title: Bouncing bomb

text: It was decided in November 1942 to devise a larger version of Wallis's weapon for use against dams, and a smaller one for use against ships: these were code-named "Upkeep" and "Highball" respectively. A third version, code-named "Baseball", was also planned for use by MTBs or MGBs of the Royal Navy Coastal Forces, but "never saw the light of day" Though each version derived from what was originally envisaged as a spherical bomb, early prototypes for both Upkeep and Highball consisted of a cylindrical bomb within a spherical casing. Development, testing and use of Upkeep and Highball were to be undertaken simultaneously, since it was important to retain the element of surprise: if one were to be used against a target independently, it was feared that German defences for similar targets would be strengthened, rendering the other useless. However, Upkeep was developed against a deadline, since its maximum effectiveness depended on target dams being as full as possible from seasonal rainfall, and the latest date for this was set at 26 May 1943. In the event, as this date approached, Highball remained in development, whereas development of Upkeep had completed, and the decision was taken to deploy Upkeep independently.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: In January 1974, under Britain's "thirty year rule", secret government files for both Upkeep and Highball were released, although technical details of the weapons had been released in 1963.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: Testing of Upkeep prototypes with inert filling was carried out at Chesil Beach, Dorset, flying from RAF Warmwell in December 1942, and at Reculver, Kent, flying from RAF Manston in April and May 1943, at first using a Vickers Wellington bomber. However, the dimensions and weight of the full-size Upkeep were such that it could only be carried by the largest British bomber available at the time, the Avro Lancaster, and even that had to undergo considerable modification in order to carry it resulting in the Avro Lancaster "B III (Special)". In testing, it was found that Upkeep's spherical casing would shatter on impact with water, but that the inner cylinder containing the bomb would continue across the surface of the water much as intended. As a result, Upkeep's spherical casing was eliminated from the design. Development and testing concluded on 13 May 1943 with the dropping of a live, cylindrical Upkeep bomb out to sea from Broadstairs, Kent, by which time Wallis had specified that the bomb must be dropped at "precisely" above the water and groundspeed, with back-spin at 500 rpm: the bomb "bounced seven times over some 800 yards, sank and detonated".


title: Bouncing bomb

text: In the operational version of Upkeep, known by its manufacturer as "Vickers Type 464", the explosive charge was Torpex, originally designed for use as a torpedo explosive, to provide a longer explosive pulse for greater effect against underwater targets; the principal means of detonation was by three hydrostatic pistols, as used in depth charges, set to fire at a depth of ; and its overall weight was , of which was Torpex. Provision was also made for "self-destruct" detonation by a fuze, armed automatically as the bomb was dropped from the aircraft, and timed to fire after 90 seconds. The bomb was held in place in the aircraft by a pair of calipers, or triangulated carrying arms, which swung away from either end of the bomb to release it. Back-spin was to begin 10 minutes before arriving at a target, and was imparted via a belt driven by a Vickers Jassey hydraulic motor mounted forward of the bomb's starboard side. This motor was powered by the hydraulic system normally used by the upper gun turret, which had been removed. Close contact with the dam was necessary to obtain the maximum effectiveness from the explosive.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: Height was checked by a pair of intersecting spotlight beams, which, when converging on the surface of the water, indicated the correct height for the aircraft – a method devised for the raid by Benjamin Lockspeiser of the Minister of Aircraft Production, and distance from the target by a simple, hand-held, triangular device: with one corner held up to the eye, projections on the other two corners would line up with pre-determined points on the target when it was at the correct distance for bomb release. In practice, this could prove awkward to handle, and some aircrews replaced it with their own arrangements, fixed within the aircraft itself, and involving chinagraph and string.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: On the night of 16/17 May 1943, Operation Chastise attacked dams in Germany's Ruhr Valley, using Upkeep. Two dams were breached, causing widespread flooding, damage, and loss of life. The significance of this attack upon the progress of the war is debated. British losses during the operation were heavy; eight of the 19 attacking aircraft failed to return, along with 53 of 113 RAF aircrew. Upkeep was not used again operationally. By the time the war ended, the remaining operational Upkeep bombs had started to deteriorate and were dumped into the North Sea without their detonation devices.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: In April 1942, Wallis himself had described his proposed bomb as "essentially a weapon for the Fleet Air Arm". This naval aspect was later to be pressed by a minute issued by British prime minister Winston Churchill, in February 1943, asking "Have you given up all plans for doing anything to while she is in Trondheim? ... It is a terrible thing that this prize should be waiting and no one be able to think of a way of winning it." However, Highball was ultimately developed as an RAF weapon for use against various targets, including "Tirpitz".


title: Bouncing bomb

text: From November 1942, development and testing for Highball continued alongside that of Upkeep, including the dropping of prototypes at both Chesil Beach and Reculver. While early prototypes dropped at Chesil Beach in December 1942 were forerunners for both versions of the bomb, those dropped at Chesil Beach in January and February 1943 and at Reculver in April 1943 included Highball prototypes. They were dropped by the modified Wellington bomber and at Reculver by a modified de Havilland Mosquito B Mk IV, one of two assigned to Vickers Armstrong for the purpose. By early February 1943, Wallis envisaged Highball as "comprising a charge in a cylinder contained in a sphere with (an overall weight) of "; a modified Mosquito could carry two such weapons.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: In tests at Reculver in the middle of April 1943, it was found that Highball's spherical casing suffered similar damage to that of Upkeep. A prototype with an altered design of casing strengthened by steel plate, but empty of inert filling or explosive, was dropped on 30 April and emerged "quite undamaged". In further testing on 2 May, two examples of this prototype with inert filling, bounced across the surface of the water as intended, though both were found to be dented.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: Further testing was carried out by three modified Mosquitoes flying from RAF Turnberry, north of Girvan, on the west coast of Scotland, against a target ship, the former French battleship , which had been moored for the purpose in Loch Striven. This series of tests, on 9 and 10 May, was hampered by a number of errors: buoys intended to mark a point from "Courbet", where the prototypes were to be dropped, were found to be too close to the ship by , and, according to Wallis, other errors were due to "Variations in dimensions of [prototypes] after filling and [dimensionally incorrect] jigs for setting up the [caliper] arms". Because of these errors, the prototypes hit the target too fast and too hard. Two aircraft failed to release their prototypes, one of which then fell off while the aircraft was turning for a second attempt.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: It was under such circumstances that Upkeep came to be deployed independently of Highball. In addition to continuing problems in testing Highball, it had been observed at the end of March 1943 that "At best [aircrews] would need two months' special training". With this in mind, 618 Squadron had been formed on 1 April 1943 at RAF Skitten, near Wick, in northeastern Scotland, to undertake "Operation Servant", in which "Tirpitz" would be attacked with Highball bouncing bombs. On 18 April it was recommended that Operation Servant should be undertaken before the end of June, since 618 Squadron could not be held back for this purpose indefinitely. It was not until early September 1943 that, in view of continuing problems with both Highball and its release mechanism, most of 618 Squadron was "released for other duties". This in practice meant the abandonment of Operation Servant. Core personnel of 618 Squadron were retained and these continued work on the development of Highball.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: Testing between 15 and 17 May 1944 showed progress with Highball. By this time "Courbet" had been designated for use as a Gooseberry breakwater for the invasion of Normandy, so the old battleship , then in reserve, was used instead (also moored in Loch Striven). With crew on board "Malaya", bombers dropped inert Highball prototypes fitted with hydrostatic pistols, aiming at the ship. They struck the ship, and at least two punched a hole in the ship's side. On 17 May, for the first time, Highball prototypes were released in pairs, only one second apart.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: By the end of May 1944, problems with releasing Highball had been resolved as had problems with aiming. Aiming Highball required a different method from Upkeep; the problem was solved by Wallis's design of a ring aperture sight fixed to a flying helmet. Highball was now a sphere with flattened poles, and the explosive charge was Torpex, enclosed in a cylinder, as in Upkeep; detonation was by a single hydrostatic pistol, set to fire at a depth of , and its weight was , of which was Torpex.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: Highball was never used operationally: on 12 November 1944, in Operation Catechism, Lancasters with Tallboy bombs sank its primary target, "Tirpitz". Other potential targets had been considered during Highball's development and later. These included the ships of the Italian navy, canals, dry docks, submarine pens, and railway tunnels (for which testing took place in 1943). But Italy surrendered in September 1943, and the other target ideas were dismissed as impracticable.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: In January 1945, at the Vickers experimental facility at Foxwarren, near Cobham, Surrey, a Douglas A-26 Invader medium bomber of the USAAF was adapted to carry two Highballs almost completely enclosed in the bomb bay, using parts from a Mosquito conversion. After brief flight testing in the UK, the kit was sent to Wright Field, Ohio, and installed in a A-26C Invader. Twenty-five inert Highballs, renamed "Speedee" bombs, were also sent for use in the USAAF trials. Drop tests were carried out over Choctawhatchee Bay near Eglin Field, Florida, but the programme was abandoned after the bomb bounced back in a drop on Water Range 60, causing loss of the rear fuselage and a fatal crash on 28 April 1945.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: As well as the two types listed above, a smaller weapon, for use by motor torpedo boats, was proposed by the Admiralty in December 1942. Known as "Baseball", it was going to be a tube-launched weapon weighing , of which half would be explosive, with an anticipated range of .


title: Bouncing bomb

text: Inert prototypes of both Upkeep and Highball that were dropped at Reculver have been recovered and these, along with a number of other examples, are displayed at various sites:


title: Bouncing bomb

text: In 2010, a diving project in Loch Striven successfully located several Highball prototypes, under around of water. In July 2017, two Highballs were successfully recovered from Loch Striven in a joint operation by teams from East Cheshire Sub-Aqua Club and the Royal Navy. One is now displayed at the de Havilland Aircraft Museum and the other arrived at Brooklands Museum in late 2019 after undergoing conservation at the Mary Rose Trust.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: After Operation Chastise, German forces discovered an Upkeep bomb intact in the wreckage of the Lancaster commanded by Flt Lt Barlow, which had struck high tension cables at Haldern, near Rees, Germany, and crashed. The bomb had not been released and the aircraft had crashed on land, so none of the detonation devices had been set off. Subsequently, a version of Upkeep, code-named "Kurt" or "Emil", was built at the Luftwaffe's "Erprobungsstelle", or "test site", on Germany's Baltic coast at Travemünde, one in a network of four such establishments in Nazi Germany. The importance of back-spin was not understood and trials by a Focke-Wulf Fw 190 proved to be dangerous to the aircraft, because the bomb matched the speed at which it was dropped. Attempts to rectify that with booster rockets failed and the project was cancelled in 1944.


title: Bouncing bomb

text: In 2011, a project led by Dr Hugh Hunt of the Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, re-created the bouncing bomb and tested it in a Dambusters-like raid. Buffalo Airways was selected as the company to fly the mission with their Douglas DC-4. The project was documented in the documentary television show "Dambusters Fly Again" in Canada and Australia, "" in the UK, and the Nova episode "Bombing Hitler's Dams" in the US. It involved dropping a replica dummy bomb, which performed as intended, striking a replica dam which had been specially constructed; this was subsequently destroyed by a charge placed where the bomb had landed. The filming of the documentary was itself documented as part of the "Ice Pilots NWT" reality television series that follows Buffalo Airways in season 3 episode 2 "Dambusters".


title: Nina Li Chi

text: In 1986, Li was the winner of Miss Asia Pacific Hong Kong. On September 30, 1986, Li was a beauty pageant participant of Miss Asia Pacific Quest 1986, and she placed as third runner up.


title: Nina Li Chi

text: On September 19, 1999, Lì married Jet Li, her co-star from the 1989 film, "Dragon Fight". They have two daughters together, Jane Li (b. 2000) and Jada Li (b. 2002).


