title: Skins (2017 film)

text: Skins () is a 2017 Spanish drama film directed by Eduardo Casanova. It was screened in the Panorama section at the 67th Berlin International Film Festival. The film was produced by Pokeepsie Films and Nadie es Perfecto alongside The Other Side Films.


title: Skins (2017 film)

text: A man named Simon gets a call from his wife saying that their son is born, but he stays at a brothel. A nude elder woman tells Simon that "people were born to suffer" and that he shouldn't go see his child because he's a pedophile. The woman brings in a child named Laura. When Laura takes off the ribbon she reveals that she has skin over her eyes and sings a song. Simon then gives Laura two pink diamonds for eyes.


title: Skins (2017 film)

text: 17 years later, Laura who is now in her 20s still works at the brothel. A waitress who works there who is in debt attempts to steal Laura's diamonds, but when someone comes in the room she puts them in her mouth and ends up swallowing them. Laura starts to panic because she can't do her job without her diamonds. When the waitress returns the diamonds to Laura, Laura says that she wants to touch her. She becomes uncomfortable at first, but realizes it's not bad.


title: Skins (2017 film)

text: A woman named Samantha who has an anus for a mouth and a mouth for an anus goes to a restaurant without a face covering to express herself. She posts a photo of herself on Instagram, but gets taken down for nudity. Samantha runs into two boys who harass her, but she escapes and accidentally runs over someone.


title: Skins (2017 film)

text: On Samantha's birthday, her father gives her a unicorn mask to hide her face, but she doesn't like the gift. Her father only wants Samantha to be careful because her mother was born with the same condition that she has. Samantha runs into the two boys again and they sexually assault her when they see her mouth anus. Samantha thinks about committing suicide by jumping off a cliff and getting into a trainwreck, but passes out.


title: Skins (2017 film)

text: Ernesto is masturbating to a picture of his deformed girlfriend, Ana, and gets caught by his mother who has a panic attack and kicks him out. Ana is cheating on Ernesto with a burn-victim named Guille because she wants someone to love her for the way she looks.


title: Skins (2017 film)

text: Ernesto visits Ana to ask to move in with her and tells Ana that he hasn't told his mom about their relationship because his mother wants him to date non-deformed girls. Ana asks if Ernesto likes her or her deformity to which he responds her. Ana doesn't believe him and ends their relationship. Guille finds a briefcase full of money, happy that he can use the money for plastic surgery. Ana is upset by this because she thinks that he should be okay with the way he looks, but decides to end their relationship and love herself for the way she is.


title: Skins (2017 film)

text: A teenage boy named Cristian is in a therapy session with his mother, Claudia. The therapist tells them that Cristian suffers from body integrity identity disorder because he wants to get rid of his legs to become a mermaid. When the therapist asks him if he wants to see his father, Claudia gets angry at him thinking he's stupid then forces him to get out of his wheelchair and pulls his pants down to show self harm scars, causing him to run away.


title: Skins (2017 film)

text: Cristian puts his legs on the road to amputate them by having someone, in this case Samantha, run over them. He smiles before dying. Claudia meets Cristian's father who appears to be Simon. Simon says that he left their family so he wouldn't sexually abuse their son and the mom tells him that she would've had an abortion. Simon then looks into Cristian's backpack and sees a photo of himself with a mermaid tattoo and cries of guilt.


title: Skins (2017 film)

text: Vanesa is a dwarf who works in a teddy bear show, but wants to quit because the audiences loves the character, but not her. She then discovers that she is pregnant and wants to give her child a life she never had, but learns that the baby will also have dwarfism.


title: Skins (2017 film)

text: Vanesa tries to quit her job, but her boss doesn't let her. Her boss tries to give her money to change her mind, but she throws the briefcase full of money out the window and her boss runs after it and dies. Guille was there witnessing the death and saw the briefcase.


title: Skins (2017 film)

text: The waitress and Laura fall in love. Guille gets his surgery. Samantha and Ernesto are in a romantic relationship. Vanesa has her baby. Cristian is now happy in his afterlife as a mermaid.


title: Ephod

text: An ephod ( "ʾēfōḏ"; or ) was a type of apron worn by the Jewish high priest the kohen gadol, an artifact and an object to be revered in ancient Israelite culture, and was closely connected with oracular practices and priestly ritual.


title: Ephod

text: In the Books of Samuel and Books of Chronicles, David is described as wearing an ephod when dancing in the presence of the Ark of the Covenant (2 Samuel 6:14, 1 Chronicles 15:27) and one is described as standing in the sanctuary at Nob, with a sword behind it (1 Samuel 21:9). In the book of Exodus and in Leviticus one is described as being created for the High Priest to wear as part of his official vestments (Exodus 28:4+, 29:5, 39:2+; Leviticus 8:7).


title: Ephod

text: In the Bible, in the contexts where it is worn, the ephod is usually described as being linen, but did not constitute complete clothing of any kind, as the Books of Samuel describe. The book of 1 Chronicles states that David was "clothed with a robe of fine linen, as were all the Levites who bore the ark... [and] David also wore an ephod of linen," [NAS Bible translation; 1 Chronicles, 15:27] "and David was wearing a linen ephod" [NAS Bible translation; 2 Samuel, 6:14]. There appears to have been a strong religious and ceremonial implication to wearing an ephod, since the 85 priests at Nob are specifically identified as being the type of people who wore an ephod; though the Masoretic text here describes them as being "linen ephods" (1 Samuel 22:18) the word "linen" is not present in the Septuagint version of the passage, nor is it present when the Septuagint describes David and Samuel as girding themselves with an ephod. Therefore, some textual scholars regard its presence in the Masoretic text as a later editorial gloss.


title: Ephod

text: A passage in the Book of Exodus describes the Ephod as an elaborate garment worn by the high priest, and upon which the Hoshen, or breastplate containing Urim and Thummim, rested. According to this description, the Ephod was woven out of gold, blue, purple, and scarlet threads, was made of fine linen, and was embroidered with skillful work in gold thread (). Gideon is additionally described as creating an ephod made up of 1,700 shekels of gold (). The Talmud argues that each of the textures was combined in six threads with a seventh of gold leaf, making 28 threads to the texture in total. Some people attempt to assign meaning to the details of the Ephod, but such meanings are not given in either the biblical description or the Talmud.


