title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: Prior to the release of "What a Way to Go!" (1964), producer Arthur P. Jacobs first heard that the film rights were available on December 5, 1963. Jacobs met with the Loftings' attorney Bernard Silbert in which he told him of his intentions to produce "Dr. Dolittle" as a musical with lyricist Alan Jay Lerner and actor Rex Harrison attached. On Christmas Day 1963, Jacobs acquired the rights, but he was given the condition to find a distributor within six months. In January 1964, "The New York Times" reported that Alan Jay Lerner had signed on to write the script and compose the songs. In the following March, Jacobs pitched his project to studio executive Darryl Zanuck, in which 20th Century Fox signed on as the distributor. On March 22, it was reported that Rex Harrison had also signed to star as Doctor Dolittle. Because Lerner's collaborator Frederick Loewe had retired, Jacobs hired André Previn to compose the musical score.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: Upon numerous delays to produce a script draft, Lerner was fired from the project on May 7, 1965 due to his endless procrastination stretching over a year as well wanting to continue work on the Broadway musical, "On a Clear Day You Can See Forever". Following Lerner's departure, Jacobs considered hiring the Sherman Brothers, who had just won for the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Mary Poppins" (1964), but they were still under contract to Disney. Jacobs then hired Leslie Bricusse, who was in high demand after his success with the musical "Stop the World – I Want to Get Off". Determined to make a good impression for his first screenplay commission, Bricusse proved agreeably productive from the start for Jacobs, suggesting numerous story ideas and adding a female leading character to the film during their first meeting on May 6, 1965. Zanuck signed Bricusse on for a trial run, hiring him temporarily to complete two songs for the film and the first twenty pages of a script. Two weeks after he was brought on to the project, Bricusse presented the song "Talk to the Animals" composed especially for Harrison. By July 1965, Bricusse followed up with a full script that included various song suggestions while effectively blunting the book's racist content in an adaptation that was met with approval from Josephine Lofting.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: For the director, Vincente Minnelli was initially attached to the project, but left before Bricusse was hired. William Wyler, George Roy Hill, and John Huston were considered, but Richard Zanuck settled on Richard Fleischer.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: Lerner's replacement by Bricusse gave Harrison the chance to sit out his contract. For the role of Bumpo, Sammy Davis Jr. was hired, but Rex Harrison demanded that Davis be fired from the project as he wanted to work with "a real actor, not a song-and-dance man". In his place, he suggested Sidney Poitier despite the fact that Poitier was not a musical performer. Jacobs and Fleischer flew to New York to meet with Poitier who accepted the part only on one condition: to personally meet with Bricusse. The two then met with Davis who was performing at the Majestic Theatre to inform him that he would be released from his contract. Angered at the casting change, Davis threatened to go public and personally sue Harrison. The next day, Poitier considered leaving the role as he did not want to betray Davis, but eventually stayed in the role.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: For the role of Matthew, Bing Crosby and Danny Kaye were on the shortlist, but Anthony Newley was cast, which angered Harrison because he had suggested David Wayne. Harrison later showed contempt for Bricusse's script and lyrics and demanded to sing live on set instead of lip-syncing to pre-recorded tracks. Shortly after, Harrison was fired from the project. In his place, Peter Ustinov, Alec Guinness, and Peter O'Toole were considered. Instead, they hired Christopher Plummer as a replacement, but when Harrison agreed to stay, the producers paid Plummer his agreed-upon salary to leave the production.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: For the role of Emma Fairfax, Harrison suggested Maggie Smith, his co-star in "The Honey Pot". Barbra Streisand and Hayley Mills were approached for the role, but salary negotiations broke down. The role eventually went to Samantha Eggar. Her singing voice was overdubbed by Diana Lee (the daughter of playback singer Bill Lee). Just when shooting was to commence, in order to save thousands on the project, Fleischer and Zanuck decided to reduce Bumpo's role, which was drastically increased due to Poitier's casting. They regrettably informed Poitier that he would be released from his contract before he started filming his scenes. Geoffrey Holder was cast as his replacement.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: In June 1966, principal photography was underway with the village scenes being shot in Castle Combe in Wiltshire. The producers did not anticipate that the trained animals for the production would be quarantined upon entering the United Kingdom, forcing replacement of the animals at considerable extra expense to meet deadlines. The producers chose to ignore reports of the area's frequently rainy summers, and the resulting weather continually interfered with shooting and caused health problems for the animals. All modern technologies such as cars, television antennas, and Coca-Cola promotional signs were removed or hidden, which irritated the locals. British Army officer (and future explorer) Ranulph Fiennes attempted to destroy an artificial dam built by the production unit because he believed it ruined the village. Budget woes continued to worsen in which production costs soared to $15 million. For the role of Albert Blossom, Richard Attenborough was hired at the last minute to replace Hugh Griffith during the shoot.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: In October 1966, scenes were later shot in Marigot Bay, Saint Lucia; this location was equally problematic, and problems with insects and frequent tropical storms delayed filming and left eight crew members bedridden due to vomiting, diarrhea, and high fever. The final scene with a giant snail was complicated not only by the poor design of the large prop, but because the island's children had recently been struck by a gastrointestinal epidemic caused by freshwater snails, and mobs of angry locals threw rocks at it. Within a month, filming had fallen 39 days behind schedule in which the production crew had to decamp back to California for reshoots.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: Personality conflicts added to the tension during the production. Anthony Newley was incensed by comments made by Harrison that he deemed antisemitic. Harrison was apparently jealous of his Jewish co-star's participation, and demanded Newley's role be reduced and disrupted scenes featuring Newley. Geoffrey Holder received racist abuse from Harrison's entourage. The younger cast members grew to loathe Harrison for this abuse and they retaliated by antagonizing him.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: Additionally, over 1,200 live animals were used in the film including dogs, pigs, birds, and even giraffes, all of which required understudies. There are anecdotes of a goat who ate Fleischer's script and a parrot that learned to yell "cut". In one instance, ducks for the film were placed on a lake, but had apparently forgotten how to swim and began to sink, and crew members had to jump into the water to save them. Animals also bit and defecated on the cast and crew, including Harrison.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: Because of the troublesome location shoots, the production sets were later reconstructed on the Fox studio lot in California. By then, the production budget had reached $17 million. Four months later, when filming had finished, Harrison insisted on re-recording his songs live on set. This infuriated conductor Lionel Newman, but he gave in to Harrison's demands which proved to be tedious as the orchestral arrangements had to be added later. Filming was finished by April 1967.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: The lyrics and score music for "Doctor Dolittle" was composed by Leslie Bricusse and conducted by Lionel Newman. Following a test screening in Minneapolis, preview audiences wrote on their comment cards that the film was too long. Before the film was screened again in San Francisco, several verses of the songs were dropped to improve the film's pacing including "The Christmas Song". Additional edits were made including the removal of "Where Are the Words?" and "Beautiful Things" was shortened. In the original cut of the movie, Dr. Dolittle and Emma did eventually begin a relationship in which he sang "Where Are the Words?", when he realizes he is falling in love with her, but in a revised version, it's actually Matthew who falls for Emma and it is his recording of the song which is featured on the soundtrack album. Both versions were filmed and both actors recorded their respective versions, but the footage for both, as well as the vocal track by Rex Harrison have been lost.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: In both scenarios, "The Christmas Song" is sung by Dolittle when he realizes he himself has fallen for Emma; although Harrison's vocal for the song survives, the footage does not exist. Ultimately, the version screened in San Jose, California, which ran 151 minutes, became the final cut of the film.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: The soundtrack release was accompanied by an enormous media blitz, with half a million copies of the mono and stereo LP soundtrack being issued in retail stores four months before the premiere. The song, "Talk to the Animals", was recorded internationally by Bobby Darin, Andy Williams, Tony Bennett, Dizzy Gillespie, Jack Jones, and Andre Kostelanetz. Sammy Davis Jr., who had been dropped from the film, recorded an entire album of music featured in the film. "Bobby Darin Sings Doctor Dolittle" was released on Atlantic Records in August 1967. Darin's recording of "Beautiful Things" from this LP was featured in a 2013 TV commercial for Etihad Airways. A cover version of the same song by the Shiny Lapel Trio was used in a 2008 Christmas television commercial campaign for the United States retail chain Kohl's.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: In November 2017, the 50th Anniversary Expanded Soundtrack from La-La Land Records was released as a lavish 2-CD set and did include numerous demos, rehearsal takes, and alternative versions.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: The film's first sneak preview in September 1967 at the Mann Theatre in Minneapolis was a failure. The audience consisted mainly of adults, who were not the primary target audience. The general audience response was muted during the screening and comment cards rated it poorly, with frequent complaints about the film's length. A shorter edit of the film with a younger audience previewed in San Francisco was no more successful; a still shorter edit previewed in San Jose was well enough received to be approved as the final cut.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: In October 1967, as the film's release approached, Helen Winston sued 20th Century Fox for $4.5 million alleging that the plot point about animals threatening to go on strike on Dolittle's behalf was plagiarized from her screenplay. Bricusse, who had read Winston's script, assumed it was from the books and included it in his own treatment by mistake. Because the producers only had rights to the content of the original books, they had no legal defense and were forced to settle out of court. The animal strike is mentioned in the movie but was not actually filmed.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: The film had its official Royal World Charity Premiere on December 12, 1967 at the Odeon Marble Arch in London, with Queen Elizabeth II in attendance. On December 19, the film had a reserved-seating premiere at the Loew's State Theatre in New York City. Two days later, the film opened at the Paramount Theatre in Los Angeles as a benefit for the Motion Picture Relief Fund.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: Thirteen months before the film's release, Fox began an extensive marketing campaign to promote the film. On September 30, 1966, "Life" magazine ran a cover of Harrison in character as Dr. Dolittle riding a giraffe accompanied with a piece documenting its production. The release was accompanied with 50 licensees ready to spend $12 million in advertising. Ten thousand retail stores carried 300 promotional items from the film that amounted to an estimated retail value of $200 million.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: Reviewing the film for "The New York Times", Bosley Crowther wrote: "The music is not exceptional, the rendering of the songs lacks variety, and the pace, under Richard Fleischer's direction, is slow and without surprise." Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" claimed ""Doctor Dolittle", though it is beautiful, often funny, often charming, tuneful and gay, is in an odd way never really sentimentally moving, even in the sense that it sets up in us elders a yearning for lost youth. It is a picture we can greatly enjoy seeing our children enjoy, but without feeling quite at one with them." "Time" magazine wrote negatively: "Somehow—with the frequent but by no means infallible exception of Walt Disney— Hollywood has never learned what so many children's book writers have known all along: size and a big budget are no substitutes for originality and charm." "Variety" acknowledged the film as an "imperfect gem", but felt "there's sufficient values going for it to survive any barbs aimed at it by the critics."