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos (; ) is the capital city of Peru's Maynas Province and Loreto Region. It is the largest metropolis in the Peruvian Amazon, east of the Andes, as well as the ninth-most populous city of Peru. Iquitos is the largest city in the world that cannot be reached by road that isn't on an island, it is accessible only by river and air.


title: Iquitos

text: It is known as the "capital of the Peruvian Amazon". The city is located in the Great Plains of the Amazon Basin, fed by the Amazon, Nanay, and Itaya rivers. Overall, it constitutes the Iquitos metropolitan area, a conurbation of 471,993 inhabitants consisting of four districts: Iquitos, Punchana, Belén, and San Juan Bautista.


title: Iquitos

text: The area has long been inhabited by indigenous peoples. According to Spanish historical documents, Iquitos was established around 1757 as a Spanish Jesuit reduction on the banks of the Nanay River. The Jesuits gathered local Napeano (Yameo) and Iquito natives to live here, and they named it "San Pablo de Napeanos".


title: Iquitos

text: In the late 19th century, during the Amazon rubber boom, the city became the center of export of rubber production from the Amazon Basin and was the headquarters of the Peruvian Amazon Company (PAC). The city's economy was highly dependent on the PAC, controlled in the nation by Peruvian businessman Julio César Arana. PAC kept indigenous workers in near slavery conditions through use of force and harsh treatment, until an investigation caused a reaction against the company. In addition, rubber seedlings had been smuggled out of the country and cultivated on plantations in Southeast Asia, undercutting prices of the Peruvian product. With the decline of the rubber industry, many workers and merchants left Iquitos.


title: Iquitos

text: As one of the leading cities, along with Manaus, during the Amazon rubber boom (1880–1914), Iquitos was influenced by the numerous Europeans who flocked to it. Architecture and cultural institutions established during this period expressed their own traditions. An opera house and Jewish cemetery were among the institutions established.


title: Iquitos

text: Later in the 20th century, the city and region diversified its economy. The region exported timber, fish and its by-products, oil, minerals, and agricultural crops. It also derives revenue from tourism and related crafts. In 1999, the city consolidated its four municipalities.


title: Iquitos

text: The area was inhabited for thousands of years by Amerindians. At the time of European encounter, the Napeano and Iquito peoples occupied the area. They had small seasonal settlements and were nomadic hunter-gatherers, living in close association with the rivers. The city name of Iquitos is derived from a group of native people called Iquitos by the Spaniards. They had previously inhabited areas along the rivers Pastaza, Arabela, Tigre, Nanay, and Curaray. Eventually, the native Iquito migrated to the area around the rivers Nanay, Amazonas, Itaya, and the Lake Moronacocha.


title: Iquitos

text: Between 1638 to 1769, the Iquitos and other native tribes of the Marañon rivers were obliged to settle down in various Missions (known as "reducciones" or reductions) founded and run by Jesuit missionaries from the Audiencia of Quito. The Jesuits settled in the major cities of the Audiencia of Quito, which was part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada at the time. During this period of nearly 130 years, 161 Jesuit missionaries worked to convert and educate the natives of the Amazon region. Among them were 63 criollos (white ethnic Spanish colonists born in the Audencia), 43 Spaniards, 32 Germans and Dutch, 20 Italians, 2 Portuguese, and 1 Frenchman. Their role in South America was to convert the natives of the Amazon Basin to Christianity. The Jesuits successfully gathered the natives living along the Marañon river into various Jesuit missions, where they were set to work at farming and other pursuits.


title: Iquitos

text: Commencing in 1730, the Jesuits took 37 years to found the Iquitos missions along the Marañon River, close to the mouth of the Napo and Amazon rivers. These were collectively known as Iquitos Missions, since all these settlements were mainly populated chiefly by the Iquitos natives of the region. The naming and foundation of all the Iquitos Missions were done by Jesuit Father José Bahamonde. He was born in Quito on 1 January 1710, accepted into the Jesuit order, and served as a missionary for decades. After Charles III of Spain suppressed and expelled the Society of Jesus from South America in 1767, Bahamonde was exiled to Italy, where he died in Ravenna, Italy on 11 May 1786.


title: Iquitos

text: The following is a chronological list of noted Iquitos Missions founded by Bahamonde and other Jesuits:


title: Iquitos

text: During the Spanish Colonial era, most of the Jesuit missions were under the jurisdiction of the Royal Audiencia of Quito. Created in 1563, it was a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, and was transferred briefly to the Viceroyalty of New Granada on 27 May 1717 known as the Cedula Real of 1717 (Royal Decree of 1717). Six and a half years later, on 5 November 1723, Philip V of Spain dissolved the Viceroyalty of New Granada and reincorporated the Audiencia of Quito into the Viceroyalty of Peru. Sixteen years later Philip V of Spain decided to re-create the Viceroyalty of New Granada and to re incorporate the Audiencia of Quito through the "Cedula Real" (Royal Decree) dated 20 August 1739. Charles III of Spain suppressed the Society of Jesus, believing them too powerful, and expelled them from South America by order dated 20 August 1767. Given the distance from Quito and the lack of roads connecting to that city, a political vacuum was developed in the area. The undefended Jesuit missions were attacked by the Brazilian Bandeirantes. In response the King of Spain on recommendation of Francisco Raquena created the Government and Commandancy General of Maynas in 1802 to halt the invasion into the Spanish Amazon of land-hungry mestizo Portuguese Bandeirantes. In general, this amounted to the religious administration and military command of all tributaries of the Amazon river in the Amazon Basin that belonged to the Royal Audiencia of Quito in the Viceroyalty of New Granada being transferred again to the Viceroyalty of Peru. The Portuguese advance was halted at Tabatinga.


title: Iquitos

text: In the early 19th century, following independence, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Brazil had overlapping claims to the Northwestern Amazon Basin, based on each country's interpretation of their colonial "de jure" titles. The disputed area was populated mostly by groups of nomadic Amerindian natives living in the Amazon jungle. In addition there were semi-assimilated sedentary Amerindians living with a handful of whites and mestizos, dedicated to trading in sparsely populated trading port villages that were found scattered along the river banks of the Amazon Basin. During the colonial era the disputed area known as Maynas had numerous missions administered by the Jesuits of Quito. After the Jesuits were expelled from South America, only a handful of missions survived in the 19th century as isolated trading villages. The Brazilians, by contrast, had a chain of villages along the Amazon River that stretched to its ports along the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Iquitos

text: Because Peru discovered that Ecuador and Colombia neglected to effectively control their Amazonian territories during their colonial era, Peru decided to back its de jure titles with de facto possession by setting up military posts in the relatively isolated trading villages and then flooding the disputed area with Peruvian colonists. The only problem lay with the expanding ambitions of Brazil, since it had slowly settled its part of the disputed area with colonists throughout its colonial era; it had a trading relationship with the Spanish-speaking trading posts and villages along the Marañon River. To neutralize Brazil from impeding Peru's planned colonization project, on 23 October 1851, Peru peacefully settled its disputes with Brazil and both countries agreed to a bilateral free navigation and friendly trade along the Amazon River.


title: Iquitos

text: As a result of the Peruvian-Brazilian treaty, the Peruvian President Ramon Castilla created the Military and Political Department of Loreto on 7 January 1861 from the former Maynas territory. Castilla ordered that a fluvial port be constructed in a strategic spot on the Amazon River. After some debate, his staff chose the trading port Village of Iquitos. On 5 January 1864, three steamships of the Peruvian Navy: "Pastaza," "Próspero" y "Morona", arrived in the Village of Iquitos.


title: Iquitos

text: This date is marked as the founding of the first fluvial Peruvian port of Iquitos by the government of Peru. A dockyard and navy factorage imported from England was immediately constructed. In time Iquitos grew so much that it was designated as the capital of the Department of Loreto on 9 November 1897. Iquitos also became the seat of a Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate. Peru was able to map out and assume "de facto" control of the majority of the area of the Amazon region under dispute with Ecuador and Colombia. After many skirmishes with Ecuadorian and Colombian outposts, that at times led to war, Peru settled its border with Colombia in 1922 and with Ecuador in 1942.


title: Iquitos

text: Beginning in the 1900s, Iquitos became wealthy through its rubber industry throughout the rubber boom; it attracted thousands of immigrants from around the world, mostly young single men who hoped to make their fortunes in rubber. The rise of the automobile and related industries had dramatically increased the worldwide demand for rubber. Some men became merchants and bankers, and made their fortunes that way. Many of the European men married indigenous women and stayed in Iquitos the rest of their lives, founding ethnically mixed families. The immigrants brought European clothing styles, music, architecture and other cultural elements to Iquitos. They established an opera house that featured European classical music.