title: Ephod

text: The biblical description (Exodus 28:16, 39:9) continues describing the size of the breastplate which is affixed to the front of the ephod as a square measuring one span by one span (the width of an outstretched hand from little finger tip to out stretched thumb tip). Stating that it was held together by a girdle, and had two shoulder straps which were fastened to the front of the ephod by golden rings, to which the breastplate was attached by golden chains (). From this description it appears to have been something like an apron or skirt with braces, though Rashi argued that it was like a woman's riding girdle. The biblical description also adds that there were two engraved gems over the shoulder straps (like epaulettes), made from "shoham" (thought by scholars to mean malachite, by Jewish tradition to mean heliodor, and in the King James Version translated as "onyx", and with the names of the 12 tribes written upon them; the classical rabbinical sources differ as to the order in which the tribes were named on the jewels (Sotah 36a).


title: Ephod

text: Textual scholars attribute the description of the Ephod in Exodus to the priestly source and to a date later than the other mentions of "Ephod"; biblical scholars believe that the Ephod may have evolved over time into this highly ceremonial form from more primitive beginnings (the simple linen form described in the Books of Samuel), much like the manner in which the highly liturgical maniple evolved from an ordinary handkerchief.


title: Ephod

text: Besides use as a garment, an Ephod was also used for oracular purposes, in conjunction with Urim and Thummim; the books of Samuel imply that whenever Saul or David wished to question God via oracular methods, they asked a priest for the ephod. Since the oracular process is considered by scholars to have been one of cleromancy, with the Urim and Thummim being the objects which were drawn as lots, the Ephod is considered by scholars to have been some form of container for the Urim and Thummim; to harmonise this with the descriptions of the Ephod as a garment, it is necessary to conclude that the Ephod must have originally been some sort of pocket, which the priests "girded" to themselves. However, the biblical text states the Urim and Thummim were placed in the breastplate, not the ephod (). The integration of the stones in the breastplate, as well as the Hebrew usage of "Urim" as "lights," suggest that the Urim and Thummim may have been a type of ocular device through which the priest would look when receiving divine communication.


title: Ephod

text: The object at Nob, which must have been somewhat freestanding since another object is kept behind it, and the objects made by Gideon and by Micah, from molten gold, logically cannot have just been garments. The object made by Gideon is plainly described as having been worshipped, and therefore the idol of some deity, while the object made by Micah is closely associated with a Teraphim, and the Ephod and Teraphim are described interchangeably with the Hebrew terms "pesel" and "massekah", meaning "graven image", and "molten image", respectively.


title: Ephod

text: Even the ephods used for oracular purposes were not necessarily just pieces of cloth, as they are not described as being worn, but carried (though some translations render 1 Samuel 2:28 as "wear an ephod" rather than "carry an ephod"); the Hebrew term used in these passages for "carry" is "nasa", which specifically implies that the Ephod was carried either in the hand or on the shoulder. The conclusion thus is that "Ephod", in these cases, referred to a portable idol, which the lots were cast in front of; some scholars have suggested that the connection between the idol and the garment is that the idol was originally clothed in a linen garment, and the term "Ephod" gradually came to describe the idol as a whole.


title: Ephod

text: Other scholars suggest that the ephod originally refers to a container for the stones used to cast lots and later became associated with many objects that also could contain the stones or were used in divination.


title: Ephod

text: According to the Talmud, the wearing of the ephod atoned for the sin of idolatry on the part of the Children of Israel.


title: Ephod

text: According to the ancient apocryphal "Lives of the Prophets", after the death of Zechariah Ben Jehoiada, the priests of the Temple could no more, as before, see the apparitions of the angels of the Lord, nor could make divinations with the Ephod, nor give responses from the "Debir".


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The Ford Pinto engine was the unofficial name for a four-cylinder internal combustion engine built by Ford Europe. In Ford sales literature, it was referred to as the EAO or OHC engine and because it was designed to the metric system, it was sometimes called the "metric engine". The internal Ford codename for the unit was the T88-series engine. European Ford service literature refers to it as the Taunus In-Line engine (hence the TL codenames). In North America it was known as the Lima In-Line (LL), or simply the Lima engine due to its being manufactured at Lima Engine in Lima, Ohio.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: It was used in many European Ford cars and was exported to the United States to be used in the Ford Pinto, a successful subcompact car of the 1970s, hence the name which is used most often for the unit. In Britain, it is commonly used in many kit cars and hot rods, especially in the 2-litre size.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: In Europe, the Pinto OHC was introduced in 1970 to replace the Essex V4 used in the Corsair as that range was subsumed into the Mk3 Cortina and Taunus V4 for the German Fords range (mainly the new Taunus TC). It was the first Ford engine to feature a belt-driven overhead camshaft (thus the name). Early Pinto engines suffered from excessive cam and follower wear, this was later addressed by nitriding the cam lobes and followers, and the fitment of a spray bar, which sprayed oil directly at the camshaft. All standard production Pinto engines had a cast iron cylinder block and a cast iron, crossflow, single overhead camshaft cylinder head with two valves per cylinder operated by finger followers.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The Pinto engine was available in five displacements: , earlier , later , and the . Later . Due to emission requirements, it was phased out towards the end of the 1980s to be replaced by the CVH engine and DOHC engine, the latter being (contrary to popular belief) a completely new design and not a twin-cam development of the Pinto unit. The only DOHC direct derivative of Pinto engine is the Cosworth YB 16-valve engine, powering Ford Sierra and Ford Escort RS Cosworth variants and featuring a cast aluminium alloy cylinder head developed specially by Cosworth fitted to a modified Pinto cast iron block.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The final Pinto engines used in Ford of Europe production vehicles were the litre versions used in the Sierra until 1991, and the last units were used in the Transit until 1994.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The fuel was supplied by the Motorcraft single-barrel (1V) carburetor in the early models (until April 1979), and Motorcraft VV ("variable venturi") carburetor for the vehicles built after April 1979.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: Initially, the had a bore of and shared the crankshaft with the 1.3 L model with a stroke of giving the displacement of .


