title: Impulsivity

text: The IGT uses hot and cold processes in its concept of decision making. Hot decision making involves emotional responses to the material presented based on motivation related to reward and punishment. Cold processes occur when an individual uses rational cognitive determinations when making decisions. Combined an individual should gain a positive emotional reaction when choices have beneficial consequences and will have negative emotional responses tied to choices that have greater negative consequences. In general, healthy responders to the IGT will begin to drift to the lower gain decks as they realize that they are gaining more money than they lose both through an ability to recognize that one is more consistently providing rewards as well as through the emotions related to winning consistently. However, those who have emotional deficits will fail to recognize that they are losing money over time and will continue to be more influenced by the exhilaration of higher value rewards without being influenced by the negative emotions of the loses associated with them.


title: Impulsivity

text: Differential reinforcement of low response rate (DRL) described by Ferster and Skinner is used to encourage low rates of responding. It is derived from research in operant conditioning that provides an excellent opportunity to measure the hyperactive child's ability to inhibit behavioral responding. Hyperactive children were relatively unable to perform efficiently on the task, and this deficit endured regardless of age, IQ, or experimental condition. Therefore, it can be used to discriminate accurately between teacher rated and parent rated hyperactive and nonhyperactive children. In this procedure, responses that occur before a set time interval has passed are not reinforced and reset the time required between behaviors.


title: Impulsivity

text: In a study, a child was taken to the experimental room and told that they were going to play a game in which they had a chance to win a lot of M&M's. Every time they made the light of the reward indicator by pressing a red button, they would earn an M&M's. However, they had to wait a while (6 seconds) before they could press it to get another point. If they had pressed the button too soon, then they would have not gotten a point, and the light would not go on, and they had to wait a while before they could press it to get another point.


title: Impulsivity

text: Researchers have also observed that subjects in a time-based situation will often engage in a sequence or chain of behaviors between reinforceable responses. This is because this collateral behavior sequence helps the subject "wait out" the required temporal delay between responses.


title: Impulsivity

text: Other common impulsivity tasks include the Continuous performance task (CPT), 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT), Stroop task, and Matching Familiar Figures Task.


title: Impulsivity

text: Although the precise neural mechanisms underlying disorders of impulse control are not fully known, the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the brain region most ubiquitously implicated in impulsivity. Damage to the prefrontal cortex has been associated with difficulties preparing to act, switching between response alternatives, and inhibiting inappropriate responses. Recent research has uncovered additional regions of interest, as well as highlighted particular subregions of the PFC, that can be tied to performance in specific behavioral tasks.


title: Impulsivity

text: Excitotoxic lesions in the nucleus accumbens core have been shown to increase preference for the smaller, immediate reward, whereas lesions to the nucleus accumbens shell have had no observable effect. Additionally, lesions of the basolateral amygdala, a region tied closely to the PFC, negatively affect impulsive choice similarly to what is observed in the nucleus accumbens core lesions. Moreover, dorsal striatum may also be involved in impulsive choice in an intricate manner.


title: Impulsivity

text: The orbitofrontal cortex is now thought to play a role in disinhibiting, and injury to other brain structures, such as to the right inferior frontal gyrus, a specific subregion of the PFC, has been associated with deficits in stop-signal inhibition.


title: Impulsivity

text: As with delay discounting, lesion studies have implicated the core region of the nucleus accumbens in response inhibition for both DRL and 5-CSRTT. Premature responses in the 5-CSRTT may also be modulated by other systems within the ventral striatum. In the 5-CSRTT, lesions of the anterior cingulate cortex have been shown to increase impulsive responding, and lesions to the prelimbic cortex impair attentional performance.


title: Impulsivity

text: Patients with damage to the ventromedial frontal cortex exhibit poor decision-making and persist in making risky choices in the Iowa Gambling Task.


title: Impulsivity

text: The primary pharmacological treatments for ADHD are methylphenidate (Ritalin) and amphetamine. Both methylphenidate and amphetamines block re-uptake of dopamine and norepinephrine into the pre-synaptic neuron, acting to increase post-synaptic levels of dopamine and norepinephrine. Of these two monoamines, increased availability of dopamine is considered the primary cause for the ameliorative effects of ADHD medications, whereas increased levels of norepinephrine may be efficacious only to the extent that it has downstream, indirect effects on dopamine.


title: Impulsivity

text: The effectiveness of dopamine re-uptake inhibitors in treating the symptoms of ADHD has led to the hypothesis that ADHD may arise from low tonic levels of dopamine (particularly in the fronto-limbic circuitry), but evidence in support of this theory is mixed.


title: Impulsivity

text: There are several difficulties when it comes to trying to identify a gene for complex traits such as impulsivity, such as genetic heterogeneity. Another difficulty is that the genes in question might sometimes show incomplete penetrance, "where a given gene variant does not always cause the phenotype". Much of the research on the genetics of impulsivity-related disorders, such as ADHD, is based on family or linkage studies. There are several genes of interest that have been studied in an attempt to find the major genetic contributors to impulsivity. Some of these genes are:


title: Impulsivity

text: While impulsivity can take on pathological forms (e.g. substance use disorder, ADHD), there are less severe, non-clinical forms of problematic impulsivity in many people's daily lives. Research on the different facets of impulsivity can inform small interventions to change decision making and reduce impulsive behavior For example, changing cognitive representations of rewards (e.g. making long term rewards seem more concrete) and/or creating situations of "precommitment" (eliminating the option of changing one's mind later) can reduce the preference for immediate reward seen in delay discounting.


title: Impulsivity

text: Brain training interventions include laboratory-based interventions (e.g. training using tasks like go/no go) as well as community, family, and school based interventions that are ecologically valid (e.g. teaching techniques for regulating emotions or behaviors) and can be used with individuals with non-clinical levels of impulsivity. Both sorts of interventions are aimed at improving executive functioning and self-control capacities, with different interventions specifically targeting different aspects of executive functioning like inhibitory control, working memory, or attention. Emerging evidence suggests that brain training interventions may succeed in impacting executive function, including inhibitory control. Inhibitory control training specifically is accumulating evidence that it can help individuals resist temptation to consume high calorie food and drinking behavior. Some have voiced concerns that the favorable results of studies testing working memory training should be interpreted with caution, claiming that conclusions regarding changes to abilities are measured using single tasks, inconsistent use of working memory tasks, no-contact control groups, and subjective measurements of change.


title: Impulsivity

text: Behavioral, psychosocial, and psychopharmacological treatments for disorders involving impulsivity are common.


title: Impulsivity

text: Psychopharmacological intervention in disorders of impulsivity has shown evidence of positive effects; common pharmacological interventions include the use of stimulant medication, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and other antidepressants. ADHD has a well-established evidence base supporting the use of stimulant medication for the reduction of ADHD symptoms. Pathological gambling has also been studied in drug trials, and there is evidence that gambling is responsive to SSRIs and other antidepressants. Evidence based pharmacological treatment for trichotillomania is not yet available, with mixed results of studies investigating the use of SSRIs, though cognitive behavioral therapy has shown positive effects. Intermittent explosive disorder is most often treated with mood stabilizers, SSRIs, beta blockers, alpha agonists, and anti-psychotics (all of which have shown positive effects). There is evidence that some pharmacological interventions are efficacious in treating substance-use disorders, though their use can depend on the type of substance that is abused. Pharmacological treatments for substance-use disorders include acamprosate, buprenorphine, disulfiram, LAAM, methadone, and naltrexone.


title: Impulsivity

text: Behavioral interventions also have a fairly strong evidence base in impulse-control disorders. In ADHD, the behavioral interventions of behavioral parent training, behavioral classroom management, and intensive peer-focused behavioral interventions in recreational settings meet stringent guidelines qualifying them for evidence based treatment status. In addition, a recent meta-analysis of evidence-based ADHD treatment found organization training to be a well-established treatment method. Empirically validated behavioral treatments for substance use disorder are fairly similar across substance use disorders, and include behavioral couples therapy, CBT, contingency management, motivational enhancement therapy, and relapse prevention. Pyromania and kleptomania are understudied (due in large part to the illegality of the behaviors), though there is some evidence that psychotherapeutic interventions (CBT, short term counseling, day treatment programs) are efficacious in treating pyromania, while kleptomania seems to be best addressed using SSRIs. Additionally, therapies including CBT, family therapy, and social skill training have shown positive effects on explosive aggressive behaviors.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Chinedum Onuoha (born 12 November 1986) is an English former professional footballer and television pundit for ESPN. He also works for Manchester City as a community ambassador.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: As a player he was a centre back, but could also play at right back or left back. Onuoha came through the academy at Manchester City going on to make 95 appearances in the Premier League over an 8 year-spell with the club. He also spent time playing in the top flight for Sunderland and Queens Park Rangers. He was part of the QPR team that were defeated 3-2 by his former club Manchester City on the final day of the 2011–12 season, with City winning the title in the final seconds of the game. He later won promotion back to the Premier League with QPR via the 2013-14 play-offs. He later spent several seasons in Major League Soccer for Real Salt Lake. He was capped at England U20 and England U21 levels.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Born in Warri, Delta State, Nigeria, Onuoha was brought up in Manchester, England. He went to Nelson Street Primary School Miles Platting before becoming a pupil at the Hulme Grammar School, Oldham, where he achieved eight grade 'A's' and two 'B's' at GCSE. He then completed his studies at Xaverian College Manchester where he achieved three 'A' grades at A-level in Maths, Business Studies and IT. Onuoha revealed "he had a strict Nigerian upbringing and that school came first and if he did not study properly and successfully, he was forbidden by his mother and father from playing football or athletics".


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: An outstanding junior sprinter, aged 14 he finished in second place in the final of the 2001 English School's Athletics Association Junior 100 metres contest, clocking 11.09 seconds and beating former Great Britain sprinter Craig Pickering. However, Onouha said about the record: "it was all just based on the fact I was doing summer training," He is also currently the co-national record holder for boys under 15 standing triple jump, in the Sports Hall events held annually throughout the UK. The record is held jointly with international long jumper Jonathan Moore.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: He is known to have supported Manchester City as a boy and he attended the Division Two play-off final against Gillingham at Wembley in 1999. Onuoha's mother, Dr Anthonia Onuoha, who was his agent, developed cancer and made national headlines in September 2011 when an email exchange led to the club's CEO Garry Cook resigning from his role. The following November, Dr Anthonia Onuoha eventually succumbed to cancer. After his mother's death, he paid tribute to her, saying: "My mum always wanted me to do the best I could and out of respect for her I will carry on trying to do that. The rest of my career is dedicated to her memory. I want to carry on making her proud. She was a very special woman, and even when she was ill she never wanted me to stop playing."