title: Iquitos

text: Among the unique communities formed by the 19th-century immigrants to the rubber boom was one of Sephardic Jews from Morocco. Many of the men married native women and made families in Iquitos. They established a synagogue and the Jewish cemetery. In the first generation, some of the women or children converted to Judaism, but by the end of the 20th century, four or five generations later, most descendants were no longer practicing Jews. Most were reared as Catholic.


title: Iquitos

text: In the 1990s, a descendant of a Jewish settler undertook serious study of Judaism. He began to revive the practice of Judaism among his family, friends, and other Sephardi descendants. After years of study, with the help of a sympathetic Conservative rabbi in Lima and another from Brooklyn, New York, eventually a few hundred people studied, practiced as Jews, and converted to Judaism. (Formal conversion was necessary according to "Halakha" as their mothers were not Jewish.) Many of the converts have emigrated to Israel under its Law of Return. A documentary was made about this community in 2010. Emigration of Peruvians from this Iquitos community has continued; about 150 emigrated in 2013 to 2014, see "Peruvian Jews in Israel" for more.


title: Iquitos

text: The wealthiest Europeans built great mansions in the late 19th century, some of which survive. "Casa de Fierro" (Spanish for the Iron House) is said to have been designed by Gustave Eiffel, designer of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, but evidence supporting this claim is scant. After an Englishman smuggled rubber seeds out of the area to establish competing rubber plantations in British colonies in southeast Asia and Africa, the boom came to an end. In addition, a 1913 investigative report by Roger Casement, the British consul-general to Iquitos who had investigated labor conditions for natives in the Congo Free State when it was under King Leopold's control, revealed the abuses of indigenous workers in the Amazon Basin by the Peruvian Amazon Company (PAC), owned by businessman Julio César Arana. Its several British board members and numerous stockholders in London were pressured to force changes in operations of the company. Many British divested themselves of this company in an effort to force changes. Arana returned to Peru, where he remained in charge of the PAC. Asian rubber was soon produced at lower cost and undercut that of South America, and rubber declined in importance in Peru.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos continued as an important trading port in the Amazon basin. It exploited its timber, oil and mineral resources for export and processing, along with agricultural and other products.


title: Iquitos

text: On 13 August 2012, a special plaque was placed in the plaza 28 de Julio of the city in a ceremony to commemorate the Amazon River and rainforest as one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World. The plaque was forged in Munich, Germany. Iguazu Falls in Argentina has also been recognized as one of these top natural wonders.


title: Iquitos

text: In 2021, it was announced that a large (100 MW/100 MWH) solar and storage power facility would be built at Iquitos by 2026, replacing as much as half the diesel burned to produce electricity in the city.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos is located in northeastern Peru, northeastern Loreto Region, and in the extreme south of the Province of Maynas. Located on the Great Plains, the city has an area of , comprising the districts Belén, Punchana and San Juan Bautista. It is approximately at coordinates 03 ° 43'46 "S 73 ° 14'18" W to . It is the most northern Peruvian city.


title: Iquitos

text: It is surrounded by the Port of Iquitos, formed by the Amazon, Nanay and Itaya rivers. The city is situated on the left bank of the Amazon River, which provides a characteristic economic life, including trade and transport. The Itaya and Nanay rivers limit the physical expansion of the city in that direction; new development is growing toward the south and there is a slight population density in Downtown Iquitos. Close to Iquitos are a number of lagoons and lakes; Moronococha Lake is a boundary to the city on the west. These features make the city seem like a huge, faux river island.


title: Iquitos

text: Geologically, the city is settled in a Tertiary-Quaternary formation lithologically composed by little-consolidated lutites, with remains of flora or fauna, and numerous white-sand lenses of abundant silicon. The residual soils are sandy, almost clay-like and variably deep. Physiography, is a hazy landscape due to the undulations of the soil erosion caused by rain.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos experiences an equatorial climate that is a tropical rainforest climate ("Af") under the Köppen climate classification, more subject to the Intertropical Convergence Zone than the trade winds and with no cyclones. There is constant rainfall throughout the year, without a distinct dry season, but a wetter summer. Because the seasons are not sensitive in the equatorial zone, Iquitos has only two seasons.


title: Iquitos

text: The rainy summer arrives in November and ends in May. March and April have the heaviest rains and humidity, with precipitation between , respectively. In May, the Amazon River, one of the rivers surrounding the city, reaches its highest levels. It falls around at its lowest point in October, and then steadily rises again cyclically according to rainfall.


title: Iquitos

text: Winter offers a drier, sunnier climate. Although July and August are the driest months, they have some periods of downpours. Sunny days and good weather are common. Rainfall is more abundant here than in Ayacucho, Cusco, or Lima.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos also has microclimates: rain or drizzle may be present in some areas of the districts, while other parts of the city are slightly cloudy or clear. The temperature may vary. The urban climate is slightly warmer than the natural climate, and would be reflected by the thermal sensation. It suffers from a phenomenon called urban heat island, when the city's heat has difficulty dissipating during the night hours due to absorption by buildings and pavement.


title: Iquitos

text: The main natural hazard is flooding. In 2012, major flooding occurred in Iquitos who alerted the population and affected coastal areas and several towns in the metropolitan area, which has a floodable, rainy geography. The floods of 2012 were regarded as the most historic natural disaster to Iquitos to date. Wet weather in Loreto took showers and drizzle, causing damage and flooding in the Loreto Region since November 2011. The rainy weather continued until early 2012, and increased the level of water in the Amazon river—wide stream that feeds most of the tributaries in Loreto — up to . Since February and March, several villages are affected (19,209 and 18,400 families affected), 26 000 hectares of farmland are flooded and the water level reached coastal streets of Iquitos. On 24 April 2012, the spate faded, and initiated the first stage of ebb.


title: Iquitos

text: Other natural hazards are heat waves where temperatures can reach over with a heat index of which is caused by the low humidity on clear days. Cold waves are also curious in Iquitos: cold air from the tip of the continent driven by the dynamics of the atmosphere, comes to town and causes a drop in temperature, moderate rainfall and thunderstorms. The trade winds also come to cause gales reaching . In October 2012, Iquitos experienced high temperatures and heavy thunderstorms.


title: Iquitos

text: Earthquakes in the city are very rare and very deep. Iquitos is located in Region 3 of Systematic Regionalization Map of Peru, which means that the city has a low coefficient seismic value, although the 2011 Peru earthquake, which occurred southeast of Contamana, was felt in the city as a small and unexpected jolt.


title: Iquitos

text: Due to its location in the Peruvian Amazon, Iquitos has a green landscape with a vast variety of life. The flora is varied with great presence of 850 species, including 22 species of palms and orchids, who provide the attractive forest within the urban landscape of the city. Lilies are also present. The extensive forests seated within the metropolitan area host fauna including 130 species of mammals, 330 species of birds, 150 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 250 species of fish. Within the city, inhabiting the rock dove ("Columba livia"), especially in the Square 28 de Julio. Also recorded is the transient presence of bull sharks ("Carcharhinus leucas") who come from the Atlantic Ocean, traveling 3,360 miles to reach Iquitos.


title: Iquitos

text: The floodplain forest of Iquitos is the peculiar ecoregion which surrounds the city, and is characterized by a várzea forest called Iquitos varzea. Its alluvial detail is the motive why intense rainy seasons easily reach these areas flood. In the natural cycle, the trees drop their leaves and other organic waste to the soil, and become humus. Rain washes these nutrients into rivers, which gives that blonde color, called tannin. Immediately, this cycle repeats.


title: Iquitos

text: The great biodiversity that the Iquitos Metropolitan Area houses and protects is paramount, and that is intrinsically related to its urban planning, which puts a limit action in areas where farms should not be built. Because of this, the appearance of informal settlements is seen as a risk.


title: Iquitos

text: The importance of the existence of nature reserves is a priority in Iquitos for ecosystem protection.


title: Iquitos

text: The Allpahuayo-Mishana National Reserve is a protected area with soaring rates of biodiversity. The reserve is located from Iquitos, being reached by Route LO-103. The ecosystem is part of the Nanay River basin, specifically in an area called "Ecoregion Napo", which contains unique Amazonian biodiversity, including its distinctive white sand forests. The Napo Ecoregion contains 112 species of amphibians, 17 species of primates, 1900 plant species and over 600 bird species. Some ecologically important animals valued for their rarity in the reserve are the supay pichico ("Callimico goeldii"), black stump ("Callicebus torquatus"), equatorial saki ("Pithecia aequatorialis") ancient antwren ("Herpsilochmus gentryi"), Mishana tyrannulet ("Zimmerius villarejoi"), Allpahuayo antbird ("Percnostola arenarum"), chestnut-tailed ant ("Myrmeciza centuculorum castanea"), the pompadour cotinga ("Xipholena punicea"), saffron-crested tyrant-manakin ("Neopelma chrysocephalum"), among others. The Iquitos gnatcatcher (Polioptila clementsi) is an endemic species of the reserve and is considered a symbol of Iquitos.


title: Iquitos

text: Quistococha Tourist Complex is characterized by its variety. The place is located from Iquitos via Route AS-103, and with an extension of natural forest, has a small zoo, a serpentarium, an aquarium, a nursery and an artificial beach called Tunchi Beach.


title: Iquitos

text: The butterfly zoo Pilpintuwasi is located in Padre Cocha, Iquitos, and includes more than 40 species of insects, especially butterflies. Along the butterfly zoo, is the Amazon Animal Orphanage, commissioned in animal rescue.


title: Iquitos

text: In 1808, Hipolito Sanchez Rangel, the bishop of Maynas, reported that the village of Iquitos had 171 inhabitants and on 8 June 1842, the date when the town was elevated to a district, it had just over 200 inhabitants.


title: Iquitos

text: In 1860, according to Paz Soldan, the town had only 300 inhabitants. Two years later, the population increased to about 431 inhabitants and in 1864, there were 648 people, predominantly mestizo due to the presence of families from Borja, Santiago, Santa Teresa, Barranca and others, who fled away from the attack on the Huambisas and Aguaruna native and destroyed the villages.


title: Iquitos

text: According to Genaro Herrera, in 1866, Iquitos had a population of 648 people. For 1876, again the same author reports a population of 1,475 inhabitants.


title: Iquitos

text: In 1903, in the middle of the rubber boom, Iquitos had 9,438 inhabitants (census of Benito Lords), of which 542 were foreigners, most of them from Spain (95) Brazil (80), China (74), Portugal (64) and as many from Italy, England, France, Ecuador, United States, Russia, Switzerland and Morocco.


