title: Discovery doctrine

text: By the eighteenth century, some leading theorists of international law argued that territorial rights over land could stem from the settlement and cultivation of that land. William Blackstone, in 1756, wrote, “Plantations or colonies, in distant countries, are either such where the lands are claimed by right of occupancy only, by finding them desert and uncultivated, and peopling them from the mother-country; or where, when already cultivated, they have been either gained by conquest, or ceded to us by treaties. And both these rights are founded upon the law of nature, or at least upon that of nations." Two years after Blackstone, Emer de Vattel, in his "Le droit des gents" (1758), drew a distinction between land that was effectively occupied and cultivated, and the unsettled and uncultivated land of nomads which was open to colonization"."


title: Discovery doctrine

text: All imperial European states enacted symbolic rituals to give notice of discovery and possession of lands to other states. These rituals included burying plates, raising flags, erecting signs, and naming territories, rivers or other features. More concrete claims of possession ranged from building forts to establishing settlements. Rituals of a transfer of sovereignty often involved trials, executions and other acts to symbolize that the laws of the colonizing power were in force.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: European monarchs often asserted sovereignty over large areas of non-Christian territory based on purported discoveries and symbolic acts of possession. They frequently issued charters and commissions giving the grantees the power to represent the Crown and acquire property. While European states often acknowledged that indigenous peoples inhabiting these lands had property rights which had to be acquired through conquest, treaty or purchase, they sometimes acted as if territories were uninhabited and sovereignty and property rights could be acquired through occupation.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: Summarizing the practices European states used to justify their acquisition of territory inhabited by indigenous peoples, McNeil states, "While Spain and Portugal favoured discovery and papal grants because it was generally in their interests to do so, France and Britain relied more on symbolic acts, colonial charters, and occupation." Benton and Strauman argue that European powers often adopted multiple, sometimes contradictory, legal rationales for their acquisition of territory as a deliberate strategy in defending their claims against European rivals.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: In 1792, U.S. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson claimed that the doctrine of discovery was international law which was applicable to the new US government as well.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: The discovery doctrine was expounded by the United States Supreme Court in a series of decisions, most notably "Johnson v. M'Intosh" in 1823. In that case, Chief Justice John Marshall held that under generally accepted principles of international law,


title: Discovery doctrine

text: Dunbar-Oritz states that the doctrine outlined in this case continues to influence American imperialism and treatment of indigenous peoples.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: Banner and Kades argue that the 1823 case was the result of collusive lawsuits where land speculators worked together to make claims to achieve a desired result. The plaintiff, Johnson, had inherited land originally purchased from the Piankeshaw tribes. Defendant McIntosh claimed the same land, having purchased it under a grant from the United States. In 1775, members of the Piankeshaw tribe sold certain land in the Indiana Territory to Lord Dunmore, Royal Governor of Virginia, and others. In 1805, the Piankeshaw conveyed much of the same land to William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory, thus giving rise to conflicting claims of title. The court found, on three grounds, that it should not recognize the land titles obtained from Native Americans prior to American independence. A number of academics and Indigenous rights activists have argued that Chief Justice John Marshall had large real estate holdings that would have been affected if the case were decided in favor of Johnson.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: Marshall found that ultimate title to land comes into existence by virtue of discovery and possession of that land, a rule that had been observed by all European countries with settlements in the New World. The United States had ultimate title of the land, as against other European nations, because it inherited that title from Britain and France, the original discoverers.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: Marshall noted:On the discovery of this immense continent, the great nations of Europe ... as they were all in pursuit of nearly the same object, it was necessary, in order to avoid conflicting settlements, and consequent war with each other, to establish a principle which all should acknowledge as the law by which the right of acquisition, which they all asserted, should be regulated as between themselves. This principle was that discovery gave title to the government by whose subjects, or by whose authority, it was made, against all other European governments, which title might be consummated by possession. ... The history of America, from its discovery to the present day, proves, we think, the universal recognition of these principles.Marshall noted the 1455 papal bull "Romanus Pontifex" approved Portugal's claims to lands discovered along the coast of West Africa, and the 1493 "Inter caetera" had ratified Spain's right to conquer newly found lands. Marshall stated, however, "Spain did not rest her title solely on the grant of the Pope. Her discussions respecting boundary, with France, with Great Britain, and with the United States, all show that she placed it on the rights given by discovery. Portugal sustained her claim to the by the same title." Marshall pointed to the exploration charters given to the explorer John Cabot as proof that other nations had accepted the doctrine.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: Allison Dussias states that the Piankeshaw were not party to the litigation and therefore, "no Indian voices were heard in a case which had, and continues to have, profound effects on Indian property rights."


title: Discovery doctrine

text: McNeil states that the authority for the doctrine of discovery, as formulated by Marshall, was "flimsy". Furthermore, Indigenous nations in North America were factually independent and sovereign prior to the arrival of Europeans and therefore the European powers should not have been able to acquire territorial sovereignty by discovery and settlement, but only by conquest or cession.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: Pagden states that Marshall did not sufficiently consider Francisco de Vitoria's critique of the claim that discovery gave a right to possession of inhabited lands. Vitoria, however, stated that the Spanish could claim possession of the Americas by conquest if indigenous populations violated principles of natural law.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: Blake Watson states that Marshall overlooked evidence showing that the Dutch and some English settlers acknowledged the right of Indians to their land and favored purchase as a means of acquiring title. Watson and others, such as Robert A. Williams Jr., state that Marshall misinterpreted the "discovery doctrine" as giving exclusive right to lands discovered, rather than the exclusive right to treaty with the inhabitants who owned that land.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: In "Cherokee Nation v. Georgia" (1831), the US Supreme Court found that the Cherokee Nation was a "domestic dependent nation" with no standing to take action against the state of Georgia.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: In "Worcester v Georgia" (1832) Marshall re-interpreted the doctrine of discovery. He stated that discovery did not give the discovering nation title to land, but only "the sole right of acquiring the soil and making settlements on it." This was a right of preemption which only applied between the colonizing powers and did not diminish the sovereignty of the indigenous inhabitants. "“It regulated the right given by discovery among the European discoverers, but could not affect the rights of those already in possession, either as aboriginal occupants, or as occupants by virtue of a discovery made before the memory of man.”


title: Discovery doctrine

text: However, in five further cases decided between 1836 and 1842, "Mitchel I", "Fernandez", "Clark", "Mitchel II", and "Martin", the Supreme Court restored the rule in Johnson that discovery gave the discovering nation ultimate title to land, subject to a right of occupancy held by indigenous peoples.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: In "Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe" (1979) the Supreme Court held that discovery deprived tribes of the right to prosecute non-Indians. In "Duro v. Reina" (1990) the court held that tribes could not prosecute Indians who were not a member of the prosecuting tribe.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: "Johnson v M ’Intosh" was extensively discussed in "St. Catharine’s Milling & Lumber Co. v. R". (1888), the first Canadian case on Indigenous land title. The judge in first instance stated that Marshall had “concisely stated the same law of the mother country”. On appeal, however, the Privy Council departed from Johnson in finding that native land rights were derived from a royal proclamation of 1763.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: In 1973, "Calder v British Columbia (Attorney General)", the Supreme Court of Canada found that the Indigenous peoples of Canada held an aboriginal title to their land which was independent of the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and was derived from the fact that, “when the settlers came, the Indians were there, organized in societies and occupying the land as their forefathers had done for centuries”.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: In "Tsilhqot’in Nation v British Columbia" (2014) the Supreme Court of Canada confirmed that “the doctrine of "terra nullius" never applied in Canada”. Aboriginal title is a beneficial interest in land, although the Crown retains an underlying title. The court set out a number of conditions which must be met in order for the Crown to extinguish Aboriginal title.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: In 2007, the United Nations (UN) adopted the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which acknowledges the “rights of Indigenous peoples to their land”. The only nations to vote against the declaration were the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. All four would later reverse their positions.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: The discovery doctrine has been condemned as socially unjust, racist, and in violation of basic and fundamental human rights. The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) noted the doctrine of discovery "as the foundation of the violation of their (Indigenous people) human rights". The eleventh session of the UNPFII, held at the UN's New York headquarters from 7–18 May 2012, had the special theme of "The Doctrine of Discovery: its enduring impact on Indigenous peoples and the right to redress for past conquests (articles 28 and 37 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples)". It called for a mechanism to investigate historical land claims, with speakers observing that "The Doctrine of Discovery had been used for centuries to expropriate Indigenous lands and facilitate their transfer to colonizing or dominating nations".


title: Discovery doctrine

text: The General Convention of the Episcopal Church, conducted on 8–17 August 2009, passed a resolution officially repudiating the discovery doctrine.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: At the 2012 Unitarian Universalist Association General Assembly in Phoenix, Arizona, delegates passed a resolution repudiating the doctrine of discovery and calling on Unitarian Universalists to study the doctrine and eliminate its presence from the current-day policies, programs, theologies, and structures of Unitarian Universalism.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: In 2013, at its 29th General Synod, the United Church of Christ repudiated the doctrine in a near-unanimous vote.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: In 2014, Ruth Hopkins, a tribal attorney and former judge, wrote to Pope Francis asking him to formally revoke the "Inter caetera" papal bull of 1493.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: At the 2016 Synod, 10–17 June in Grand Rapids, Michigan, delegates to the annual general assembly of the Christian Reformed Church rejected the doctrine of discovery as heresy in response to a study report on the topic.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: At the 222nd General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) (2016), commissioners called on members of the church to repudiate the doctrine of discovery. The commissioners directed that a report be written reviewing the history of the doctrine. That report was approved by the 223rd General Assembly (2018), along with recommendations for a variety of additional actions that could be taken by the church at all levels to acknowledge indigenous peoples and to confront racism against them.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: In 2016, the Churchwide Assembly of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA), adopted Assembly Action CA16.02.04 titled "Repudiation of the Doctrine of Discovery" by a vote of 912-28, describing the doctrine as "an example of the 'improper mixing of the power of the church and the power of the sword'".