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: In his annual "Movie Guide", critic and historian Leonard Maltin called the film a "colossal dud". Maltin admired the film's photography, but was quick to point out how it nearly bankrupted 20th Century Fox. He admitted: "The movie has one merit: If you have unruly children, it may put them to sleep." On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 27% based on 22 reviews, with an average rating of 4.2/10. At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 34 out of 100 based on 6 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: The film faced strong competition from Disney's animated feature film "The Jungle Book", which had opened to considerable critical and audience acclaim two months earlier and was still in wide release. "Doctor Dolittle"s appeal as family fare was undermined when the press drew attention to racist content in the books, prompting demands to have them removed from public schools.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: According to studio records, the film needed to earn $31,275,000 in rentals to break even, and by December 1970, the film had made $16.3 million. In September 1970, the studio estimated it had lost $11,141,000 on the movie.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: 20th Century Fox's decision to mount an Oscar campaign for the film came partially due to their lackluster holiday slate. While a commercial success, "Valley of the Dolls" had received less than stellar critical reception. As a result, in January and February 1968, Fox booked 16 consecutive nights of free screenings of "Doctor Dolittle" provided with dinner and champagne to Academy members on the studio lot.


title: Doctor Dolittle (1967 film)

text: In 1998, the film was adapted into a stage musical, starring Phillip Schofield as Doctor Dolittle, a pre-recorded Julie Andrews as the voice of Dolittle's parrot Polynesia, and the animatronics of Jim Henson's Creature Shop. The show ran for 400 performances in London's West End and at the time was one of the most expensive musicals produced. The musical also starred Bryan Smyth, an actor and singer who later hosted his own TV game show for RTÉ.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Baltimore classification is a system used to classify viruses based on their manner of messenger RNA (mRNA) synthesis. By organizing viruses based on their manner of mRNA production, it is possible to study viruses that behave similarly as a distinct group. Seven Baltimore groups are described that take into consideration whether the viral genome is made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA), whether the genome is single- or double-stranded, and whether the sense of a single-stranded RNA genome is positive or negative.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Baltimore classification also closely corresponds to the manner of replicating the genome, so Baltimore classification is useful for grouping viruses together for both transcription and replication. Certain subjects pertaining to viruses are associated with multiple, specific Baltimore groups, such as specific forms of translation of mRNA and the host range of different types of viruses. Structural characteristics such as the shape of the viral capsid, which stores the viral genome, and the evolutionary history of viruses are not necessarily related to Baltimore groups.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Baltimore classification was created in 1971 by virologist David Baltimore. Since then, it has become common among virologists to use Baltimore classification alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary history. In 2018 and 2019, Baltimore classification was partially integrated into virus taxonomy based on evidence that certain groups were descended from common ancestors. Various realms, kingdoms, and phyla now correspond to specific Baltimore groups.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Baltimore classification groups viruses together based on their manner of mRNA synthesis. Characteristics directly related to this include whether the genome is made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA), the strandedness of the genome, which can be either single- or double-stranded, and the sense of a single-stranded genome, which is either positive or negative. The primary advantage of Baltimore classification is that by classifying viruses according to the aforementioned characteristics, viruses that behave in the same manner can be studied as distinct groups. There are seven Baltimore groups numbered with Roman numerals, listed hereafter.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Baltimore classification is chiefly based on the transcription of the viral genome, and viruses within each group typically share the manners by which the mRNA synthesis occurs. While not the direct focus of Baltimore classification, groups are organized in such a manner that viruses in each group also typically have the same mechanisms of replicating the viral genome. Because of this, Baltimore classification provides insights into both the transcription and replication parts of the viral life cycle. Structural characteristics of a virus particle, called a virion, such as the shape of the viral capsid and the presence of a viral envelope, a lipid membrane that surrounds the capsid, have no direct relation to Baltimore groups, nor do the groups necessarily show genetic relation based on evolutionary history.


title: Baltimore classification

text: DNA viruses have genomes made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and are organized into two groups: double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, and single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses. They are assigned to four separate realms: "Adnaviria", "Duplodnaviria", "Monodnaviria", and "Varidnaviria". Many have yet to be assigned to a realm.


title: Baltimore classification

text: The first Baltimore group contains viruses that have a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) genome. All dsDNA viruses have their mRNA synthesized in a three-step process. First, a transcription preinitiation complex binds to the DNA upstream of the site where transcription begins, allowing for the recruitment of a host RNA polymerase. Second, once the RNA polymerase is recruited, it uses the negative strand as a template for synthesizing mRNA strands. Third, the RNA polymerase terminates transcription upon reaching a specific signal, such as a polyadenylation site.


title: Baltimore classification

text: dsDNA viruses make use of several mechanisms to replicate their genome. Bidirectional replication, in which two replication forks are established at a replication origin site and move in opposite directions of each other, is widely used. A rolling circle mechanism that produces linear strands while progressing in a loop around the circular genome is also common. Some dsDNA viruses use a strand displacement method whereby one strand is synthesized from a template strand, and a complementary strand is then synthesized from the prior synthesized strand, forming a dsDNA genome. Lastly, some dsDNA viruses are replicated as part of a process called replicative transposition whereby a viral genome in a host cell's DNA is replicated to another part of a host genome.


title: Baltimore classification

text: dsDNA viruses can be subdivided between those that replicate in the nucleus, and as such are relatively dependent on host cell machinery for transcription and replication, and those that replicate in the cytoplasm, in which case they have evolved or acquired their own means of executing transcription and replication. dsDNA viruses are also commonly divided between tailed dsDNA viruses, referring to members of the realm "Duplodnaviria", usually the tailed bacteriophages of the order "Caudovirales", and tailless or non-tailed dsDNA viruses of the realm "Varidnaviria".


title: Baltimore classification

text: dsDNA viruses are classified into three of the four realms and include many taxa that are unassigned to a realm:


title: Baltimore classification

text: The second Baltimore group contains viruses that have a single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genome. ssDNA viruses have the same manner of transcription as dsDNA viruses. Because the genome is single-stranded, however, it is first made into a double-stranded form by a DNA polymerase upon entering a host cell. mRNA is then synthesized from the double-stranded form. The double-stranded form of ssDNA viruses may be produced either directly after entry into a cell or as a consequence of replication of the viral genome. Eukaryotic ssDNA viruses are replicated in the nucleus.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Most ssDNA viruses contain circular genomes that are replicated via rolling circle replication (RCR). ssDNA RCR is initiated by an endonuclease that bonds to and cleaves the positive strand, allowing a DNA polymerase to use the negative strand as a template for replication. Replication progresses in a loop around the genome by means of extending the 3′-end of the positive strand, displacing the prior positive strand, and the endonuclease cleaves the positive strand again to create a standalone genome that is ligated into a circular loop. The new ssDNA may be packaged into virions or replicated by a DNA polymerase to form a double-stranded form for transcription or continuation of the replication cycle.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Parvoviruses contain linear ssDNA genomes that are replicated via rolling hairpin replication (RHR), which is similar to RCR. Parvovirus genomes have hairpin loops at each end of the genome that repeatedly unfold and refold during replication to change the direction of DNA synthesis to move back and forth along the genome, producing numerous copies of the genome in a continuous process. Individual genomes are then excised from this molecule by the viral endonuclease. For parvoviruses, either the positive or negative sense strand may be packaged into capsids, varying from virus to virus.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Nearly all ssDNA viruses have positive sense genomes, but a few exceptions and peculiarities exist. The family "Anelloviridae" is the only ssDNA family whose members have negative sense genomes, which are circular. Parvoviruses, as previously mentioned, may package either the positive or negative sense strand into virions. Lastly, bidnaviruses package both the positive and negative linear strands. In any case, the sense of ssDNA viruses, unlike for ssRNA viruses, is not sufficient to separate ssDNA viruses into two groups since all ssDNA viral genomes are converted to dsDNA forms prior to transcription and replication.


title: Baltimore classification

text: ssDNA viruses are classified into one of the four realms and include several families that are unassigned to a realm:


title: Baltimore classification

text: RNA viruses have genomes made of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and comprise three groups: double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses, positive sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) viruses, and negative sense single-stranded RNA (-ssRNA) viruses. The majority of RNA viruses are classified in the kingdom "Orthornavirae" in the realm "Riboviria". The exceptions are generally viroids and other subviral agents. Some of the latter category, such as the hepatitis D virus, are classified in the realm "Ribozyviria".


title: Baltimore classification

text: The third Baltimore group contains viruses that have a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genome. After entering a host cell, the dsRNA genome is transcribed to mRNA from the negative strand by the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). The mRNA may be used for translation or replication. Single-stranded mRNA is replicated to form the dsRNA genome. The 5′-end of the genome may be naked, capped, or covalently bound to a viral protein.