title: Iquitos

text: Currently, Iquitos has emerged as the largest city in the Peruvian Amazon. Counted by the Census of 2007 with 406,340 inhabitants.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos is a provincial municipality with a system of government headed by a Provincial Council, composed of the Mayor and fifteen aldermen. The Provincial Municipality of Maynas (MPM) is the main body that has jurisdiction in the Maynas Province and Iquitos District, and authorities are elected by popular vote. The municipal government is responsible for planning development and territorial order within its jurisdiction and promoting strategic coordinace


title: Iquitos

text: within the district order. It is responsible for public education, correctional institutions, libraries, public safety, urban planning, regulation of all types of transportation, municipal tax collection, maintenance of public roads (asphalt, cleaning, etc..) and gardens, promoting culture and preservation of architecture and public places, among others. The Municipal Manager is responsible "to direct, coordinate, monitor and evaluate the technical, financial and administrative of the Municipality".


title: Iquitos

text: The MPM has support bodies formed by the General Secretariat, the Office of Institutional Image, Administrative Management, Revenue Management and the General Office of Information. The line agencies are bureaucratic managers with a distinct role and have the function of carrying out the institution's mission, which includes the Territorial Conditioning, Sanitation and Environmental Health, Works and Infrastructure, Traffic and Public Transport, Social Development, Economic Development and Municipal Services. The MPM organizes the Municipal Ombudsman Service of Child and Adolescent.


title: Iquitos

text: The mayor was Adela Jimenez, an architect, chosen by the National Jury of Elections to fill temporarily to Charles Zevallos who was suspended for health reasons. Jimenez was the first woman to hold the office of mayor provincial and Iquitos. Current mayor is Francisco Sanjurjo Dávila.


title: Iquitos

text: The political geography of Iquitos consists of four districts or communes, each with a district municipality. Except for Iquitos District which does not have a district municipality and as such, the Provincial Municipality of Maynas also functions as its council district. The other districts are with a respective one: District Municipality of Punchna, the District Municipality of San Juan Bautista and the District Municipality of Belén. Each municipality has control in its own district, and each has a policy of urban planning that is created according to the state of its district.


title: Iquitos

text: The environmental management of the city has faced the accumulation of garbage in various parts of the city and along more informal piers, and creating a remarkable visual and soil pollution. The result is a serious blow to environmental ethics, being the providing a profile of sustainable city. The problem usually occurs in the informal settlements and markets such as Belén. In the central areas, some people throw away trash on the ground without apparent concern although there is a law against it. In other minor cases, seem to ignore the cubes, being close to them, throw away the trash on the ground anyway. In markets, the presence of illegal dumping is another problem. Styrofoam containers are the vessel of choice for any food service, and the practice of carrying out or getting meals delivered, especially at lunchtime, is ubiquitous.


title: Iquitos

text: The government and several environmental organizations in Iquitos began spreading environmental education of citizens, and the results obtained were of slight beneficial impact gradually. However, the garbage (usually piled in mounds) still appears in various parts of the city, due to the lack of environmental awareness in the majority of citizens. In 2013 the city attempted to launch a recycling program for plastics but did not get beyond the initial test stage. Most waste is brought to an uncovered dumping area next to the Iquitos-Nauta highway. Plastics and other toxic and non-biodegradable products are still thrown in the river.


title: Iquitos

text: Noise pollution caused by their bustling public transport also seriously affects the city, and has always been tolerated ignoring alarms despite charging high intensity in recent years. The frenetic urban noise up to 115 decibels exceeds the desirable level (70 dB) indicated by the World Health Organization and, therefore, makes Iquitos in the noisiest city in Latin America.


title: Iquitos

text: On the hydrological, Iquitos encourages the protection of Nanay River basin because it is major, natural drinking water supply.


title: Iquitos

text: Illegal logging and illegal hunting and trading of rare and endangered species are also major environmental issues in Iquitos. This area has long been plagued by abuses to the few existing environmental protection laws, as well as a deeply entrenched wood laundering system so that illegal wood appears to be legal upon sale to international corporations. Local markets actively trade in rare and endangered species, much to satisfy tourist and foreign demand. In both of these arenas, the locals who work the hardest sourcing these products from the forest get the least compensation, if any at all.


title: Iquitos

text: The city is the urban core of Iquitos Metropolitan Area. It is a conurbation consists of four districts that are heavily populated in the city, while rural areas become more so away from the downtown. The Iquitos District is the urban origin of the city and the metropolitan area. Moronacocha, which has 85,000 inhabitants, could become the fifth district of Iquitos.


title: Iquitos

text: The metropolitan area of Iquitos is also organized by another system subdivisions, less known by the local colloquialism.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos is the main center of commerce, tourism and industry in the Amazon rainforest with the world. As gateway to the Peruvian Amazon, the economy of many parts of the region come to Iquitos for sustainable control. The Economic Development Management of the Provincial Municipality of Maynas is responsible for regulating and regulate trade, business development and employment, tourism and rural production both Iquitos District as whole Maynas Province. Meanwhile, the Chamber of Commerce of Iquitos is headed by economist Victor Manuel Valdivia Barberis.


title: Iquitos

text: The city is a major center for finance, sales, transportation, tourism, media, while major industries that work is the timber, petroleum, gas, flour milling, oil, rum, camu camu and bakery. The fishing industry is another big support for the economy of the city. The Belen Market has a frenetic commercial activity that is part of its economy. Iquitos has great financial backing has been able to help it progress now since its role in the rubber boom, although must be overcome with effort after the rubber was no longer produced in the city. The petroleum industry, despite being outside the urban area of Iquitos, has greatly influenced its evolution. In addition, trade has mainly helped the growth of the city. In San Juan Bautista, economic development is based on agriculture (sugar cane, pijuayo, caimito), fish, poultry, livestock (cattle, bubaline) and mining. The petroleum, one of the most precious resources, extracted mainly from the region northwest of Loreto and part of it is transported to the refinery in Iquitos. The timber transport is another important economic factor, however, due to the Free Trade Agreement between Peru and the United States, the gross exploitation of timber has decreased considerably.


title: Iquitos

text: According to Rolando Arellano, president of Arellano Marketing, describes the "Iquiteño" consumer to have greater preference for a "Western model with a more modern orientation than the Peruvian-Andean lifestyle".


title: Iquitos

text: With projects of large malls, the city still has a trade-in retail stores and minimarkets throughout the metropolitan area, more strongly in main avenues such as Prospero, Arica, Grau and Alfonso Ugarte located in the center of Iquitos and the Belén District. Retail distribution of imported products has created regional and social stratification that goes from the merchant importer to urban retailer, which serves as a strong link between the urban and rural economy.


title: Iquitos

text: Companies located in Iquitos include Amazónica, Backus, Banco Continental, Banco de Crédito del Perú, Banco de la Nación, Banco Financiero, Bata Shoes, Claro Americas, CrediVargas, DHL Express, DirecTV, Electro Oriente, Galerías Quispe, Supermercado Pacific, Honda, Husqvarna AB, Inkafarma, Interbank, Los Portales, Mapfre, Motocorp, Multicines Star, Orvisa/Caterpillar, Persa, Petroperú, RadioShack, Scotiabank, Shambo, Special Book Services, Telefónica/Movistar, The Coca-Cola Company, Topitop, Western Union, Yamaha Corporation, among others.


title: Iquitos

text: In the coming years, companies like Ripley, Saga Falabella, Metro, Plaza Vea, Tottus, among others, will be available.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos is home to numerous research projects on ecology related to ornithology and herpetology. Cornell University owns a field station dubbed the Cornell University Esbaran Amazon Field Laboratory. Founded in July 2001 under the direction of Dr. Eloy Rodriguez, the facility is dedicated to education, conservation, and the discovery of novel medicinal compounds from applied field chemoecology.


title: Iquitos

text: The field lab strives to survey and catalog the biological diversity found along the Yarapa River Basin. It provides researchers with field experience in the broad range of disciplines necessary for this task. Another major goal is to explore value-added derivatives of biodiversity. This includes both tangible returns, in the form of new discoveries in the biomedical and related sciences, as well as less tangible goods, such as the promotion of ecotourism and an ecological ethic. They work to ensure benefits to the local communities, and to participating students and researchers.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos has four universities: Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana (UNAP), the local state university; Universidad Particular de Iquitos (UPI), Universidad Científica del Perú (UCP), Universidad Peruana del Oriente (UPO) three private institutions. It is also home to the "Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana" (IIAP), the Institute of Investigation of the Peruvian Amazon.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos has a personality very different from the rest of Peru and even different from other South-American Amazonian cities. The streets of Iquitos are dominated by more than 25,000 auto rickshaws or motokars, known in the rest of Peru under the name of mototaxi, and for foreigners as auto rickshaw or tuk-tuk, providing taxi service. The buses are large vehicles made of wood with direct routes.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos is widely regarded as the largest inland city that is inaccessible by road. Air and river transport are the main means for entry or exit of people and goods to the city, since the cost of living in this city is generally higher than the Peruvian standard. It is considered that Iquitos is the second most expensive city in Peru after Cusco. A proposed road link to Sarameriza, to be completed by 2021, would connect Iquitos to the country's road network.


title: Iquitos

text: The city has renewed Crnl. FAP Francisco Secada Vignetta International Airport where domestic and international flights operate. In the domestic terminal there are routes from Lima and other Peruvian provinces. While in the international terminal there are flights from/to Panama City on Wednesdays and Saturdays with Copa Airlines also connecting from/to USA, Mexico, Canada, Central America & Caribbean, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Brazil. There are between 8 to 9 daily flights to Iquitos from Lima, some make intermediate stops in Pucallpa and Tarapoto. Air routes are served by four companies: LAN Perú, Peruvian Airlines, Star Perú and Copa Airlines. The direct flight between Lima and Iquitos takes 1 hour and 45 minutes. Copa Airlines provides international flights to the city with Panama and the Americas from 14 July 2012. Since June 2011, the Central Government of Peru provided two de Havilland Canada DHC-6 "Twin Otter" for operations across the region.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos has architecturally significant buildings in a particular range of structural remnants were built during the rubber boom of the 1880s. The buildings are mainly European/Amazonian-style with ceramic tiles imported from Italy and Portugal, and the city's unique French architecture called Casa de Fierro built by Gustave Eiffel, who built the original house in Paris for an exhibition of 1878. However, the structure is not the only European urban appeal: the city is also characterized by the rustic architecture or conventional as the palafitte, malocas and huts that are located primarily in the areas of the city.