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The TL16L had a compression ratio of 8.2:1 and developed of power and of torque depending on the carburettor and application. As the 1.3 L model, it used the Motorcraft 1V and, later, the Motorcraft VV carburetors. The engine code of the low compression variant started with 'LA'.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The HC version of the early had the same bore and stroke as the LC version, but the compression ratio was higher (9.2:1), allowing it to produce of power and of torque. It used the same carburetor models as the low compression version (Motorcraft 1V and Motorcraft VV).


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: At the beginning of 1984, Ford Pinto engine displacement range switched from 1.3/1.6/2.0 to 1.6/1.8/2.0. The newly introduced 1.8 L engine used the 2.0 L crankshaft, so to uniform engine parts for the whole range after dropping the 1.3 L — the 1.6 L was redesigned to also take the 2.0 L crankshaft which had a stroke. This of course led to bringing the bore down to to keep the displacement within range — it was now . The TL16E became now the only available 1.6 L engine of the Pinto range. Although the compression ratio was raised to 9.5:1, the power figures did not differ much from the earlier TL16H version — the engine developed of power and of torque.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The Pinto engine was introduced in 1984 as a replacement for the "old" 1.6 L. The engine had an bore and stroke giving the displacement of . Output was of power and . Fuel was supplied by the Pierburg 2E3 28/32 carburetor.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The was used in many Ford vehicles from the early 1970s. Due to its robustness and high tuning potential, it was often used as an aftermarket engine upgrade or base for building race and rally engines — not exclusively in Ford cars. The engine has bore of and stroke giving the displacement of .


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: One was used on the 1970–1982 Ford Taunus export version to Sweden — fitted with the Weber DGAV 32/32 carburetor and compression ratio lowered to 8.2:1 to meet the rigorous emission specifications; it delivered of power and of torque.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The second one was used on 1978–1991 Ford Transits and P100 models. With modified induction and Motorcraft 1V carburetor, it produced of power and of torque available at only 2800 rpm. The compression ratio in this case was also 8.2:1. The Transits also used the third variant called the "Economy" engine. The power figure of this one was even lower — it developed only .


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: Although Ford marked its standard 2.0 L engine as HC, it actually uses engine codes meant for the 'increased performance variant' engines (coding starting with 'NE'), these have a compression ratio of to 9.2:1.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The engine produced of power and of torque, though a few models with a higher output were produced (for example an version used in 1976 Ford Escort RS2000).


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The injected 2.0 L used the Ford EEC-IV engine control system which brought the output up to of power and of torque, although much of this increased performance can be attributed to the improved design of the EFI variants cylinder head. As the EEC-IV installation on most of those engines contains some Bosch parts that are easily visible in the engine compartment (air flow meter of the electromechanical "flap" type, injectors, fuel pressure regulator etc.), it is often - but falsely believed that they are fitted with the Bosch L-Jetronic injection system.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: In the beginning of the 1980s, Cosworth developed a 16-valve performance head conversion for the Pinto engine. This was seen by a Ford executive who asked Cosworth to develop it with a turbo for use in the new Ford Sierra RS Cosworth.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The engine is therefore based on a modified Pinto block topped with the Cosworth-developed alloy head and Garrett turbo.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The 2.0 litre version was a narrower-bore version of the original 2.3 liter "Lima" four. Bore and stroke are , respectively, for an overall displacement of . This engine was installed in the 1983-1988 Ford Rangers and in some Argentinian Ford Taunus.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: The Ford Pinto used the OHC version, a unit introduced in 1974 which has a bore and stroke. This version lasted until 1997 in various guises. The earliest units produced and . This engine has also been known as the Lima engine, after the Lima Engine plant in Lima, Ohio, where it was first manufactured (it was also manufactured in Brazil starting in 1974).


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: In 1979-80, a draw-through, non intercooled turbo version was produced for Mustang Cobras and some Capris. Lack of dealership and owner training resulted in many stuck turbochargers and other maintenance problems. They were limited to of boost, though Ford Motorsport sold a wastegate with an adjustable rod which allowed an increase up to . It was used in this carbureted form in a number of passenger cars, from the Fairmont Futura Turbo to the 1979 Indy Pace Car edition Mustang.


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: In 1983, Ford introduced a fuel-injected version of the turbocharged engine, which was used in the Thunderbird Turbo Coupe and the Turbo GT trim of the Mustang. In 1984, the Mustang SVO was introduced with an intercooler, initially producing and later increased to in 1985½. After the SVO was discontinued, the intercooler was added to the Turbo Coupe. Output for this turbo/intercooled version was and for the 1987-88 models with the five-speed (T-5) manual transmission. In addition to the 1983-1984 Mustang Turbo GT and 1983-1986 Turbo Coupe, the nonintercooled version of the engine was also used in the 1985-89 Merkur XR4Ti and 1984-1986 Mercury Cougar XR7, producing and .