title: Baltimore classification

text: dsRNA is not a molecule made by cells, so cellular life has evolved antiviral systems to detect and inactivate viral dsRNA. To counteract this, many dsRNA genomes are constructed inside of capsids, thereby avoiding detection inside of the host cell's cytoplasm. mRNA is forced out from the capsid in order to be translated or to be translocated from a mature capsid to a progeny capsid. While dsRNA viruses typically have capsids, viruses in the families "Amalgaviridae" and "Endornaviridae" have not been observed to form virions and as such apparently lack capsids. Endornaviruses are also unusual in that unlike other RNA viruses, they possess a single, long open reading frame (ORF), or translatable portion, and a site-specific nick in the 5′ region of the positive strand.


title: Baltimore classification

text: dsRNA viruses are classified into two phyla within the kingdom "Orthornavirae" of the realm "Riboviria":


title: Baltimore classification

text: The fourth Baltimore group contains viruses that have a positive sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) genome. For +ssRNA viruses, the genome functions as mRNA, so no transcription is required for translation. +ssRNA viruses will also, however, produce positive sense copies of the genome from negative sense strands of an intermediate dsRNA genome. This acts as both a transcription and a replication process since the replicated RNA is also mRNA. The 5′-end may be naked, capped, or covalently bound to a viral protein, and the 3′-end may be naked or polyadenylated.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Many +ssRNA viruses are able to have only a portion of their genome transcribed. Typically, subgenomic RNA (sgRNA) strands are used for translation of structural and movement proteins needed during intermediate and late stages of infection. sgRNA transcription may occur by commencing RNA synthesis within the genome rather than from the 5′-end, by stopping RNA synthesis at specific sequences in the genome, or by, as a part of both prior methods, synthesizing leader sequences from the viral RNA that are then attached to sgRNA strands. Because replication is required for sgRNA synthesis, RdRp is always translated first.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Because the process of replicating the viral genome produces intermediate dsRNA molecules, +ssRNA viruses can be targeted by the host cell's immune system. To avoid detection, +ssRNA viruses replicate in membrane-associated vesicles that are used as replication factories. From there, only viral +ssRNA, which may be mRNA, enters the main cytoplasmic area of the cell.


title: Baltimore classification

text: +ssRNA viruses can be subdivided between those that have polycistronic mRNA, which encodes a polyprotein that is cleaved to form multiple mature proteins, and those that produce subgenomic mRNAs and therefore undergo two or more rounds of translation. +ssRNA viruses are included in three phyla in the kingdom "Orthornavirae" in the realm "Riboviria":


title: Baltimore classification

text: The fifth Baltimore group contains viruses that have a negative sense, single-stranded RNA (-ssRNA) genome. mRNA, which is positive sense, is transcribed directly from the negative sense genome. The first process for -ssRNA transcription involves RdRp binding to a leader sequence on the 3′ end of the genome, transcribing a 5′ triphosphate-leader RNA that is capped, then stopping and restarting on a transcription signal which is capped, continuing until a stop signal is reached. The second manner is similar but instead of synthesizing a cap, RdRp may make use of cap snatching, whereby a short sequence of host cell mRNA is taken and used as the 5′ cap of the viral mRNA. Genomic -ssRNA is replicated from the positive sense antigenome in a similar manner as transcription, except in reverse using the antigenome as a template for the genome. RdRp moves from the 3′-end to the 5′-end of the antigenome and ignores all transcription signals when synthesizing genomic -ssRNA.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Various -ssRNA viruses use special mechanisms for transcription. The manner of producing the polyA tail may be via polymerase stuttering, during which RdRp transcribes an adenine from uracil and then moves back in the RNA sequence with the mRNA to transcribe it again, continuing this process numerous times until hundreds of adenines have been added to the 3′-end of the mRNA. Additionally, some -ssRNA viruses are ambisense, as both the positive and negative strands separately encode viral proteins, and these viruses produce two separate mRNA strands: one directly from the genome and one from a complementary strand.


title: Baltimore classification

text: -ssRNA viruses can be subdivided informally between those that have nonsegmented and segmented genomes. Nonsegmented -ssRNA viruses replicate in the cytoplasm, and segmented -ssRNA viruses replicate in the nucleus. During transcription, the RdRp produces one monocistronic mRNA strand from each segment of the genome. All -ssRNA viruses are classified in the phylum "Negarnaviricota" in the kingdom "Orthornavirae" in the realm "Riboviria". "Negarnaviricota" only contains -ssRNA viruses, so "-ssRNA virus" is synonymous with "Negarnaviricota". "Negarnaviricota" is divided into two subphyla: "Haploviricotina", whose members synthesize a cap structure on viral mRNA required for protein synthesis, and "Polyploviricotina", whose members instead obtain caps on mRNA via cap snatching.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Reverse transcribing (RT) viruses have genomes made of either DNA or RNA and replicate via reverse transcription. Two groups of reverse transcribing viruses exist: single-stranded RNA-RT (ssRNA-RT) viruses, and double-stranded DNA-RT (dsDNA-RT) viruses. Reverse transcribing viruses are classified in the kingdom "Pararnavirae" in the realm "Riboviria".


title: Baltimore classification

text: The sixth Baltimore group contains viruses that have a (positive-sense) single-stranded RNA genome that has a DNA intermediate ((+)ssRNA-RT) in its replication cycle. ssRNA-RT viruses are transcribed in the same manner as DNA viruses, but their linear genomes are first converted to a dsDNA form through a process called reverse transcription. The viral reverse transcriptase enzyme synthesizes a DNA strand from the ssRNA strand, and the RNA strand is degraded and replaced with a DNA strand to create a dsDNA genome. The genome is then integrated into the DNA of the host cell, where it is now called a provirus. The host cell's RNA polymerase II then transcribes RNA in the nucleus from the proviral DNA. Some of this RNA may become mRNA whereas other strands will become copies of the viral genome for replication.


title: Baltimore classification

text: ssRNA-RT viruses are all included in the class "Revtraviricetes", phylum "Arterviricota", kingdom "Pararnavirae" of the realm "Riboviria". Excluding "Caulimoviridae", which belongs to Group VII, all members of the "Revtraviricetes" order "Ortervirales" are ssRNA-RT viruses.


title: Baltimore classification

text: The seventh Baltimore group contains viruses that have a double-stranded DNA genome that has an RNA intermediate (dsDNA-RT) in its replication cycle. dsDNA-RT viruses have a gap in one strand, which is repaired to create a complete dsDNA genome prior to transcription. dsDNA-RT viruses are transcribed in the same manner as dsDNA viruses, but make use of reverse transcription to replicate their circular genome while it is still in the capsid. The host cell's RNA polymerase II transcribes RNA strands from the genome in the cytoplasm, and the genome is replicated from these RNA strands. The dsDNA genome is produced from pregenomic RNA strands via the same general mechanism as ssRNA-RT viruses, but with replication occurring in a loop around the circular genome. After replication, the dsDNA genome may be packed or sent to the nucleus for further rounds of transcription.


title: Baltimore classification

text: dsDNA-RT viruses are, like ssRNA-RT, all included in the class "Revtraviricetes". Two families of dsDNA-RT viruses are recognized: "Caulimoviridae", which belongs to the order "Ortervirales", and "Hepadnaviridae", which is the sole family in the order "Blubervirales".


title: Baltimore classification

text: A number of characteristics of viruses are not directly associated with Baltimore classification but nonetheless closely correspond to multiple, specific Baltimore groups. This includes alternative splicing during transcription, whether the viral genome is segmented, the host range of viruses, whether the genome is linear or circular, and different methods of translating viral mRNA.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Alternative splicing is a mechanism by which different proteins can be produced from a single gene by means of using alternative splicing sites to produce different mRNAs. It is found in various DNA, -ssRNA, and reverse transcribing viruses. Viruses may make use of alternative splicing solely to produce multiple proteins from a single pre-mRNA strand or for other specific purposes. For certain viruses, including the families "Orthomyxoviridae" and "Papillomaviridae", alternative splicing acts as a way to regulate early and late gene expression during different stages of infection. Herpesviruses use it as a potential anti-host defense mechanism to prevent synthesis of specific antiviral proteins. Furthermore, in addition to alternative splicing, because cellular unspliced RNA cannot be transported out of the nucleus, hepadnaviruses and retroviruses contain their own proteins for exporting their unspliced genomic RNA out of the nucleus.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Viral genomes can exist in a single, or monopartite, segment, or they may be split into more than one molecule, called multipartite. For monopartite viruses, all genes are on the single segment of the genome. Multipartite viruses typically package their genomes into a single virion so that the whole genome is in one virus particle, and the separate segments contain different genes. Monopartite viruses are found in all Baltimore groups, whereas multipartite viruses are usually RNA viruses. This is because most multipartite viruses infect plants or fungi, which are eukaryotes, and most eukaryotic viruses are RNA viruses. The family "Pleolipoviridae" varies as some viruses are monopartite ssDNA while others are bipartite with one segment being ssDNA and the other dsDNA. Viruses in the ssDNA plant virus family "Geminiviridae" likewise vary between being monopartite and bipartite.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Different Baltimore groups tend to be found within different branches of cellular life. In prokaryotes, the large majority of viruses are dsDNA viruses, and a significant minority are ssDNA viruses. Prokaryotic RNA viruses, in contrast, are relatively rare. Most eukaryotic viruses, including most animal and plant viruses, are RNA viruses, although eukaryotic DNA viruses are also common. By group, the vast majority of dsDNA viruses infect prokaryotes, ssDNA viruses are found in all three domains of life, dsRNA and +ssRNA viruses are primarily found in eukaryotes but also in bacteria, and -ssRNA and reverse transcribing viruses are only found in eukaryotes.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Viral genomes may be either linear with ends or circular in a loop. Whether a virus has a linear or circular genome varies from group to group. A significant percentage of dsDNA viruses are both, ssDNA viruses are primarily circular, RNA viruses and ssRNA-RT viruses are typically linear, and dsDNA-RT viruses are typically circular. In the dsDNA family "Sphaerolipoviridae", and in the family "Pleolipoviridae", viruses contain both linear and circular genomes, varying from genus to genus.