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Outside of football, Onuoha studied part-time to earn an accountancy degree at Manchester Metropolitan University. However, he said: "I studied accountancy, but that turned out to be one of the most boring years in my life." In April 2014, Onuoha became a father for the first time when his wife, Lucy Onuoha, gave birth to a daughter, Amaia.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Having started at the Independent Schools' Football Association, Onuoha progressed through the age groups in Manchester City's youth academy since joining in 1996 at age ten and played regularly for club's reserves in the 2003–04 season. He had his first involvement with the Manchester City first team in the 2004–05 pre-season, playing in a friendly against Bury. Onuoha made his first team debut against Arsenal in the League Cup on 27 October 2004, at the age of 17. He made his Premier League debut as a substitute on 1 November 2004 at home to Norwich City. Though Onuoha's natural position is centre-half, manager Kevin Keegan initially played him at right back with the intention of improving his passing ability. He then made his first Premier League start, playing the whole game, in a 3–1 win over Portsmouth on 20 November 2004. After the match, Manager Keegan praised his performance. After spending two months on the sidelines with a hamstring injury, which he sustained in mid–January, Onuoha made his first appearances in two months, starting the match and gave away a goal before being substituted, in a 2–1 loss against Tottenham Hotspur on 19 March 2005. Despite this, he was involved in the club's remaining matches, playing in the right–back position, and kept three clean sheets between 20 April 2005 and 30 April 2005. For his performance, Onuoha signed a three–year contract with the club. At the end of the 2004–05 season, making eighteen appearances in all competitions in his debut season, he was awarded the club's young player of the year.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: However, Onuoha missed the start of the 2005–06 season, due to a hamstring injury. His first appearance of the season came on 23 August 2005, coming on as a late substitute, in a 2–1 win over Sunderland. After being dropped from the first team in early–September, Onuoha returned against Doncaster Rovers in a League Cup match, where he was red carded for the first time in his career, after a collision with Rovers goalkeeper Andy Warrington. The red card was later rescinded however Manchester City went on to lose the game on penalties. Since returning to the first team, Onuoha continued to fight for his first team place, competing in the defensive starting line–up for the side. However, he soon suffered a groin injury that saw him sidelined for two months. While on the sidelines, Onuoha was awarded BBC North West Sports Personality of the Year Award for newcomer honour. It wasn't until on 12 December 2005 when he returned from injury, starting the whole game, in a 4–1 win over Birmingham City. Onuoha was featured in the next six matches since returning from injury. Amid to the first team, he was linked with a move to Liverpool but was happy to stay at the club. However, Onuoha damaged his knee ligament that kept him out for the rest of the 2005–06 season. He went on to make twelve appearances in the 2005–06 season.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: At the start of the 2006–07 season, Onuoha continued to be sidelined, recovering from his knee ligament injury. It wasn't until on 18 November 2006 when he made his first appearance of the season, coming on as a late substitute, in a 3–1 win over Fulham. Onuoha then appeared in the next six matches before injuring his knee once again. He didn't make his return from injury until on 31 March 2007, starting the match, in a 1–0 win against Newcastle United. Following this, Onuoha established himself in the first team for the remaining matches of the season. At the end of the 2006–07 season, he made nineteen appearances in all competitions. Following this, Onuoha was rewarded with a new four-year contract.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: In the opening game of the 2007–08 season, Onuoha started the season well when he set up the second goal in the game for Geovanni, in a 2–0 win over West Ham United. He captained the Manchester City side to a 2–1 victory over Bristol City in the League Cup second round. Over the season, Onuoha found himself, competing in the first team at the club's defence. After spending two months out of the first team, he made his return to the starting line–up, starting the whole game, in a 1–1 draw against Aston Villa on 22 December 2007. Onuoha continued to remain in the club's first team despite suffering injuries along the way. He then scored his first goal for City at home against Tottenham Hotspur on 16 March 2008 in a 2–1 win. On 5 April 2008, Onuoha dislocated his shoulder in a game against Chelsea and was ruled out for the remainder of the 2007–08 season following surgery. At the end of the season, he went on to make twenty–one appearances and scoring once in all competitions.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: In the 2008–09 season, Onuoha made his UEFA Cup debut, starting and playing the whole game, in a 2–0 win over EB/Streymur in the first leg of the UEFA Cup Qualifying Round. However, the start of the 2008–09 season saw Onuoha sidelined, who suffered a knee injury while on international duty. It wasn't until on 20 October 2008 when he made his return from injury, coming on as a substitute for Micah Richards in the 58th minute, in a 2–2 draw against Newcastle United. Soon after, Onuoha found himself in the substitute bench for the next two months. But after City's 3–0 defeat to Nottingham Forest in the FA Cup, he started every single game until the end of the season, forming an effective partnership with Richard Dunne in the centre of defence. He then scored his first goal of the season in the first leg of the UEFA Cup Round, in a 2–2 draw against Copenhagen and helped the side go through to the next round after winning 2–1 in the second leg. Two months later on 19 April 2009, Onuoha scored his second goal of the season, in a 4–2 win over West Brom. Two weeks later on 2 May 2009, he set up the club's opening goal of the game, in a 3–1 win over Blackburn Rovers. For his performance, he was named Manchester City's Thomas Cook Player of the Month on two occasions for March and May. At the end of the 2008–09 season, Onuoha went on to make thirty appearances and scoring two times in all competitions. Following this, Onuoha agreed to a new five-year deal with Manchester City on 29 July 2009. During the 2008–09 season, he said about the club's new ownership, saying: "The takeover was a shock in itself, it was insane. Out of nowhere, we were getting called the richest club in football. It was a shock not just to the players, but the whole football world, it was such a big statement at that time."


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: In the 2009–10 season, Onuoha found himself out of the first team, due to being on the substitute bench over his own injury concern. It wasn't until on 21 November 2009 when he made his first appearance of the season, coming on as a substitute in the second half, in a 2–2 draw against Liverpool. However, his return was short–lived when Onuoha suffered a groin injury that kept him out throughout December. Onouha didn't make return to the first team until on 24 January 2010 against Scunthorpe United in the fourth round of the FA Cup, as they won 4–2. Three months later on 11 April 2010, Onouha played a role when he set up a goal for Carlos Tevez and scored from a solo run, as Manchester City won 5–1 against Birmingham City. Over the season, he found himself on the substitute bench for the remaining matches, due to competition in the club's defence. At the end of the 2009–10 season, Onouha went on to make seventeen appearances and scoring two times in all competitions. Following this, he criticised Manager Roberto Mancini over his decision-making he made at the club.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: After returning from a loan spell at Sunderland, Onouha was linked with a move away from Manchester City, as various Premier League clubs made bids for him ahead of the 2011–12 season. It came after when he was told by the club that he would need to look for a new club. But no bid has happened and stayed at Manchester City. After being dropped from the club's pre–season tour, he announced his intention to fight for his first team place at Manchester City in the 2011–12 season. However, his first team opportunities at Manchester City was limited as Manager Mancini said: Onouha will stay with us because he is homegrown but he knows it is difficult for him to play often." But he made his first appearance of the season, starting the whole game, in a 2–0 win over Birmingham City in the third round of the League Cup. In January 2012, Onuoha continued to be linked a move away from the club, as Queens Park Rangers made a bid for him. After the bid was accepted, the agreement between Manchester City and Queens Park Rangers has been made for Onuoha on 19 January 2012. By the time he departed Manchester City this season, he made three appearances for the side. Local newspaper, Manchester Evening News, praised Onouha "as a true professional".


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: It was announced on 12 August 2010 that Onuoha joined Sunderland, then in the Premier League, on a season-long loan. Upon joining the club, Manager Steve Bruce said about Onuoha: "What do I like about Nedum? He's young, hungry and desperate to do well. He wants to play every week. He's quick, big, strong and powerful – all the things the modern game demands of a player. These days the defenders are as quick as the forwards and the added attraction is that Nedum can play right across the back four. I'm very pleased indeed to have him here."


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: He made his Sunderland début on 14 August against Birmingham City at the Stadium of Light. Since joining the club, Onuoha quickly established himself in the starting eleven, playing in the midfield position. He quickly made an impact for the side and impressed in a number of matches for the side. Onuoha then set up a goal for Darren Bent, who scored the second goal of the game, in a 2–2 draw against Liverpool on 25 September 2010. He scored his first goal as the result of a brilliant dribble around three Chelsea defenders for Sunderland in a 3–0 win against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge on 14 November 2010. Onuoha was involved in the first team in the first half of the season until he suffered a hamstring injury in late–December and missed three matches. He made his return from injury, starting the match, in a 1–1 draw against local rivals, Newcastle United on 15 January 2011. However, Onouha's return was short–lived when he suffered a calf injury and was sidelined for months. It wasn't until on 9 April 2011 when Onouha returned from injury, starting the whole game, in a 3–2 loss against West Brom. Following this, he regained his first team place once again for the rest of the season and helped the side avoid relegation, finishing tenth place. At the end of the 2010–11 season, Onuoha went on to make thirty–two appearances and scoring once in all competitions. Following this, the club decided against signing him on a permanent basis despite Manager Bruce keen on signing him earlier.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: On 26 January 2012, Onuoha agreed to a four and a half-year deal with Premier League side Queens Park Rangers, reuniting him with his former manager Mark Hughes.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Onuoha made his Queens Park Rangers debut, starting the whole game, in a 2–2 draw against Aston Villa on 2 February 2012. Since joining the club, he quickly became a first team regular for the rest of the season, playing in either the right–back and centre–back position. However, Queens Park Rangers found themselves in the relegation zone and he had to help in the fight to retain their Premier League status for next season. Amid the relegation, Onuoha set up a goal for Djibril Cissé to score a late consolation, as Queens Park Rangers lost 6–1 to local rivals, Chelsea on 29 April 2012. Ahead of the final day of the season, with QPR requiring at least a draw in their match away at his former club, Manchester City or for Bolton Wanderers to not win in order to guarantee Premier League safety on 13 May 2012, Onuoha spoke out about the match that he would want to see his former club, Manchester City win the Premier League and Queens Park Rangers stay up in the Premier League. In the last game of the season, he played the whole game, as Manchester City beat Queens Park Rangers 3–2, but Bolton's failure to beat Stoke City meant that QPR survived in the Premier League, which Onuoha successfully predicted. At the end of the 2011–12 season, Onuoha went on to make fourteen appearances for the side.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: At the start of the 2012–13 season, Onuoha retained his first team place, playing in either the right–back or centre–back position. Over the course of the season, he found himself out of the first team, due to being given compassionate leave following his mother's cancer, as well as his own injury. Onuoha didn't make his return to the first team until 15 December 2012 against local rivals Fulham. He helped QPR beat them 2–1 win, earning their first league win of the season. He then helped the side earn four clean sheets throughout January against Chelsea, Tottenham Hotspur, West Bromwich Albion and Manchester City. However, Queens Park Rangers were eventually relegated to the Championship following a 0–0 draw against Reading on 28 April, 2013. At the end of the 2012–13 season, after 26 appearances in all competitions, Onuoha said he would fight for his first team place under the management of Harry Redknapp. He also reflected about the 2012–13 season in an interview with "The Daily Telegraph".