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: A dual-spark version (with two spark plugs per cylinder, distributor-less ignition, and reduced main bearing sizes) was introduced in the 1989 Ford Ranger and 1991 Ford Mustang. This version produced and .


title: Ford Pinto engine

text: . In addition to longer stroke, it used higher-flow cylinder heads utilizing narrower valve stems. Crankshaft counterbalance weights were increased in count from 4 to 8. Output was and . It was replaced in 2001 by the Mazda-derived Duratec 23, but Ford Power Products continues to sell this engine as the LRG-425.


title: Ionic order

text: The Ionic order is one of the three canonic orders of classical architecture, the other two being the Doric and the Corinthian. There are two lesser orders: the Tuscan (a plainer Doric), and the rich variant of Corinthian called the composite order. Of the three classical canonic orders, the Corinthian order has the narrowest columns, followed by the Ionic order, with the Doric order having the widest columns.


title: Ionic order

text: The Ionic capital is characterized by the use of volutes. The Ionic columns normally stand on a base which separates the shaft of the column from the stylobate or platform while the cap is usually enriched with egg-and-dart.


title: Ionic order

text: The ancient architect and architectural historian Vitruvius associates the Ionic with feminine proportions (the Doric representing the masculine).


title: Ionic order

text: The major features of the Ionic order are the volutes of its capital, which have been the subject of much theoretical and practical discourse, based on a brief and obscure passage in Vitruvius. The only tools required to design these features were a straight-edge, a right angle, string (to establish half-lengths) and a compass. Below the volutes, the Ionic column may have a wide collar or banding separating the capital from the fluted shaft (as in, for example, the neoclassical mansion Castle Coole), or a swag of fruit and flowers may swing from the clefts or "neck" formed by the volutes.


title: Ionic order

text: Originally, the volutes lay in a single plane ("illustration at right"); then it was seen that they could be angled out on the corners. This feature of the Ionic order made it more pliant and satisfactory than the Doric to critical eyes in the 4th century BC: angling the volutes on the corner columns ensured that they "read" equally when seen from either front or side facade. However, some classical artists viewed this as unsatisfactory, feeling that the placement of Ionic columns at building corners required a distortion at the expense of the capital's structural logic; the Corinthian order would solve this by reading equally well from all angles. The 16th-century Renaissance architect and theorist Vincenzo Scamozzi designed a version of such a perfectly four-sided Ionic capital that it became standard; when a Greek Ionic order was eventually reintroduced in the later 18th century Greek Revival, it conveyed an air of archaic freshness and primitive, perhaps even republican, vitality.


title: Ionic order

text: The Ionic column is always more slender than the Doric; therefore, it always has a base: Ionic columns are eight and nine column-diameters tall, and even more in the Antebellum colonnades of late American Greek Revival plantation houses.


title: Ionic order

text: Ionic columns are most often fluted. After a little early experimentation, the number of hollow flutes in the shaft settled at 24. This standardization kept the fluting in a familiar proportion to the diameter of the column at any scale, even when the height of the column was exaggerated. Roman fluting leaves a little of the column surface between each hollow; Greek fluting runs out to a knife edge that was easily scarred.


title: Ionic order

text: In some instances, the fluting has been omitted. English architect Inigo Jones introduced a note of sobriety with plain Ionic columns on his Banqueting House, Whitehall, London, and when Beaux-Arts architect John Russell Pope wanted to convey the manly stamina combined with intellect of Theodore Roosevelt, he left colossal Ionic columns unfluted on the Roosevelt memorial at the American Museum of Natural History, New York City, for an unusual impression of strength and stature. Wabash Railroad architect R.E. Mohr included eight unfluted Ionic frontal columns on his 1928 design for the railroad's St. Louis suburban stop Delmar Station.


title: Ionic order

text: The entablature resting on the columns has three parts: a plain architrave divided into two, or more generally three, bands, with a frieze resting on it that may be richly sculptural, and a cornice built up with dentils (like the closely spaced ends of joists), with a corona ("crown") and cyma ("ogee") molding to support the projecting roof. Pictorial often narrative bas-relief frieze carving provides a characteristic feature of the Ionic order, in the area where the Doric order is articulated with triglyphs. Roman and Renaissance practice condensed the height of the entablature by reducing the proportions of the architrave, which made the frieze more prominent.


title: Ionic order

text: The Ionic anta capital is the Ionic version of the anta capital, the crowning portion of an anta, which is the front edge of a supporting wall in Greek temple architecture. The anta is generally crowned by a stone block designed to spread the load from superstructure (entablature) it supports, called an "anta capital" when it is structural, or sometimes "pilaster capital" if it is only decorative as often during the Roman period.


title: Ionic order

text: In order not to protrude unduly from the wall, these anta capitals usually display a rather flat surface, so that the capital has more or less a rectangular-shaped structure overall. The Ionic anta capital, in contrast to the regular column capitals, is highly decorated and generally includes bands of alternating lotuses and flame palmettes, and bands of eggs and darts and beads and reels patterns, in order to maintain continuity with the decorative frieze lining the top of the walls. This difference with the column capitals disappeared with Roman times when anta or pilaster capitals have designs very similar to those of the column capitals. The Ionic anta capitals as can be seen in the Ionic order temple of the Erechtheion (circa 410 BCE), are characteristically rectangular Ionic anta capitals, with extensive bands of floral patterns in prolongation of adjoining friezes.


title: Ionic order

text: The Ionic order originated in the mid-6th century BC in Ionia (broadly equivalent to modern day İzmir Province), as well as the southwestern coastland and islands of Asia Minor settled by Ionians, where Ionic Greek was spoken. The Ionic order column was being practiced in mainland Greece in the 5th century BC. It was most popular in the Archaic Period (750–480 BC) in Ionia. The first of the great Ionic temples was the Temple of Hera on Samos, built about 570–560 BC by the architect Rhoikos. It stood for only a decade before it was leveled by an earthquake. A longer-lasting 6th century Ionic temple was the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Parthenon, although it conforms mainly to the Doric order, also has some Ionic elements. A more purely Ionic mode to be seen on the Athenian Acropolis is exemplified in the Erechtheum.


title: Ionic order

text: Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far away as Patna, India, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC, and seemingly derived from the design of the Ionic anta capital, or the Sarnath capital, which has been described as "Perso-Ionic", or "quasi-Ionic".


title: Ionic order

text: Vitruvius, a practicing architect who worked in the time of Augustus, reports that the Doric column had its initial basis in the proportions of the male body, while Ionic columns took on a "slenderness" inspired by the female body. Though he does not name his source for such a self-conscious and "literary" approach, it must be in traditions passed on from Hellenistic architects, such as Hermogenes of Priene, the architect of a famed temple of Artemis at Magnesia on the Meander in Lydia (now Turkey).