title: Discovery doctrine

text: On November 3, 2016, a group of 524 clergy publicly burned copies of "Inter caetera", a specific papal bull underpinning the doctrine, as part of the Dakota Access Pipeline protests near the Standing Rock Indian Reservation.As part of their demonstration, they invited a number of indigenous elders to authorize the burning.


title: Discovery doctrine

text: During Pope Francis's July 2022 penitential pilgrimage to Canada to apologize and ask forgiveness for abuses suffered by Canadian Indigenous children in residential schools, Canadian bishops called on the Catholic Church to issue a new statement on the doctrine of discovery. The bishops stated they "reject and resist the ideas associated with the Doctrine of Discovery in the strongest possible way".


title: Chino, California

text: Chino ( ; Spanish for "Curly") is a city in the western end of San Bernardino County, California, United States, with Los Angeles County to its west and Orange County to its south in the Southern California region. Chino is adjacent to Chino Hills, California. Chino's surroundings have long been a center of agriculture and dairy farming, providing milk products in Southern California and much of the southwestern United States. Chino's agricultural history dates back to the Spanish land grant forming Rancho Santa Ana del Chino. The area specialized in fruit orchards, row crops, and dairy.


title: Chino, California

text: Chino is bounded by Chino Hills and Los Angeles County to the west, Pomona to the northwest, unincorporated San Bernardino County (near Montclair) to the north, Ontario to the northeast, Eastvale to the southeast in Riverside County and Orange County to the southwest. It is easily accessible via the Chino Valley (71) and Pomona (60) freeways. The population was 77,983 at the 2010 census.


title: Chino, California

text: Downtown Chino is home to satellite branches of the San Bernardino County Library and Chaffey Community College, the Chino Community Theatre, the Chino Boxing Club and a weekly Farmer's Market. In 2008, the city of Chino was awarded the prestigious "100 Best Communities for Youth" award for the second time in three years. Chino hosted shooting events for the 1984 Summer Olympics at the Prado Olympic Shooting Park in the Prado Regional Park.


title: Chino, California

text: The land grant on which the town was founded was called Rancho Santa Ana del Chino. "Santa Ana" is Spanish for Saint Anne, but the exact meaning of "Chino" has been explained in different ways. One explanation is that the "Chino" (curly-haired person or mixed-race person) was the chief of the local Native American village. The president of the Chino Valley Historical Society, drawing on Civil War-era letters, designates the "curl" referenced in the toponym as that at the top of the grama grass that abounded in the valley.


title: Chino, California

text: The Tongva had a settlement called Wapijangna in the Santa Ana River watershed. Some residents of Wapijanga were baptized at Mission San Gabriel, which was established in 1771. The Spanish crown claimed the land until Mexican independence was finalized and possession fell to the Mexican government.


title: Chino, California

text: Some twenty years later, Mexican governor of Alta California Juan Bautista Alvarado granted Rancho Santa Ana del Chino to Antonio Maria Lugo of the prominent Lugo family. Two years later, his successor, Governor Micheltorena, granted an additional three leagues to Lugo's son-in-law Isaac Williams, who took charge of the rancho. Williams kept large quantities of horses and cattle, which attracted the envy of raiding Native Americans as well as unscrupulous whites. One of the latter was James Beckwourth, who, in 1840, posed as an otter hunter and stayed at Rancho Chino to determine the location of the area's animals, which he then reported to Walkara, the Ute mastermind of the raids.


title: Chino, California

text: Early in the Mexican–American War, the Battle of Chino took place at Williams' rancho. The battle ended prior to the arrival of the Mormon Battalion, dispatched on behalf of the United States, who instead labored in the rancho's agricultural harvest and constructed a grist mill.


title: Chino, California

text: During the California Gold Rush, the rancho was a popular stopover for travelers, and in the mining fury, coal was discovered there. In 1850, California was admitted to the union, and the process of separating privately held lands from the public domain began. The Williams claim to the Chino Rancho was patented in 1869.


title: Chino, California

text: Richard Gird was the next owner of the Rancho. Beginning in 1887, his land was subdivided and laid out. It became the "Town of Chino," and incorporated into a city in 1910. Sugar beets, corn, and alfalfa were raised there.


title: Chino, California

text: The Chino Valley, located at the foot of an alluvial plain with fertile topsoil reaching depths of , was an agricultural mecca from the 1890s up through the mid-20th century. Sugar beets were a significant part of the economy in the early 1900s, followed by sweet corn (marketed as "Chino corn" throughout the Pacific coast area), peaches, walnuts, tomatoes, and strawberries. The city's official logo/crest features an overflowing cornucopia.


title: Chino, California

text: The dairy industry flourished from the 1950s through the 1980s, with dairy-friendly zoning in the southwest corner of San Bernardino County encouraging many ethnic Dutch families to locate there and become the cornerstone of the industry. Chino's large, highly efficient dairies made it the largest milk-producing community in the nation's largest milk-producing state.


title: Chino, California

text: Because of its pastoral setting and rural flavor, Chino was a popular site for Hollywood crews to shoot "Midwestern" settings. 1960s movies included "Bus Riley's Back in Town" starring Ann-Margret and Michael Parks; "The Stripper", with Joanne Woodward; and the mid-1960s TV series "Twelve O'Clock High", refashioning Chino's rural airport into a British airfield with quonset huts among farm fields.


title: Chino, California

text: In the 1970s, Chino developed into a small suburban city, forming the western anchor of the Inland Empire region, and now the city's development has gradually taken on a more middle-class character. There are still many industrial areas as well as farm animals such as goats and chickens. According to the 2004 FBI UCR, the city had about 3.6 violent crimes per 1,000 population, which is typical for an American suburb, and its property crime below average.


title: Chino, California

text: On July 11, 2017, in a special election, Chino voters voted against Measure H, which would have allowed of rural land located near Ontario to be used to build a total of 180 new homes by home builder D.R. Horton. The measure faced considerable opposition from city residents, despite support from the Chino Chamber of Commerce and school district.


title: Chino, California

text: According to the city's 2011 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Chino, California

text: Two California state prisons for adults (California Institution for Men and California Institution for Women), as well as the Heman G. Stark Youth Correctional Facility, lie within the city limits.


title: Chino, California

text: Chino is located at (34.017765, -117.689990). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of it is land and 0.04% is water.


title: Chino, California

text: According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Chino has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csa" on climate maps. Chino has long, hot summers with cool to mild mornings and short, mild, and wet winters with chilly mornings usually in the 40s. Precipitation peaks during the month of February.


title: Chino, California

text: At the 2010 census Chino had a population of 77,983. The population density was . The racial makeup of Chino was 43,981 (56.4%) White (27.8% Non-Hispanic White), 4,829 (6.2%) African American, 786 (1.0%) Native American, 8,159 (10.5%) Asian, 168 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 16,503 (21.2%) from other races, and 3,557 (4.6%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 41,993 persons (53.8%).


title: Chino, California

text: The census reported that 70,919 people (90.9% of the population) lived in households, 164 (0.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 6,900 (8.8%) were institutionalized.


title: Chino, California

text: There were 20,772 households, 9,979 (48.0%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 12,426 (59.8%) were married couples living together, 3,041 (14.6%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,469 (7.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,185 (5.7%) households of unmarried couples; of which 147 (0.7%) were same-sex. 2,840 households (13.7%) were one person and 1,020 (4.9%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 3.41. There were 16,936 families (81.5% of households); the average family size was 3.72.


title: Chino, California

text: The age distribution was 19,737 people (25.3%) under the age of 18, 8,530 people (10.9%) aged 18 to 24, 25,091 people (32.2%) aged 25 to 44, 18,954 people (24.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 5,671 people (7.3%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 33.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.2 males.


title: Chino, California

text: There were 21,797 housing units at an average density of 735.1 per square mile, of the occupied units 14,315 (68.9%) were owner-occupied and 6,457 (31.1%) were rented. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.1%; the rental vacancy rate was 6.4%. 49,280 people (63.2% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 21,639 people (27.7%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Chino, California

text: According to the 2010 United States Census, Chino had a median household income of $71,671, with 9.6% of the population living below the federal poverty line.


title: Chino, California

text: At the 2000 census there were 67,168 people in 17,304 households, including 14,102 families, in the city. The population density was 3,190.5 inhabitants per square mile (1,232.0/km). There were 17,898 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 55.7% White, 7.8% African American, 0.9% Native American, 4.9% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 25.6% from other races, and 4.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 47.4%.


title: Chino, California

text: Of the 17,304 households 47.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.5% were married couples living together, 12.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.5% were non-families. 14.1% of households were one person and 5.2% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 3.4 and the average family size was 3.8.


title: Chino, California

text: The age distribution was 28.5% under the age of 18, 12.3% from 18 to 24, 34.2% from 25 to 44, 19.2% from 45 to 64, and 5.9% 65 or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 124.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 133.1 males.


title: Chino, California

text: The median household income was $55,401 and the median family income was $59,638. Males had a median income of $35,855 versus $30,267 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,574. About 6.3% of families and 8.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.0% of those under age 18 and 8.5% of those age 65 or over.


title: Chino, California

text: The city is governed by a five-member council consisting of a mayor plus four councilmembers. The mayor is elected at-large and council members are elected by district; all serve four-year terms. The city manager and city attorney are appointed by the council. The city's elections, which are plurality, are held on a Tuesday after the first Monday in November of even-numbered years.


title: Chino, California

text: Chino is included in the 35th and 39th congressional districts, which are represented by and , respectively.


title: Baby Looney Tunes

text: Baby Looney Tunes is an American animated television series depicting toddler versions of "Looney Tunes" characters. It was produced by Warner Bros. Animation. The series focused on real world problems and morals that children may relate to, such as sharing, understanding emotions, and playing with others. The Looney Tunes babies first live with Granny, but starting in the fourth season, were cared for by babysitter Floyd, Granny's nephew.


