporting Taliban forces and recruiting and training mujahideen to fight in Afghanistan and Kashmir. Based on communication intercepts US intelligence agencies concluded Pakistan's ISI was behind the attack on the Indian embassy in Kabul on July 7, 2008, a charge that the governments of India and Afghanistan had laid previously. Afghan President Hamid Karzai, who has constantly reiterated allegations that militants operating training camps in Pakistan have used it as a launch platform to attack targets in Afghanistan, urged western military allies to target extremist hideouts in neighbouring Pakistan. When the United States, during the Clinton administration, targeted al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan with cruise missiles, "Slate" reported that two officers of the ISI were killed.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Pakistan is accused of sheltering and training the Taliban as strategic asset in operations "which include soliciting funding for the Taliban, bankrolling Taliban operations, providing diplomatic support as the Taliban's virtual emissaries abroad, arranging training for Taliban fighters, recruiting skilled and unskilled manpower to serve in Taliban armies, planning and directing offensives, providing and facilitating shipments of ammunition and fuel, and on several occasions apparently directly providing combat support," as reported by Human Rights Watch.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Pakistan was also responsible for the evacuation of about 5,000 of the top leadership of the Taliban and Al-Qaeda who were encircled by NATO forces in the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan. This event, known as the Kunduz airlift, which is also popularly called the "Airlift of Evil", involved several Pakistani Air Force transport planes flying multiple sorties over a number of days.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: On May 1, 2011 Osama Bin Laden was killed in Pakistan, he was living in a safe house less than a mile away from, what is called the West Point of Pakistan, the Pakistan Military Academy. This has given rise to numerous allegations of an extensive support system for Osama Bin Laden was in place by the Government and Military of Pakistan.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Former President of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai accused Pakistan for supporting ISIS during interview with ANI that Afghanistan has evidence of Pakistan's support to ISIS.He added that there is no to the above statement.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Pervez Musharraf, former Pakistan President, had admitted in 2016 that Pakistan supported and trained terrorist groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba in 1990s to carry out militancy in Kashmir and Pakistan was in favour of religious militancy in 1979. He said that Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi and Hafiz Saeed were seen as heroes in Pakistan during the 1990s. He added that later on this religious militancy turned into terrorism and they started killing their own people. He also stated that Pakistan trained the Taliban to fight against Russia, saying that the Taliban, Osama Bin Laden, Jalaluddin Haqqani and Ayman al-Zawahiri were heroes for Pakistan however later they became villains.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Operation Merdeka was a destabilization plot planned with the objective of establishing Philippine control over Sabah. The operation failed to carry out, which resulted in the Jabidah massacre.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: In 2011 the "Washington Times" reported that Qatar was providing weapons and funding to Abdelhakim Belhadj, leader of the formerly U.S. designated terrorist group, Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) and then leader of the conservative Islamist Al-Watan Party.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: In December 2012 the "New York Times" published an editorial accusing the Qatari regime of funding the Al-Nusra Front, a U.S. government designated terrorist organization. The "Financial Times" noted Emir Hamad's visit to Gaza and meeting with Hamas, another internationally designated terrorist organization. Spanish football club FC Barcelona were coming under increasing pressure to tear up their £125m shirt sponsorship contract with the Qatar Foundation after claims the so-called charitable trust finances Hamas. The fresh controversy follows claims made by the Spanish newspaper "El Mundo" that the Qatar Foundation had given money to cleric Yusuf al Qaradawi who is alleged to be an advocate of terrorism, wife beating and antisemitism.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: In January 2013 French politicians again accused the Qatari Government of giving material support to Islamist groups in Mali and the French newspaper "Le Canard enchaîné" quoted an unnamed source in French military intelligence saying that "The MNLA [secular Tuareg separatists], al Qaeda-linked Ansar Dine and Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa have all received cash from Doha."


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: In March 2014, the then Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki has accused the Qatari government of sponsoring Sunni insurgents fighting against Iraqi soldiers in western Anbar province.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: In October 2014, it was revealed that a former Qatari Interior Ministry official, Salim Hasan Khalifa Rashid al-Kuwari, had been named by the U.S. Department of the Treasury as an al Qaeda financier, with allegations that he gave hundreds of thousands of dollars to the terrorist group. Kuwari worked for the civil defense department of the Interior Ministry in 2009, two years before he was designated for his support of al Qaeda.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: A number of wealthy Qataris are accused of sponsoring the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. In response to public criticism over Qatari connections to ISIL, the government has pushed back and denied supporting the group.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Alexander J. Motyl, professor of political science at Rutgers University argues that Russia's direct and indirect involvement in the violence in eastern Ukraine qualifies as a state-sponsored terrorism, and that those involved qualify as "terrorist groups." Russia's behaviour towards its neighbours was alleged by Dalia Grybauskaitė, the President of Lithuania to be evidence of state terrorism. Grybauskaitė stated that "Russia demonstrates the qualities of a terrorist state."


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Ukrainian Defence Minister Oleksii Reznikov defined Russian forces as "not military – they are terrorists, representatives of the terrorist state and this mark will be with them for a long time."