title: Baltimore classification

text: RNA editing is used by various ssRNA viruses to produce different proteins from a single gene. This can be done via polymerase slippage during transcription or by post-transcriptional editing. In polymerase slippage, the RNA polymerase slips one nucleotide back during transcription, inserting a nucleotide not included in the template strand. Editing of a genomic template would impair gene expression, so RNA editing is only done during and after transcription. For ebola viruses, RNA editing improves the ability to adapt to their hosts.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Alternative splicing differs from RNA editing in that alternative splicing does not change the mRNA sequence like RNA editing but instead changes the coding capacity of an mRNA sequence as a result of alternative splicing sites. The two mechanisms otherwise have the same result: multiple proteins are expressed from a single gene.


title: Baltimore classification

text: Translation is the process by which proteins are synthesized from mRNA by ribosomes. Baltimore groups do not directly pertain to the translation of viral proteins, but various atypical types of translation used by viruses are usually found within specific Baltimore groups:


title: Baltimore classification

text: Baltimore classification was proposed in 1971 by virologist David Baltimore in a paper titled "Expression of Animal Virus Genomes". It initially contained the first six groups but was later expanded to include group VII. Because of the utility of Baltimore classification, it has come to be used alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary relationships and governed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).


title: Baltimore classification

text: From the 1990s to the 2010s, virus taxonomy used a 5-rank system ranging from order to species with Baltimore classification used in conjunction. Outside of the ICTV's official framework, various supergroups of viruses joining together different families and orders were created over time based on increasing evidence of deeper evolutionary relations. Consequently, in 2016, the ICTV began to consider establishing ranks higher than order as well as how the Baltimore groups would be treated among higher taxa.


title: Baltimore classification

text: In two votes in 2018 and 2019, a 15-rank system ranging from realm to species was established by the ICTV. As part of this, the Baltimore groups for RNA viruses and RT viruses were incorporated into formal taxa. In 2018, the realm "Riboviria" was established and initially included the three RNA virus groups. A year later, "Riboviria" was expanded to also include both RT groups. Within the realm, RT viruses are included in the kingdom "Pararnavirae" and RNA viruses in the kingdom "Orthornavirae". Furthermore, the three Baltimore groups for RNA viruses are used as defining characteristics of the phyla in "Orthornavirae".


title: Baltimore classification

text: Unlike RNA viruses and RT viruses, DNA viruses have not been united under a single realm but are instead dispersed across four realms and various taxa that are not assigned to a realm. The realms "Adnaviria" and "Duplodnaviria" exclusively contains dsDNA viruses, "Monodnaviria" primarily contains ssDNA viruses but also contains dsDNA viruses, and "Varidnaviria" exclusively contains dsDNA viruses, although some proposed members of "Varidnaviria", namely the family "Finnlakeviridae", are ssDNA viruses.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Irwin Allen (June 12, 1916 – November 2, 1991) was an American film and television producer and director, known for his work in science fiction, then later as the "Master of Disaster" for his work in the disaster film genre. His most successful productions were "The Poseidon Adventure" (1972) and "The Towering Inferno" (1974). He also created and produced the popular 1960s science-fiction television series "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea", "Lost in Space", "The Time Tunnel", and "Land of the Giants".


title: Irwin Allen

text: Irwin Allen was born in New York City, the son of poor Jewish immigrants (Joseph Cohen and Eva Davis) from Russia. He majored in journalism and advertising at Columbia University after attending City College of New York for a year. He left college because of financial difficulties caused by the Great Depression.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen moved to Hollywood in 1938, where he edited "Key" magazine followed by an 11-year stint producing his own program at radio station KLAC. The success of the radio show led to him being offered his own gossip column, "Hollywood Merry-Go-Round", which was syndicated to 73 newspapers.


title: Irwin Allen

text: He produced his first TV program, a celebrity panel show also called "Hollywood Merry-Go-Round" with announcer, and later "Tonight Show" host, Steve Allen (no relation), before moving into film production.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen became involved in film production at a time when power was beginning to shift from studios to talent agencies. He put together packages consisting of directors, actors, and a script, and sold them to film studios.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen's first film as producer was "Where Danger Lives" (1950) with Robert Mitchum, directed by John Farrow and written by Charles Bennett. Allen produced it with Irving Cummings, Jr. The two men made two more films for RKO: "Double Dynamite" (1951) with Jane Russell, Groucho Marx, and Frank Sinatra, and "A Girl in Every Port" (1952), again with Marx and William Bendix.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen made his directorial debut with the documentary, "The Sea Around Us" (1953). This was based on Rachel Carson's best-selling book of the same name. It largely used stock footage and won the 1952 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature. Carson was so disappointed with Allen's final version of the script that she never again sold film rights to her work. The film includes gory images of whales being killed. It was a success, making a profit over $2 million.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen returned to producing with the three-dimensional film "Dangerous Mission" (1954), his final film for RKO. It starred Victor Mature, Bendix, Piper Laurie, and Vincent Price.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen directed a semidocumentary about the evolution of life, "The Animal World" (1956). Again, making use of stock footage, but he also included a 9-minute stop-motion dinosaur sequence by Ray Harryhausen. Before release, he toned down the gore from both the live action and the animation.


title: Irwin Allen

text: The film was released by Warner Bros. So was Allen's next film, "The Story of Mankind" (1957), a very loose adaptation of the Hendrik Willem van Loon book of the same name. It featured cameos from the Marx Brothers, Ronald Colman, Hedy Lamarr, Vincent Price, and Dennis Hopper. The actors were each paid $2,500 (equal to $ today) for a single day's work with Allen relying on stock footage for the rest of the film.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen co-wrote (with Bennett) and produced "The Big Circus" (1959) for Allied Artists Pictures with Mature, Red Buttons, Peter Lorre, and Price. Allen was interested in making "an exciting, colorful show - something the public can't see on television." Allen was fascinated by circuses as a child and briefly worked as a carnival barker at age 16. In addition to "The Big Circus", he worked circus-themed episodes into his TV programs "Lost in Space" and "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea" and would try for years to get a widescreen, 3-D project called "Circus, Circus, Circus" into theaters.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen then went to 20th Century Fox, where he co-wrote (with Bennett), produced, and directed three films: "The Lost World" (1960), from the novel by Arthur Conan Doyle, "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea" (1961), and "Five Weeks in a Balloon" (1962).


title: Irwin Allen

text: Willis O'Brien, who had also worked on the pioneering special effects of the original "Lost World" (1925) and "King Kong" (1933) films, was disappointed when Allen opted to save time by using live alligators and lizards instead of stop-motion animation for the film's dinosaurs. "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea" was a scientifically dubious, Jules Verne-style adventure to save the world from a burning Van Allen belt. It was the basis for his later television series of the same name. The family film, "Five Weeks in a Balloon", was a loose adaptation of the Verne novel. "Lost World" was a moderate hit and "Voyage" was very successful. "Five Weeks" was a box-office disappointment.


title: Irwin Allen

text: With 20th Century Fox scaling back their film productions due to their huge expenditure on films such as "Cleopatra" (1963), in the mid-1960s, Allen concentrated on television, producing several overlapping science-fiction series for 20th Century Fox Television. They featured special effects by L. B. Abbott, who won three Emmys for his work. Allen used many of the same craftsmen on his TV shows as he did on his films, including composer John Williams and costume designer and general assistant Paul Zastupnevich.


title: Irwin Allen

text: "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea" (ABC TV, 1964–68) established both Allen's reputations as television producers. The financial viability of the series was assisted by the reuse of many of the sets from the film; the cost of the "Seaview" submarine sets alone exceeded the budget of a typical pilot show of the era. The series also benefited from Allen's by-now notorious use of stock film footage, particularly from "Hell and High Water" (1954), "The Enemy Below" (1957), and Allen's "The Lost World".


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen had originally intended "Lost in Space" (CBS TV, 1965–68) to be a family show, a science-fiction version of "The Swiss Family Robinson". It quickly developed into a children's show with episodes concentrating on the young Will Robinson, the robot, and especially, the comic villain, Dr. Smith. The show used several science-fiction elements that have since become common, such as the comic robot (e.g. "Silent Running", "Star Wars") or android ("Logan's Run", ""), the heroic child (Meeno Peluce in "Voyagers!", Wesley Crusher), and the wacky, lovable alien (Albert in "Alien Nation", Vir in "Babylon 5").


title: Irwin Allen

text: "The Time Tunnel" (ABC TV, 1966–67), with each episode set in a different historical time period, was an ideal vehicle for Allen's talent for smoothly mixing live action with stock footage from films set in the same period. A change in network management led to the show being cancelled after just one season. Allen cited "The Time Tunnel" as his favorite of all of his television productions and he would attempt to revamp and relaunch the concept numerous times including a filmed pilot in 1976 called "The Time Travelers" and unfilmed concepts that included one called "Time Travel Agency" and another called "The Time Project" that went through several incarnations.


title: Irwin Allen

text: "Land of the Giants" (ABC TV, 1968–70) was the most expensive show of its day at roughly $250,000 per episode. As another castaway-themed show, Allen incorporated some of the successful elements from "Lost in Space", although this time he did not allow the treacherous character to dominate the series.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen also produced several television films, such as "City Beneath the Sea", which recycled many props and models from "Voyage", "Lost in Space," and "Man From The 25th Century". Though intended as a pilot for a new TV series project, his small-screen success from the 1960s largely eluded him in the 1970s.