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Onuoha scored his first goal for the club on 3 August 2013, against Sheffield Wednesday, in the opening fixture of the 2013–14 season. He then quickly regained his first team place, playing in the centre–back position. He helped the side keep four clean sheets through August to mid–September. However, during a 1–0 win over Brighton & Hove Albion on 18 September 2013, Onuoha suffered a hamstring injury and was sidelined for two months. It wasn't until on 9 November 2013 that he made his return from injury, coming on as a second-half substitute, in a 1–1 draw against Reading. However, his return was short–lived when Onuoha was sidelined once again with a hamstring injury. But he made his return three weeks later on 14 December 2013, coming on as a second-half substitute, in a 2–0 win over Blackpool. After returning, Onuoha found himself in and out of the first team for the next two months, as he was placed on the substitute bench in a number of matches, due to Richard Dunne and Clint Hill being preferred as the first choice centre–backs, before returning to the starting eleven permanently for the remaining matches of the 2013–14 season. This continued despite suffering from injuries along the way. Onuoha then scored on his return from injury, in a 5–2 win over Nottingham Forest on 12 April 2014. In the Championship play-offs, Onuoha played in both legs against Wigan Athletic, as they won 2–1 on aggregate. He was a member of the Queens Park Rangers side which won the 2014 Championship play-off Final 1–0 against Derby County on 24 May 2014 at Wembley Stadium. At the end of the 2013–14 season, Onuoha went on to make thirty–one appearances, scoring two times in all competitions.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: At the start of the 2014–15 season, however, Onuoha found himself out of the first team and placed on the substitute bench due to new signings made over the summer. His first appearance of the season came on 24 August 2014, coming on as a second-half substitute, in a 4–0 loss against Tottenham Hotspur. Onuoha scored an own goal against West Ham United on 5 October 2014 when opposition player "Stewart Downing's corner struck the knee of Onuoha, standing on the edge of the six-yard area, and rolled in", as Queens Park Rangers lost 2–0. In a follow–up match against Liverpool, he suffered a hamstring injury and had to be substituted, resulting him being out for several weeks. It wasn't until on 22 November 2014 when Onuoha made his return to the first team from injury, starting the whole game, in a 1–0 loss against Newcastle United. Onuoha found himself in and out of the first team throughout the season, as he was placed on the substitute bench in a number of matches. During a 2–1 loss against Arsenal on 26 December 2014, Onuoha was head-butted by opposition player, Olivier Giroud, which resulted in his sending off in the 53rd minute; despite this, he continued playing for the rest of the match. By February, Onuoha suffered a hamstring injury that saw him out throughout February. It wasn't until on 4 March 2015 when Onuoha made his return from injury, starting the match against Arsenal but during the match, he clashed with teammate Steven Caulker, resulting in his substitution at half time, as Queens Park Rangers lost 2–1. Onuoha was then sent–off for a second bookable, in a 2–1 loss against Liverpool on 2 May 2015. In a follow–up match against Manchester City, they lost 6–0, resulting in their relegation to the Championship for the second time. At the end of the 2014–15 season, he went on to make twenty–five appearances in all competitions.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Ahead of the 2015–16 season, Onuoha was linked with a move away from Queens Park Rangers, with Premier League clubs interested but no move was ever made. Amid the transfer speculation, Onuoha was appointed club captain, succeeding Joey Barton, who had left over the summer. His first match as captain came in the opening game of the season, as Queens Park Rangers lost 2–0 against Charlton Athletic. In a follow–up match against Yeovil Town in the first round of the League Cup, he scored his first goal of the season, in what was his 100th appearance, in a 3–0 win. On 2 September 2015, Onuoha signed a contract extension with the club, keeping him until 2018. Fourteen days later on 16 September 2015, he scored his second goal of the season, in a 2–2 draw against Blackburn Rovers Onuoha continued to establish himself in the starting eleven for the side and rotate in either right–back and centre–back position, as well as, continuing his duties as captain. By October, his leadership received criticism as the club shared the Championship's worst goals record with Bristol City but received a vote of confidence as captain by Manager Chris Ramsey. But the results soon improved throughout the rest of the 2015–16 season. At one point, Onuoha helped the side keep three clean sheets between 28 November 2015 and 12 December 2015. During this, he scored again, in a 1–0 win over Reading on 3 December 2015. Onuoha guided Queens Park Rangers to a 12th-place finish in their first season back in the second tier. At the end of the 2015–16 season, Onuoha was ever-present in Queens Park Rangers matches, as he went on to make 48 appearances and scoring two times in all competitions.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: The 2016–17 season saw Onuoha continuing to cement his captaincy, as well as his place in the starting eleven, rotating between right–back and centre–back positions. He started the 2016–17 season well when he scored the opener and set up the third goal in a 3–1 win over Leeds United in the opening game of the season. However, against Preston North End on 20 August 2016, Onuoha scored an own goal to give the opposition side their second goal, as Queens Park Rangers lost 2–0. The following match saw him score his second goal of the season as the side won 1–0 against Wigan Athletic. However, in a 3–0 loss against Brighton & Hove Albion on 27 December 2016, Onuoha was sent off for a professional foul in the 56th minute. After serving a one match suspension, he returned to the first team, coming on as a substitute in the second half, and set up a goal for Paweł Wszołek, who scored the winning goal, in a 2–1 win over Ipswich Town on 2 January 2017. His performance attracted interests from Premier League strugglers Sunderland, but he stayed at the club. Over the season, his performance had been a subject of criticism, due to "his inability with the ball at his feet" and leadership. This led some Queens Park Rangers' supporters to call for Onuoha to be dropped from the first team against Rotherham United on 18 March 2017, but he proved them wrong when he scored the third goal of the season in a 5–1 win. Onuoha said at the start of the season that the club's objective was to challenge for promotion. But poor results throughout the season saw them finish eighteen place in the league. Despite this, both Onuoha and Grant Hall were praised by new signing Joel Lynch for their improvement in defence throughout the 2016–17 season, as well as, "pushing each other on to greater heights in order to stay in the team." Although he missed two matches during the 2016–17 season, Onuoha went on to make forty–seven appearances, scoring three times in all competitions. During the season, he was awarded the PFA Community Champion Award.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: The 2017–18 season saw Onuoha retain his captaincy as well as his place in the starting eleven for the side, playing in the centre–back position for most of the season. His 200th appearance for the club came on 9 September 2017, playing the whole game, in a 2–1 win over Ipswich Town. However, in a follow–up match against Millwall, Onuoha suffered a hamstring injury and was substituted at half time, as the game finished 2–2. Shortly after, it was announced that Onuoha was out for three months. While on the sidelines, the club opened talks with him over a new contract. It wasn't until on 9 December 2017 that Onuoha made his return from injury, playing the whole game in a 3–1 loss against Leeds United. Since his return to the first team, he regained his first team place as well as the captaincy. During a 4–0 loss against Hull City on 7 April 2018, Onuoha was sent–off in the last minute of the game for a professional foul on Markus Henriksen; and served a three match suspension. Despite being absent that saw him miss seventeen matches during the 2017–18 season, Onuoha helped the side finish sixteen place in the league. Having made 36 appearances in the 2017–18 season, it was announced on 27 April 2018, it was announced that Onuoha would be leaving the club at the end of the 2017–18 season, bringing an end to a six-and-a-half-year stay. By the time of his departure, he was awarded the Ray Jones Players' Player of the Year, voted for by his team-mates.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Onuoha joined Major League Soccer's Real Salt Lake on 14 September 2018. He later explained the move, saying: "I have always been someone that wanted to go and experience something a bit different."