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: US Senators Richard Blumenthal and Lindsey Graham announced the introduction of a resolution calling on US president Joe Biden to designate Russia as a state sponsor of terrorism by the United States for its war on Ukraine and conduct elsewhere under Vladimir Putin. In the introduction, Senator Graham said, "Putin is a terrorist, and one of the most disruptive forces on the planet is Putin's Russia."


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the following countries and international organisations have recognised Russia as a "terrorist state" or a "state sponsor of terrorism":


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: While Saudi Arabia is often a secondary source of funds and support for terror movements who can find more motivated and ideologically invested benefactors, Saudi Arabia arguably remains the most prolific sponsor of international Islamist terrorism, allegedly supporting groups as disparate as the Afghanistan Taliban, Al Qaeda, Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and the Al-Nusra Front.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Saudi Arabia is said to be the world's largest source of funds and promoter of Salafist jihadism, which forms the ideological basis of terrorist groups such as al-Qaeda, Taliban, Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and others. In a December 2009 diplomatic cable to U.S. State Department staff (made public in the diplomatic cable leaks the following year), U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton urged U.S. diplomats to increase efforts to block money from Gulf Arab states from going to terrorists in Pakistan and Afghanistan, writing that "Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide" and that "More needs to be done since Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaeda, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups." An August 2009 State Department cable also said that the Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-Taiba, which carried out the 2008 Mumbai attacks, used a Saudi-based front company to fund its activities in 2005.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: The violence in Afghanistan and Pakistan is partly bankrolled by wealthy, conservative donors across the Arabian Sea whose governments do little to stop them. Three other Arab countries which are listed as sources of militant money are Qatar, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, all neighbors of Saudi Arabia.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: According to two studies published in 2007 (one by Mohammed Hafez of the University of Missouri in Kansas City and the other by Robert Pape of the University of Chicago), most of the suicide bombers in Iraq are Saudis.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Fifteen of the 19 hijackers of the four airliners who were responsible for 9/11 originated from Saudi Arabia, two from the United Arab Emirates, one from Egypt, and one from Lebanon. Osama bin Laden was born and educated in Saudi Arabia.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Starting in the mid-1970s the Islamic resurgence was funded by an abundance of money from Saudi Arabian oil exports. The tens of billions of dollars in "petro-Islam" largess obtained from the recently heightened price of oil funded an estimated "90% of the expenses of the entire faith."


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Throughout the Sunni Muslim world, religious institutions for people both young and old, from children's maddrassas to high-level scholarships received Saudi funding,


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: "books, scholarships, fellowships, and mosques" (for example, "more than 1500 mosques were built and paid for with money obtained from public Saudi funds over the last 50 years"), along with training in the Kingdom for the preachers and teachers who went on to teach and work at these universities, schools, mosques, etc.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: The funding was also used to reward journalists and academics who followed the Saudis' strict interpretation of Islam; and satellite campuses were built around Egypt for Al Azhar, the world's oldest and most influential Islamic university.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: The interpretation of Islam promoted by this funding was the strict, conservative Saudi-based Wahhabism or Salafism. In its harshest form it preached that Muslims should not only "always oppose" infidels "in every way", but "hate them for their religion ... for Allah's sake", that democracy "is responsible for all the horrible wars of the 20th century", that Shia and other non-Wahhabi Muslims were "infidels", etc. According to former Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew, while this effort has by no means converted all, or even most, Muslims to the Wahhabist interpretation of Islam, it has done much to overwhelm more moderate local interpretations of Islam in Southeast Asia, and to pitch the Saudi-interpretation of Islam as the "gold standard" of religion in minds of Muslims across the globe.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: Patrick Cockburn accused Saudi Arabia of supporting extremist Islamist groups in the Syrian Civil War, writing: "In Syria, in early 2015, it supported the creation of the Army of Conquest, primarily made up of the al-Qaeda affiliate the al-Nusra Front and the ideologically similar Ahrar al-Sham, which won a series of victories against the Syrian Army in Idlib province."


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: While the Saudi government denies claims that it exports religious or cultural extremism, it is argued that by its nature, Wahhabism encourages intolerance and promotes terrorism. Former CIA director James Woolsey described it as "the soil in which Al-Qaeda and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing." In 2015, Sigmar Gabriel, Vice-Chancellor of Germany, accused Saudi Arabia of supporting intolerance and extremism, saying: "Wahhabi mosques are financed all over the world by Saudi Arabia. In Germany, many dangerous Islamists come from these communities." In May 2016, The New York Times editorialised that the kingdom allied to the U.S. had "spent untold millions promoting Wahhabism, the radical form of Sunni Islam that inspired the 9/11 hijackers and that now inflames the Islamic State". Iranian Hamidreza Taraghi, a hard-line analyst with ties to Iran’s supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, said, “ISIS ideologically, financially and logistically is fully supported and sponsored by Saudi Arabia...They are one and the same”.


title: State-sponsored terrorism

text: In 2014, former Prime Minister of Iraq Nouri al-Maliki stated that Saudi Arabia and Qatar started the civil wars in Iraq and Syria, and incited and encouraged terrorist movements, like ISIL and al-Qaeda, supporting them politically and in the media, with money and by buying weapons for them. Saudi Arabia denied the accusations which were criticised by the country, the Carnegie Middle East Center and the Royal United Services Institute.