title: Irwin Allen

text: "Lost in Space"s Bill Mumy said of Allen that, while he was very good at writing television pilots that sold, his unwillingness to spend money hurt his shows' quality once on the air. A monster costume that appeared on one of his shows, for example, would appear on another a few weeks later with new paint. Writer Jon Abbott described Allen as paradoxical. "Here was a man who, when told the cost of a spaceship for a "Lost in Space" alien, snapped, 'Let him walk!' ... and then let the show be cancelled rather than take a cut in the budget".


title: Irwin Allen

text: In 1969, Allen signed a three-picture deal with Avco Embassy to make "The Poseidon Adventure", "No Man's World", and "Almost Midnight", but the deal did not lead to any films there.


title: Irwin Allen

text: In the 1970s, Allen produced the most successful films of his career: "The Poseidon Adventure" (1972) and "The Towering Inferno" (1974), directing the action scenes for both. Their showmanship was compared to that of P. T. Barnum and Cecil B. DeMille, and they prompted scholarly analysis of the subsequent popularity of the disaster genre.


title: Irwin Allen

text: "The Poseidon Adventure" was based on the Paul Gallico novel of the same name and directed by Ronald Neame. Unable to find a studio to fully back the venture, Allen raised half the $5 million budget, with 20th Century-Fox putting up the rest; the film eventually grossed over $100 million. L. B. Abbott and A. D. Flowers won a Special Achievement Academy Award for the film's optical and physical effects.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen hoped to follow up on the success of "The Poseidon Adventure" with a film based on the novel "The Tower", but the film rights had already been taken by Warner Bros. He looked for an alternative and found a similar story in "The Glass Inferno". Rather than produce competing movies, 20th Century-Fox and Warner Bros. agreed to coproduce "The Towering Inferno" with a script based on both novels and a $14 million budget. It was the first time two major studios made a film together, splitting the costs. Despite its nearly three-hour run time, the film, directed by John Guillermin, was a hit and won three Academy Awards.


title: Irwin Allen

text: The success of the films led to Allen receiving an offer to make three television films. "I missed television", said Allen. "There's a hysteria and an excitement in television that exists nowhere else in business."


title: Irwin Allen

text: Each was made for Fox television at a budget of $1 million with a view to possibly going to series. They screened on different networks: "Adventures of the Queen" (1975), "The Swiss Family Robinson" (1975), and "Time Travelers" (1976). Only "Swiss Family" was picked up for a series, running for 20 episodes.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen left 20th Century Fox when a change in management cancelled the remaining three planned disaster films. He was offered a deal at Warner Bros. by Jon Calley, who built an office building for Allen. Allen continued to work there for the remainder of his career.


title: Irwin Allen

text: The rise of new filmmakers such as George Lucas reportedly caught him off guard. According to one book, the success of "" (1977) bewildered him; he could not understand how a film with apparently no stars or love story could enrapture audiences so fervently.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen produced three made-for-TV disaster movies: "Flood!" (1976), "Fire!" (1977), and "Hanging by a Thread" (1979). He also made "Viva Knievel!" (1977), "The Amazing Captain Nemo" (1978), and "The Memory of Eva Ryker" (1980).


title: Irwin Allen

text: For theatrical release, he produced and directed "The Swarm" (1978) and "Beyond the Poseidon Adventure" (1979), and produced "When Time Ran Out" (1980). These three films were box-office disappointments.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen also purchased the rights to several Marvel Comics characters including Daredevil, Black Widow and others for television adaptation in the 1980s; he commissioned a script for a "Daredevil" pilot from writer Stirling Silliphant, but the project never went before cameras.


title: Irwin Allen

text: "No, I'm not going to run out of disasters", he said in a 1977 interview. "Pick up the daily newspaper, which is my best source for crisis stories, and you'll find 10 or 15 every day ... People chase fire engines, flock to car crashes. People thrive on tragedy. It's unfortunate, but in my case, it's fortunate. The bigger the tragedy, the bigger the audience."


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen later went to Columbia to make a short-lived TV series, "Code Red" (1981–82). His last films for Warner Bros. were "The Night the Bridge Fell Down" (1982) and "Cave-In!" (1979, though not released until 1983). Shortly before "Cave-In!" made its TV debut, Allen was awarded a Worst Career Achievement Golden Raspberry Award.


title: Irwin Allen

text: While at Columbia, Allen made a $14 million TV version of "Alice in Wonderland" (1985). His last credit was the TV movie "Outrage!" (1986).


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen planned to make a star-studded musical of "Pinocchio", but his declining health forced his retirement in 1986. He died in Los Angeles from a heart attack on November 2, 1991. He is buried in the Garden of Heritage 5, upper level wall crypt 39J in Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles.


title: Irwin Allen

text: The "Irwin Allen rock-and-roll" is when the camera is rocked as the on-screen cast rushes from side to side on the set, simulating a ship being tossed around. It is employed in many episodes of "Lost in Space" and "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea". This camera technique was employed in the "Mystery Science Theater 3000" episode "First Spaceship on Venus". Here, the camera tilts to simulate the spacecraft being hit. During this scene, Joel shouts out, "Irwin Allen presents...".


title: Irwin Allen

text: Allen's career in film and TV was the subject of a 1995 documentary, "The Fantasy Worlds of Irwin Allen", produced and directed by Kevin Burns, co-founder of Foxstar Productions, originally set up as the production unit responsible for creating a series of "Alien Nation" movies for television. Numerous cast members and associates from various Irwin Allen projects appeared in the film, lending recollections of their time working with him.


title: Irwin Allen

text: In 1994, while senior VP of Foxstar, Burns founded Van Ness Films, a nonfiction and documentary production unit. That same year, he met Jon Jashni, a Fox film executive who shared Burns' interest in Allen's works. In 1998, the two collaborated on a TV retrospective special, "Lost in Space Forever". Hosted by John Laroquette, it chronicled the series' creation and run on TV in the 1960s and beyond, and featured appearances by Bill Mumy, Jonathan Harris, June Lockhart, Angela Cartwright, Mark Goddard, and Marta Kristen, as well as film footage of vintage interviews with Guy Williams. Also appearing were Bob May, who donned the robot suit, and Dick Tufeld, who supplied the character's voice. The flight deck set of the "Jupiter 2" spacecraft from the series was recreated as the backdrop for parts of the special.


title: Irwin Allen

text: It also was used as a vehicle to promote the 1998 "Lost in Space" film version of the original television series, starring William Hurt, Matt LeBlanc, Gary Oldman, Lacey Chabert, Mimi Rogers, and Heather Graham.


title: Irwin Allen

text: Burns and Jashni later formed Synthesis Entertainment, and began developing and producing remakes of, and sequels to, several Allen properties, including a 2002 Fox Television pilot for an updated version of "The Time Tunnel", which did not sell, and remakes of films including "Poseidon" (2006) and "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea". The 2002 TV pilot was included as a bonus feature on volume 2 of Fox's 2006 DVD release of the 30-episode "Time Tunnel" (1966–67) TV series.


title: Irwin Allen

text: On January 3, 2008, BBC Four showed a night of Allen's work which included the 1995 documentary "The Fantasy Worlds of Irwin Allen" along with episodes of "Lost in Space", "Land of the Giants" and "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea".


title: Irwin Allen

text: Episode 57 of the Disney TV series "Duck Tales" screened December 8, 1987, titled "The Uncrashable Hindentanic" features a character called "Irwin Mallard" who films the destruction of Scrooge McDuck's airship called the Hindentanic in the disaster movie style of Irwin Allen.


title: Irwin Allen

text: "The Irwin Allen Show" was a skit on "SCTV". The Irwin Allen Show was a Johnny Carson-style talk show with Allen as the host. The guests were stars in Allen's movies, and they were each individually victims of an Irwin Allen-style disaster while a guest on the talk show (e.g. Red Buttons was attacked by a swarm of bees).


title: Irwin Allen

text: In the film "Ocean's Thirteen" (2007) Linus Caldwell (played by Matt Damon) announces aloud to a catatonic Reuben Tishkoff that Rusty Ryan is doing an 'Irwin Allen' which is a reference to the fake earthquake they stage later in the story.


title: Applejack (drink)

text: Applejack is a strong alcoholic drink produced from apples. Popular in the American colonial era, the drink's prevalence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries amid competition from other spirits.


title: Applejack (drink)

text: Apple brandy was first produced in colonial New Jersey in 1698 by William Laird, a Scottish immigrant who settled in Monmouth County. The drink was once known as Jersey Lightning. Laird's great-grandson, Robert Laird, who served in the Continental Army, incorporated Laird's Distillery in 1780, after previously operating a tavern. The oldest licensed applejack distillery in the United States, Laird & Company of Scobeyville, New Jersey, was until the 2000s the country's only remaining producer of applejack, and continues to dominate applejack production.


title: Applejack (drink)

text: Once popular in early America, applejack declined in popularity due to the rise of other spirits that were easier to manufacture on a commercial basis, including rum, bourbon, and whiskey in the 19th century and gin, vodka, and tequila in the 20th century. In 1920, with the beginning of the Prohibition era, Laird's ended the production of liquor and began producing apple juice. In 1931, John Evans Laird received permission to produce apple brandy for "medicinal purposes" and stockpiled its product until the repeal of Prohibition in 1933.


title: Applejack (drink)

text: Applejack has been associated with four presidents of the United States: George Washington requested instructions for producing applejack from Robert Laird for the family's recipe for applejack; Abraham Lincoln served it during a brief stint as a tavern keeper in Springfield, Illinois; Franklin D. Roosevelt included applejack in the Manhattans he regularly consumed; and Lyndon B. Johnson gave a case of applejack to Soviet leader Alexei Kosygin in the 1967 Glassboro Summit Conference.