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Onuoha made his Real Salt Lake debut, coming on as a late substitute, in a 1–1 draw against Sporting Kansas City on 30 September 2018. In his second appearance for the club, he then set up a goal for Damir Kreilach to score the club's fourth goal of the game, in a 4–1 win over New England Revolution on 18 October 2018. Having been initially placed on the substitute, Onuoha was featured in the three matches in the MLS Cup Playoffs, as they lost Sporting Kansas City 5–3 on aggregate. At the end of the 2018 season, he went on to make five appearances for the side.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: In the 2019 season, Onuoha established himself in the starting eleven, playing in the centre–back position. During a 2–1 against LA Galaxy on 29 April 2019, he was involved in altercation with LA Galaxy's striker Zlatan Ibrahimović; leading Onuoha accusing Ibrahimovic of foul play and threats to injure him during a game, calling him "arrogant", "disrespectful", and "a complete thug". During a 1–0 win over Columbus Crew on 4 July 2019, he suffered a thigh injury in the 73rd minute and was substituted as a result. As a result, Onuoha was sidelined for a month. It wasn't until on 10 August 2019 when Onuoha made his return from injury, coming on as a substitute in the 76th minute, in a 2–1 win over Sporting Kansas City. After being dropped for one match, he scored his first goal for the club on 26 September 2019, in a 2–1 loss against LA Galaxy. Onuoha helped the side qualify for the MLS Cup Playoffs but lost 2–0 against Seattle Sounders on 24 October 2019. At the end of the 2019 season, he went on to make thirty appearances and scoring once in all competitions.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Onuoha announced his retirement from playing professional football following Salt Lake's 2020 season.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Onuoha was eligible to play for England (having received British citizenship at seven years old) and Nigeria (the country in which he was born). He was invited by Nigeria manager Berti Vogts to represent Nigeria at the 2008 Africa Cup of Nations; however, Onuoha turned down the opportunity because his club, Manchester City, had recently had a change of manager and he did not want to lose his place in the team by being absent on international duty for a month. Onuoha stated in 2022 that he regretted this choice; he ended up never playing senior international football.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Having previously played for England U20, Onuoha was then a regular in the England U-21 side, making his debut on 12 October 2005.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: He was part of the squad participating in the 2007 European Under 21s Championship in the Netherlands. Onuoha started the tournament well when he helped the side keep a clean sheet, in a 0–0 draw against Czech Republic U21. During the Championships, Onuoha was subjected to racist abuse from Serbian fans, but received praise for maintaining his conduct amid provocation. Following the match, he describe the racial abuse he received as "horrific". He was a regular at centre back, partnering Steven Taylor. During the semi-final against the Netherlands, he limped off with an injury and England were down to ten men as all three of the permitted substitutions had been made; they lost 13–12 on penalties.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: Three months later on 7 September 2007, Onuoha scored his first England U21 goal, in a 3–0 win over Montenegro U21. He then captained the England Under-21 team for the first time in a 0–0 draw with Poland Under-21s. In the summer of 2009, he took part in the European Championships, which proved to be his last time he played his last match for the U-21's. Onuoha played in the centre–back position, where he helped England U21 keep a clean sheet, in a 2–0 win over Spain U21 on 18 June 2009. He scored in a 3–3 draw against Sweden in the semi-finals of the 2009 Under-21 European Championship and helped them reach the final after winning 5–4 on penalties. However, Onuoha started in defence for England in the 4–0 defeat to Germany U21 in the final of the Under-21 Championships.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: In March 2007, Onuoha received an international call-up from Nigeria, but announced that he would prefer to represent England at full international level. However, he later admitted that he would have played at the 2010 FIFA World Cup for Nigeria if he had been called up. "It is a tough call. I would love to play for England," he said in November 2009. "But I also get a certain feeling when I see Nigeria play. It is not the best time to make such a big decision, so for now I am not making one." By 2016, Onuoha commented that he has given up hopes of earning a call-up from Nigeria.


title: Nedum Onuoha

text: In October 2021, Onuhoa returned to Manchester City to work for the City in the Community organisation.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: He was one of six authors on the final shortlist for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1964, the year before his death.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: Tanizaki was born into a well-to-do merchant class family in Nihonbashi, Tokyo, where his uncle owned a printing press, which had been established by his grandfather. His parents were Kuragorō and Seki Tanizaki. His older brother, Kumakichi, died three days after his birth, which made him the next eldest son of the family. Tanizaki had three younger brothers: Tokuzō, Seiji (also a writer) and Shūhei, as well three younger sisters: Sono, Ise and Sue. Tanizaki described his admittedly pampered childhood in his . His childhood home was destroyed in the 1894 Meiji Tokyo earthquake, to which Tanizaki later attributed his lifelong fear of earthquakes. His family's finances declined dramatically as he grew older until he was forced to reside in another household as a tutor.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: Despite these financial problems, he attended the Tokyo First Middle School, where he became acquainted with Isamu Yoshii. Tanizaki attended the Literature Department of Tokyo Imperial University from 1908, but was forced to drop out in 1911 because of his inability to pay for tuition.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: Tanizaki began his literary career in 1909. His first work, a one-act stage play, was published in a literary magazine that he had helped found. Tanizaki's name first became widely known with the publication of the short story "Shisei" ("The Tattooer") in 1910. In the story, a tattoo artist inscribes a giant spider on the body of a beautiful young woman. Afterwards, the woman's beauty takes on a demonic, compelling power, in which eroticism is combined with sado-masochism. The femme-fatale is a theme repeated in many of Tanizaki's early works, including "Kirin" (1910), "Shonen" ("The Children", 1911), "Himitsu" ("The Secret," 1911), and "Akuma" ("Devil", 1912). Tanizaki's other works published in the Taishō period include "Shindo" (1916) and "Oni no men" (1916), which are partly autobiographical.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: Tanizaki married his first wife, Chiyo Ishikawa, in 1915, and his only child, Ayuko, was born in 1916. However, it was an unhappy marriage, and in time he encouraged a relationship between Chiyo and his friend and fellow writer Haruo Satō. The psychological stress of this situation is reflected in some of his early works, including the stage play "Aisureba koso" ("Because I Love Her", 1921) and the novel "Kami to hito no aida" ("Between Men and the Gods", 1924). Even though some of Tanizaki's writings seem to have been inspired by these and other persons and events in his life, his works are far less autobiographical than those of most of his contemporaries in Japan. Tanizaki later adopted Emiko, the daughter of his third wife, Matsuko Morita.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: In 1918, Tanizaki toured Chōsen, northern China, and Manchuria. In his early years he became infatuated with the West and all things modern. In 1922, he relocated from Odawara, where he had been living since 1919, to Yokohama, which had a large expatriate population, living briefly in a Western-style house and leading a bohemian lifestyle. This outlook is reflected in some of his early writings.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: Tanizaki had a brief career in silent cinema, working as a script writer for the Taikatsu film studio. He was a supporter of the Pure Film Movement and was instrumental in bringing modernist themes to Japanese film. He wrote the scripts for the films "Amateur Club" (1922) and "A Serpent's Lust" (1923) (based on the story of the same title by Ueda Akinari, which was, in part, the inspiration for Mizoguchi Kenji's 1953 masterpiece "Ugetsu monogatari"). Some have argued that Tanizaki's relation to cinema is important to understanding his overall career.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: Tanizaki's reputation began to take off in 1923, when he moved to Kyoto after the Great Kanto earthquake, which destroyed his house in Yokohama (at the time Tanizaki was on a bus in Hakone and thus escaped injury). The loss of Tokyo's historic buildings and neighborhoods in the quake triggered a change in his enthusiasms, as he redirected his youthful love for the imagined West and modernity into a renewed interest in Japanese aesthetics and culture, particularly the culture of the Kansai region (around the cities of Osaka, Kobe and Kyoto). His first novel after the earthquake, and his first truly successful novel, was "Chijin no ai" ("Naomi," 1924-25), which is a tragicomic exploration of class, sexual obsession, and cultural identity. Tanizaki made another trip to China in 1926, where he met Guo Moruo, with whom he later maintained correspondence. He relocated from Kyoto to Kobe in 1928.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: Inspired by the Osaka dialect, Tanizaki wrote "Manji" ("Quicksand", 1928–1929), in which he explored lesbianism, among other themes. This was followed by the classic "Tade kuu mushi" ("Some Prefer Nettles", 1928–29), which depicts the gradual self-discovery of a Tokyo man living near Osaka, in relation to Western-influenced modernization and Japanese tradition. "Yoshinokuzu" ("Arrowroot", 1931) alludes to Bunraku and kabuki theater and other traditional forms even as it adapts a European narrative-within-a-narrative technique. His experimentation with narrative styles continued with "Ashikari" ("The Reed Cutter," 1932), "Shunkinsho" ("A Portrait of Shunkin", 1933), and many other works that combine traditional aesthetics with Tanizaki's particular obsessions.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: His renewed interest in classical Japanese literature culminated in his multiple translations into modern Japanese of the eleventh-century classic "The Tale of Genji" and in his masterpiece "Sasameyuki" (literally "A Light Snowfall," but published in English translation as "The Makioka Sisters", 1943–1948), a detailed characterization of four daughters of a wealthy Osaka merchant family who see their way of life slipping away in the early years of World War II. The sisters live a cosmopolitan life with European neighbors and friends, without suffering the cultural-identity crises common to earlier Tanizaki characters. When he began to serialize the novel, the editors of "Chūōkōron" were warned that it did not contribute to the needed war spirit and, fearful of losing supplies of paper, cut off the serialization.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: After World War II, Tanizaki again emerged into literary prominence, winning a host of awards. Until his death, he was widely regarded as Japan's greatest contemporary author. He won the prestigious Asahi Prize in 1948, was awarded the Order of Culture by the Japanese government in 1949, and in 1964 was elected to honorary membership in the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters, the first Japanese writer to be so honoured.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: His first major post-war work was "Shōshō Shigemoto no haha" ("Captain Shigemoto's Mother," 1949–1950), which includes a restatement of Tanizaki's frequent theme of a son's longing for his mother. The novel also introduces a new theme, of sexuality in old age, which reappears in later works such as "Kagi" ("The Key", 1956). "Kagi" is a psychological novel in which an aging professor arranges for his wife to commit adultery in order to boost his own sagging sexual desires.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: Tanizaki returned to Atami in 1950, and was designated a Person of Cultural Merit by the Japanese government in 1952. He suffered from paralysis of the right hand from 1958, and was hospitalized for Angina pectoris in 1960. Tanizaki's characters are often driven by obsessive erotic desires. In one of his last novels, "Futen Rojin Nikki" ("Diary of a Mad Old Man"), 1961–1962), the aged diarist is struck down by a stroke brought on by an excess of sexual excitement. He records both his past desires and his current efforts to bribe his daughter-in-law to provide sexual titillation in return for Western baubles. In 1964, Tanizaki moved to Yugawara, Kanagawa, southwest of Tokyo, where he died of a heart attack on 30 July 1965, shortly after celebrating his 79th birthday. His grave is at the temple Hōnen-in, in Kyoto.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: The Tanizaki Prize is one of Japan's most sought-after literary awards. Established in 1965 by the publishing company Chūō Kōronsha, it is awarded annually to a work of fiction or drama.