title: Ionic order

text: Renaissance architectural theorists took his hints to interpret the Ionic order as matronly in comparison to the Doric order, though not as wholly feminine as the Corinthian order. The Ionic is a natural order for post-Renaissance libraries and courts of justice, learned and civilized. Because no treatises on classical architecture survive earlier than that of Vitruvius, identification of such "meaning" in architectural elements as it was understood in the 5th and 4th centuries BC remains tenuous, though during the Renaissance it became part of the conventional "speech" of classicism.


title: Ionic order

text: From the 17th century onwards, a much admired and copied version of Ionic was that which could be seen in the Temple of Fortuna Virilis in Rome, first clearly presented in a detailed engraving in Antoine Desgodetz, "Les edifices antiques de Rome" (Paris 1682).


title: Coin Master

text: Coin Master is a free, single-player, casual mobile game created by Israeli studio Moon Active. It has had over 100 million downloads (as of February 2021). "Coin Master" is the top-grossing mobile game in the UK (since February 2019) and Germany (since June 2019).


title: Coin Master

text: "Coin Master" can be found under the 'Adventure Game' category in the app stores, but uses gambling mechanics. In order to build their own game villages or attack the villages of other players, users must spin to win coins. The number of attempts is limited to seven per hour, but additional attempts and items can be purchased in spins. Also, free spins are gifted by Coin Master through links on their social channels and by subscribing to their email newsletter. There are also numerous websites and third-party applications that collect these links to make it easy for players to collect all the free gift rewards.


title: Coin Master

text: A fortune is acquired by spinning and winning, attacking another player's village, or raiding another player’s fortune. A maximum of five shields, as well as the pet Rhino, can be used to defend villages. When a player's village is attacked, the game also allows "revenge" so a player can launch a counterattack.


title: Coin Master

text: Players advance to the next village once theirs is built. The levels continuously get more challenging as the player progresses. As of December 2022, "Coin Master" has 472 levels.


title: Coin Master

text: Players continue to spin, win and build through close to 500 uniquely themed village adventures, such as LA dreams, Buddhist village, Hell's village, and so on. Other village themes include Magical Forest, Steampunk Land, and Coin Manor. Villages have five items, which can include characters, pets, homes, transportation, and items from nature. To complete a village the player needs coins. Every next village is more expensive than the one before.


title: Coin Master

text: The Queen's Throne card may be found on the Brazil Set's town number 167. This is an uncommon card that may be exchanged out for a Joker during gold trade events or won on Viking 10.


title: Coin Master

text: An extremely popular feature in the game is the ‘Card Collection’. Players make tremendous efforts to collect and trade cards in hopes of completing card sets, which are used to win sought-after rewards such as spins, pet experience, and more. Chests with collectible cards inside them can also be collected using coins.


title: Coin Master

text: Cards differ in value, and some of the rarest ones can be very difficult to find. The most precious cards can be shown off to the player's communities.


title: Coin Master

text: There are countless unofficial online social groups of fans from all over the world that are dedicated purely to card trading. Most of the groups can be found on Facebook.


title: Coin Master

text: The pig that is placed in all the events and promotion art of the game is the protagonist (tour guide) of "Coin Master".


title: Coin Master

text: "Foxy", "Tiger", and "Rhino" are the 3 pets that are designed to help players collect more coins each in their own unique way. Pets can be raised by obtaining treats for them and raising their XP (experience points) by using XP potions. Foxy gives the player extra coins for a raid up to 107% of player's raid value. Tiger gives the player extra coins for attacks. These extra coins can get up to 410% of the attack value. Rhino protects player's village from attacks. This pet protects up to 70% of the attacks on their village. Additionally, pets need to be kept awake with treats. For each treat they stay awake for 4 hours. They can stay awake for longer periods of time with multiple treats.


title: Coin Master

text: Players can gift each friend one Spin every 48 hours, and they can do the same for one. As long as the Spin bar is empty, they can collect up to 100 Spins every day. Gifting Spins to friends won’t decrease the players own inventory, but to collect 100 spins, one needs to have active 100 friends on Facebook.


title: Coin Master

text: Coins are being used to repair and build the players village in order to reach the next level. They can earn coins through rewards, raiding other villages, using the slot machine and through events.


title: Coin Master

text: Chests are items in the game that contain collectible cards. They come in three different tiers - Wooden, Golden, and Magical.


title: Coin Master

text: In chests, players will find different items such as cards, which they can collect. If they complete a card collection they will receive rewards. They can also trade these cards with friends. There are three different tiers of chests; wooden, golden, and magical.


title: Coin Master

text: Players can get these chests in different ways. During raids, they can dig them out, but they can also get them as a reward for finishing villages and reaching the next level. It is also possible to buy the chests in the shop of the game using coins.


title: Coin Master

text: VIP is a special status that gives extra benefits to players like extra spins, coins, exclusive events, a private Facebook group, and a permanent player ID. It was rumored that the VIP is given to players who spend a specific amount of money in the game depending on the country they play from but people have accused Moonactive of not being transparent enough with the process.


title: Coin Master

text: As of October 2019, "Coin Master" has grossed over in gross revenue. 85% of "Coin Master" net revenue comes from the US, the UK and Germany combined - over from the United States, a dramatic jump in the UK (since February 2019) resulting in , and Germany close behind with . "Coin Master" surpassed "Candy Crush Saga" as a top-grossing game and claimed first place on both the App Store and Google Play store in the United Kingdom and Ireland.


title: Coin Master

text: In his late night show on German public TV, Jan Böhmermann voiced his opinion that "Coin Master" is marketed to children and adolescents despite corresponding denials, among other things such as the child-friendly look of the game and advertising from popular influencers like Pietro Lombardi.


title: Coin Master

text: The company has investors from the tech industry, such as Gigi Levy-Weiss, the former CEO of the Gibraltar based online casino company 888 Holdings.