title: Applejack (drink)

text: In the 2010s, a number of smaller craft distilleries began to produce applejack in places such as New Hampshire, Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley, New York's Hudson Valley, Holland, Michigan. and most famously in Toronto's Nickel 9 Distillery


title: Applejack (drink)

text: The name "applejack" derives from the traditional method of producing the drink, "jacking", the process of freezing fermented cider and then removing the ice, increasing the alcohol content: Cider produced after the fall harvest was left outside during the winter. Periodically the frozen chunks of ice which had formed were removed, thus concentrating the unfrozen alcohol in the remaining liquid. An alternative method involved placing a cask of hard cider in snow, allowing ice to form on the inside of the cask as the contents began to freeze, and then tapping the cask and pouring off the still-liquid portion of the contents. Starting with the fermented juice, with an alcohol content of less than ten percent, the concentrated result can contain 25–40% alcohol. Because freeze distillation is a low-infrastructure method of production compared to evaporative distillation, and does not require the burning of firewood to create heat, hard cider and applejack were historically easier to produce, though more expensive than grain alcohol.


title: Applejack (drink)

text: The disadvantage of freeze distillation, also called fractional crystallization, is that the substances remaining after the removal of the water include not only ethanol, but also harmful methanol, esters, aldehydes, and fusel alcohols. In modern times, reducing methanol with the absorption of a molecular sieve is a practical method for production.


title: Applejack (drink)

text: When commercial production began, applejack was also starting to be produced through evaporative distillation.


title: Applejack (drink)

text: Modern commercially produced applejack is often no longer produced by jacking but rather by blending apple brandy and neutral grain spirits.


title: Applejack (drink)

text: Applejack is somewhat similar to calvados, an apple brandy from Normandy, France, to which it is often compared. However, calvados is made from cider apples, while applejack is made from apples such as Winesap.


title: Jacob Marley

text: Jacob Marley is a fictional character in Charles Dickens's 1843 novella "A Christmas Carol", a former business partner of the miser Ebenezer Scrooge, who has been dead for seven years.


title: Jacob Marley

text: On Christmas Eve, Scrooge is visited at home by Marley's ghost, who wanders the Earth entwined by heavy chains and money boxes forged during a lifetime of greed and selfishness. Marley tells Scrooge that he has a single chance to avoid the same fate: he will be visited by three spirits and must listen or be cursed to carry much heavier chains of his own. However, the spirits will offer a chance of redemption.


title: Jacob Marley

text: By early 1843, Dickens had been affected by the treatment of the poor, and in particular the treatment of the children of the poor after witnessing children working in appalling conditions in a tin mine and following a visit to a ragged school. Originally intending to write a political pamphlet titled, "An Appeal to the People of England, on behalf of the Poor Man's Child", he changed his mind and instead wrote "A Christmas Carol" which voiced his social concerns about poverty and injustice. The ghost of Jacob Marley in Stave One becomes a mouthpiece for part of Dickens's message regarding these.


title: Jacob Marley

text: In the novella, Marley and Scrooge 'were partners for I don't know how many years' and were indistinguishable, both being 'good men of business', grasping of money and unconcerned about the well-being of their 'fellow travellers to the grave'. While it appears that Marley had died without being punished in life for his lack of social responsibility and his indifference to the well-being of his fellow Man, unbeknown to Scrooge after death Marley is forced to roam the face of the earth in Purgatory, fettered in chains, cash boxes and ledger books, desperately wanting to help the poor and needy but unable to do so. On the seventh anniversary of his death on Christmas Eve, the ghost of Jacob Marley, in his torment, appears to Scrooge in his rooms:


title: Jacob Marley

text: Marley in his pig-tail, usual waistcoat, tights, and boots; the tassels on the latter bristling like his pig-tail, and his coat-skirts, and the hair upon his head. The chain he drew was clasped about his middle. It was long and wound about him like a tail; and it was made (for Scrooge observed it closely) of cash-boxes, keys, padlocks, ledgers, deeds, and heavy purses wrought in steel. His body was transparent; so that Scrooge, observing him, and looking through his waistcoat, could see the two buttons on his coat behind.'


title: Jacob Marley

text: Marley warns Scrooge that his own chain was as full and heavy as Marley's seven years ago, and that he has been working on it since owing to his indifference to the poor. Scrooge's chain is now ponderous and to avoid an eternity of purgatory, Scrooge must change his life and show penance; to assist him with this, Marley has interceded for Scrooge to be visited by three Spirits who will offer him the chance of escaping the same fate. Marley warns Scrooge to expect the first Spirit when the clock tolls one, the second upon the next night at the same hour, and the third upon the third night when the clock has reached the last stroke of twelve. Marley tells Scrooge that he will not see him again and leaves the room through the open window where he joins other souls in limbo outside who are tormented by their inability to help the poor and needy in death, as they should have done in life.


title: Jacob Marley

text: Other than that, Scrooge and Marley had been business partners in their counting house for many years and that the two men were alike in their greed, Dickens provides little background information about Jacob Marley. His presence in the story is to provide a warning in Stave One concerning the miserliness and misanthropy of Scrooge and to act as a herald for the three Ghosts of Christmas who are to come. Marley's intercession with some higher Power, so that Scrooge will not share Marley's fate, is provided as the explanation for the supernatural visitors who are to follow.


title: Jacob Marley

text: The book makes it clear from the start that Old Marley was as "dead as a door-nail", a phrase first recorded in Langland's "Piers Plowman" of 1362 where it appears as "ded as a dore-nayl." The reader's understanding of this fact makes Marley's later appearance before Scrooge all the more shocking. Dickens writes, 'Scrooge knew he was dead? Of course, he did. How could it be otherwise? Scrooge and he were partners for I don't know how many years. Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole administrator, his sole assign, his sole residuary legatee, his sole friend, and sole mourner.' The two men were business partners and probably little else. Despite Scrooge's fearful comment that 'You were always a good friend to me, Jacob', it is unlikely that the two were actually close, as even on the day of Marley's funeral, Scrooge takes time out to make a good business deal.


title: Jacob Marley

text: It becomes clear that Marley's punishment is not to be condemned to Hell, a place of eternal torment from which there is no release and no escape, but that he is in Purgatory, as he has been constantly wandering the earth in the seven years since his death. This is evidenced by his remorse and his desire to do good for the poor and needy, those he had ignored in life, but he is in torment himself as he is now unable to help. Marley states to Scrooge:


title: Jacob Marley

text: "It is required of every man," the Ghost returned, "that the spirit within him should walk abroad among his fellowmen, and travel far and wide; and if that spirit goes not forth in life, it is condemned to do so after death. It is doomed to wander through the world—oh, woe is me!—and witness what it cannot share, but might have shared on earth, and turned to happiness!


title: Jacob Marley

text: Marley tells Scrooge that his appearance before him is "no light part of [Marley's] penance," and that it offers Scrooge a hope and chance of redemption, "a chance and hope," says Marley, "of my procuring." As Scrooge's own redemption forms part of Marley's penance, he too must also have the hope of eventual redemption, and he could not hope for this if he was in Hell. Dickens's statement that Marley "had no bowels" is a reference to the "bowels of compassion" mentioned in the First Epistle of John, the reason for his torment.


title: Jacob Marley

text: The chain with which Marley is fettered represents his sins in life and his guilt in failing to help his fellow Man. He forged the chain himself and wears it through his lack of compassion for others. Indeed, the ghosts that Scrooge sees outside his window are similarly fettered with objects associated with the sins committed in their lives:


title: Jacob Marley

text: Every one of them wore chains like Marley's Ghost; some few (they might be guilty governments) were linked together; none were free. Many had been personally known to Scrooge in their lives. He had been quite familiar with one old ghost, in a white waistcoat, with a monstrous iron safe attached to its ankle, who cried piteously at being unable to assist a wretched woman with an infant, whom it saw below, upon a door-step. The misery with them all was, clearly, that they sought to interfere, for good, in human matters, and had lost the power for ever.


title: Jacob Marley

text: Clearly, these tormented souls outside the window, like Marley and Scrooge, are guilty of having failed to help those in need while they were alive; now they are dead, it is too late, and the chains with which they too are fettered were also forged by them in life and girded on of their own free will. They are imprisoned by their chains in the same way prisoners would have been fettered in Victorian gaols. None of the spectres wear their chains willingly. While normally chains would be forged from metal, Marley's chains are forged from what he valued in life — money and material wealth. Attached to Marley's chain are ledgers and cash boxes, with each object symbolising money-making – his priority in life – and how he failed to act to help others. Each of the other spectres similarly has attached to them the heavy symbols of their former trades. The old ghost that Scrooge recognises has a monstrous iron safe attached to his chain, perhaps showing that, like Scrooge, he was a miser who hoarded his money instead of helping those in need. He is a kindred spirit to Scrooge, which is perhaps why Scrooge recognizes him. It is apparent that these ghosts, like Marley, are suffering because it is now too late for them to help the living and they now have no chance of redemption – to put things right. The chain with which Scrooge is unknowingly girded would be stronger and heavier and more ponderous than that about Marley as Scrooge has been working on it for seven years more through each act of indifference to those about him.