title: Jun'ichirō Tanizaki

text: Before Haruki Murakami had achieved wide renown, Tanizaki was frequently considered one of the "Big Three" postwar Japanese writers along with Yasunari Kawabata and Yukio Mishima.


title: The Pope of Greenwich Village

text: The Pope of Greenwich Village is a 1984 American crime black comedy film directed by Stuart Rosenberg and starring Mickey Rourke, Eric Roberts, Daryl Hannah, Geraldine Page, Kenneth McMillan and Burt Young. Page was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her two-scene role. The film was adapted by screenwriter Vincent Patrick from his novel of the same name.


title: The Pope of Greenwich Village

text: In an Italian neighborhood of Greenwich Village, cousins Charlie, a maître d'hôtel with aspirations of someday owning his own restaurant, and Paulie, a schemer who works as a waiter, have expensive tastes but not much money. Paulie gets caught skimming checks, and he and Charlie are both fired. Now out of work and in debt, Charlie must find another way to pay his alimony, support his pregnant girlfriend Diane, and try to buy a restaurant.


title: The Pope of Greenwich Village

text: Paulie comes to Charlie with a seemingly foolproof robbery idea involving a large amount of cash in the safe of a local business. Charlie reluctantly agrees to participate, and they manage to crack the safe with help from an accomplice, Barney, a clock repairman and locksmith. But things go sour, resulting in the accidental death of police officer Walter "Bunky" Ritter, who had been secretly taping "Bed Bug" Eddie Grant. Charlie soon learns that the money they stole belongs to Eddie.


title: The Pope of Greenwich Village

text: The mob figures out that Paulie is involved, and not even his Uncle Pete, part of Eddie's crew, can help him. Eddie's henchmen cut off Paulie's left thumb as punishment.


title: The Pope of Greenwich Village

text: Diane leaves Charlie and takes his money to support their unborn child, while Paulie is forced to work as a waiter for Eddie. He gives the mob Barney's name but initially refuses to identify Charlie as the third man involved. However, under pressure, he is forced to rat on his cousin. Barney leaves town and Charlie mails him his cut of the loot. When Charlie makes $20,000 on a horse, things begin to look up.


title: The Pope of Greenwich Village

text: Charlie prepares for a showdown with Eddie, armed with a copy of the tape the police officer had made. But at the last moment, Paulie puts lye in Eddie's coffee; then he and Charlie casually walk away from Greenwich Village.


title: The Pope of Greenwich Village

text: This film was originally planned as the first on-screen pairing of actors Robert De Niro and Al Pacino, with De Niro playing Charlie and Pacino playing Paulie. Michael Cimino was initially slated to direct the film. After Rourke and Roberts signed on as the leads, Cimino wanted to finesse the screenplay with some rewriting and restructuring. However, the rewriting would have taken Cimino beyond the mandated start date for shooting, so Cimino and MGM parted ways.


title: The Pope of Greenwich Village

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film three stars, saying, "It's worth seeing for the acting, and it's got some good laughs in it, and New York is colorfully observed, but don't tell me this movie is about human nature, because it's not; it's about acting."


title: The Pope of Greenwich Village

text: The film holds a 77% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 30 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Undisciplined direction and a clichéd story prevent "The Pope of Greenwich Village" from achieving greatness, but it's an entertaining showcase for its stars."


title: The Pope of Greenwich Village

text: Leonard Maltin gave the film three stars, describing it as a "Richly textured, sharply observant film... Page stands out in great supporting cast."


title: Donovan Leitch (actor)

text: Donovan Jerome Leitch (born August 16, 1967) is an English-born American actor, singer and former model. He is the son of the singer-songwriter Donovan and the brother of actress Ione Skye. He was a member of the hard rock band Camp Freddy, and was a founding member of neo-glam group Nancy Boy along with Jason Nesmith, the son of Michael Nesmith of The Monkees. As an actor, he is best known for portraying Paul Taylor in the 1988 remake of "The Blob".


title: Donovan Leitch (actor)

text: Leitch appeared in the films "" (1985), "The In Crowd" (1988), "...And God Created Woman" (1988), "The Blob" (1988), "Glory" (1989, portraying Charles Fessenden Morse), "Cutting Class" (1989), "Gas, Food Lodging" (1992), "Dark Horse" (1992), "Jack the Bear" (1993), "Cityscrapes: Los Angeles" (1994), "I Shot Andy Warhol" (1996), "One Night Stand" (1997) and "Love Kills" (1998). Leitch was featured as the villain of the week, Malcolm Lagg, an underground fight club coordinator for metahumans in the "Birds of Prey" episode "Gladiatrix".


title: Donovan Leitch (actor)

text: In 1986, he auditioned for the role of "Bill S. Preston Esquire" in "Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure" being one of the final picks along with Keanu Reeves, Gary Riley and Matt Adler. The role ultimately went to Alex Winter, who initially read for the part of Ted "Theodore" Logan.


title: Donovan Leitch (actor)

text: In the early 1990s, Leitch formed Nancy Boy, an alternative rock band with glam rock and Britpop influences. The band also featured guitarist Jason Nesmith, son of Michael Nesmith of The Monkees. The band released two albums, "Promosexual" in 1995 and "Nancy Boy" in 1996. Although their second album was issued on major label Elektra Records, it was not a success, and the band fell inactive after Nesmith left the lineup a few years later.


title: Donovan Leitch (actor)

text: Leitch was born in London, the son of singer/songwriter Donovan and model Enid Karl (née Stulberger). He is the brother of actress Ione Skye. His parents separated when he was three and he was raised by his mother in the Hollywood Hills of California. His father is Scottish, of partial Irish descent. His mother was raised in The Bronx, New York City and is Jewish.


title: Donovan Leitch (actor)

text: He married Scottish model Kirsty Hume on September 23, 1997. Their daughter, Violet Jean Leitch, was born March 21, 2004, at home in Los Angeles.


title: Donovan Leitch (actor)

text: Leitch proposed to actress Libby Mintz two months after Hume filed for divorce. He and Mintz had a son, Donovan Evers Leitch, on April 14, 2015, and were married in a ceremony in Los Angeles on October 3, 2015.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: Casimir III the Great (; 30 April 1310 – 5 November 1370) reigned as the King of Poland from 1333 to 1370. He also later became King of Ruthenia in 1340, and fought to retain the title in the Galicia-Volhynia Wars. He was the last Polish king from the Piast dynasty.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: Casimir inherited a kingdom weakened by war and made it prosperous and wealthy. He reformed the Polish army and doubled the size of the kingdom. He reformed the judicial system and introduced a legal code, gaining the title "the Polish Justinian". Casimir built extensively and founded the Jagiellonian University (back then simply called the University of Krakow), the oldest Polish university and one of the oldest in the world. He also confirmed privileges and protections previously granted to Jews and encouraged them to settle in Poland in great numbers.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: Casimir left no sons. When he died in 1370 from an injury received while hunting, his nephew, King Louis I of Hungary, succeeded him as king of Poland in personal union with Hungary.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: Casimir was born on 30 April 1310 in Kowal, Kuyavia, the third son of Ladislaus the Short and Jadwiga of Kalisz. He had two brothers who died in infancy and three sisters: Kunegunda, Elżbieta, and Jadwiga. When Casimir attained the throne in 1333, his position was in danger, as his neighbours did not recognise his title and instead called him "king of Kraków". The kingdom was depopulated and exhausted by war, and the economy was ruined. In 1335, in the Treaty of Trentschin, Casimir was forced to relinquish his claims to Silesia "in perpetuity".


title: Casimir III the Great

text: Casimir began to rebuild the country and strengthen its defenses. During his reign, nearly 30 towns were supplied with fortification walls and some 50 castles were constructed, including castles along the Trail of the Eagle's Nests. These achievements are still celebrated today, in a commonly-known ditty that translates as follows: "inherited wooden towns and left them fortified with stone and brick" (Kazimierz Wielki zastał Polskę drewnianą, a zostawił murowaną).


title: Casimir III the Great

text: He organized a meeting of kings in Kraków in 1364 at which he exhibited the wealth of the Polish kingdom. Casimir is the only king in Polish history to both receive and retain the title of "Great", as Bolesław I is more commonly known as "the Brave".


title: Casimir III the Great

text: Casimir ensured stability and great prospects for the future of the country. He established the Corona Regni Poloniae – the Crown of the Polish Kingdom, which certified the existence of the Polish lands independently from the monarch. Prior to that, the lands were only the property of the Piast dynasty.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: At the Sejm in Wiślica, on 11 March 1347, Casimir introduced reforms to the Polish judicial system and sanctioned civil and criminal codes for Great and Lesser Poland, earning the title "the Polish Justinian". In 1364, having received permission from Pope Urban V, Casimir established the University of Kraków, now the oldest university in Poland. It was regarded as a rare distinction, since it was only the second university founded in Central Europe, after the Charles University in Prague.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: Casimir demonstrated competence in foreign diplomacy and managed to double the size of his kingdom. He neutralized relations with potential enemies to the west and north, and began to expand his territory eastward. He conquered the Ruthenian kingdom of Halych and Volodymyr (a territory in the modern-day Ukraine), known in Polish history as Red Ruthenia and Volhynia. By extending the borders far south-east, the Polish kingdom gained access to the lucrative Black Sea trade.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: In 1355, in Buda, Casimir designated his nephew Louis I of Hungary as his successor should he produce no male heir, just as his father had with Charles I of Hungary to gain help against Bohemia. In exchange Casimir gained a favourable Hungarian attitude, needed in disputes with the hostile Teutonic Order and the Kingdom of Bohemia. At the time Casimir was 45 years old, and so producing a son did not seem unreasonable.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: Casimir left no legal son, however, begetting five daughters instead. He tried to adopt his grandson, Casimir IV, Duke of Pomerania, in his last will. The child had been born to his eldest daughter, Elisabeth, Duchess of Pomerania, in 1351. This part of the testament was invalidated by Louis I of Hungary, however, who had traveled to Kraków quickly after Casimir died (in 1370) and bribed the nobles with future privileges. Casimir III also had a son-in-law, Louis VI of Bavaria, Margrave and Prince-elector of Brandenburg, who was considered a possible successor, but he was deemed ineligible as his wife, Casimir's daughter Cunigunde, had died in 1357 without issue.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: Thus King Louis I of Hungary became successor in Poland. Louis was proclaimed king upon Casimir's death in 1370, though Casimir's sister Elisabeth (Louis's mother) held much of the real power until her death in 1380.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: Casimir was facetiously named "the Peasants' King". He introduced the codes of law of Greater and Lesser Poland as an attempt to end the overwhelming superiority of the nobility. During his reign all three major classes — the nobility, priesthood, and bourgeoisie — were more or less counterbalanced, allowing Casimir to strengthen his monarchic position. He was known for siding with the weak when the law did not protect them from nobles and clergymen. He reportedly even supported a peasant whose house had been demolished by his own mistress, after she had ordered it to be pulled down because it disturbed her enjoyment of the beautiful landscape.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: His popularity with the peasants helped to rebuild the country, as part of the reconstruction program was funded by a land tax paid by the lower social class.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: On 9 October 1334, Casimir confirmed the privileges granted to Jews in 1264 by Bolesław V the Chaste. Under penalty of death, he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of enforced Christian baptism, and he inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of Jewish cemeteries. While Jews had lived in Poland since before his reign, Casimir allowed them to settle in Poland in great numbers and protected them as "people of the king". About 70 percent of the world's European Jews, or Ashkenazi, can trace their ancestry to Poland due to Casimir’s reforms. Casimir's legendary Jewish mistress Esterka remains unconfirmed by direct historical evidence.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: On 30 April or 16 October 1325, Casimir married Aldona of Lithuania, daughter of Grand Duke Gediminas of Lithuania and Jewna. They had:


title: Casimir III the Great

text: On 29 September 1341, Casimir married his second wife, Adelaide of Hesse. She was a daughter of Henry II, Landgrave of Hesse, and Elizabeth of Meissen. They had no children. Casimir started living separately from Adelaide soon after the marriage. Their loveless marriage lasted until 1356, when he declared himself divorced.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: After Casimir "divorced" Adelaide he married his mistress Christina Rokiczana, the widow of Miklusz Rokiczani, a wealthy merchant. Her own origins are unknown. Following the death of her first husband she had entered the court of Bohemia in Prague as a lady-in-waiting. Casimir brought her with him from Prague and convinced the abbot of the Benedictine abbey of Tyniec to marry them. The marriage was held in a secret ceremony but soon became known. Queen Adelaide renounced it as bigamous and returned to Hesse. Casimir continued living with Christine despite complaints by Pope Innocent VI on behalf of Queen Adelaide. This marriage lasted until 1363–64 when Casimir again declared himself divorced. They had no children.


title: Casimir III the Great

text: In about 1365, Casimir married his fourth wife Hedwig of Żagań. She was a daughter of Henry V of Iron, Duke of Żagań and Anna of Mazovia. They had three children:


title: Casimir III the Great

text: As Adelheid was still alive (and possibly Christina as well), the marriage to Hedwig was also considered bigamous. Because of this, the legitimacy of his three young daughters was disputed. Casimir managed to have Anna and Kunigunde legitimated by Pope Urban V on 5 December 1369. Jadwiga the younger was legitimated by Pope Gregory XI on 11 October 1371 (after Casimir's death).


title: Casimir III the Great

text: Casimir's full title was: "Casimir by the grace of God king of Poland and Rus' (Ruthenia), lord and heir of the land of Kraków, Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, Pomerania (Pomerelia)". The title in Latin was: "Kazimirus, Dei gratia rex Polonie et Russie, nec non Cracovie, Sandomirie, Siradie, Lancicie, Cuiavie, et Pomeranieque Terrarum et Ducatuum Dominus et Heres."


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: Its modern installations and bases were inherited from France (Meknes, Rabat in tandem with the United States, Marrakech, Kenitra, Ben Guerir, Boulhault, Nouasseur, and Sidi Slimane), and later Spain (Laayoune). In the 1950s and 1960s, American aircraft were deployed in several of these bases, including nuclear bombers from the Strategic Air Command.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: The first aircraft of this newly formed air force were 16 Morane-Saulnier Alcyons, five Max Holste MH.1521 Broussard transport aircraft, one Aérospatiale Alouette II, and one Bell H-13 Sioux.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In 1961, it obtained 12 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 fighters, two Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15UTI trainers and either two or four Ilyushin Il-28 bombers from the Soviet Union. Eight Fouga Magister training aircraft were also received from France.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: On 1 February 1964, the Sherifian Royal Aviation changed its name to Royal Air Force (). Since the 1990s, it has been known as the .


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: The political rift with the Soviet Union pushed Morocco to seek a new ally in the United States, acquiring from the latter six Northrop F-5 combat aircraft (4 single-seat F-5A and 2 two-seat F-5B) and another 20 F-5A and four F-5B in 1966. Around 1962, 10 Douglas C-47 Skytrain and six Fairchild C-119G transport aircraft were acquired. At that time, the helicopter fleet was composed of six Aerospatiale Alouette IIs and four Bell 47s. 12 North American T-6 Texans were used for pilot training; no less than eight T-6Gs and 56 SNJ-4s had been delivered by France, but most of them were in a very poor condition, and written off soon after their delivery. 15 Harvard Mk 4s were also delivered in 1962.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: Starting in 1968, Morocco acquired 60 AB205, 25 AB206, two AB212, and nine CH-47C helicopters from Italy. Deliveries lasted until 1977.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: The next modernization of the Moroccan Air Force took place just before the Sahara conflict. The first 25 Mirage F1CH fighters were purchased in 1975, together with 38 Aerospatiale Puma helicopters. Six C-130Hs were bought in 1973, and deliveries started in 1974. Modernization of Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter with improved technology and the purchase of 24 Alpha Jet E would later be undertaken by the RMAF; another modernization of the fleet of Dassault Mirage F1 was achieved in 1996 and 1997.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: During the 90s there were plans for purchasing Mirage 2000 or F-16 fighter aircraft, however due to unavailable funding they were not realized. By 2011 the Royal Moroccan Air Force started to modernize its ageing fleet by buying F-16s.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: The RMAF participated in the Moroccan-Algerian border conflict in 1963 known as Sand War. Its Fairchild C-119s and Douglas C-47s were used to resupply troops, North American T-6s for reconnaissance, and Morane-Saulnier Alcyons for ground attack. MiG-17s were only used sporadically, mostly due to their short range.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: During the Yom Kippur War, a squadron of Royal Moroccan Air Force Northrop F-5As joined the Egyptian 69 Squadron at Tanta on 19 October 1973. At least 14 MiG-17s and also around a dozen of F-5As were deployed. The F-5As arrived after a lengthy trip, via Tunis and Libya, accompanied by Lockheed C-130 Hercules transports that carried spare parts, weapons, and equipment. Moroccans started flying tasked with CAP missions over the Nile Delta. In January 1974 two F-5As armed with AIM-9Bs and 20mm cannons intercepted a pair of Israeli Air Force Mirage IIICJs on a reconnaissance mission. The Israelis turned away once the F-5As were detected, dragging both RMAF fighters behind them. Concerned about a possible ambush by Israeli F-4E Phantom IIs, the Egyptian Air Force ground control ordered both Moroccan fighters to return, replacing them with two EAF MiG-21MFs.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: At the beginning of the Western Sahara War, Fouga Magisters (based at Laayoune) and North American T-6 Texans (based at Dakhla) were used for ground support. Later on, the F-5s went into action, to strike POLISARIO targets.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In 1980, construction of the Sahara defensive walls began, consisting of several types of obstacles for infantry and armoured vehicles, such as mine fields and barbed wire. Radars and other electronic sensors were used to detect infiltration attempts, all backed by Quick Intervention Units (Détachements d'Intervention Rapide) able to move to and quickly reinforce attacked outposts along the wall. It was also decided to use Aérospatiale SA 342 Gazelle helicopters with HOT missiles to engage the POLISARIO's armoured vehicles and technicals from outside the range of light anti-aircraft guns. Apart from the ground radars of the Wall, two C-130 Hercules equipped with SLARs were also used for the detection of enemy units. However, the first portion of the wall, completed in 1982, protected only the area considered as “useful” for Morocco's political and economic interests, that is, the capital Laayoune, the religious center Smara, and the phosphate fields of Bou Craa.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: After the loss of nine F-5As during combat operations against the POLISARIO, 16 F-5Es and 4 F-5Fs were acquired in October 1979. The main problem that faced Moroccan fighter-bombers in Western Sahara was their insufficient range over the vast battlefield of the Sahara desert. To address it, in 1982, a Boeing 707-138B was fitted with Beech hose units at the wingtips for refueling. Two Lockheed KC-130Hs were also delivered, and all of the F-5Es were modified with aerial refueling probes.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In December 1977, the Royal Moroccan Air Force started receiving its first Mirage F1CHs. Even though the Mirage F1CH was designed as an interceptor, it was used almost exclusively for ground attack in the war against the POLISARIO. The last of a total of 30 Mirage F1CHs were received in December 1979. Additionally, 20 Mirage F1EHs (including six equipped with in-flight refuelling probes) were delivered between December 1979 and July 1982.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: Together with the F-5E/Fs, the FRA decided to buy a total of 24 OV-10As from the United States Marine Corps. However, only the first six aircraft were delivered. They were mostly used in a maritime patrol role and for reconnaissance due to their inefficiency in combat.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In late 2014 Morocco sent F-16s into combat against ISIL in Iraq and Syria. This was the first deployment for the jets since Morocco purchased them in 2011.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: The Royal Moroccan Air Force started a progressive modernization program of its ageing fleet and their technical and operational capacities.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: Improvements to F-5A/B were realised with the installation of "Tiger II" avionics on, probably, 8 F-5A and 2 F-5B. A contract was stipulated with the French company SOGERMA at Bordeaux (France), all aircraft were received by 1998. From 2001 to 2004 the RMAF's F-5E/F received a full refurbishment and upgrade from SOGERMA. The upgraded improved the performance of the "Tiger II" to the level of the "Tiger III". The work carried up included:


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: The F-5E/F TIII acquired the capability to use new weapon systems such as Beyond Visual Range missiles and precise-guided weapons. RADA ACE ground debriefing station, a Simulator and AN/AAQ-28(V) LITENING targeting pods have also been purchased.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In 2005, the RMAF started the 350 million euro MF2000 Dassault Mirage F1 upgrade program, which has overhauled 27 Mirage F1s (F1CH, F1EH and F1EH-200) to the level of Mirage 2000-5 to improve survivability for the MF2000, that included :


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: This upgrade was developed by ASTRAC (Association Sagem Thales pour la Rénovation d'Avions de Combat).