title: Iquitos

text: Historically, the first native inhabitants of the settlements built their houses of sticks and leaves and other natural resources, which were tailored to protect against the climate, wildlife and other hazards. The styles of housing in those settlements were huts and cocameras, used as large communal houses. Other notable conventional architectures are characterized by their firmness and isothermal conditions; they are categorized into three types of home: quincha —built with posts and giant cane—, rammed earth —resistant and isothermal—, and adobe —irm with the same isothermal condition.


title: Iquitos

text: The rubber boom of the 1880s caused a severe change in the architectural style of Iquitos. Foreign and rubber barons brought with them the influence of countries like Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, and descendants as Sephardim. Jose de Jesus Reategui and a young group built the main features of the urban city during the rubber boom, including the Iglesia Matriz de Iquitos. In the Iquitos popular belief of the 19th century, iron was considered less humane and aesthetic, but Gustave Eiffel got the Casa de Fierro became an attraction in the city, although historically the prefabricated building was not designed for Iquitos. Baroque and Rococo style also influenced the architecture of Iquitos, and defense against the rain was another prominent feature added to buildings. About 90 buildings are declared architectural heritage sites of Loreto.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos has a vibrant, unique, complex and diverse culture, and is regarded as the cultural hub of the Peruvian Amazon, according to Lonely Planet. Many natives visit the city to showcase their dances or sell their crafts. The city also has a wealth of customs and traditions that have remained consistent over the years such as following the Iquitos calendar, celebrating cultural festivities, cuisine, Spanish accent and mythology. Currently, its culture is undergoing an impetuous transition to a contemporary level to preserve their traditions with innovative art movements.


title: Iquitos

text: One of the main factors of the traditional cultural energy of Iquitos is Amazonian mythology, which has a range of characters, identified by folklore in imaginary beings. Many of the legendary beings, with appearances motivated by local geography, have powers and influenced much in agriculture and worldview of Iquitos. The dance and music, a mix of indigenous and mestizo heritage are closely related to the meanings of mythology, and also with the life of the citizen and Amazonian villager.


title: Iquitos

text: The complex cultural life of Iquitos consists mainly of native iquiteños, Brazilians, Colombians, Chineses and settled expatriates ethnicities. The term "charapa culture" generally refers to social, cultural and artistic movements of Iquitos.


title: Iquitos

text: Contemporary cultural movements began in the city, such as the Amazonian pop art and Amazonian graffiti—with Pukuna 8990 being the most revolutionary graffiti movement—Iquiteño music subgenres of electronica, hip hop, rap, heavy metal, French jazz, punk, psytrance/full-on, next to traditional Amazonian music. The Children's and Youthful Symphonic Orchestra of Iquitos is the main symphonic group in the city.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos has been benchmarked over the years in literature and film. The Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa wrote his work "Captain Pantoja and the Special Service" inspired by the city. Francisco Lombardi's 2000 film, based on the novel by Vargas Llosa was filmed in this city. In Rómulo Gallegos-winning "The Green House" (1965) and "The Dream of the Celt" (2010), other novels of Mario Vargas Llosa, also part of the plot occurs in Iquitos.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos has an intense tourist movement in the entertainment, which is based on specific points located throughout the city. With a growing organization of entertainment today, the city has always had groups concerned to project the Iquitos arts such as dance, music, film, painting, literature and theater.


title: Iquitos

text: In the visual arts, the city is the birthplace of Amazonian pop art (also known wild naive) which is a unique, self-taught, pop-art style of the city, and is notable for its "sparkling" chromaticism, and makes a reference to hallucinogenic ayahuasca experiences. Originally, it is a mural art that blends prominently the colorful amazonian culture, European motifs and commercial characters, which may be influenced by American pop art, especially MTV.


title: Iquitos

text: In several works of painters "iquiteños" (such as Christian Bendayan, Roldán Pinedo, Elena Valera, Rember Yahuarcani, Brus Rubio and Victor Churay), Amazonian pop art legacy has been a visual reference to create avant-garde works of contemporary life in the city and Amazonian culture.


title: Iquitos

text: The Dirección Regional de Cultura (formerly known as Instituto Nacional de Cultura del Perú), with headquarters in the city, mainly funded events and arts festivals in the city, although there are also small indie or underground groups that conduct their own cultural events. The city has many small festivals; the highlights are Estamos en la Calle, Iquitos Outfest, and other small annual events.


title: Iquitos

text: The city is known for having a remarkable celebration, called simply "Carnaval". During this festival, mainly pagan, celebrants are dedicated to wetting people with "cabaciñas" or other instrument. Many choose to be more extravagant, wetting with various substances such as paint or other object as cause for celebration. The celebration is unique each year in February. The carnival is heavily influenced by myths and rich Amazonian culture. It also celebrates the Day of San Juan, referring to John the Baptist as patron saint in the Peruvian Amazon, whose feast is celebrated on 24 June. The main element is the juane and other own dances as shunto jump.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos has a major cinematic history, which originated from the arrival of foreign families during the rubber boom in the early 20th century. A group of people brought technology, including projectors of the Lumiere brothers. The most important pioneer of cinema in Iquitos and the Loreto Region is Antonio Wong Rengifo; alongside this, other filmmakers such as Werner Herzog, Armando Robles Godoy, Nora Izcue, Federico García, and Dorian Fernández-Moris prolonged the cinematic presence in the city. Iquitos was and is used as a cultural scene, reference, and shelter for many filmmakers.


title: Iquitos

text: Major films filmed in Iquitos and its surroundings are: "Frente del Putumayo" (1932) and "Bajo el sol de Loreto" (1936) by Antonio Wong Rengifo; "No Stars in the Jungle" (1966) and "The Green Wall" (1969) by Armando Robles Godoy; "Aguirre, the Wrath of God" (1972) and "Fitzcarraldo" (1982) by Werner Herzog; "Informe sobre los shipibos" (1974), "Los hombres del Ucayali" and Captain Pantoja and the Special Services (2000) by Francisco Lombardi, and "General Cemetery" (2012) by Dorián Fernández-Moris.


title: Iquitos

text: Despite having a long filmography, the film industry promoted the city is not too hard in his only commercial film theater. However, there is cultural and "underground" groups concerned with projecting films at festivals or private cinematheque as a way of cultural development. There is also small groups of self-taught filmmakers who record their own stories. The film genres with more presence are documentary, nature, drama, art house and, recently, horror and found footage in "General Cemetery". At first, with Wong Rengifo, was shot slice-of-life/documentary films


title: Iquitos

text: Tourism is one of the most vital industries in Iquitos, which has a growing reputation as a honeypot due to its location on the banks of the Amazon River, one of the seven natural wonders of the world. Through the years, Iquitos receives a considerable number of foreigners; the tourist index grew by international flights offered by the city's airport. Tourism in the city formed into European-style architecture, cuisine, drinks, art, culture, worldview, Spanish accent and historical references of Loreto. Iquitos has adequate infrastructure to accommodate tourists from all levels. It has a 5-star hotel, many of 3-, 2-, and 1-star rating.


title: Iquitos

text: The major tourist attractions include Barrio de Belén, Plaza de Armas, Casa de Fierro, Ex Hotel Palace, Iglesia Matriz de Iquitos, Allpahuayo Mishana; Embarcadero Bellavista-Nanay, ethnic communities located around the city, Quistococha Resort and Zoo; Mercado Artesanal of San Juan. iperú is the leading tourist guide service that is offered to tourists at the airport and the city center of the city.


title: Iquitos

text: The city is also home to unique tourist companies as Amazonia Expeditions, Maniti Camp Expeditions, Otorongo Expeditions, Amazon Golf Course, and Project Amazonas (dedicated to research and conservation). Special experiences outside the key tourist areas of the city include the Camiri —a floating hotel—, the Isla de los Monos, the Pilpintuwasi butterfly zoo, Iquitos-Sunkaruqucha Corrientillos-King Kong-Nina Rumi circuit, and adjoining districts such as Mazán, Indiana and Bellavista


title: Iquitos

text: In 2010, Iquitos received about 150 thousand tourists. The following year, in 2011, the index fell to 46,000 tourist foreigners, which expects 10% rise rapidly in 2013 with international flights opened in July 2012 and the Amazon River as a natural wonder.


title: Iquitos

text: Ayahuasca is known as a major cultural landmark, and mystic tourism has increased in Iquitos in recent years. The drink, made from the vine "Banisteriopsis caapi", is investigated by the Western people with a medicinal purpose and study, and was named the nation's cultural heritage.


title: Iquitos

text: Dangers, however, still exist when coming into contact with the drug. Shamans are not regulated and none have proof of credentials. While deaths in Iquitos are rare, they have been reported, including Frenchman Fabrice Champion and American Kyle Nolan.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos is home to the annual Amazonian Shamanism Conference. Here, like-minded individuals meet in Iquitos yearly to discuss Ayahuasca.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos is home to the , bronze commemorative plaque of the Amazon River basin as one of the seven natural wonders of the world, which was granted on 13 August 2012 by Fernand Weber, founder of New7Wonders. The distinction is shared with Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Suriname, Colombia, Venezuela and French Guiana, however, recognition was given to Peru which originally ran for the Amazon through the Regional Government of Loreto based in Iquitos.


title: Iquitos

text: The awards show was held in Iquitos. It began with a massive parade along Avenida Quiñonez, and eventually culminated in the main day, 13 August, divided into two sessions throughout the day: the first in the confluence of the Itaya and Nanay in the afternoon, and the second on 28 July Square of the city at night. The event received intense international attention. Similar to Machu Picchu as a wonder of the world, Iquitos, as the main entrance to the Amazon, expects great tourist revenue.


title: Iquitos

text: The President of Peru Ollanta Humala, next to the First Lady Nadine Heredia and Loreto Regional President Ivan Vasquez received the award. Jean Paul de la Fuente, New7Wonders foundation director, said positively on the image of Iquitos:


title: Iquitos

text: However, despite the great satisfaction, the award caused polarized reactions indicating that the Regional Government of Loreto would be on duty to plan better urban development in Iquitos for the forecasted intense tourism. The negative scrutiny aimed at disorganized and massive sewer construction was damaging the city streets, causing discomfort and accidents in traffic and littering the aesthetic image of Iquitos. Several "iquiteños" citizens criticized it via Twitter.


title: Iquitos

text: Iquitos is also attractive for its Amazonic Spanish, a dialect of Spanish spoken in the Amazon. The dialect is most noticeable in speech than in writing, such as [f] and [x] are allophones, (e.g., Juana is pronounced /fana/), especially when it is next to one or semivowel. ("Los fríos de San Juan"; "Los fríos de San Fän"), the double preposing and possessive genitive (De Antonio sus amigos; From Antonio his friends), and the preemption of articles against the names ("Juana", "Lä Fuana"). There are also other languages spoken as Iquito, Yagua, Ese Ejja, or other native languages in Loreto, and foreign languages like English and French because of increasing globalization.


title: Iquitos

text: Juane is one of the main dishes of cuisine of the Peruvian jungle. It is widely consumed during the Catholic Feast of San Juan (St. John), held on 24 June each year. The dish was named in honor of San Juan Bautista. The dish could have a pre-Columbian origin. With the arrival of the Spanish, missionaries popularized the Biblical story of Salome, John, and Herodias. Some believe the dish's name comes from the reference to the head of San Juan.


title: Iquitos

text: Colegio Nacional de Iquitos is a football team based in Iquitos. In 2005 the city's football community received the FIFA Fair Play Award as a result of being one of the five host cities for the 2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship.