title: Jacob Marley

text: One theory for Marley's origin put forward by the film-writer and author Roger Clarke and the historian Daisy Dunn is that Dickens was influenced by the writings of Pliny the Younger, who related a celebrated account of a haunted house from the ancient classical world ( 50 AD). In 1825 the young Dickens was sent to Wellington House Classical and Commercial Academy where in 1827 he won the Latin prize. It may have been as part of his studies that he first encountered Pliny's ghostly tale. However, Dunn states that in his library Dickens had a copy of "The Philosophy of Mystery" by Walter Cooper Dendy, published in 1841, two years before Dickens wrote "A Christmas Carol". The book also relates Pliny's description of the haunting of the house in Athens, which was bought by the Stoic philosopher Athenodorus, who lived about 100 years before Pliny. Knowing that the house was supposedly haunted, Athenodorus intentionally set up his writing desk in the room where the apparition was said to appear and sat there writing until late at night when he was disturbed by a ghost which came at first to the door and then into the chamber, and who, like Marley, was bound in chains. Pliny wrote to his friend Sura that "In the dead of the night a noise, resembling the clashing of iron, was frequently heard, which, if you listened more attentively, sounded like the rattling of fetters; at first it seemed at a distance, but approached nearer by degrees; immediately afterward a phantom appeared in the form of an old man, extremely meagre and squalid, with a long beard and bristling hair; rattling the gyves on his feet and hands." Athenodorus followed the ghost outside where it indicated a spot on the ground. When Athenodorus later excavated the area, a shackled skeleton was unearthed. The haunting ceased when the skeleton was given a proper reburial.


title: Jacob Marley

text: For the chained Marley, Dickens possibly also drew on his memory of a visit to the Western Penitentiary in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in March 1842, where he saw—and was affected by seeing—fettered prisoners and wondered whether they were "nightly visited by spectres".


title: Jacob Marley

text: When Dickens was young, he lived in lodgings at 10 Norfolk Street (present day 22 Cleveland Street), in London's Fitzrovia district, just yards away from a local cheesemonger called Marley and near also to a tradesman's premises with the sign "Goodge and Marney", either of which may have provided the name for Scrooge and his former business partner.


title: Jacob Marley

text: Marley is the subject of the novel "Jacob Marley's Ghost" by Michael Fridgen (2019), "Marley" by Jon Clinch (2019) and "Jacob T. Marley" by R. William Bennett (2011). The song "Jacob Marley's Chain" appears on Aimee Mann's first solo album, "Whatever" (1993).


title: Jacob Marley

text: The American bluegrass band Marley's Ghost is named for the character. It has existed since the mid-1980s and has recorded 12 albums.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: The Circle line is a spiral-shaped London Underground line, running from Hammersmith in the west to Edgware Road and then looping around central London back to Edgware Road. The railway is below ground in the central section and on the loop east of Paddington. Unlike London's deep-level lines, the Circle line tunnels are just below the surface and are of similar size to those on British main lines. Printed in yellow on the Tube map, the line serves 36 stations, including most of London's main line termini. Almost all of the route, and all the stations, are shared with one or more of the three other sub-surface lines, namely the District, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines. On the Circle and Hammersmith & City lines combined, over 114 million passenger journeys were recorded in 2011/12.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: The first section became operational in 1863 when the Metropolitan Railway opened the world's first underground line between Paddington and with wooden carriages and steam locomotives. The same year a select committee report recommended an "inner circle" of lines connecting the London railway termini, and the Metropolitan District Railway (commonly known as the District Railway) was formed to build the southern portion of the line.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: In 1871, services began between Mansion House and Moorgate via Paddington, jointly operated by the two companies. Due to conflict between the two companies it was not until October 1884 that the inner circle was completed. The line was electrified in 1905, and in 1933 the companies were amalgamated into the London Passenger Transport Board. In 1949, the Circle line appeared as a separate line for the first time on the Tube map. In 2009, the closed loop around the centre of London on the north side of the River Thames was broken at Edgware Road and extended west to become a spiral to Hammersmith.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: Starting in 2015, the signalling system was upgraded as part of a programme to increase peak-hour capacity on the line. The six-car C Stock trains were replaced from 2012 to 2014 by new seven-car S Stock trains.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: In 1863, the Metropolitan Railway, the world's first underground railway, opened in London between Paddington and Farringdon, connecting the Great Western Railway's relatively remote terminus at Paddington with Euston and King's Cross stations and the City, London's financial district. In the same year, a select committee report recommended an "inner circle" of railway lines connecting the London termini that had been built or were under construction. In the next year, the Metropolitan District Railway (commonly known as the District Railway) was formed to build and operate a railway from South Kensington to Tower Hill. The Metropolitan western extension from a new station at Paddington to South Kensington opened in 1868. By May 1870, the District Railway had opened its line from West Brompton to Blackfriars via Gloucester Road and South Kensington, services being operated at first by the Metropolitan. In 1871, the District had built a terminus at Mansion House, and on 18 November 1876 the Metropolitan opened its terminus at Aldgate. Because of the conflict between the two companies, it took an Act of Parliament before further work was done on the inner circle. In 1882, the Metropolitan extended its line from Aldgate to a temporary station at Tower Hill and the District completed its line to Whitechapel. On 6 October 1884, the temporary station was replaced with a joint station and the inner circle was complete. The Metropolitan provided the clockwise, or "outer rail", trains; the District the "inner rail", or anti-clockwise. Many breakdowns occurred, due to the unbalanced wear and tear inflicted upon the train and carriages caused by travelling in a single circular direction. Equally, services were further disrupted due to petty squabbles between the two rivals including an incident whereby the Metropolitan Railway forcibly removed (using three trains) the District Railway's parked carriages which had been chained to the track.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: As well as the inner circle, other routes circumnavigated London, although these were not complete loops. From 1872, the L&NWR began an "outer circle" service from Broad Street to Mansion House via Willesden Junction and Earl's Court, diverting an earlier service that had run to Victoria; and the GWR began a "middle circle" service from Moorgate to Mansion House via Latimer Road and Earl's Court. Both of these routes were cut back to Earl's Court: the "middle circle" in 1900 and the "outer circle" in 1909. The GWR service survived as a shuttle service from the Hammersmith & City line to Addison Road, now Kensington (Olympia), until 1940.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: The Midland Railway briefly ran a super outer circle from St Pancras to Earl's Court from 1878 to 1880. London Overground now runs services between Clapham Junction, Willesden Junction and Dalston Junction and between Dalston Junction and Clapham Junction.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: Wooden carriages were originally hauled by steam locomotives leading to smoke-filled stations and carriages, unpopular with passengers. At the start of the 20th century, the District and Metropolitan were seeing increased competition in central London from the new electric underground tube lines and trams, and conversion to electric traction was seen as the way forward. Experiments were carried out on the Earl's Court to High Street Kensington section, and a jointly-owned six-carriage train began passenger service in 1900. Following this, an AC system was suggested, and this was accepted by both parties. However, the District was looking for a way to raise the finance needed and in 1901 found an investor, the American Charles Yerkes. He formed the Underground Electric Railways of London (UERL), and his experience in the United States led him to favour DC, with third-rail pick-up similar to that in use on the City & South London Railway and Central London Railway. After arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was taken up, and the railways began electrifying the routes, using multiple-unit stock.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: The District and Metropolitan Railways bought different designs of electric multiple unit. Both had open saloons; the Metropolitan trains with gated ends, the District B Stock with sliding doors in the middle of each car. When their introduction was attempted on 1 July 1905, a Metropolitan train overturned the third rail on the District Railway, requiring all Metropolitan trains to be modified before running again on the District lines. A fully electric service began on 24 September, initially with six-car trains, later reduced to four-car. The Metropolitan trains were soon modified to enclose the gated end and eventually to add sliding doors in the middle. Trains were increased to five cars in 1918 and the Metropolitan introduced new stock in 1921, with three pairs of sliding double doors on trailer cars. In 1926 the Metropolitan took over all inner circle workings except for three trains on Sundays.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: On 1 July 1933, the Metropolitan and the District Railways were amalgamated with other Underground railways, tramway companies and bus operators to form the London Passenger Transport Board. Metropolitan Railway electric multiple units were refurbished in 1934 at Acton Works to become eighteen five-car trains of Circle Stock, at first painted red and cream, later painted red all over to reduce costs. These trains included first-class accommodation, but this was downgraded in 1940. From 1947, these were replaced by five-car trains of O and P Stock, with doors remotely operated by the guard, released by the transfer of F Stock to the Uxbridge line. The 1933 London Underground Beck map shows a Metropolitan line north of and stations and a District line south of these points. On the 1947 map, the Metropolitan and District lines were shown together in the same colour and two years later in 1949 the Circle line was shown separately on the map.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: In 1959–1960, Circle line trains were increased to six cars, the same length as those operating on the Hammersmith & City line, and the stock of the two lines was integrated with maintenance concentrated at Hammersmith depot, allowing Neasden depot to concentrate on the new A Stock. Aluminium C Stock trains, with public address systems and originally unpainted, replaced these trains from 1970. One person operation of the trains was proposed in 1972 but, due to conflict with the trade unions, was not introduced until 1984. In 2003, the infrastructure of the Circle line was partly privatised in a public–private partnership, managed by the Metronet consortium. Metronet went into administration in 2007 and the local government body Transport for London took over responsibilities.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: On 7 July 2005, at about 08:50, bombs exploded on two Circle line trains. One was travelling between Liverpool Street and Aldgate and the other was at Edgware Road. The bombs killed 15 people, including the two suicide bombers. Following the attacks, the whole of the Circle line was closed until 8 August.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: A day before a ban on drinking alcohol on public transport in London came into force, a party was held on 31 May 2008, mainly on the Circle line. Thousands of people attended and 17 were arrested by police due to disorderly behaviour, eventually causing several stations to be closed.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: Prior to 13 December 2009, Circle line trains travelled in both directions around a simple loop with 27 stations and of track. In 2006, there were fourteen trains in service on the line with an interval between trains of  minutes during peak hours and 8 minutes off-peak; the minimum running time around the circle off-peak was  minutes, although timetabled stops at stations extended this.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: In December 2009, the Circle line was extended to include the Hammersmith & City route from Edgware Road to Hammersmith. Rather than continuously running around the circle, trains now travel from Hammersmith to Edgware Road, generally going around the circle once before terminating at Edgware Road, and returning via the same route; occasionally, trains may also continue clockwise through Edgware Road to additional stations. The change was made to improve reliability and increase the service frequency on the Hammersmith branch.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: In March 2020, following the UK government's implementation of lockdown restricting all non-essential travel, the Circle line, along with the Waterloo & City line, was suspended.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: The Circle line is long with 36 stations. Almost all of its track, and all of its stations, are shared with the other London Underground sub-surface lines: the Hammersmith & City line from Hammersmith to just north of Aldgate; the Metropolitan line from Baker Street to Aldgate; and the District line from Tower Hill station to Edgware Road station, (except for a short connecting section near Gloucester Road). The line is electrified with a four-rail DC system: a central conductor rail is energised at and a rail outside the running rail at , giving a potential difference of . The running rails are not electrified. Much of the double track railway from the Hammersmith terminus to Westbourne Park station is on a high brick viaduct.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: East of Westbourne Park the line passes beneath the Great Western Main Line before resurfacing at Royal Oak station and running alongside the tracks of the main line to an island platform just north of the suburban platforms at Paddington station. The line enters a cut and cover tunnel at the end of the platforms and meets the District line and the other end of the Circle line from Bayswater at Praed Street Junction before passing through Edgware Road station in a cutting. After King's Cross St Pancras station the line exits the tunnel before passing over the Ray Street Gridiron beneath which pass the City Widened Lines which are currently used by Thameslink services. The line continues underground after Farringdon station; there are bay platforms at Moorgate station.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: After passing through Aldgate station, the terminus of the Metropolitan line, the line joins the District line shortly before Tower Hill; this part of the line includes stations on the Victoria Embankment, on the north bank of the Thames, as far as Westminster station. West of Gloucester Road station the line turns off the District main line to join the District line's Edgware Road branch just before High Street Kensington station. In Bayswater the line is in a cutting, concealed from above by a façade of two five-storey houses at Nos. 23 and 24 Leinster Gardens. Trains then call at the second Paddington station on Praed Street before rejoining the Hammersmith & City line at Praed Street junction and terminating at the four-platform Edgware Road station.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: , there are six trains per hour, calling at all stations, requiring 18 trains in service. The journey from Edgware Road around the loop and continuing to Hammersmith takes 72 minutes off-peak. Together with the Hammersmith & City line over 114 million passenger journeys are made each year. Paddington and all stations on the loop are within Zone 1, with those on the line to Hammersmith in Zone 2.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: Two trains per day run from the District line station at Barking to Edgware Road via Victoria (as of February 2015).