title: Coin Master

text: Jennifer Lopez, Khloé Kardashian, Kris Jenner, and Scott Disick have featured in advertisements for "Coin Master". Other celebrities who have participated in advertisements for the game are Ben Higgins, Chris Harrison, Rae Sremmurd, Terry Crews, Emily Ratajkowski, Cardi B, Joan Collins, David Schwimmer, Dieter Bohlen, the Spice Girls and Chayanne.


title: Coin Master

text: "Coin Master" was ranked in the "top 20 of the acclaimed Top 50 Developers/Top 50 Mobile Game Makers" list from PocketGamer.biz, published October 1, 2019. The game has also received countless mentions in industry publications regarding its continuous stance of 1st place in the weekly/monthly roundup lists of Top Grossing games on both the App Store and Google Play in 2019.


title: Coin Master

text: Coin Master has been used as part of "human verification" scams. As part of the scam, a malicious website prompts the user to "prove they are not a robot" by playing other games or installing applications, with the end goal of receiving in-game currencies.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Jairam Ramesh (born 9 April 1954) is an Indian politician belonging to Indian National Congress. He is a Member of Parliament representing Karnataka state in the Rajya Sabha. In July 2011, Jairam was elevated to the Union Council of Ministers of India and appointed Minister of Rural Development and Minister (additional charge) of the new Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation. However, in the cabinet reshuffle in October 2012, he has been divested of the portfolio of Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation. He was previously the Indian Minister of State (Independent Charge) at the Ministry of Environment and Forests from May 2009 to July 2011.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Jairam Ramesh was born on 9 April 1954 in Chikmagalur, Karnataka, India. His father was C. K. Ramesh, and his mother, Sridevi Ramesh. His father was a Professor of Civil Engineering in IIT Bombay. He considers himself a practising Hindu with Buddhism ingrained and calls himself a 'Hind-Budh'.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: He married K. R. Jayashree on 26 January 1981. He currently resides at Lodi Gardens, Rajesh Pilot Marg, New Delhi. Till his election to Rajya Sabha from Karnataka in July 2016, his permanent residence was at Khairatabad, Hyderabad, Telangana. His wife died in early 2019.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Since childhood, Jairam has been strongly influenced by Jawaharlal Nehru. He was fascinated by Nehru's modern approach to life, his bringing change in a traditional society and his liberal, humanist, rational approach to life, religion, men and civic matters. He considers himself a product of the Nehruvian era in many ways. An additional influence was Mahatma Gandhi, whom he originally saw as anti-modern, anti-science and anti-West. As he grew older and read Gandhi more and viewed him in the political and historical context in which he operated, he came to appreciate and acknowledge Gandhi much more. He has also studied Rabindranath Tagore deeply.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Jairam attended St. Xavier's School, Ranchi in 1961–1963 in classes 3 to 5. He read Paul Samuelson (an American economist who won the Nobel Prize in 1970) and found him very interesting. His presentation, the substance of issues such as population and growth got him thinking of economics and the larger issues of life. Also when he was 17, in 1971, he read "Asian Drama", one of the early books of Gunnar Myrdal (a Swedish economist who won the Nobel Prize in 1974) and wrote to him at the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Myrdal sent a very nice reply and said to stay in touch with him. "Asian Drama" was very influential to Jairam's understanding of development planning in India.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Jairam graduated from IIT Bombay in 1975 with a B.Tech. in Mechanical Engineering. Between 1975–77 he studied at Carnegie Mellon University's Heinz College and received a Master of Science in Public Policy and Public Management. In 1977–78, he started on the Doctoral program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he had planned to study technology policy, economics, engineering, and management, as part of the newly established interdisciplinary technology policy programme. Family exigencies required him to return to India and that program remained incomplete.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: He is a member of the International Council of the New York-based Asia Society. Jairam has been a Visiting Fellow and Affiliated Researcher of the Institute of Chinese Studies, New Delhi, since 2002.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: In 1978, Jairam joined the World Bank for a short assignment. He returned to India in December 1979 and worked as assistant to economist Lovraj Kumar at the Bureau of Industrial Costs and Prices. From 1983 to 1985 he was Officer on Special Duty in the Advisory Board of Energy. He then worked in the Planning Commission (advisor to Abid Hussain), Ministry of Industry and other economic departments of the Central Government, including: analysing energy policy during 1983–85, reorganising the CSIR in 1986 and implementing technology missions during 1987–89.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: In 1990, he worked as an "Officer on Special Duty" during the National Front administration of the V.P. Singh government. He reorganised India's international trade agencies in 1990 and was OSD to the Prime Minister in 1991. But he was removed from PMO within few weeks. In 1991 he worked in Manmohan Singh's finance ministry in the Narasimha Rao administration.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Jairam participated in India's economic reforms in 1991 and 1997. He was advisor to the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission in 1992–94, served on special mission to Jammu and Kashmir during 1993–95 and was advisor to Finance Minister Palaniappan Chidambaram between 1996–98. The central government invited him to join the official delegation to the World Trade Organization meeting in Seattle in 1999.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: From 2000–2002, Jairam served as Deputy chairman, State Planning Board, Government of Karnataka and on the Economic Advisory Council of Andhra Pradesh. He also served on the eminent persons group of the Union Ministry of Power and other key government committees.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Jairam also served as Secretary in the All India Congress Committee, Deputy Chairman of the Karnataka Planning Board (2000–2002), member of the Rajasthan Development Council (1999–2003), and Economic Advisor to the government of the state of Chhattisgarh (2001–03). He was a member of the Congress Party's electoral strategy team for the 2004 Lok Sabha cycle.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: In June 2004, he was elected to represent Adilabad District, Andhra Pradesh in the Rajya Sabha. Following the formation of the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government in 2004, he joined the National Advisory Council, where he helped put together UPA's National Common Minimum Program. From August 2004 – January 2006 he was a member of three committees of Parliament: the Public Accounts Committee, the Standing Committee on Finance and the Committee on Government Assurances and was a member of the Court of the Jawaharlal Nehru University.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: In February 2009, with the 15th Lok Sabha elections approaching, he led the party's Poll Strategy Panel. At that time he resigned his posts as Minister of State for Power and Minister of State for Commerce and Industry.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Following his 2009 re-election to the Indian Parliament, on 28 May 2009 Jairam was given independent charge of Environment and Forests as Minister of State in the Congress-led administration. He was chief negotiator for India at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Copenhagen, Denmark, between 7 and 18 December 2009.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Jairam was part of the 19-member 'Foundation Day Committee' of the All India Congress Committee (AICC), under the chairmanship of party president Sonia Gandhi, for planning the 2010 year-long celebrations of the 125th anniversary of the Congress Party.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: On 12 July 2011, Jairam was promoted to Cabinet Minister and reassigned to charge of the Ministry for Rural Development and on 13 July 2011 was named Minister (Additional Charge) of the new Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: He was instrumental, as minister for environments and forests in 2011, in banning the use of bulls as performing animals. This then led to the ban of Jallikattu in Tamil Nadu in 2016.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: During his tenure, he falsely accused the villagers of Pithampur in Madhya Pradesh to secretly smuggle out toxic waste from Carbide factory and dump it. Later he had to apologise and also assured that he would not repeat such action and will take villagers in consultation.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Currently, Jairam has been appointed a member of a board which provides strategic policy advice to a key UN agency on environmentally-sound technologies for developing nations.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Jairam has accepted the offer to serve as a member of the International Advisory Board (IAB) which gives strategic policy advice to the Executive Director of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) on the programmatic direction of International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC).