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: The levator scapulae is a slender skeletal muscle situated at the back and side of the neck. As the Latin name suggests, its main function is to lift the scapula.


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: The levator scapulae originates from the posterior tubercles of the transverse processes of cervical vertebrae C1-4. At its origin, it attaches via tendinous slips.


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: It inserts onto the medial border of the scapula (with its site of insertion extending between the superior angle of the scapula superiorly, and the junction of spine of scapula and medial border of scapula inferiorly).


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: One of the muscles within the floor of the posterior triangle of the neck, the superior part of levator scapulae is covered by sternocleidomastoid and its inferior part by the trapezius. It is bounded in front by the scalenus medius and behind by splenius cervicis. The spinal accessory nerve crosses laterally in the middle part of the muscle and the dorsal scapular nerve may lie deep to or pass through it.


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: The levator scapulae may lie deep to the sternocleidomastoid at its origin, deep or adjacent to the splenius capitis at its origin and mid-portion, and deep to the trapezius in its lower portion.


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: The number of attachments varies; a slip may extend to the occipital or mastoid, to the trapezius, scalene or serratus anterior, or to the first or second rib. The muscle may be subdivided into several distinct parts from origin to insertion. Levator claviculæ from the transverse processes of one or two upper cervical vertebræ to the outer end of the clavicle corresponds to a muscle of lower animals. More or less union with the serratus anterior muscle.


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: The levator scapulae is innervated by 2-3 branches of the third and fourth cervical nerves, and frequently by a branch from the dorsal scapular nerve.


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: The levator scapulae is supplied by the dorsal scapular artery. Normally, this artery has a small branch which passes laterally to the supraspinatus fossa of the scapula, and in a third of cases, this branch supplies the muscle. If the dorsal scapular artery comes off the transverse cervical artery, the parent transverse cervical artery splits, the dorsal scapular artery passes medially, while the transverse cervical artery passes laterally.


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: When the spine is fixed, levator scapulae elevates the scapula and rotates its inferior angle medially. It often works in combination with other muscles like the rhomboids and pectoralis minor to produce downward rotation of the scapula.


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: Elevating or rotating one shoulder at a time would require muscles to stabilize the cervical spine and keep it immobile so it does not flex or rotate. Elevating both at once with equal amounts of pull on both side of cervical spinal origins would counteract these forces. Downward rotation would be prevented by co-contraction of other muscles that elevate the spine, the upper fibers of the trapezius, which is an upward rotator.


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: When the shoulder is fixed, levator scapulae rotates to the same side and flexes the cervical spine laterally. When both shoulders are fixed, a simultaneous co-contraction of both levator scapulae muscles in equal amounts would not produce lateral flexion or rotation, and may produce straight flexion or extension of the cervical spine.


title: Levator scapulae muscle

text: The muscles of the shoulder can be categorized into three topographic units: the scapulohumeral, axiohumeral, and axioscapular groups. Levator scapulae forms part of the latter group together with rhomboid major, rhomboid minor, serratus anterior, and trapezius. The trapezius evolved separately, but the other three muscles in this group evolved from the first eight or ten ribs and the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae (homologous to the ribs). The serratus anterior formed the basal unit for these three muscles. In higher primates it has evolved into two separate muscles — serratus anterior and levator scapulae — by concentration of the proximal and distal fibers and progressive reduction of the intermediate fibers. The fibers concerned with the cranial displacement of the scapula became the levator scapulae.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: Since the ending of the Bombay stock exchange, stock markets in India, particularly in Mumbai (BSE and NSE) have seen a number of booms as well as crashes.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: This page lists these crashes and sharp falls in the two primary Indian stock markets, namely the BSE and NSE.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: "Financial Times" terms a double-digit percentage fall in the stock markets over five minutes as a crash, while Jayadev et al. describe a stock market crash in India as a "fall in the NIFTY of more than 10% within a span of 20 days" or "difference of more than 10% between the high on a day and the low on the next trading day" or "decline in the NIFTY of more than 9% within a span of 5 days". As per the latter definition, the Nifty experienced 15 crashes during the period 2000 to 2008 with a number of them having occurred in the months of January, May and June 2008.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: As per the "Business Standard", India experienced its first stock market crash in 1865. Although the Bombay stock exchange had not yet been formed, Gujarati and Parsi traders often traded shares mutually at the junction of Rampart row and Meadows street. In the preceding years, speculation about the results of the American Civil War had led to irrational increases of stocks of new Indian companies. Shares of the Back Bay reclamation (face value Rs. 5,000) touched Rs. 50,000 and those of Bank of Baroda (face value Rs.50000000) touched Rs. 29,00,050. Money made from cotton was pumped into the stock market driving prices of stocks higher. Banks loaned money to speculators further fuelling the bull run and wealthy merchants like Premchand Roychand dispensed advice that led to ordinary people placing their bets on shares.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: On 16 November 1864, the governor warned civil servants not to participate in the current frenzy. New companies were floated with new share issues publicized in the newspapers. Forward contracts further promoted speculative purchases. However, the market crashed in May 1865 when the civil war ended, causing cotton prices to fall. Shares of the Backbay reclamation fell by 96% to under Rs. 2,00,000 and a number of merchants including Behramji Hormuzjee Cama went bankrupt. The crash not only led to a dwindling of the financial fortunes of many, it also led to a decrease of the city's population by 21% due to the closing down of many enterprises. On 1 July 1865, when hundreds of "time bargains" had matured (as the future contracts were then known), buyers and sellers alike defaulted leading to the burst of the bubble. A share of Bank of Bombay which had touched Rs 2,850 at the peak of the market slumped to just Rs 87 in the aftermath of the bust.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: In 1982, the bear cartel of Bengal started short selling shares targeted primarily of Reliance. Stocks around 110,0000 was short sold. The value of shares decreased significantly. The BSE was shut down for three consecutive days.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: After economic liberalisation in India in 1991, the stock market saw a number of cycles of booms and busts, some related to scams such as those engineered by players such as Harshad Mehta and Ketan Parekh, some due to global events and a few due to circular trading, rigging of prices and the irrational exuberance of investors leading to bubbles that finally burst.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: During the financial crisis of 2007–2008, the stock markets in India fell on several occasions in 2007 as well as 2008. In 2007, there were five sharp falls in the stock markets.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: The stock markets in India continued to fall in 2016. By 16 February 2016, the BSE had seen a fall of 26% over the past eleven months, losing 1607 points in four consecutive days of February. The reasons given for this included NPAs of Indian banks, "global weaknesses" and "global factors". In the four months from November 2015 to February 2016, FIIs were reported to have sold equities worth Rs 17,318 crore as, in the opinion of analysts, concerns grew over growth in China and as crude oil prices tumbled below $30 per barrel


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: On 9 November 2016, crashed by 1689 points, believed by analysts to be due to the crack down on black money by the Indian government, resulting in frantic selling. The Sensex nosedived by 6% to 26,902 and the Nifty dropped by 541 points to 8002. These were said to be due to the demonetization drive by the Modi government. "The Hindu" was of the opinion that the weakening rupee and the US presidential election too had some bearing on the behavior of investors. The fall was concurrent with falls in other Asian stock markets including the Hang Seng, Nikkei and the Shanghai Composite. The S&P had also fallen by 4.45%.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: On 1 February 2020, as the FY 2020-21 Union budget was presented in the lower house of the Indian parliament, Nifty fell by over 3% (373.95 points) while Sensex fell by more than 2% (987.96 points). The fall was also weighed by the global breakdown amid coronavirus pandemic centered in China.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: On 28 February 2020, Sensex lost 1448 points and Nifty fell by 432 points due to growing global tension caused by COVID-19 pandemic, which W.H.O said has a pandemic potential. Both BSE and NSE fell for the entire five days of the week ending with the worst weekly fall since 2009


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: On March 4 and 6, markets fell by around 1000 points and several crores of wealth was wiped out. On 6 March 2020, Yes Bank was taken over by RBI under its management for reconstruction and will be merged with SBI. This was done to ensure smooth functioning of the bank as it was struggling for couple of years to cope up with heavy pressure due to cleaning of bad loans.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: On 9 March 2020, the Sensex fell by 1,941.67 points, while Nifty-50 broke down by 538 points. The fear of COVID-19 outbreak has created havoc all over the globe and India is no exception. Further, the recent Yes Bank crisis also made the markets fell. The markets ended in red with Sensex closing on 35,634.95 and Nifty-50 on 10,451.45.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: On 12 March 2020, the Sensex fell by 2919.26 points (-8.18%), the worst continuation of the week in the history while Nifty-50 broke down by 868.2 points (-8.30%) amid World Health Organisation (WHO) declaring Coronavirus outbreak as "pandemic". Sensex ended to 33-month low of 32778.14.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: On 16 March 2020, Sensex plunged by 2,713.41 points (around 8%), the second worst fall in its history. On the other hand, Nifty ended below 9200–mark at 9,197.40 due to global economic recession.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: However, the Sensex continued to fall straight for four–continuous days till 19 March 2020, losing 5815 points during the period.