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In 2007, Morocco formally requested 24 T-6C Texan trainer aircraft, with very secondary light attack capability.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In 2008, a $2.4 billion order was placed for 24 F-16C/D Block 52+ aircraft as well as associated equipment and services, with:


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: Morocco is reported to be interested of purchase F-35s to counter its arch-rival Algeria which is reported to have placed order for 14 Su-57s. Israeli defence intelligence firm, JaFaj announced in January that Israeli Minister of Defence, Benny Gantz said that his Moroccan counterpart Abdellatif Loudiyi, the Moroccan Minister of Defence, is asking for Israel’s help to convince the Biden administration to authorize the sale of F-35 to Morocco.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In 2008, 4 C-27J Spartan tactical transport aircraft were also purchased from Finmeccanica subsidiary Alenia Aeronautica for 130 million euro, and the advanced trainer and CAS/COIN aircraft Alpha Jet E fleet was upgraded to the "E+ standard". General Atomics received in 2010 export licenses to sell an unarmed export version of the Predator to Saudi Arabia, Egypt, U.A.E. and Morocco. Six aerial firefighting Bombardier 415 Superscooper were also purchased in 2011. The modernization and upgrade of the former US Air Force base in Ben Guerir Air Base to support its F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft is also important. In March 2013, it has been reported that the RMAF have purchased 3 EADS Harfang MALE UAVs decommissioned by France, but these would not have been delivered until 2020.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In 2015, 3 refurbished CH-47D were received from the US, to be added to the 9 CH-47C delivered in 1979 and 1982 (originally 12 were acquired).


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In 2019, Government of Morocco requested purchase of 25 F-16 block 72 and was approved by The U.S. Department of State. A $2.8 billion contract was signed in 2020. First shipment of 12 new Vipers will be received in 2021.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In January 2011, a Royal Moroccan Air Force F-5 crashed while trying to land at the airport of the military base near Meknes and a pilot was killed in the crash.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In July 2011, a Royal Moroccan Air Force C-130H crash killed 78 people after the aircraft, en route from Dakhla, a city in Morocco to Kenitra Air Base in Kenitra, crashed from a planned stop-over at Guelmim Air Base. The 6 crew, 60 members of the army and 12 civilians, mainly partners travelling with their partners, perished in the accident.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: In November 2012, nine soldiers were killed and two seriously injured in a SA330 Puma crash in the same region of Guelmim during a combined forces exercise.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: On May 11, 2015, a Royal Moroccan Air Force F-16 which was taking part in air campaign in Yemen crashed due to technical faults.


title: Royal Moroccan Air Force

text: On 21 January 2019, a Mirage F1 has crashed in Taounat area due to a technical problem. The pilot ejected before the crash.


title: William Borah

text: William Edgar Borah (June 29, 1865 – January 19, 1940) was an outspoken Republican United States Senator, one of the best-known figures in Idaho's history. A progressive who served from 1907 until his death in 1940, Borah is often considered an isolationist, because he led the Irreconcilables, senators who would not accept the Treaty of Versailles, Senate ratification of which would have made the U.S. part of the League of Nations.


title: William Borah

text: Borah was born in rural Illinois to a large farming family. He studied at the University of Kansas and became a lawyer in that state before seeking greater opportunities in Idaho. He quickly rose in the law and in state politics, and after a failed run for the House of Representatives in 1896 and one for the United States Senate in 1903, was elected to the Senate in 1907. Before he took his seat in December of that year, he was involved in two prominent legal cases. One, the murder conspiracy trial of Big Bill Haywood, gained Borah fame though Haywood was found not guilty and the other, a prosecution of Borah for land fraud, made him appear a victim of political malice even before his acquittal.


title: William Borah

text: In the Senate, Borah became one of the progressive insurgents who challenged President William Howard Taft's policies, though Borah refused to support former president Theodore Roosevelt's third-party bid against Taft in 1912. Borah reluctantly voted for war in 1917 and, once it concluded, he fought against the Versailles treaty, and the Senate did not ratify it. Remaining a maverick, Borah often fought with the Republican presidents in office between 1921 and 1933, though Calvin Coolidge offered to make Borah his running mate in 1924. Borah campaigned for Herbert Hoover in 1928, something he rarely did for presidential candidates and never did again.


title: William Borah

text: Deprived of his post as Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee when the Democrats took control of the Senate in 1933, Borah agreed with some of the New Deal legislation, but opposed other proposals. He ran for the Republican nomination for president in 1936, but party regulars were not inclined to allow a longtime maverick to head the ticket. In his final years, he felt he might be able to settle differences in Europe by meeting with Hitler; though he did not go, this has not enhanced his historical reputation. Borah died in 1940; his statue, presented by the state of Idaho in 1947, stands in the National Statuary Hall Collection.


title: William Borah

text: William Edgar Borah was born in Jasper Township, Illinois, near Fairfield in Wayne County. His parents were farmers Elizabeth (West) and William Nathan Borah. Borah was distantly related to Katharina von Bora, the Catholic nun who left her convent in the 16th century and married reformer Martin Luther. His Borah ancestors came to America in about 1760, fought in the Revolutionary War, and moved west with the frontier. The young William E. Borah was the seventh of ten children, and the third son.


title: William Borah

text: Although Borah was not a good student, at an early age he began to love oratory and the written word. Borah was educated at Tom's Prairie School, near Fairfield. When Borah exhausted its rudimentary resources, his father sent him in 1881 to Southern Illinois Academy, a Cumberland Presbyterian academy at Enfield, to train for the ministry. The 63 students there included two future U.S. senators, Borah and Wesley Jones, who would represent the state of Washington; the two often debated as schoolboys. Instead of becoming a preacher, Borah was in 1882 expelled for hitching rides on the Illinois Central to spend the night in the town of Carmi.


title: William Borah

text: He ran away from home with an itinerant Shakespearean company, but his father persuaded him to return. In his late teenage years, he became interested in the law, and later stated, "I can't remember when I didn't want to be a lawyer ... there is no other profession where one can be absolutely independent".


title: William Borah

text: With his father finally accepting his ambition to be a lawyer rather than a clergyman, Borah in 1883 went to live with his sister Sue in Lyons, Kansas; her husband, Ansel M. Lasley, was an attorney. Borah initially worked as a teacher, but became so engrossed in historical topics at the town library that he was ill-prepared for class; he and the school parted ways. In 1885 Borah enrolled at the University of Kansas, and rented an inexpensive room in a professor's home in Lawrence; he studied alongside students who would become prominent, such as William Allen White and Fred Funston. Borah was working his way through college, but his plans were scuttled when he contracted tuberculosis in early 1887. He had to return to Lyons, where his sister nursed him to health, and he began to read law under his brother-in-law Lasley's supervision. Borah passed the bar examination in September 1887, and went into partnership with his brother-in-law.


title: William Borah

text: The mayor of Lyons appointed Borah as city attorney in 1889, but the young lawyer felt that he was destined for bigger things than a small Kansas town suffering in the hard times that persisted on the prairie in the late 1880s and early 1890s. Following the advice attributed to Horace Greeley, Borah chose to go west and grow up with the country. In October 1890, uncertain of his destination, he boarded the Union Pacific Railroad in Omaha. On the advice of a gambler on board the train, Borah decided to settle in Boise, Idaho. His biographer, Marian C. McKenna, said that Boise was "as far west as his pocketbook would take him".


title: William Borah

text: Idaho had been admitted to the Union earlier in 1890, and Boise, the state capital, was a boom town, where the police and courts were not yet fully effective. Borah's first case was referred to him by the gambler who had advised him on board the train; the young attorney was asked to defend a man accused of murder for shooting a Chinese immigrant in the back. Borah gained an unasked-for dismissal when the judge decided that killing a Chinese male was at worst manslaughter. Borah prospered in Boise, both in law and in politics. In 1892 he served as chair of the Republican State Central Committee. He served as political secretary to Governor William J. McConnell. In 1895 Borah married the governor's daughter, Mary McConnell. They were married until Borah's death, but had no children together.


title: William Borah

text: Idaho, a mining state, was fraught with labor tensions, and related violence was common by both employers and workers. In 1899, there was a strike, and a large group of miners dynamited facilities belonging to a mining company that refused to recognize the union. They had hijacked a train to travel to destroy the company's plant. Someone in the mob shot and killed a strikebreaker. Governor Frank Steunenberg declared martial law and had more than one thousand miners arrested. Paul Corcoran, secretary of the union, was charged with murder. Borah was engaged as a prosecutor in a trial that began at Wallace on July 8, 1899. Prosecution witnesses testified to having seen Corcoran sitting on top of the train, rifle in hand, and later leaping to the platform. The defense contended that, given the sharp curves and rough roadbed of the rail line, no one could have sat on top of the train, nor jumped from it without severe injury. Borah took the jury to the train line and demonstrated how Corcoran could have acted. He drew on his skills as a teenage rail rider to ride the top of the train, and jump from it to the platform without injury. Corcoran was convicted, but his death sentence was commuted. He was pardoned in 1901, after Steunenberg left office. Borah gained wide acclaim for his dramatic prosecution of the case.


title: William Borah

text: In 1896, Borah joined many Idahoans, including Senator Fred Dubois, in bolting the Republican Party to support the presidential campaign of Democrat William Jennings Bryan—free silver, which Bryan advocated, was extremely popular in Idaho. Borah thus became a Silver Republican in opposition to the campaign of the Republican presidential candidate, former Ohio governor William McKinley. Borah ran for the House of Representatives that year, but knew that with the silver vote split between himself and a Democrat-Populist fusion candidate, he had little chance of winning. He concentrated on making speeches aimed at gaining a legislature that would re-elect Dubois—until 1913, state legislatures chose senators. Bryan, Dubois, and Borah were all defeated.