title: Baby Looney Tunes

text: The show premiered as a full series on September 7, 2002, and ran on WB stations from 2002 to 2003. The show moved to Cartoon Network in 2002 (by following suit nine days later on September 16) where it remained until ending on April 20, 2005. It aired in reruns on Cartoon Network from 2005 to 2009. Then it began airing on Boomerang in the U.S. in 2015 but stopped Cartoon Network reruns in mid 2020. 53 episodes were produced. The show is the first preschool animated series from Warner Bros. Animation.


title: Baby Looney Tunes

text: In 2003, a series of direct-to-video puppet films were produced, aimed at infants and toddlers. Two films were released, "Baby Looney Tunes: Musical Adventures" and "Baby Looney Tunes: Backyard Adventures," featuring the same voice cast as the TV series. The films were never released on DVD. However, "Baby Looney Tunes: Musical Adventures" became available on HBO Max and Tubi later on. "Baby Looney Tunes: Backyard Adventures" was formerly available on Binge in Australia.


title: Baby Looney Tunes

text: The series aired reruns again on the American version of Cartoonito on Cartoon Network starting on September 13, 2021, being the first show to air on that block.


title: Baby Looney Tunes

text: Several other Looney Tunes characters have made cameos over the course of the show's run, mainly as guest spots or during songs. Baby Prissy, Baby Marc Antony, and Baby Penelope appear in the songs, “Down By The Cage” and “Paws and Feathers”, respectively. Baby Marvin (Sam Vincent), Baby Elmer (Brian Drummond), Baby Instant Martians, Baby Gossamer, and Baby Foghorn (Scott McNeil) appear in “War Of The Weirds”, “Bully For Bugs”, “A Mid-Autumn Night’s Scream”, “Stop and Smell Up the Flowers“, and "Cock A Doodle Do It!", respectively. Baby Wile E. and Baby Road Runner appear in multiple songs, as do Baby Pepé (Terry Klassen), Baby Porky, and Baby Sam.


title: Baby Looney Tunes

text: In 1997, Warner Bros. Animation announced the show as an upcoming series. In January 2001, they ended production and the pilot aired on June 3, 2001. They restarted production 5 days later and re-ended production; and the show started as a full series on July 28, 2001.


title: Baby Looney Tunes

text: Underscoring for the series was written by veteran animation composers Steven and Julie Bernstein. They were nominated for a Daytime Emmy (Outstanding Achievement in Music Direction and Composition) in 2006. They also composed the score for the Easter movie, "Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs-traordinary Adventure", writing the music and lyrics for the featured songs.


title: Baby Looney Tunes

text: Warner Home Video has released 15 of the 53 episodes of "Baby Looney Tunes", including the DVD of the only "Baby Looney Tunes" movie: "Eggs-traordinary Adventure".


title: Baby Looney Tunes

text: In the United Kingdom, 4 volumes were released on DVD from July 15, 2013. Each disc contains 4 half-hour episodes.


title: World's funniest joke

text: The "world's funniest joke" is a term used by Richard Wiseman of the University of Hertfordshire in 2002 to summarize one of the results of his research. For his experiment, named LaughLab, he created a website where people could rate and submit jokes. Purposes of the research included discovering the joke that had the widest appeal and understanding among different cultures, demographics and countries.


title: World's funniest joke

text: The winning joke, which was later found to be based on a 1951 "Goon Show" sketch by Spike Milligan, was submitted by Gurpal Gosal of Manchester:


title: World's funniest joke

text: Researchers also included five computer-generated jokes, four of which fared rather poorly, but one was rated higher than one third of the human jokes:


title: Vidyullekha Raman

text: Vidyullekha Raman (born 4 November 1991), also known as Vidyu Raman, is an Indian actress and comedienne who appears in Tamil and Telugu films. The daughter of actor Mohan Raman, Vidyullekha made her debut in Gautham Vasudev Menon's 2012 "Neethaane En Ponvasantham". She won the Nandi Award for Best Female Comedian for the film "Run Raja Run" (2014).


title: Vidyullekha Raman

text: Vidyullekha did her schooling in Vidya Mandir Senior Secondary School and later went to MCTM Matriculation, where she developed an interest for theatre and acting. She gained her popularity doing stage productions during her college years at M.O.P. Vaishnav College, where she graduated with a degree in Visual Communication.


title: Vidyullekha Raman

text: She has had over 7 years of theater experience. She made her debut in Gautham Vasudev Menon's 2012 bilingual films "Neethaane En Ponvasantham" and "Yeto Vellipoyindhi Manasu", appearing as Jenny, a friend of the character portrayed by Samantha. The actress has since played pivotal roles opposite N. Santhanam in Sundar C's "Theeya Velai Seiyyanum Kumaru", in "Malini 22 Palayamkottai" and the Telugu film "Ramayya Vasthavayya". She was seen in minor roles in both 2014 Pongal releases "Jilla" and "Veeram". She has since then shifted her base to the Telugu film industry.


title: Vidyullekha Raman

text: The actress is the daughter of Indian Tamil film and Tamil television actor Mohan Raman, while her grandfather was the prominent lawyer V. P. Raman. Another uncle, P. S. Raman, was the former Advocate General of Tamil Nadu. Her cousin Gitanjali is married to leading Tamil film maker Selvaraghavan.


title: Vidyullekha Raman

text: Raman got engaged to Sanjay on 26 August 2020 and announced it on Instagram. The couple got married on September 9, 2021, in an intimate ceremony.


title: The Harrodian School

text: The Harrodian School is an independent day school in Barnes, South-west London. Formerly the site of Harrods Sports Club, the original premises have been extended and converted for educational purposes. The school opened in September 1993 with just 65 pupils; by 2011, the roll had grown to 925.


title: The Harrodian School

text: The Harrodian school was founded by Lady Eliana and Sir Alford Houstoun-Boswall with 65 pupils and 12 staff.


title: The Harrodian School

text: Until 1988, the site had been a clubhouse and sports ground for employees of Harrods department store, and known as the "Harrodian Club". While the store's owner Mohamed Al-Fayed sold the grounds, he was not happy that the school took the name, and in fact, challenged this in court.


title: The Harrodian School

text: Eliana Houstoun-Boswall was the founding headmistress, but in 1996 was left by her husband after her affair with a teacher became public. The publicity again prompted Harrods to object to the school's perceived connection to them. She has gone on to found another independent school, Hampton Court House.


title: The Harrodian School

text: As of 2021, the school charges tuition fees of (term/year): £5,463/£16,389 (4.5–7 years of age); £6,268/£18,804 (8–12 years); £7,245/£21,735 (13–15 years) and £8,391/£25,173 (sixth form). In addition to tuition fees, charges are made for lunch; insurance, and registration; these additional charges amount to approximately £1,500/year.


title: Fritz Todt

text: Fritz Todt (; 4 September 1891 – 8 February 1942) was a German construction engineer and senior Nazi who rose from the position of Inspector General for German Roadways, in which he directed the construction of the German autobahns ("Reichsautobahnen"), to become the Reich Minister for Armaments and Ammunition. From that position, he directed the entire German wartime military economy.


title: Fritz Todt

text: Before the beginning of World War II, he initiated what Hitler called "Organisation Todt", a military-engineering company that supplied industry with forced labour, built fortifications such as the "Westwall" and Atlantic Wall with that labour, and administered construction of the Nazi concentration camps in the late phase of Nazi Germany.


title: Fritz Todt

text: Todt was born in Pforzheim in the Grand Duchy of Baden (now in Baden-Württemberg) to Emil Todt (1861–1909) and his wife, Elise, née Unterecker (1869–1935). His father owned a small ring factory.


title: Fritz Todt

text: In 1910, he volunteered for one-year military service. From 1911 to 1914, Todt studied engineering at Technical Hochschule of Munich and Karlsruhe, graduating with a Diplom degree in construction engineering from the latter.


title: Fritz Todt

text: During World War I, he served initially with the infantry and then as front line reconnaissance observer within the "Luftstreitkräfte" (the German Air Forces – DLSK), winning the Iron Cross. After the war he resumed his studies and graduated in 1920.


title: Fritz Todt

text: In 1921, he initially worked on waterpower stations for the Grün & Bilfinger AG, Mannheim company and the same year for the civil engineering company where he worked until 1933. In January 1922, he joined the "Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei" (NSDAP), or Nazi Party. In 1931, he joined the "Sturmabteilung" (SA), which was then commanded by Ernst Röhm. He rose steadily through its ranks, attaining the rank of SA-"Obergruppenführer" in September 1938. In 1932, Todt completed his thesis at Technical Hochschule of Munich "Fehlerquellen beim Bau von Landstraßendecken aus Teer und Asphalt" ("Sources of defects in the construction of tarmac and asphalt road surfaces") and became a Doctor of Engineering (Dr.-Ing.).


title: Fritz Todt

text: On 5 July 1933, five months after Adolf Hitler became "Reichskanzler", Todt was appointed "Generalinspektor für das deutsche Straßenwesen" (Inspector General for German Roadways). In November, this public authority was raised to the status of a "Supreme Reich Authority" ("Oberste Reichsbehörde") outside the hierarchy of Reich Ministries; Todt was subordinated directly to Hitler. Alan S. Milward characterized this phase as follows:


title: Fritz Todt

text: "His personal views on business questions and, what was more important, the success of the motorway project kept Todt in the inner circle of the Führer. At the same time, his deliberate pose as a technical expert, as a man without interest in internal power struggles, saved him from the adversaries of the more important party leaders for a long time".


title: Fritz Todt

text: He was given the task of organizing a new construction company for the motorways ("Reichsautobahnen"). He edited the journal "Die Strasse", which was a publication of his agency from 1934 to 1942.


title: Fritz Todt

text: For his work on the autobahnen, Todt was recognized with the German National Prize for Art and Science by Hitler, next to Ernst Heinkel, Ferdinand Porsche and Willy Messerschmitt. Hitler donated the award during 1937, devised as a replacement for the Nobel Prize, which Hitler forbade Germans from accepting starting during 1936.