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: Historically there has been difficulty in relaying the direction of travel a train is headed in a clear message: variations such as "eastbound" and "westbound", and "clockwise" and "anti-clockwise" can be ambiguous. As passengers became more accustomed to digital devices, TfL considered stopping such announcements and now uses key stations along the route to describe a service (e.g. "via. High Street Kensington").


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: From 1970 to 2014, services were provided using six-car C69 stock trains, each car having mostly transverse seating and four sets of double doors per side to minimise loading times.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: The C69 stock trains were replaced by seven-car S Stock trains, the first running on the Circle line on 2 September 2013. By June 2014 all services were provided by S7 Stock trains. The trains are part of Bombardier's Movia family, and have a top speed of . A 7-car S Stock train has a capacity of 865 passengers compared to 739 for the 6-car C Stock train it replaced. With a length of , the S Stock trains are longer than the long C stock train, and required station platforms to be lengthened before their introduction.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: The line's depot is at Hammersmith, close to Hammersmith station, originally built by the Great Western Railway to be operated by the Metropolitan Railway when the joint Hammersmith & City Railway was electrified in the early 20th century. Sidings at Barking, Farringdon and near High Street Kensington (known as Triangle Sidings) stable trains overnight.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: It was planned that a new signalling system would be used first on the sub-surface lines from the end of 2016, but signalling contractor Bombardier was released from its contract by agreement in December 2013 amid heavy criticism of the procurement process and London Underground subsequently awarded the contract for the project to Thales in August 2015.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: With the introduction of S7 Stock, the track, electrical supply, and signalling systems are being upgraded in a programme planned to increase peak-hour capacity on the line by 27 per cent by the end of 2023. A single control room for the sub-surface railway opened at Hammersmith on 6 May 2018, and Communications Based Control (CBTC) provided by Thales will progressively replace 'fixed block' signalling equipment dating back to the 1940s.


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: The rollout of CBTC has been split into sections, each known as a Signal Migration Area (SMA), and are located on the line as follows:


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: "The line then continues to Edgware Road where trains terminate, then reverse to traverse the loop in an anticlockwise direction to Hammersmith."


title: Circle line (London Underground)

text: Owing to its traditionally circular nature, the line has generated many urban myths over the years, including a dead man travelling around undiscovered, a school or office using the service to save infrastructure costs and, as an April fool in the "Independent", a new particle accelerator to coexist alongside passenger services.


title: Health belief model

text: The health belief model (HBM) is a social psychological health behavior change model developed to explain and predict health-related behaviors, particularly in regard to the uptake of health services. The HBM was developed in the 1950s by social psychologists at the U.S. Public Health Service and remains one of the best known and most widely used theories in health behavior research. The HBM suggests that people's beliefs about health problems, perceived benefits of action and barriers to action, and self-efficacy explain engagement (or lack of engagement) in health-promoting behavior. A stimulus, or cue to action, must also be present in order to trigger the health-promoting behavior.


title: Health belief model

text: One of the first theories of health behavior, the HBM was developed in 1950s by social psychologists Irwin M. Rosenstock, Godfrey M. Hochbaum, S. Stephen Kegeles, and Howard Leventhal at the U.S. Public Health Service. At that time, researchers and health practitioners were worried because few people were getting screened for tuberculosis(TB), even if mobile X-ray cars went to neighborhoods. The HBM has been applied to predict a wide variety of health-related behaviors such as being screened for the early detection of asymptomatic diseases and receiving immunizations. More recently, the model has been applied to understand intentions to vaccinate (e.g. COVID-19), responses to symptoms of disease, compliance with medical regimens, lifestyle behaviors (e.g., sexual risk behaviors), and behaviors related to chronic illnesses, which may require long-term behavior maintenance in addition to initial behavior change. Amendments to the model were made as late as 1988 to incorporate emerging evidence within the field of psychology about the role of self-efficacy in decision-making and behavior.


title: Health belief model

text: The HBM theoretical constructs originate from theories in Cognitive Psychology. In early twentieth century, cognitive theorists believed that reinforcements operated by affecting expectations rather than by affecting behavior straightly. Mental processes are severe consists of cognitive theories that are seen as expectancy-value models, because they propose that behavior is a function of the degree to which people value a result and their evaluation of the expectation, that a certain action will lead that result. In terms of the health-related behaviors, the value is avoiding sickness. The expectation is that a certain health action could prevent the condition for which people consider they might be at risk.


title: Health belief model

text: The following constructs of the HBM are proposed to vary between individuals and predict engagement in health-related behaviors.


title: Health belief model

text: Perceived susceptibility refers to subjective assessment of risk of developing a health problem. The HBM predicts that individuals who perceive that they are susceptible to a particular health problem will engage in behaviors to reduce their risk of developing the health problem. Individuals with low perceived susceptibility may deny that they are at risk for contracting a particular illness. Others may acknowledge the possibility that they could develop the illness, but believe it is unlikely. Individuals who believe they are at low risk of developing an illness are more likely to engage in unhealthy, or risky, behaviors. Individuals who perceive a high risk that they will be personally affected by a particular health problem are more likely to engage in behaviors to decrease their risk of developing the condition.


title: Health belief model

text: The combination of perceived severity and perceived susceptibility is referred to as perceived threat. Perceived severity and perceived susceptibility to a given health condition depend on knowledge about the condition. The HBM predicts that higher perceived threat leads to a higher likelihood of engagement in health-promoting behaviors.


title: Health belief model

text: Perceived severity refers to the subjective assessment of the severity of a health problem and its potential consequences. The HBM proposes that individuals who perceive a given health problem as serious are more likely to engage in behaviors to prevent the health problem from occurring (or reduce its severity). Perceived seriousness encompasses beliefs about the disease itself (e.g., whether it is life-threatening or may cause disability or pain) as well as broader impacts of the disease on functioning in work and social roles. For instance, an individual may perceive that influenza is not medically serious, but if he or she perceives that there would be serious financial consequences as a result of being absent from work for several days, then he or she may perceive influenza to be a particularly serious condition.


title: Health belief model

text: Through studying Australians and their self-reporting in 2019 of receiving the influenza vaccine, researchers found that by studying perceived severity they could determine the likelihood that Australians would receive the shot. They asked, "On a scale from 0 to 10, how severe do you think the flu would be if you got it?” to measure the perceived severity and they found that 31% perceived the severity of getting the flu as low, 44% as moderate, and 25% as high. Additionally, the researchers found those with a high perceived severity were significantly more likely to have received the vaccine than those with a moderate perceived severity. Furthermore, self-reported vaccination was similar for individuals with low and moderate perceived severity of influenza.


title: Health belief model

text: Health-related behaviors are also influenced by the perceived benefits of taking action. Perceived benefits refer to an individual's assessment of the value or efficacy of engaging in a health-promoting behavior to decrease risk of disease. If an individual believes that a particular action will reduce susceptibility to a health problem or decrease its seriousness, then he or she is likely to engage in that behavior regardless of objective facts regarding the effectiveness of the action. For example, individuals who believe that wearing sunscreen prevents skin cancer are more likely to wear sunscreen than individuals who believe that wearing sunscreen will not prevent the occurrence of skin cancer