title: William Borah

text: In 1898, Borah supported the Spanish–American War and remained loyal to the Silver Republicans. By 1900, Borah deemed the silver issue of minimal importance due to increased gold production and national prosperity. With other former silverites, he made an unapologetic return to the Republican Party. He made speeches for McKinley, who was re-elected. Bryan, however, took Idaho's electoral votes for a second time. Dubois, though nominally remaining a Silver Republican, gained control of the state Democratic Party, and was returned to the US Senate by the Idaho Legislature.


title: William Borah

text: Borah's legal practice had made him prominent in southern Idaho, and in 1902 he sought election to the Senate. By this time, a united Republican Party was deemed likely to defeat the Democratic/Populist combine that had ruled Idaho for the past six years. The 1902 Idaho state Republican convention showed that Borah had, likely, the most support among the people, but the choice of senator was generally dictated by the caucus of the majority party in the legislature. In the 1902 election, Republicans retook control, electing a governor of their party, as well as the state's only House member and a large majority in the legislature. Three other Republicans were seeking the Senate seat, including Weldon B. Heyburn, a mining lawyer from the northern part of the state. When the legislature met in early 1903, Borah led on early caucus ballots, but then the other candidates withdrew and backed Heyburn; he was chosen by the caucus, and then by the legislature. There were many rumors of corruption in the choice of Heyburn, and Borah determined that the defeat would not end his political career. He decided to seek the seat of Senator Dubois (by then a Democrat) when it was filled by the legislature in early 1907.


title: William Borah

text: At the state convention at Pocatello in 1904, Borah made a speech in support of the election of Theodore Roosevelt for a full term as president, which was widely applauded. But the Old Guard Republicans in Idaho opposed him and they were determined to defeat Borah in his second bid for the Senate. The same year, Dubois damaged his prospects for a third term by his opposition to the appointment of H. Smith Woolley, a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (many Idahoans adhered to that faith), as assayer-in-charge of the United States Assay Office at Boise. Dubois had advanced politically through anti-Mormonism in the 1880s, but the issue was more or less dead in Idaho by 1904. Woolley was confirmed by the U.S. Senate despite Dubois's opposition, and Rufus G. Cook, in his article on the affair, suggested that Dubois was baited into acting by Borah and his supporters. The result was that Borah attacked Dubois for anti-Mormonism in both 1904 and 1906, which played well in the heavily Mormon counties in southeast Idaho.


title: William Borah

text: Borah campaigned to end the caucus's role in selecting the Republican nominee for Senate, arguing that it should be decided by the people, in a convention. He drafted a resolution based on the one passed by the 1858 Illinois Republican convention that had endorsed Abraham Lincoln for Senate in his unsuccessful race against Stephen Douglas. He made a deal with a potential Republican rival, Governor Frank Gooding, whereby Borah would be nominated for Senate and Gooding for re-election and on August 1, 1906, both men received the state convention's endorsement by acclamation. Dubois was the Democratic choice, and Borah campaigned in support of President Roosevelt, argued that Republicans had brought the nation prosperity, and urged law and order. Voters re-elected Gooding, and selected a Republican legislature, which in January 1907 retired Dubois by electing Borah to the Senate.


title: William Borah

text: Borah presented his credentials at the Senate prior to the formal beginning of his first term on March 4, 1907. Until 1933, Congress's regular session began in December, allowing Borah time to participate in two major trials. One of these boosted him to national prominence for his role in the prosecution of Big Bill Haywood, and the other, with Borah as the defendant, placed him at risk of going to prison.


title: William Borah

text: Haywood was tried for conspiracy in the murder of ex-governor Steunenberg, who was assassinated on December 30, 1905 by a bomb planted on the gate at his home in Caldwell. Borah, who viewed Steunenberg as a father figure, was among the prominent Idahoans who hurried to Caldwell, and who viewed Steunenberg's shattered body and the bloodstained snow. Suspicion quickly fell on a man registered at a local hotel who proved to be Harry Orchard, an explosives expert and assassin. Many labor leaders were embittered against Steunenberg for his actions while in office, and Orchard implicated four of them. The three who could be found, including Haywood, were extradited from Colorado to Idaho in February 1906. As the legal challenges wound through the courts, the case became a campaign issue both for Gooding, who had signed the extradition warrant, and for Borah, who joined the prosecution team and stated that trying the case was more important to him than being sent to the Senate.


title: William Borah

text: While the Haywood defendants awaited trial, Borah and others were indicted in federal court for land fraud, having to do with the acquisition by the Barber Lumber Company (for which Borah had been counsel) of title to timber land claims. Individuals had filed for the claims, and then sold them to the Barber Company, although they had sworn that the claims were for their own use. United States Attorney for Idaho, Norman M. Ruick, had expanded the grand jury from 12 members to 22 before he could get a majority vote to indict Borah (by a 12–10 margin). The indictment was perceived to be political, with Ruick acting on behalf of Idaho Republicans who had lost state party leadership to the new senator. Roosevelt took a wait-and-see attitude, upsetting Borah, who considered resigning his Senate seat even if exonerated.


title: William Borah

text: Haywood was the first tried of the three defendants; jury selection began on May 9, 1907 and proceedings in Boise continued for over two months. The courtroom, corridors, and even the lawn outside were often filled. Counsel for the prosecution included Borah and future governor James H. Hawley; famed attorney Clarence Darrow led the defense team. A highlight of the trial was Borah's cross-examination of Haywood, who denied personal animus against Steunenberg and any connection with the death. Another was Borah's final argument for the prosecution in rebuttal to Darrow on July 25 and 26.


title: William Borah

text: Although Darrow won the day, gaining an acquittal for Haywood, the trial transformed Borah from an obscure freshman senator into a national figure. But Borah still had to face a jury on the land fraud charge, which he did in September 1907, a trial held then at Roosevelt's insistence—Ruick had asked for more time, but Borah wanted the matter disposed of before Congress met in December. Borah refused to challenge the indictment. At the trial, his counsel allowed Ruick free rein; the judge commented on Ruick's inability to tie Borah to any offense. The defense case consisted almost entirely of Borah's testimony, and the jury quickly acquitted him, setting off wild celebrations in Boise. Roosevelt dismissed Ruick as US Attorney in 1908.


title: William Borah

text: When Borah went to Washington for the Senate's regular session in December 1907, he was immediately a figure of note, not only for the dramatic events in Idaho but for keeping his Western habits, including wearing a ten-gallon hat. It was customary then for junior senators to wait perhaps a year before giving their maiden speech, but at Roosevelt's request, in April 1908, Borah spoke in defense of the president's dismissal of more than 200 African-American soldiers in the Brownsville Affair in Texas. The cause of their innocence had been pressed by the fiery Ohio senator, Joseph B. Foraker. The soldiers were accused of having shot up a Texas town near their military camp. Borah said that their alleged actions were as wrongful as the murder of Steunenberg. The accusations were later re-investigated. The government concluded that the soldiers had been accused because of racist officials in the town and, in 1972, long after the deaths of Roosevelt, Borah, and most of the soldiers, their dishonorable discharges from the military were reversed.


title: William Borah

text: Republican leaders had heard that Borah was an attorney for corporations, who had prosecuted labor leaders; they believed him sympathetic to their Old Guard positions and assigned him to important committees. Borah believed in the rights of unions, so long as they did not commit violent acts. When Borah staked out progressive positions after his swearing-in, Rhode Island Senator Nelson Aldrich, the powerful chairman of the Senate Finance Committee, hoped to put pressure on him through the Westerner's corporate clients, only to find that he had given up those representations before coming to Washington. Borah became one of a growing number of progressive Republicans in the Senate. Yet, Borah often opposed liberal legislation, finding fault with it or fearing it would increase the power of the federal government. Throughout his years in the Senate, in which he would serve until his death in 1940, his idiosyncratic positions would limit his effectiveness as a reformer.


title: William Borah

text: After Roosevelt's hand-picked successor as president, former Secretary of War William Howard Taft, was inaugurated in March 1909, Congress battled over what became the Payne–Aldrich Tariff. At the time, tariffs were the main source of government revenue, and conflicts over them were passionate. The party platform had promised tariff reform, which progressive insurgents like Borah took to mean tariff reductions. Old Guard legislators like Senator Aldrich disagreed, and the final version actually raised rates by about one percent. The battles alienated Borah from Taft, who in a speech at Winona, Minnesota described the new law as the best tariff the country had ever had. Borah and other progressives had proposed an income tax to be attached to the tariff bill; when this was unacceptable to Taft, who feared the Supreme Court would strike it down again, Borah repackaged it as a constitutional amendment, which passed the Senate unanimously and then the House, and to the surprise of many, passed the requisite number of state legislatures by 1913 to become the Sixteenth Amendment.


title: William Borah

text: Borah also had a hand in the other constitutional amendment to be ratified in 1913, the Seventeenth Amendment, providing for the direct election of senators by the people. In 1909, due to Borah's influence, the Idaho Legislature passed an act for a statewide election for US senators, with legislators in theory bound to choose the winner. By 1912 over 30 states had similar laws. Borah promoted the amendment in the Senate in 1911 and 1912 until it passed Congress and, after a year, it was ratified by the states. With the power to elect senators having passed to the people, according to McKenna, the popular Borah "secured for himself a life option on a seat in the Senate".


title: William Borah

text: Borah opposed Taft over a number of issues and in March 1912 announced his support of the candidacy of Roosevelt over Taft for the Republican presidential nomination. Most delegates to the 1912 Republican National Convention in Chicago selected by primary supported Roosevelt, but as most states held conventions to select delegates, Taft's control of the party machinery gave him the advantage. A number of states, especially in the South, had contested delegate seats, matters which would be initially settled by the Republican National Committee. Borah was Idaho's Republican National Committeeman and was one of those designated by the Roosevelt campaign to fight for it on the RNC. As Taft controlled the committee, Borah found few victories. Borah was among those who tried to find a compromise candidate, and was spoken of for that role, but all such efforts failed.