title: Fritz Todt

text: In December 1936, he became "Leiter des Hauptamts für Technik in der Reichsleitung der NSDAP" (Director of the Head Office for Engineering in the National Directorate of the NSDAP) and, in December 1938, "Generalbevollmächtigter für die Regelung der Bauwirtschaft" (General Plenipotentiary for the Regulation of the Construction Industry) in the Four Year Plan. At the beginning of World War II in Europe, he was also appointed to the rank of "Generalmajor" of the Luftwaffe. In May 1938, he initiated the "Organisation Todt" (OT), joining government firms, private companies and the "Reichsarbeitsdienst" (Reich Labour Service). OT used up to 800,000 forced labourers ("Zwangsarbeiter") from countries that Germany occupied during World War II. Todt was responsible for the construction of the "West Wall" (commonly named the "Siegfried Line" in English-speaking countries) to defend the "Reich" territory.


title: Fritz Todt

text: On 17 March 1940, Todt was appointed "Reichsminister für Bewaffnung und Munition" (Minister for Armaments and Munitions) which meant he managed the entire military economy.


title: Fritz Todt

text: After the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, Todt was appointed to manage the restoration of the infrastructure there. In late July 1941, he was named "Generalinspekteur für Wasser und Energie" (Inspector General for Water and Energy). During that year, he became increasingly distant from the commanders of the "Wehrmacht", in particular from "Reichsmarschall" Hermann Göring, the "Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe" (Commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe). After an inspection tour of the Eastern Front, Todt complained to Hitler that without better equipment and supplies for the armed forces, it would be better to end the war against the Soviet Union. Hitler rejected such an assessment and continued the offensive against the Soviets.


title: Fritz Todt

text: On 8 February 1942, soon after take-off from the "Wolfsschanze" ("Wolf's Lair") airfield near Rastenburg, in East Prussia, Todt's aircraft crashed and he was killed. He was buried in the Invalids' Cemetery in the Scharnhorst-Strasse in Berlin. Posthumously, he became the first recipient of the newly created "Deutscher Orden" ("German Order").


title: Fritz Todt

text: It has been suggested that Todt had been the victim of an assassination orchestrated by Hitler, but that has never been confirmed. A possible motive for killing Todt was that he had flown to the Wolf's Lair to recommend that Hitler sue for peace with Russia. Todt's production figures suggested that the German economy was not able to support the defeat of Russia and, by February, it was apparent Hitler's plan to rapidly subdue Russia in a Blitzkrieg was not succeeding.


title: Fritz Todt

text: Todt's successor as "Reichsminister" was Albert Speer, whom Hitler awarded an "Org.Todt" ring during May 1943. Speer was supposed to be on same plane as Todt. In his autobiography, Speer mentioned a Reich Air Ministry inquiry into the airplane accident, which he said ended with the sentence: "The possibility of sabotage is ruled out. Further measures are therefore neither requisite nor intended". Speer, who was present but had declined to travel on the same flight because he had been kept up late the night before, talking with Hitler, thought that the wording was "curious".


title: Fritz Todt

text: On 8 February 1944, the second commemoration of Todt's death, Hitler awarded the "Dr.-Fritz-Todt-Preis" as a Badge of Honor of the Nazi Party for "Innovative accomplishments, which are of great importance for the Volk community because of the improvement of their weapons, ammunition and military equipment, and the saving of labor, raw materials and energy". The Badge of Honor came with a material prize and a certificate, was awarded as a medal made of gold, silver, or steel. The Golden Award of Honor was presented by Hitler in person upon proposal by the responsible Gauleiter, upon the joint proposal of Robert Ley, the director of the corresponding Deutsche Arbeitsfront and NSDAP leaders, and the director of the "Main office for Technology in the NSDAP", Albert Speer.


title: Foreigner (Foreigner album)

text: Foreigner is the debut studio album by British-American rock band Foreigner, released in 8 March 1977. It spun off three hit singles, "Feels Like the First Time", "Cold as Ice" and "Long, Long Way from Home". It also features album tracks such as "Headknocker" and "Starrider", the latter of which features a rare lead vocal from lead guitarist and co-founder Mick Jones. The first attempt at mixing the album was done at Sarm Studios, London, but as they were dissatisfied with the result, the album was re-mixed at Atlantic Recording Studios by Mick Jones, Ian McDonald and Jimmy Douglass.


title: Foreigner (Foreigner album)

text: "Los Angeles Times" critic Robert Hilburn summed up his contemporary review of "Foreigner" saying "The production work is crisp, the melodies are serviceable and the vocals are eager. But there is far too little point of view to make any of it commanding." "Hartford Courant" critic Henry McNulty said "There's something good beginning here, and the sooner you get in on it the better." "Annison Star" reviewer Mike Stamler felt that most of the songs were "sanforized, sanitized and safely sterilized into three basic chords" with "immature lyrics," leaving little variety on the album, and suggested that more instrumental solos would have been beneficial.


title: Foreigner (Foreigner album)

text: Allmusic critic Andy Hinds said that for suburban teenagers in the 1970s the "immaculate rock sound" on "Foreigner" "was the perfect soundtrack for cruising through well-manicured neighborhoods in their Chevy Novas," and praised the band's "pure rock craftsmanship."


title: Foreigner (Foreigner album)

text: "Billboard" reviewer Gary Graff rated four of the songs from "Foreigner" (the three singles plus "Headknocker") among the ten greatest Foreigner songs. Graff described "Headknocker" as a "gritty, stomping rocker."


title: Foreigner (Foreigner album)

text: "Classic Rock" critic Malcolm Dome rated two songs from "Foreigner" as being among Foreigner's 10 most underrated – "Starrider" at #7 and "Long, Long Way from Home" at #4. Dome calls Starrider a "beautifully developed, introspective tale of aspiration," even though it doesn't sound much like Foreigner and its lyrics "come across as 50s pulp sci fi." "Ultimate Classic Rock" critic Eduardo Rivadavia also rated two songs from "Foreigner" among the band's 10 most underrated – "Fool for You Anyway" at #6 and "Long, Long Way from Home" at #2.


title: Foreigner (Foreigner album)

text: Jones has rated four songs from the album ("Long, Long Way from Home," "Cold as Ice," "The Damage Is Done" and "Fool for You Anyway") as being among his 11 favorite Foreigner songs.


title: Foreigner (Foreigner album)

text: In July 2010, the audiophile label Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab released this album on the Super Audio Compact Disc (SACD) format. It is presented in a "Mini Vinyl" replica cardboard case but omits the bonus tracks.


title: Risus sardonicus

text: Risus sardonicus or rictus grin is a highly characteristic, abnormal, sustained spasm of the facial muscles that appears to produce grinning. It may be caused by tetanus, strychnine poisoning, or Wilson's disease, and has been reported after judicial hanging.


title: Risus sardonicus

text: The condition's name, associated with the Mediterranean island of Sardinia, derives from the appearance of raised eyebrows and an open "grin", which can appear sardonic or malevolent to the lay observer, displayed by those experiencing these muscle spasms.


title: Risus sardonicus

text: It is most often observed as a sign of tetanus. It can also be caused by poisoning with strychnine or Wilson's disease.


title: Risus sardonicus

text: In 2009, scientists at the University of Eastern Piedmont wrote that they had identified hemlock water-dropwort ("Oenanthe crocata") as the plant historically responsible for producing the sardonic grin. This plant is the most likely candidate for the "sardonic herb", which was a neurotoxic plant used for the ritual killing of elderly people in pre-Roman Nuragic Sardinia.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: Tropical Islands Resort is a tropical water park located in the former Brand-Briesen Airfield in Halbe, a municipality in the district of Dahme-Spreewald in Brandenburg, Germany, 50 kilometres (31 mi) from the southern boundary of Berlin. It is housed in a former airship hangar (known as the Aerium), the biggest free-standing hall in the world. The hall belonged to the company Cargolifter until its insolvency in 2002.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: Tropical Islands has a maximum capacity of 8,200 visitors a day. In its first year of operation it attracted 975,000 visitors, according to the operators. The Tanjong company reported 155,000 visitors in the business year February 2004 to February 2005. Approximately 600 people work at Tropical Islands.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: Tropical Islands has a world record for the largest indoor waterpark. It is bigger than Canada's World Waterpark at West Edmonton Mall. It is also the fourth-largest building in the world by usable volume.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: Tropical Islands is located a (37.5 mi) south of the centre of Berlin and 50 kilometres (31 mi) from the southern boundary of the city. It is close to Briesen/Brand in the south of the municipality of Halbe. The theme park is on the site of the former Soviet airfield Brand, in the Aerium hangar.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: It can be reached by taking the A13 autobahn. It can also be reached taking a train to Brand Tropical Islands, followed by a free shuttle bus.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: In 1938, Nazi Germany began development of Brand-Briesen Airfield for the Luftwaffe. The Red Army overran the site in May 1945, and occupied the site after World War II, adding a second runway and nuclear-resistant command and control facilities for the fighter aircraft regiment.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: With the reunification of Germany in 1989/1990, the Soviet Army agreed to return all military bases by 1994. Returned to the Federal Government of Germany in 1992, Cargolifter AG bought the former military airfield to construct airships. It began development of a new construction hall, 360 metres (1181 ft) long, 210 metres (688 ft) wide and 107 metres (351 ft) high, which cost €78 million. At 5.5 million m³ (194 million ft³), it is one of the largest buildings on Earth by volume, and is the world's largest single hall without supporting pillars inside. The hangar was commissioned as an airship hangar named "Aerium" in November 2000, but the airship it was intended to house – the CL160 – was never built. CargoLifter went bankrupt in mid-2002.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: Tropical Islands was built by the Malaysian corporation Tanjong in the former airship hangar known as the Aerium.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: The hangar – the third largest free-standing hall in the world – was originally designed to protect large airships from the elements. It was purchased by Tanjong on 11 June 2003 for €17.5 million, of which €10 million was a subsidy from the state of Brandenburg. The building permit for constructing the theme park inside the hall was granted on 2 February 2004 and Tropical Islands officially opened on 19 December 2004.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: Inside the hall, the air temperature is 26 °C (78 °F) and air humidity is around 64%. Tropical Islands is home to the biggest indoor rainforest in the world, a beach, many tropical plants and a number of swimming pools, bars and restaurants. It is open around the clock, every day of the year – except on Christmas Eve.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: On entering the hall, visitors choose between different basic admission options with different prices. Tropical Islands is divided into two main areas, each with its own admission price. Visitors can move from one area to the other by paying an additional daily charge. Additional charges also apply for areas such as the water slide tower (not always), crazy golf course, African Jungle Lift, evening show and internal accommodation area. The entertainment programme comprises a gala evening show, smaller shows during the day and various events.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: A 4,000 m (43,000 ft) children's play area opened in 2007. In mid-2007, a sauna and spa facility with six separate areas was added, the largest tropical sauna complex in Europe. The design of the saunas is inspired by UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South-East Asia, including a cave temple on Elephanta Island in India and the Angkor Wat temple in Cambodia. The bathing area includes a 27-metre (88 ft) high water slide tower with four slides, a children's play area and a crazy golf course.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: According to figures published by the company, Tropical Islands has spent EUR 23 million on further development and expansion work. The original total investment sum announced was EUR 75 million, including a EUR 17 million subsidy from the state of Brandenburg. The purpose of the subsidy for the development work was to preserve the 501 jobs.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: At first, visitor numbers remained behind original estimates. For a cost-effective operation, 1.25 million visitors per year are required. In 2005, the resort lost between 10 and 20 million euros. By October 2006 there were about 600,000 visitors. The initial lack of visitors has been attributed to various reasons, including the relatively remote location of Tropical Islands. In addition, in Berlin, South Brandenburg, the direct surrounding area of the resort, the disposable income is below the national average. The target demographic of the resort was extended to attract visitors from further away, including Poland.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: By altering the ticket price structure and adding new overnight accommodation, visitors attendance has been improved. According to the then managing director Ole Bested Hensing, 2008 was the first time Tropical Islands Resort made a profit. It recorded 300,000 overnight stays.