title: Stock market crashes in India

text: On 23 March 2020, Sensex lost 3,934.72 points (13.15%) and Nifty plunges 1,135 points (12.98%) at 7610.25 as coronavirus-led lockdowns across the world triggered fears of a recession. These are now the lowest levels since 2016. It's witnessing the biggest weekly loss since October 2008, as the increasing number of coronavirus cases in India as well as globally.


title: Seneschal

text: The word seneschal () can have several different meanings, all of which reflect certain types of supervising or administering in a historic context. Most commonly, a seneschal was a senior position filled by a court appointment within a royal, ducal, or noble household during the Middle Ages and early Modern period – historically a steward or majordomo of a medieval great house. In a medieval royal household, a seneschal was in charge of domestic arrangements and the administration of servants, which, in the medieval period particularly, meant the seneschal might oversee hundreds of laborers, servants and their associated responsibilities, and have a great deal of power in the community, at a time when much of the local economy was often based on the wealth and responsibilities of such a household.


title: Seneschal

text: A second meaning is more specific, and concerns the late medieval and early modern nation of France, wherein the seneschal () was also a royal officer in charge of justice and control of the administration of certain southern provinces called seneschalties, holding a role equivalent to a northern French bailiff ("").


title: Seneschal

text: In the United Kingdom the modern meaning of seneschal is primarily as an ecclesiastical term, referring to a cathedral official.


title: Seneschal

text: The Medieval Latin "discifer" (dish-bearer) was an officer in the household of later Anglo-Saxon kings, and it is sometimes translated by historians as seneschal, although the term was not used in England before the Norman Conquest.


title: Seneschal

text: The term, first attested in 1350–1400, was borrowed from Anglo-Norman "seneschal" "steward", from Old Dutch "senior retainer" (attested in Latin (692 AD), Old High German ), a compound of - (cf. Gothic "old", "oldest") and "servant", ultimately a calque of Late Latin "senior guard".


title: Seneschal

text: The "scholae" in the late Roman Empire referred to the imperial guard, divided into senior ("seniores") and junior ("juniores") units. The captain of the guard was known as "comes scholarum". When Germanic tribes took over the Empire, the "scholae" were merged or replaced with the Germanic king's warband (cf. Vulgar Latin , OHG , Old English ) whose members also had duties in their lord's household like a royal retinue. The king's chief warbandman and retainer (cf. Old Saxon , OHG , OE , ), from the 5th century on, personally attended on the king, as specifically stated in the "Codex Theodosianus" of 413 ("Cod. Theod." VI. 13. 1; known as "comes scholae"). The warband, once sedentary, became first the king's royal household, and then his great officers of state, and in both cases the seneschal is synonymous with steward.


title: Seneschal

text: In late medieval and early modern France, the seneschal was originally a royal steward overseeing the entire country but developed into an agent of the crown charged with administration of a seneschalty (), one of the districts of the crown lands in Languedoc and Normandy. Hallam states that the first seneschals to govern in this manner did so by an 1190 edict of Philip II. The seneschals also served as the chief justice of the royal courts in their areas.


title: Seneschal

text: The equivalent post throughout most of northern France was the bailiff ('), who oversaw a bailiwick (').


title: Seneschal

text: In Anglo-Saxon England dish-bearers (in Medieval Latin "discifer" or "dapifer") were nobles who served at royal feasts. The term is often translated by historians as "seneschal".


title: Beta-glucan

text: Beta-glucans, β-glucans comprise a group of β--glucose polysaccharides (glucans) naturally occurring in the cell walls of cereals, bacteria, and fungi, with significantly differing physicochemical properties dependent on source. Typically, β-glucans form a linear backbone with 1–3 β-glycosidic bonds but vary with respect to molecular mass, solubility, viscosity, branching structure, and gelation properties, causing diverse physiological effects in animals.


title: Beta-glucan

text: At dietary intake levels of at least 3 g per day, oat fiber β-glucan decreases blood levels of LDL cholesterol and so may reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. β-glucans are natural gums and are used as texturing agents in various nutraceutical and cosmetic products, and as soluble fiber supplements.


title: Beta-glucan

text: Cereal and fungal products have been used for centuries for medicinal and cosmetic purposes; however, the specific role of β-glucan was not explored until the 20th century. β-glucans were first discovered in lichens, and shortly thereafter in barley. A particular interest in oat β-glucan arose after a cholesterol lowering effect from oat bran reported in 1981.


title: Beta-glucan

text: In 1997, the FDA approved of a claim that intake of at least 3.0 g of β-glucan from oats per day decreased absorption of dietary cholesterol and reduced the risk of coronary heart disease. The approved health claim was later amended to include these sources of β-glucan: rolled oats (oatmeal), oat bran, whole oat flour, oatrim (the soluble fraction of alpha-amylase hydrolyzed oat bran or whole oat flour), whole grain barley and barley beta-fiber. An example of an allowed label claim: "Soluble fiber from foods such as oatmeal, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. A serving of oatmeal supplies 0.75 grams of the 3.0 g of β-glucan soluble fiber necessary per day to have this effect." The claim language is in the Federal Register 21 CFR 101.81 Health Claims: "Soluble fiber from certain foods and risk of coronary heart disease (CHD)".


title: Beta-glucan

text: Glucans are arranged in six-sided -glucose rings connected linearly at varying carbon positions depending on the source, although most commonly β-glucans include a 1-3 glycosidic link in their backbone. Although technically β-glucans are chains of -glucose polysaccharides linked by β-type glycosidic bonds, by convention not all β--glucose polysaccharides are categorized as β-glucans. Cellulose is not conventionally considered a β-glucan, as it is insoluble and does not exhibit the same physicochemical properties as other cereal or yeast β-glucans.


title: Beta-glucan

text: Some β-glucan molecules have branching glucose side-chains attached to other positions on the main -glucose chain, which branch off the β-glucan backbone. In addition, these side-chains can be attached to other types of molecules, like proteins, as in polysaccharide-K.


title: Beta-glucan

text: The most common forms of β-glucans are those comprising -glucose units with β-1,3 links. Yeast and fungal β-glucans contain 1-6 side branches, while cereal β-glucans contain both β-1,3 and β-1,4 backbone bonds. The frequency, location, and length of the side-chains may play a role in immunomodulation. Differences in molecular weight, shape, and structure of β-glucans dictate the differences in biological activity.


title: Beta-glucan

text: In general, β-1,3 linkages are created by 1,3-Beta-glucan synthase, and β-1,4 linkages are created by cellulose synthase. The process leading to β-1,6 linkages is poorly understood: although genes important in the process have been identified, not much is known about what each of them do.


title: Beta-glucan

text: β-glucans form a natural component of the cell walls of bacteria, fungi, yeast, and cereals such as oat and barley. Each type of beta-glucan comprises a different molecular backbone, level of branching, and molecular weight which affects its solubility and physiological impact. One of the most common sources of β(1,3)D-glucan for supplement use is derived from the cell wall of baker's yeast ("Saccharomyces cerevisiae"). β-glucans found in the cell walls of yeast contain a 1,3 carbon backbone with elongated 1,6 carbon branches. Other sources include seaweed, and various mushrooms, such as lingzhi, shiitake, chaga, and maitake, which are under preliminary research for their potential immune effects.


title: Beta-glucan

text: In the diet, β-glucans are a source of soluble, fermentable fiber – also called "prebiotic fiber" – which provides a substrate for microbiota within the large intestine, increasing fecal bulk and producing short-chain fatty acids as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities. This fermentation impacts the expression of many genes within the large intestine, which further affects digestive function and cholesterol and glucose metabolism, as well as the immune system and other systemic functions.


title: Beta-glucan

text: Cereal β-glucans from oat, barley, wheat, and rye have been studied for their effects on cholesterol levels in people with normal cholesterol levels and in those with hypercholesterolemia. Intake of oat β-glucan at daily amounts of at least 3 grams lowers total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels by 5 to 10% in people with normal or elevated blood cholesterol levels.


title: Beta-glucan

text: Oats and barley differ in the ratio of trimer and tetramer 1-4 linkages. Barley has more 1-4 linkages with a degree of polymerization higher than 4. However, the majority of barley blocks remain trimers and tetramers. In oats, β-glucan is found mainly in the endosperm of the oat kernel, especially in the outer layers of that endosperm.


title: Beta-glucan

text: Enterocytes facilitate the transportation of β(1,3)-glucans and similar compounds across the intestinal cell wall into the lymph, where they begin to interact with macrophages to activate immune function. Radiolabeled studies have verified that both small and large fragments of β-glucans are found in the serum, which indicates that they are absorbed from the intestinal tract. M cells within the Peyer's patches physically transport the insoluble whole glucan particles into the gut-associated lymphoid tissue.


title: Beta-glucan

text: An assay to detect the presence of (1,3)-β--glucan in blood is marketed as a means of identifying invasive or disseminated fungal infections. This test should be interpreted within the broader clinical context, however, as a positive test does not render a diagnosis, and a negative test does not rule out infection. False positives may occur because of fungal contaminants in the antibiotics amoxicillin-clavulanate, and piperacillin/tazobactam. False positives can also occur with contamination of clinical specimens with the bacteria "Streptococcus pneumoniae", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", and "Alcaligenes faecalis", which also produce (1→3)β--glucan. This test can aid in the detection of "Aspergillus", "Candida", and "Pneumocystis jirovecii". This test cannot be used to detect "Mucor" or "Rhizopus", the fungi responsible for mucormycosis, as they do not produce (1,3)-beta--glucan.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: Stevenson Adonis (born 22 September 1977), best known as Adonis Stevenson, is a Haitian Canadian former professional boxer who competed from 2006 to 2018. He won the WBC, "Ring" magazine and lineal light-heavyweight titles in 2013 by defeating Chad Dawson by first-round knockout, which earned him awards for Fighter of the Year and Knockout of the Year by "The Ring".