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: On 19 December 2020, Jairam tendered apology to Vivek Doval and his family in regard to defamation case filed by latter, after Jairam accused Vivek Doval of dealing with black money syndicate as per an article published in The Caravan under the title of "The D Companies". Jairam was out on bail issued in May 2019 by Delhi High Court.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: On 16 June 2022, Jairam was appointed head of Media, including social & Digital media of Indian National Congress Party.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Jairam Ramesh became a Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha from Indian National Congress Party nomination.


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: Jairam's been a columnist for the "Business Standard", "Business Today", "The Telegraph", "Times of India" and "India Today", sometimes under the pen-name "Kautilya".


title: Jairam Ramesh

text: He has also anchored a number of popular television programmes on business and the economy, including "Business Breakfast" and "Crossfire".


title: Greek colonisation

text: Greek colonization was an organised colonial expansion by the Archaic Greeks into the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea in the period of the 8th–6th centuries BC (750 and 550 BC).


title: Greek colonisation

text: This colonization differed from the migrations of the Greek Dark Ages in that it consisted of organised direction (see Oikistes) by the originating metropolis instead of the simple movement of tribes which characterized the earlier migrations. Many colonies () that were founded in this period evolved into strong city-states and became independent of their metropolis.


title: Greek colonisation

text: Reasons for colonization had to do with the demographic explosion of this period, the development of the emporium, the need for a secure supply of raw materials, but also with the emerging politics of the period that drove sections of the population into exile. Population growth created a scarcity of farmland and a restriction of the ability of smallholders to farm it, which was similar in every city-state. In places with surplus population, this led to a demand for additional living space. The location of each colonial establishment was dictated by the supply of unexploited resources that would provide the metropolis, as well as the finished goods it would produce. The development of the emporium was among the more important motivations for the founding of a colony. The colonies created new markets, supplied the metropolis with significant raw materials and constituted important way stations on the long-distance trade journeys of the era. Finally, the troubled political situation in many cities, along with the establishment of tyrannical government, drove the political opposition into exile and into a search for new places of residence.


title: Greek colonisation

text: The founding of the colonies was consistently an organised enterprise. The launch was organized by the metropolis, although in many cases they collaborated with other cities. The place to be colonized was selected in advance with the goal of offering business advantages, but also security from raiders. In order to create a feeling of security and confidence in relation to the new colony, the choice of place was decided according to its usefulness. The mission always included a leader nominated by the colonists. In the new cities, the colonists parceled out the land, including farms. The system of governance usually took a form reminiscent of that which prevailed in the metropolis.


title: Greek colonisation

text: The first founders of colonies were the Euboeans, who founded colonies at the beginning of the 8th century B.C. in Southern Italy and Chalcidice. The two most powerful states on Euboea, Chalcis and Eretria founded numerous colonies in Chalcidice, the most important of which was Olynthus, and they were the first to found colonies in Southern Italy. The first colony that they founded there was Pithecusae on the Isle of Ischia. Subsequently, they founded the colonies of Cumae, Zancle, Rhegium and Naxos.


title: Greek colonisation

text: At the end of the 8th century, Euboea fell into decline with the outbreak of the Lelantine War and the baton of colonial foundation was passed to other Greek cities. In the 7th century, many colonies were founded in Ionia, Southern Italy, Thrace and on the Black Sea. Other Greek colonies were founded on the coast of Gaul, on the Cyrenaica peninsula in Africa and also in Egypt. In this burst of colonial expansion cities such as Corinth, Miletus, Megara and Phocaea took the lead.


title: Greek colonisation

text: Numerous colonies were founded in Northern Greece, chiefly in the region of Chalcidice but also in the region of Thrace.


title: Greek colonisation

text: Chalcidice was settled by Euboeans, chiefly from Chalcis, who lent their name to these colonies. The most important settlements of the Euboeans in Chalcidice were Olynthos (which colony was settled in collaboration with the Athenians), Torone, Mende, Sermyle, Aphytis and Cleonae in the peninsula of Athos. Other important colonies in Chalcidice were Acanthus, a colony which was founded by colonists from Andros and Potidaea, a colony of Corinth. Thasians with the help of the Athenian Callistratus of Aphidnae founded the city of Datus.


title: Greek colonisation

text: During the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians with the Hagnon, son of Nikias founded the city of Ennea Hodoi (Ἐννέα ὁδοὶ), meaning nine roads, at the place were now is the 'Hill 133' north of Amphipolis in Serres.