title: Tropical Islands Resort

text: At the start there were problems with the plants that were under the light-tight dome. In October 2005, the southern front along the "South Sea" bathing area had a special UV-transparent film made of ETFE installed. This 20,000 square metre (215,000 sq ft) "window" allows daylight. The palms, trees and bushes have grown well since.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Wolfram Mathematica is a software system with built-in libraries for several areas of technical computing that allow machine learning, statistics, symbolic computation, data manipulation, network analysis, time series analysis, NLP, optimization, plotting functions and various types of data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other programming languages. It was conceived by Stephen Wolfram, and is developed by Wolfram Research of Champaign, Illinois. The Wolfram Language is the programming language used in "Mathematica". Mathematica 1.0 was released on June 23, 1988 in Champaign, Illinois and Santa Clara, California.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Wolfram Mathematica (called "Mathematica" by some of its users) is split into two parts: the kernel and the front end. The kernel interprets expressions (Wolfram Language code) and returns result expressions, which can then be displayed by the front end.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: The original front end, designed by Theodore Gray in 1988, consists of a notebook interface and allows the creation and editing of notebook documents that can contain code, plaintext, images, and graphics.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Alternatives to the Mathematica front end include Wolfram Workbench—an Eclipse-based integrated development environment (IDE) that was introduced in 2006. It provides project-based code development tools for Mathematica, including revision management, debugging, profiling, and testing.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: There is also a plugin for IntelliJ IDEA-based IDEs to work with Wolfram Language code that in addition to syntax highlighting can analyze and auto-complete local variables and defined functions. The Mathematica Kernel also includes a command line front end.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Other interfaces include JMath, based on GNU Readline and WolframScript which runs self-contained Mathematica programs (with arguments) from the UNIX command line.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Capabilities for high-performance computing were extended with the introduction of packed arrays in version 4 (1999) and sparse matrices (version 5, 2003), and by adopting the GNU Multi-Precision Library to evaluate high-precision arithmetic.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Version 5.2 (2005) added automatic multi-threading when computations are performed on multi-core computers. This release included CPU-specific optimized libraries. In addition Mathematica is supported by third party specialist acceleration hardware such as ClearSpeed.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: In 2002, gridMathematica was introduced to allow user level parallel programming on heterogeneous clusters and multiprocessor systems and in 2008 parallel computing technology was included in all Mathematica licenses including support for grid technology such as Windows HPC Server 2008, Microsoft Compute Cluster Server and Sun Grid.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: As of Version 13, there are 6,051 built-in functions and symbols in the Wolfram Language. Stephen Wolfram announced the launch of the Wolfram Function Repository in June 2019 as a way for the public Wolfram community to contribute functionality to the Wolfram Language. At the time of Stephen Wolfram's release announcement for Mathematica 13, there were 2,259 functions contributed as Resource Functions. In addition to the Wolfram Function Repository, there is a Wolfram Data Repository with computable data and the Wolfram Neural Net Repository for machine learning.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Wolfram Mathematica is the basis of the Combinatorica package, which adds discrete mathematics functionality in combinatorics and graph theory to the program.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Communication with other applications occurs through a protocol called Wolfram Symbolic Transfer Protocol (WSTP). It allows communication between the Wolfram Mathematica kernel and front end—and provides a general interface between the kernel and other applications.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Wolfram Research freely distributes a developer kit for linking applications written in the programming language C to the Mathematica kernel through WSTP using J/Link., a Java program that can ask Mathematica to perform computations. Similar functionality is achieved with .NET /Link, but with .NET programs instead of Java programs.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Other languages that connect to Mathematica include Haskell, AppleScript, Racket, Visual Basic, Python, and Clojure.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Mathematica supports the generation and execution of Modelica models for systems modeling and connects with Wolfram System Modeler.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Mathematica can also capture real-time data from a variety of sources and can read and write to public blockchains (Bitcoin, Ethereum, and ARK).


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: It supports import and export of over 220 data, image, video, sound, computer-aided design (CAD), geographic information systems (GIS), document, and biomedical formats.


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: Mathematica is also integrated with Wolfram Alpha, an online answer engine that provides additional data, some of which is kept updated in real time, for users who use Mathematica with an internet connection. Some of the data sets include astronomical, chemical, geopolitical, language, biomedical, airplane, and weather data, in addition to mathematical data (such as knots and polyhedra).


title: Wolfram Mathematica

text: "BYTE" in 1989 listed Mathematica as among the "Distinction" winners of the BYTE Awards, stating that it "is another breakthrough Macintosh application ... it could enable you to absorb the algebra and calculus that seemed impossible to comprehend from a textbook". Mathematica has been criticized for being closed source. Wolfram Research claims keeping Mathematica closed source is central to its business model and the continuity of the software.


title: Cladistics

text: Cladistics (; ) is an approach to biological classification in which organisms are categorized in groups ("clades") based on hypotheses of most recent common ancestry. The evidence for hypothesized relationships is typically shared derived characteristics (synapomorphies")" that are not present in more distant groups and ancestors. However, from an empirical perspective, common ancestors are inferences based on a cladistic hypothesis of relationships of taxa whose character states can be observed. Theoretically, a last common ancestor and all its descendants constitute a (minimal) clade. Importantly, all descendants stay in their overarching ancestral clade. For example, if the terms "worms" or "fishes" were used within a "strict" cladistic framework, these terms would include humans. Many of these terms are normally used paraphyletically, outside of cladistics, e.g. as a 'grade', which are fruitless to precisely delineate, especially when including extinct species. Radiation results in the generation of new subclades by bifurcation, but in practice sexual hybridization may blur very closely related groupings.


title: Cladistics

text: As a hypothesis, a clade can only be rejected if some groupings were explicitly excluded. It may then be found that the excluded group did actually descend from the last common ancestor of the group, and thus emerged within the group. ("Evolved from" is misleading, because in cladistics all descendants stay in the ancestral group). Upon finding that the group is paraphyletic this way, either such excluded groups should be granted to the clade, or the group should be abolished.


title: Cladistics

text: Branches down to the divergence to the next significant (e.g. extant) sister are considered stem-groupings of the clade, but in principle each level stands on its own, to be assigned a unique name. For a fully bifurcated tree, adding a group to a tree also adds an additional (named) clade, and potentially a new level. Specifically, also extinct groups are always put on a side-branch, not distinguishing whether an actual ancestor of other groupings was found.


title: Cladistics

text: The techniques and nomenclature of cladistics have been applied to disciplines other than biology. (See phylogenetic nomenclature.)


title: Cladistics

text: Cladistics findings are posing a difficulty for taxonomy, where the rank and (genus-)naming of established groupings may turn out to be inconsistent.


title: Cladistics

text: The original methods used in cladistic analysis and the school of taxonomy derived from the work of the German entomologist Willi Hennig, who referred to it as phylogenetic systematics (also the title of his 1966 book); the terms "cladistics" and "clade" were popularized by other researchers. Cladistics in the original sense refers to a particular set of methods used in phylogenetic analysis, although it is now sometimes used to refer to the whole field.


title: Cladistics

text: What is now called the cladistic method appeared as early as 1901 with a work by Peter Chalmers Mitchell for birds and subsequently by Robert John Tillyard (for insects) in 1921, and W. Zimmermann (for plants) in 1943.


title: Cladistics

text: The term "clade" was introduced in 1958 by Julian Huxley after having been coined by Lucien Cuénot in 1940, "cladogenesis" in 1958, "cladistic" by Arthur Cain and Harrison in 1960, "cladist" (for an adherent of Hennig's school) by Ernst Mayr in 1965, and "cladistics" in 1966. Hennig referred to his own approach as "phylogenetic systematics". From the time of his original formulation until the end of the 1970s, cladistics competed as an analytical and philosophical approach to systematics with phenetics and so-called evolutionary taxonomy. Phenetics was championed at this time by the numerical taxonomists Peter Sneath and Robert Sokal, and evolutionary taxonomy by Ernst Mayr.