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: Known for his fast hand speed and exceptional knockout power, Stevenson was considered one of boxing's hardest punchers during his prime. For more than five years, he made ten successful defenses of the WBC and lineal titles until sustaining a life-threatening brain injury in his 2018 fight against Oleksandr Gvozdyk.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: Stevenson's known name is an inversion of his family name and given name. Born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, Stevenson moved to Montreal, Quebec with his family when he was seven. By 14 years old, he was living on the streets and soon fell into a violent gang which drew him into a criminal lifestyle. In his early twenties, after a criminal trial in 1998 in Quebec, Stevenson served 18 months of a four-year prison sentence for managing prostitutes, assault, and issuing threats. While in prison, he also pleaded guilty to aggravated assault after putting a fellow inmate into a coma. After leaving prison in 2001, Stevenson vowed he would never return.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: Stevenson became Quebec Middleweight champion in 2004, and was named best amateur fighter in Canada in 2005 and again in 2006. Stevenson won the Canadian national title in 2005 and 2006. Stevenson competed in the XVIII Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, Australia in 2006, and won the silver medal, losing to local Australian Jarrod Fletcher in the final. It was also the only medal won by a Canadian boxer at the Commonwealth Games.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: A 29-year-old Stevenson turned professional in September 2006. His opponent was Mike Funk, another boxer making his debut, at the Montreal Casino in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Stevenson knocked Funk out with a hook in twenty-two seconds.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: On August 1, 2009, at Windsor Station in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, Stevenson defeated Anthony Bonsante by first round knockout. The two fighters came out of their corners for the fight with Bonsante launching the first attack, but just moments after the assault, Stevenson landed a left hand that sent Bonsante down to the canvas. Bonsante sprawled out on the canvas with his eyes closed, while the referee reached the count of six before stopping the fight. Bonsante had begun to get up at the count of six, but it was too late, leaving Bonsante livid with the decision as he chased the referee around the ring in an attempt to protest the decision, but to little avail. He also won a fifth-round TKO decision against Jermain Mackey on September 25, 2009.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: On April 17, 2010, in his first fight in the United States, which also was his first time fighting for promoter Lou DiBella, he suffered his first defeat being stopped in the second round by Darnell Boone. Boone had been knocked down on the canvas twice in the first round, however, in the second round, Stevenson rushed to Boone without maintaining his defense and he got caught by a solid right sending him on the canvas for the first time in his career. Stevenson managed to get back on his feet inside the count of 10, however, the referee waved the fight off as he deemed Stevenson unable to continue.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: Nonetheless, Stevenson resumed with GYM Promotions and won the North American title NABA on April 8, 2011, at the expense of Derek Edwards by KO in the third round. He then won by referee stoppage in the first round against Dion Savage (Shujaa El-Amin) on September 17, 2011, and retained his title against Aaron Pryor Jr on December 10, 2011, by referee stoppage in the ninth round. Stevenson jumped from 15th to 2nd position for the IBF title, winning by KO in the first round duel against Jesús González on February 18, 2012. He then fought Noe Gonzalez on April 20, 2012, and won the fight at 1:40 in the second round when the referee stopped the fight.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: His next fight originally set to be against Don George with the winner getting a shot at the IBF champion. The fight was originally scheduled to be a co-main event of a fight card also including a match between Jean Pascal and Tavoris Cloud on August 11, 2012, but the even was cancelled due to an injury suffered by Pascal. The Stevenson fight was then moved up to August 17, 2012, and was set to be part of ESPN Friday Night Fights, but Stevenson later injured his hand cancelling the fight. The fight was then rescheduled to October 12. In the fight Stevenson knocked George down twice in the fifth and once in the sixth round before winning the fight with a 12th-round TKO after knocking him down twice more.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: On February 4, 2013, it was announced that Stevenson would get the chance to avenge his only loss as a professional against Darnell Boone (19-20-3, 8KOs) with the fight taking place on March 22 at the Bell Centre. With this fight, Stevenson was risking his IBF mandatory status. Stevenson avenged his only loss, knocking out Darnell Boone with a pair of lefts in the sixth round on March 22, 2013, at the Bell Centre. Stevenson, fighting at 171.9 pounds, forced Boone to take a knee with a right hook to the body early in the sixth, then stunned him coming out of a corner with a left uppercut, followed with a straight left that sent Boone on the canvas.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: Stevenson moved up to light heavyweight to challenge Lineal/WBC/"The Ring" champion Chad Dawson (31-2, 17 KOs) on June 8, 2013, at the Bell Centre. In the press conferences leading up to the fight, Dawson called the fight a tune-up, also claiming that he had to Google Stevenson because he had never heard of him. Stevenson hit Dawson with a left hook that dropped him very early in the first round of the fight, and though Dawson got up before the count of eight the referee stopped the fight, giving Stevenson an unexpected knockout victory. Stevenson's victory was his eighth straight since his only career defeat, all coming by knockout. At 174 1/4 lbs., Stevenson was fighting at the heaviest weight of his professional career to date. In the post-fight, Stevenson told HBO's Max Kellerman, "I caught him, and that's a beautiful punch." Dawson admitted, "It was a punch I didn't see. He caught me. That's it. He caught me with a good punch." Dawson suffered his second consecutive stoppage loss. In the 76 seconds the fight lasted, Dawson landed 2 of 16 punches thrown and Stevenson landed 3 of his 15 thrown. Stevenson stated the reason he moved up was due to not being able to secure a world title fight at super middleweight, accusing Carl Froch and Mikkel Kessler of ducking him and fighting each other instead in a rematch. The knockout was voted as Ring Magazine Knockout of the Year for 2013.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: The WBC originally ordered Stevenson to face mandatory challenger Tony Bellew, but then allowed him to make a voluntary defense first against Tavoris Cloud, where the winner of the fight must face Bellew at a later date.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: The fight against former IBF champion Tavoris Cloud (24-1, 19 KOs) was confirmed on August 12, 2013, to take place on September 28 at the Bell Centre in Montreal, Quebec on HBO. Cloud was entering the fight coming off his first career loss, which came in March 2013 against Bernard Hopkins. Stevenson dominated the precedings, flustering Cloud with quick hands and shocking power. The fight ended when Cloud failed to answer the bell for the start of the eighth round. Round 7 saw Cloud hurt many times and a cut appearing on his right eye. He was also cut on the left eyelid in the opening round.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: Terms were agreed for the fight on July 25, 2013. On November 30, Stevenson defended his light heavyweight title against Tony Bellew (20-1-1, 12 KOs) at the Colisée Pepsi. Stevenson became the first boxer to stop Bellew winning the fight via TKO. In round 6, Stevenson put Bellew down with a left hand, he beat the count and the referee let the fight go on. Bellew was then knocked out standing by another pair of left hands before the referee could get in and put a stop to the bout. At the time of stoppage, Stevenson was ahead on the scorecards 50–45, 49–46, and 50–45. Bellew contemplated moving up to cruiserweight after the loss. According to Nielsen Media Research firm, the fight attracted an average of 1.3 million viewers on the HBO network, making it the 5th most watched bout of 2013.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: In January 2014, 26 year old Andrzej Fonfara (25-2, 15 KOs) notified the IBF, who had ordered him to fight Dmitry Sukhotsky in a final eliminator, that he would pass on the opportunity because he had agreed a deal to fight lineal/WBC/"The Ring" champion Stevenson. IBF would instead order Sukhotsky to fight their #3 ranked Cedric Agnew. In February, Stevenson signed a deal with boxing adviser Al Haymon.The fight was scheduled for May 24 on HBO, until HBO cancelled the date from their boxing schedule. On March 25, Michel confirmed the fight would take place on Showtime instead. Stevenson started off very well, dropping his opponent twice with sharp lefts and appeared close to stopping his opponent. Fonfara however, recovered very well, even dropping Stevenson in the ninth round. Stevenson similarly recovered quickly. The two fighters exchanged punches in a good-action final round and the crowd gave the fight a standing ovation. Stevenson won the fight as the judges scored it 116–109, 115–110, and 115–110. CompuBox Stats showed over the 12 rounds, Stevenson landed 329 of 790 punches thrown (42%) and Fonfara landed 217 of his 613 thrown (35%). In the post-fight interview, Stevenson claimed he hurt his left hand in the second round. He added that he was willing to fight Bernard Hopkins or Sergey Kovalev next, but would leave the decision to his manager, Al Haymon. Kovalev's promoter stated that this fight may never happen. That the window has now closed, alleging that Stevenson's age is a contributing factor. The fight, which marked Stevenson's Showtime debut, averaged 672,000 viewers and peaked at 800,000 viewers.


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: In October 2014, promoter Yvon Michel of GYM announced that Stevenson would next defend his belts against Russian contender Dmitry Sukhotsky (22-2, 16 KOs) in Quebec City, Quebec at the Colisée Pepsi on December 19, 2014, on Showtime. Sukhotsky was on a four-fight win streak at the time. Michel explained Sukhotsky was selected as Stevenson's opponent because there would not have been enough time to get together and promote a fight with Jean Pascal (29-2-1, 17 KOs). He stated the Pascal fight would likely take place in the Spring of 2015. This was his fourth defense of his titles. Stevenson retained his belts via a fifth round stoppage following a one punch knockout. Stevenson was in control from the opening bell, throwing minimal punches as the crowd started to boo. In round 2, he managed to floor Sukhotsky with a left hand. According to CompuBox Stats, Stevenson landed 80 of 272 punches thrown (29%) and Sukhotsky landed only 23 oh his 136 thrown (17%).


title: Adonis Stevenson

text: On February 28, 2015 "Premier Boxing Champions" announced that Stevenson would defend his titles against 35 year old former WBC super middleweight champion Sakio Bika (32-6-3, 21 KOs) on April 4 at the Pepsi Coliseum in Quebec City. It was the first fight to headline PBC on CBS. Stevenson dropped Bika in rounds 6 and 9 en route to winning the fight on the scorecards after 12 rounds, retaining his world titles. The judges scored the fight 115–111, 116–110, and 115–110. ESPN's Dan Rafael scored the fight 120–106 for Stevenson, who dominated the fight using his left hand. Bika failed to make an adjustment and get in much offence of his own. In round 5, Stevenson landed a left which dropped Bika, but referee Michael Griffin ruled it a slip. Bika however appeared hurt. In the post-fight interview, Stevenson said, "I knew he is a tough guy, so I prepared for 12 rounds and I put on a good show. He's never been knocked out, but I dropped him." Stevenson admitted he felt Bika's power and was able to withstand anything that came his way.