title: Cladistics

text: Originally conceived, if only in essence, by Willi Hennig in a book published in 1950, cladistics did not flourish until its translation into English in 1966 (Lewin 1997). Today, cladistics is the most popular method for inferring phylogenetic trees from morphological data.


title: Cladistics

text: In the 1990s, the development of effective polymerase chain reaction techniques allowed the application of cladistic methods to biochemical and molecular genetic traits of organisms, vastly expanding the amount of data available for phylogenetics. At the same time, cladistics rapidly became popular in evolutionary biology, because computers made it possible to process large quantities of data about organisms and their characteristics.


title: Cladistics

text: The cladistic method interprets each shared character state transformation as a potential piece of evidence for grouping. Synapomorphies (shared, derived character states) are viewed as evidence of grouping, while symplesiomorphies (shared ancestral character states) are not. The outcome of a cladistic analysis is a cladogram – a tree-shaped diagram (dendrogram) that is interpreted to represent the best hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships. Although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characters and originally calculated by hand, genetic sequencing data and computational phylogenetics are now commonly used in phylogenetic analyses, and the parsimony criterion has been abandoned by many phylogeneticists in favor of more "sophisticated" but less parsimonious evolutionary models of character state transformation. Cladists contend that these models are unjustified because there is no evidence that they recover more "true" or "correct" results from actual empirical data sets


title: Cladistics

text: Every cladogram is based on a particular dataset analyzed with a particular method. Datasets are tables consisting of molecular, morphological, ethological and/or other characters and a list of operational taxonomic units (OTUs), which may be genes, individuals, populations, species, or larger taxa that are presumed to be monophyletic and therefore to form, all together, one large clade; phylogenetic analysis infers the branching pattern within that clade. Different datasets and different methods, not to mention violations of the mentioned assumptions, often result in different cladograms. Only scientific investigation can show which is more likely to be correct.


title: Cladistics

text: Until recently, for example, cladograms like the following have generally been accepted as accurate representations of the ancestral relations among turtles, lizards, crocodilians, and birds:


title: Cladistics

text: If this phylogenetic hypothesis is correct, then the last common ancestor of turtles and birds, at the branch near the lived earlier than the last common ancestor of lizards and birds, near the . Most molecular evidence, however, produces cladograms more like this:


title: Cladistics

text: If this is accurate, then the last common ancestor of turtles and birds lived later than the last common ancestor of lizards and birds. Since the cladograms show two mutually exclusive hypotheses to describe the evolutionary history, at most one of them is correct.


title: Cladistics

text: The cladogram to the right represents the current universally accepted hypothesis that all primates, including strepsirrhines like the lemurs and lorises, had a common ancestor all of whose descendants are or were primates, and so form a clade; the name Primates is therefore recognized for this clade. Within the primates, all anthropoids (monkeys, apes, and humans) are hypothesized to have had a common ancestor all of whose descendants are or were anthropoids, so they form the clade called Anthropoidea. The "prosimians", on the other hand, form a paraphyletic taxon. The name Prosimii is not used in phylogenetic nomenclature, which names only clades; the "prosimians" are instead divided between the clades Strepsirhini and Haplorhini, where the latter contains Tarsiiformes and Anthropoidea.


title: Cladistics

text: Lemurs and tarsiers may have looked closely related to humans, in the sense of being close on the evolutionary tree to humans. However, from the perspective of a tarsier, humans and lemurs would have looked close, in the exact same sense. Cladistics forces a neutral perspective, treating all branches (extant or extinct) in the same manner. It also forces one to try to make statements, and honestly take into account findings, about the exact historic relationships between the groups.


title: Cladistics

text: The following terms, coined by Hennig, are used to identify shared or distinct character states among groups:


title: Cladistics

text: The terms plesiomorphy and apomorphy are relative; their application depends on the position of a group within a tree. For example, when trying to decide whether the tetrapods form a clade, an important question is whether having four limbs is a synapomorphy of the earliest taxa to be included within Tetrapoda: did all the earliest members of the Tetrapoda inherit four limbs from a common ancestor, whereas all other vertebrates did not, or at least not homologously? By contrast, for a group within the tetrapods, such as birds, having four limbs is a plesiomorphy. Using these two terms allows a greater precision in the discussion of homology, in particular allowing clear expression of the hierarchical relationships among different homologous features.


title: Cladistics

text: It can be difficult to decide whether a character state is in fact the same and thus can be classified as a synapomorphy, which may identify a monophyletic group, or whether it only appears to be the same and is thus a homoplasy, which cannot identify such a group. There is a danger of circular reasoning: assumptions about the shape of a phylogenetic tree are used to justify decisions about character states, which are then used as evidence for the shape of the tree. Phylogenetics uses various forms of parsimony to decide such questions; the conclusions reached often depend on the dataset and the methods. Such is the nature of empirical science, and for this reason, most cladists refer to their cladograms as hypotheses of relationship. Cladograms that are supported by a large number and variety of different kinds of characters are viewed as more robust than those based on more limited evidence.


title: Cladistics

text: Mono-, para- and polyphyletic taxa can be understood based on the shape of the tree (as done above), as well as based on their character states. These are compared in the table below.


title: Cladistics

text: Cladistics, either generally or in specific applications, has been criticized from its beginnings. Decisions as to whether particular character states are homologous, a precondition of their being synapomorphies, have been challenged as involving circular reasoning and subjective judgements. Of course, the potential unreliability of evidence is a problem for any systematic method, or for that matter, for any empirical scientific endeavor at all.


title: Cladistics

text: Transformed cladistics arose in the late 1970s in an attempt to resolve some of these problems by removing a priori assumptions about phylogeny from cladistic analysis, but it has remained unpopular.


title: Cladistics

text: The cladistic method does not identify fossil species as actual ancestors of a clade. Instead, fossil taxa are identified as belonging to separate extinct branches. While a fossil species could be the actual ancestor of a clade, there is no way to know that. Therefore, a more conservative hypothesis is that the fossil taxon is related to other fossil and extant taxa, as implied by the pattern of shared apomorphic features.


title: Cladistics

text: An otherwise extinct group with any extant descendants, is not considered (literally) extinct, and for instance does not have a date of extinction.


title: Cladistics

text: Anything having to do with biology and sex is complicated and messy, and cladistics is no exception. Many species reproduce sexually, and are capable of interbreeding for millions of years. Worse, during such a period, many branches may have radiated, and it may take hundreds of millions of years for them to have whittled down to just two. Only then one can theoretically assign proper last common ancestors of groupings which do not inadvertently include earlier branches. The process of true cladistic bifurcation can thus take a much more extended time than one is usually aware of. In practice, for recent radiations, cladistically guided findings only give a coarse impression of the complexity. A more detailed account will give details about fractions of introgressions between groupings, and even geographic variations thereof. This has been used as an argument for the use of paraphyletic groupings, but typically other reasons are quoted.


title: Cladistics

text: Horizontal gene transfer is the mobility of genetic info between different organisms that can have immediate or delayed effects for the reciprocal host .There are several processes in nature which can cause horizontal gene transfer. This does typically not directly interfere with ancestry of the organism, but can complicate the determination of that ancestry. On another level, one can map the horizontal gene transfer processes, by determining the phylogeny of the individual genes using cladistics.


title: Cladistics

text: If there is unclarity in mutual relationships, there are a lot of possible trees. Assigning names to each possible clade may not be prudent. Furthermore, established names are discarded in cladistics, or alternatively carry connotations which may no longer hold, such as when additional groups are found to have emerged in them. E.g. Archaea, Asgard archaea, protists, slime molds, worms, invertebrata, fishes, reptilia, monkeys, "Ardipithecus", "Australopithecus", "Homo erectus" all contain "Homo sapiens" cladistically in their "sensu lato" meaning.


title: Cladistics

text: The comparisons used to acquire data on which cladograms can be based are not limited to the field of biology. Any group of individuals or classes that are hypothesized to have a common ancestor, and to which a set of common characteristics may or may not apply, can be compared pairwise. Cladograms can be used to depict the hypothetical descent relationships within groups of items in many different academic realms. The only requirement is that the items have characteristics that can be identified and measured.


title: Cladistics

text: Anthropology and archaeology: Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the development of cultures or artifacts using groups of cultural traits or artifact features.


title: Cladistics

text: Comparative mythology and folktale use cladistic methods to reconstruct the protoversion of many myths. Mythological phylogenies constructed with mythemes clearly support low horizontal transmissions (borrowings), historical (sometimes Palaeolithic) diffusions and punctuated evolution. They also are a powerful way to test hypotheses about cross-cultural relationships among folktales.


title: Cladistics

text: Literature: Cladistic methods have been used in the classification of the surviving manuscripts of the "Canterbury Tales", and the manuscripts of the Sanskrit "Charaka Samhita".


title: Cladistics

text: Historical linguistics: Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of languages using linguistic features. This is similar to the traditional comparative method of historical linguistics, but is more explicit in its use of parsimony and allows much faster analysis of large datasets (computational phylogenetics).


title: Cladistics

text: Textual criticism or stemmatics: Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of manuscripts of the same work (and reconstruct the lost original) using distinctive copying errors as apomorphies. This differs from traditional historical-comparative linguistics in enabling the editor to evaluate and place in genetic relationship large groups of manuscripts with large numbers of variants that would be impossible to handle manually. It also enables parsimony analysis of contaminated traditions of transmission that would be impossible to evaluate manually in a reasonable period of time.


title: Cladistics

text: Astrophysics infers the history of relationships between galaxies to create branching diagram hypotheses of galaxy diversification.


title: Death Lineup

text: The Death Lineup was a lineup of basketball players on the Golden State Warriors of the National Basketball Association (NBA) from 2014 to 2019. Developed under head coach Steve Kerr, it began during their 2014–15 run that led to an NBA championship. Unlike typical small-ball units, this group of Warriors was versatile enough to defend larger opponents, while also aiming to create mismatches on offense with their shooting and playmaking skills.


title: Death Lineup

text: The lineup featured the Splash Brothers, a three-point shooting backcourt consisting of two-time NBA MVP Stephen Curry, and perennial two-way All-Star Klay Thompson. It also featured versatile defender and 2015 NBA Finals MVP Andre Iguodala on the wing alongside scorer and one-time MVP Kevin Durant, and 2016–17 Defensive Player of the Year Draymond Green at center. Green's defensive versatility was described as the "key" that allowed the lineup to be so effective; although his natural position was power forward, he was able to play as an undersized center in lieu of a traditional center who might have been slower or lacked the playmaking and shooting abilities of Green. The lineup originally included Harrison Barnes, who was replaced by former league MVP Durant in 2016–17, when the group also began to be known as the "Hamptons Five".


title: Death Lineup

text: The Death Lineup was considered to be indicative of a larger overall trend in the NBA towards "positionless" basketball, where traditional position assignments and roles have less importance.


title: Death Lineup

text: The Death Lineup ended after the 2018–19 season, when Durant left the Warriors for the Brooklyn Nets and Iguodala was traded to the Memphis Grizzlies.


title: Death Lineup

text: In 2014–15, Golden State won 67 games in the regular season, led by NBA MVP Stephen Curry. The Warriors' starting lineup with the Andrew Bogut at center played 813 minutes together and outscored opponents by 19.6 points per 100 possessions. After falling behind 2–1 in the 2015 NBA Finals, Warriors coach Steve Kerr inserted Andre Iguodala into the starting lineup in place of Bogut, who had been named to NBA All-Defensive Team in 2015. Draymond Green moved from power forward to center, while Iguodala and Harrison Barnes, both traditional small forwards, were the forwards. The adjustment surrendered size and strength for speed and playmaking. The change was first suggested by Kerr's special assistant, Nick U'Ren, who was a fan of the lineup because it always seemed to pick up the pace of the game to a faster speed, which the Warriors preferred. He had also been watching video of the 2014 NBA Finals, when the series turned after San Antonio Spurs coach Gregg Popovich increased the tempo by switching to a small-ball lineup with the Boris Diaw at center. The Spurs defeated the Miami Heat and LeBron James, who was now back with Cleveland facing Golden State. U'Ren anticipated that Iguodala would have the same impact for the Warriors.


title: Death Lineup

text: The five-man lineup of Iguodala, Curry, Thompson, Green, and Barnes had played together for 102 minutes during the regular season and 62 minutes through the first 18 games of the playoffs. Although the tallest player was only , the unit was also strong defensively. They were all able to switch on defense, spearheaded by Green's ability to guard players taller and heavier than him. The Warriors won 103–82 in Game 4, and captured the series 4–2 to win their first championship since 1975. In the last three games, they defeated the Cavaliers by a combined 42 points, and the new starting unit outscored Cleveland 107–87 in their 49 minutes together. Iguodala was named the Finals MVP, becoming the first player to garner the award without starting every game in the series, as well as the first winner to have not started a game during the regular season.


title: Death Lineup

text: It was not until months after it was deployed in the Finals that the Warriors small lineup was referred to as the "Death Lineup", a phrase originated by Vincent Goodwill, then of "The Detroit News". Despite the unit's success, the 2015–16 Warriors continued to start a traditional lineup with Bogut as their center. Golden State won an NBA-record 73 games behind Curry's league-leading 30.1 points per game and an NBA-record 402 three-pointers made in a season. He was named the MVP for the second straight season, becoming the first unanimous winner in league history. During the season, the Death Lineup was generally reserved to finish the first half and the end of games. It was deployed in 37 games, outscoring opponents by 166 points in 172 minutes for an average advantage of 4.5 points per game and 47.0 points per 100 possessions. Despite their regular season success, the Warriors lost the 2016 NBA Finals, becoming the first team to lose a Finals series after being ahead 3–1.


title: Death Lineup

text: During the off-season, Golden State signed former league MVP and four-time scoring champion Kevin Durant to replace Harrison Barnes, who had averaged just five points and made only 5 of 32 shots during the last three losses in the Finals. With Durant leaving the Oklahoma City Thunder, the Warriors' opponents in the 2016 Western Conference Finals, the move was seen as a disruption in the competitive balance of the NBA, and the Warriors instantly became title favorites. The move gave the Death Lineup four players who have averaged at least five assists in a season. While Barnes was a good defender, Durant also added a shot-blocking element to their switching defense. San Francisco Bay Area journalist Tim Kawakami coined the nickname "Hamptons Five" for the new group, which included the four players who traveled with team officials to The Hamptons to recruit Durant. Durant was impressed that all four players showed up and respected his play. They convinced Durant that he was wanted even though they had already won a championship and came within a game of winning a second. Curry, asked by Durant why he wanted him to join, assured him that he was focused on winning and not concerned with being the face of the franchise, despite being the two-time defending league MVP. The Warriors won the 2017 NBA Finals 4–1, and Durant was unanimously voted the Finals MVP. Kerr had used the Death Lineup for just 16 minutes in the series until deploying it for 17 in the Game 5 clincher. Iguodala scored 20 points in 38 minutes after averaging less than 30 minutes in the first four games of the series. Kerr used him in the small-ball lineup in lieu of big men Zaza Pachulia (10 minutes) and JaVale McGee (0).


title: Death Lineup

text: Injuries limited Golden State's use of the Death Lineup in 2017–18. Opponents had also adapted by rarely leaving their centers in the game against the Warriors' small lineup. Through 49 games, the unit had a -1.2 plus-minus rating. However, it was still considered the team's most potent lineup. In the final 17 games of the regular season, the Warriors were 7–10 with Curry missing all but one game after an ankle and later a knee injury. Durant, Thompson, Green, and Iguodala each missed four to eight games as well. In total, the group finished the regular season with 127 minutes played together over 28 games, outscoring their opponents by a mundane 22 points. In Game 4 of the conference semifinals in the 2018 playoffs, Kerr started the Hamptons Five with Durant for the first time ever, and they posted a plus-minus of +26 in 18 minutes to lead a 118–92 win over the New Orleans Pelicans, giving Golden State a 3–1 lead in the series. After eliminating the Pelicans in five games, the Warriors continued with the starting lineup in the conference finals to build a 2–1 series lead against the Houston Rockets. Golden State won the series 4–3, but Iguodala missed the last four games with a bruised leg. The Warriors entered the NBA Finals for the fourth straight time versus Cleveland. They swept the Cavaliers in four games, leading to their third championship in four years.


title: Death Lineup

text: In 2018–19, the Warriors acquired DeMarcus Cousins, who was recovering from a ruptured left Achilles. He gave Golden State a top-flight, true center for the first time under Kerr, and they became the first team in 42 years with a starting lineup of five All-Stars from the previous season. While the Hamptons Five played more (178 minutes in 38 games) than in the previous regular season, Kerr played the lineup of Cousins, Durant, Curry, Thompson and Green more (268 minutes in 21 games) to integrate Cousins into his new team. In Game 1 of the opening round of the 2019 playoffs, Kerr went to the Hamptons Five early, using them to quell a rally by the Los Angeles Clippers. The coach called the lineup "the best five-man unit in the league". Cousins finished the game with a -17 plus-minus. The Warriors eliminated the Clippers in six games, but Cousins tore his left quadriceps in Game 2, and he was initially thought to be out for the remainder of the postseason. In a sign of respect and with an increased urgency, Kerr opened the following round against Houston by starting the Hamptons Five for the first time in the season. The Rockets featured two of the top one-on-one, pick-and-roll players in James Harden and Chris Paul, and the coach wanted Iguodala's defense in the starting lineup to counter. In Game 2, each member of the lineup scored at least 15 points, the first time for a Warriors starting unit under Kerr, and Golden State jumped to a 2–0 series lead. Houston countered the Warriors' small unit by playing forward P. J. Tucker at center along with four guards, forming a lineup of five shooters all or shorter, and tied the series 2–2. In Game 5, Durant suffered a strained right calf and left with 2:05 remaining in the third quarter; he was later ruled out indefinitely. With Curry and Thompson struggling with their shooting, Durant had been their best player in the playoffs, averaging a team-leading 35.4 points entering the game. However, Curry led Golden State to a Game 5 win after scoring 16 of his 25 points after Durant exited. The Warriors captured the series on the road in Game 6, when Thompson scored 21 of his 27 in the first half, and Curry collected all of his 33 points in the second half.


title: Death Lineup

text: In the Western Conference finals, Golden State swept the Portland Trail Blazers 4–0, with three of the wins including comebacks of 15 points or more. After starting nine consecutive games, Iguodala missed the deciding Game 4 with a sore left calf injury from Game 3. Curry averaged a series career-high 36.5 points, the highest average by a player in a four-game sweep in NBA history. He and Green both had triple-doubles in Game 4, becoming the first teammates in NBA playoff history to achieve the feat in the same game. The Warriors became only the second team to reach five straight NBA Finals, joining the Boston Celtics (1957–1966). Golden State was down 3–1 in the 2019 finals to the Toronto Raptors when Durant returned in Game 5. The Hamptons Five started the game, but Durant ruptured his right Achilles tendon in the second quarter. The Warriors lost the series in Game 6, when Thompson tore the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in his left knee. Both Durant and Thompson were expected to miss most, if not all, of the following season.


title: Death Lineup

text: After the 2018–19 season, the free agent Durant announced that he would sign with the Brooklyn Nets, while Thompson agreed to re-sign with Golden State. Eyeing a replacement for Thompson while he recovered from his injury, the Warriors traded Iguodala to the Memphis Grizzlies in order to free salary cap space to acquire All-Star guard D'Angelo Russell in a sign-and-trade package with Brooklyn for Durant. After Durant's and Iguodala's departures, Warriors CEO Joe Lacob announced his intention to eventually retire their numbers.


title: Death Lineup

text: In 2019–20, the Warriors moved into their new arena, Chase Center, which includes a hallway featuring drawings of each member of the Hamptons Five. Golden State finished with a league-worst 15–50 record. Thompson missed the entire season rehabbing his injury, and Curry was limited to five games all season after breaking his left hand in October. The Warriors' season ended prematurely due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Death Lineup

text: Iguodala returned to the Warriors in 2021–22, and Thompson made his return in January 2022 after being out for 941 days. The Warriors won the 2022 NBA Finals over the Celtics for Golden States' fourth title in eight years. Curry was awarded his first Finals MVP.


title: Queens of the Stone Age (album)

text: Queens of the Stone Age is the debut studio album by American rock band Queens of the Stone Age, released by Loosegroove Records on September 22, 1998. It was primarily written and recorded in April 1998 by founding member Josh Homme and his former Kyuss bandmate Alfredo Hernández, with Hernández playing drums and Homme singing and playing the rest of the instruments. Homme also produced the album alongside Joe Barresi. Bassist Nick Oliveri, also a former member of Kyuss, would join the band by the time of the album's release. "Queens of the Stone Age" received generally positive reviews from critics, who placed it in the stoner rock genre and drew comparisons to krautrock bands such as Neu! and Can, as well as to Kyuss and other metal bands.


title: Queens of the Stone Age (album)

text: In 2011, Homme reissued "Queens of the Stone Age" through his Rekords Rekords label, having it remastered and adding three additional tracks–two from the album's recording sessions and one from two years earlier. The reissue received a positive critical response and was accompanied by a supporting concert tour. Working on the reissue and subsequent tour also inspired part of the band's approach to recording its sixth album, "...Like Clockwork", released in 2013. In 2022, the album was reissued again on Matador Records with its original LP artwork.


title: Queens of the Stone Age (album)

text: Following the breakup of Kyuss in 1995, guitarist Josh Homme recorded new material in Seattle with producer Chris Goss, bassist Van Conner, and drummer Victor Indrizzo under the name Gamma Ray. The results, including the song "If Only Everything", were released as the "Gamma Ray" EP in 1996. Homme subsequently toured as a guitarist with Screaming Trees and started The Desert Sessions, a series of jam sessions involving many musicians including former Kyuss drummer Alfredo Hernández. The song "Avon" originated from the Desert Sessions, appearing on "" in 1998. After receiving a cease and desist order because the name Gamma Ray was already in use by a German band, Homme changed the name to Queens of the Stone Age. The "Gamma Ray" material was re-released in 1997 on the "Kyuss / Queens of the Stone Age" split EP, along with the additional track "Spiders and Vinegaroons" from the "Gamma Ray" sessions; the release featured some of the final studio recordings by Kyuss while debuting the "Queens of the Stone Age" moniker for Homme's new project.


title: Queens of the Stone Age (album)

text: The first ten tracks on "Queens of the Stone Age" were recorded in April 1998 at Monkey Studios in Homme's hometown of Palm Desert, California. Hernández played drums on the tracks and Goss performed on "You Would Know" and "Give the Mule What He Wants", playing bass guitar and singing backing vocals. Homme sang lead vocals and played the rest of the instruments on the recordings, crediting himself under the pseudonym "Carlo" for his bass guitar, keyboard, and piano work. He also served as a producer on the album, alongside Joe Barresi. The "Gamma Ray" song "If Only Everything" was re-recorded during these sessions and its title shortened to "If Only", and the Desert Sessions song "Avon" was also re-recorded. "I Was a Teenage Hand Model" was recorded separately at Rancho De La Luna in Joshua Tree, California, with the studio's personnel contributing as performers: studio owner Fred Drake sang and played drums, co-owner Dave Catching played percussion, and sound engineer Patrick "Hutch" Hutchinson played piano. Former Dinosaur Jr. bassist Mike Johnson is credited with "sofa" on the track. Hutch, who served as live sound engineer for both Kyuss and Queens of the Stone Age, is credited as a member of the group on the album, with the roles "FOH" (front of house), "guru", "HardWalls", and "back of door".


title: Queens of the Stone Age (album)

text: The album's recordings were mixed by Barresi and mastered by Dan Hersch at DigiPrep in Hollywood. The image for the album cover was taken from the 1972 book "The Pin-Up: A Modest History" by Mark Gabor, featuring Trinidadian-British model Sylvia Bayo. Photographs for the liner notes were taken by Tony Tornay, while the back cover photograph was taken by rock photographer Lisa Johnson; it shows Hernández, Homme, and former Kyuss bassist Nick Oliveri, the latter of whom joined Queens of the Stone Age just prior to the album's release and would remain with the band until 2004. Oliveri also appears in the album's closing moments, in a recorded answering machine message to Homme in which he agrees to join the band. Homme created the layout for the album's packaging with graphic artist Frank Kozik.


title: Queens of the Stone Age (album)

text: "Queens of the Stone Age" received generally positive reviews from critics. Writing for "NME", reviewer Kitty Empire scored it 8 out of 10, comparing it to Kyuss and saying that "for all its indisputable primitive charms, "Queens of the Stone Age" is actually a step forward in stoner evolution. The guitars are still flint-hard, the tunes still load-bearing. But the sound roaring out of the speakers is far sleeker and more hypnotic than the dumb chug that stoner rock has periodically devolved into in Homme's absence. The excellent 'Regular John' sounds almost motorik, as though Neu! had level billing with [Black] Sabbath one strange night. There are keyboards and maracas on the very un-stone age 'I Was a Teenage Hand Model'. And Homme—who didn't sing in Kyuss—frequently swaps his bone-dry metallic tones for something a little more soulful on songs like 'You Can't Quit Me Baby'." Tom Sinclair of "Entertainment Weekly" gave it a B- rating, remarking that the band "delivers a workmanlike collection of heavy music that's just a bit too cerebral to fall under the stoner rock rubric (Fu Manchu). "Queens of the Stone Age" is intermittently potent, but when you hear the ripped-off 'If Only' (a.k.a. the Stooges' 'I Wanna Be Your Dog'), you can't help but think QOTSA might be a great band—if only they could write a song that good on their own."


title: Queens of the Stone Age (album)

text: James Hunter of "Rolling Stone" gave the album four stars out of five and commented that the band had "found a vital place between art-metal seriousness and pop pleasure. It begins right away with the trancelike 'Regular John', a track that layers Homme's yelping guitar accents over a fuzzy groove. While other metalheads play around with sequencers, Queens of the Stone Age have something a little more heated and classical in mind. The rest of the album charges on with its compelling contrasts between Homme's papery vocals and the surrounding rampage. Sometimes the songs explore pure heaviness, as on the wall-rattling 'Walkin' on the Sidewalks'. But more often they thrillingly toy with elements like vocal hooks ('You Would Know') and metal frenzy ('How to Handle a Rope') without giving in to either." Writing in "Spin", Joe Gross scored "Queens of the Stone Age" 7 out of 10, saying "While there's really nothing in this collection worth trading in those Melvins albums for, it's strangely compelling to hear how Homme and his cohorts killed many an afternoon in a thick THC haze with Can's "Tago Mago", then worked it into their patented pedal abuse."


title: Queens of the Stone Age (album)

text: Reviewing the album after Queens of the Stone Age had gained mainstream success with 2000's "Rated R" and 2002's "Songs for the Deaf", Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the debut album four stars out of five, remarking that "Hearing Queens of the Stone Age's long out of print debut many years after its initial 1998 release does pack the shock of revelation: Josh Homme's tightly wound blueprint for QOTSA was in place from the very beginning. [...] There is sex and swagger to "Queens of the Stone Age", there's a swing to the rhythms, there's a darkly enveloping carnal menace buttressed by muscle and lust that keeps the album from being an insular stoner headpiece. Certainly, there's enough sinewy force to suggest the mighty brawn of "Rated R" and "Songs for the Deaf"; Homme retained enough of the desert spaciness of Kyuss to give "Queens of the Stone Age" an otherworldly shimmer, a hazy quality he later abandoned for aggressive precision, so this winds up as a unique record in his catalog, a place where you can hear Homme's past and future intertwining." Critic Robert Christgau viewed the album negatively, however, rating it a "dud" in his "Consumer's Guide" column for "The Village Voice".


title: Queens of the Stone Age (album)

text: "Queens of the Stone Age" was eventually certified silver in the United Kingdom in February 2006, for sales exceeding 60,000 copies. It was listed in the 2010 reference book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die", the only Queens of the Stone Age album to be included.


title: Queens of the Stone Age (album)

text: Following a "deluxe edition" reissue of "Rated R" in 2010, Homme announced that the band would reissue "Queens of the Stone Age" as well, stating that the album had become "impossible to get, it'd been outta print for so long. I'm not very nostalgic by nature, so it wasn't like 'guys, remember the days', it was more like in the internet age this record should be able to get got, you know? I really like this band Cheap Trick, and they were doing shows where they were playing their first three records three nights in a row, and so we started talking about 'wow, OK, we'll never get a chance to re-release this thing, and what if we just focused on the first record? I dunno if that means we're going to play it exactly start to finish. We haven't really decided. It's kind of a cool idea. [...] I'm just glad that it's not like some bad haircut when I listen to it. I've listened to it, and I love that record, and it's been really fun to try to put myself back in that headspace where I was just obsessed with trying to trance out on guitar."


title: Queens of the Stone Age (album)

text: The album was remastered by Brian Gardner for the reissue. The title of the song "How to Handle a Rope" was extended to "How to Handle a Rope (A Lesson in the Lariat)", and three additional tracks were added in between the album's existing tracks: "The Bronze" and "These Aren't the Droids You're Looking For", which were from the album's recording sessions and had originally been released in 1998 on "The Split CD" (a split release with Dutch band Beaver), and "Spiders and Vinegaroons" from the "Gamma Ray" sessions, which had been released on the "Kyuss / Queens of the Stone Age" split EP in 1997. The reissue was released through Homme's label, Rekords Rekords, with distribution through Domino Recording Company. The band, which by then consisted of Homme, guitarist Troy Van Leeuwen, bassist Michael Shuman, drummer Joey Castillo, and keyboardist Dean Fertita, scheduled a tour in support of the album's reissue.