title: Greek colonisation

text: Numerous other colonies were founded in the region of Thrace by the Ionians from the coast of Asia Minor. Important colonies were Maroneia, and Abdera. The Milesians also founded Abydos and Cardia on the Hellespont and Rhaedestus in Propontis. The Samians colonised the island of Samothrace, becoming the source of its name. Finally, the Parians colonized Thasos under the leadership of the oecist and father of the poet Archilochus, Telesicles.


title: Greek colonisation

text: In 340 BCE, while Alexander the Great was regent of Macedon, he founded the city of Alexandropolis Maedica after defeating a local Thracian tribe.


title: Greek colonisation

text: The region of the Ionian Sea and that of Illyria were colonized strictly by Corinth. The Corinthians founded important overseas colonies on the sea lanes to Southern Italy and the west which succeeded in making them the foremost emporia of the western side of the Mediterranean. Important colonies of Corinth included Leucada, Astacus, Anactoreum, Actium, Ambracia, and Corcyra. The Corinthians also founded important colonies in Illyria, which evolved into important cities, Apollonia and Epidamnus. The fact that about the 6th century BC the citizens of Epidamnus constructed a Doric-style treasury at Olympia confirms that the city was among the richest of the Ancient Greek world. An ancient account describes Epidamnos as ‘a great power and very populated’ city. Nymphaeum was another Greek colony in Illyria. The Abantes of Euboea founded the city of Thronion at the Illyria.


title: Greek colonisation

text: In 1877, archaeologists discovered in Lumbarda on the island of Korčula, in modern-day Croatia, a Greek inscription which writes about the founding of an Ancient Greek settlement on the island. The artifact is known as Lumbarda Psephisma.


title: Greek colonisation

text: The first to colonize Southern Italy were the Euboeans, who with the move to Pithecusae (on the isle of Ischia), founded a series of cities in that region. The second city that they founded was Cumae, nearly opposite Ischia. The colonists from Cumae founded Zancle in on Sicily, and nearby on the opposite coast, Rhegium. Further, the Euboeans founded Naxos, which became the base for the founding of the cities of Leontini, Tauromenion and Catania. In this effort they were accompanied by small numbers of Dorians and Ionians; the Athenians had notably refused to take part in the colonization.


title: Greek colonisation

text: The strongest of the Sicilian colonies was Syracuse, an 8th-century B.C. colony of the Corinthians. Colonists of that same period from Achaea founded the cities of Sybaris and Croton in the Gulf of Taranto but also in the Metapontum in the same district. In the same area, refugees from Sparta founded Taranto which evolved into one of the most powerful cities in the area. Other Greek states that founded cities in Southern Italy were Megara, which founded Megara Hyblaea, and Selinous; Phocaea, which founded Elea; Rhodes, which founded Gela together with the Cretans and Lipari together with Cnidus, even as the Locrians founded Epizephyrean Locris. According to legend, Lagaria which was between Thurii and the river Sinni River was founded by Phocians.


title: Greek colonisation

text: Many cities in the region became in turn metropolis for new colonies such as the Syracusans, who founded the city of Camarina in the south of Sicily; or the Zancleans, who led the founding of the colony of Himera. Likewise Naxos, which we see taking further part in the founding of many colonies while the city of Sybaris founded the colony of Poseidonia to its north. The city of Gela which was a colony of Rhodes and Crete founded its own colony, Acragas.


title: Greek colonisation

text: The areas of settlement in Southern Italy became so thoroughly Hellenised that Roman writers such as Ovid and Polybius referred to the region as "Magna Graecia" ("Great Greece"). To this day, some of the Griko people in Southern Italy still speak Griko and Calabrian Greek, Doric Greek-influenced dialects with a substantial Latin adstrate, and worship in the Greek Byzantine Catholic Church instead of the Latin rite more usual among other Italians. In Modern Greek, Southern Italy is referred to as "Kato Italia" (lit. "Lower Italy") and the relict Greek dialects there as "Katoitalika".


title: Greek colonisation

text: The Greeks had at one point called the Black Sea shore "inhospitable". According to ancient sources, they eventually created 70 to 90 colonies. The colonization of the Black Sea was led by the Megarans and some of the Ionian cities such as Miletus, Phocaea and Teos. The majority of colonies in the region of the Black Sea and Propontis were founded in the 7th century B.C. In the area of Propontis, the Megarans founded the cities of Astacus in Bithynia, Chalcedonia and Byzantium in which they occupied a privileged position. Miletus founded Cyzicus and the Phocaeans Lampsacus.


title: Greek colonisation

text: On the western shore of the Black Sea region the Megarans founded the cities of Selymbria and a little later, Nesebar. A little farther north in the region of today's Romania the Milesians founded the cities of Istria and Orgame. And Miletus also founded a city on the western shore of the Black Sea, Apollonia. In the south of the Black Sea the most important colony was Sinope which according to prevailing opinion was founded by Miletus. The precise chronology of its foundation is not known at present but it appears that it was founded some time around the middle of the 7th century B.C. Sinope was founded with a series of other colonies in the Pontic region: Trebizond, Cerasus, Cytorus, Cotyora, Cromne, Pteria, Tium, et al. The most important colony founded on the southern shore of the Black Sea was likewise a Megaran foundation: Heraclea Pontica, which was founded in the 6th century B.C.


title: Greek colonisation

text: On the north shore of the Black Sea Miletus was the first to start. The colonies of Miletus in this region of the Black Sea were Pontic Olbia and Panticapaeum (modern Kerch.) Later in the 6th century B.C. the Milesians founded Odessa in the region of modern Ukraine. Further north from the Danube delta the Greeks colonized an islet, modern Berezan (probably then a peninsula). That location is found at the confluence of the Bug estuary (the River Hypanis to the Ancient Greeks) and the Dnieper (the Barysthenes to the Ancient Greeks) The islet or peninsula itself was called by the ancients "Barythmenis"; across from this, they found the site that would be settled later as Olbia. Next to Olbia was another Greek colony which had Istria as its mother city.


title: Greek colonisation

text: On the Crimean peninsula (the Greeks then called it Tauric Chersonese or "Peninsula of the Bulls") they founded likewise the cities of Sympheropolis, and Nymphaeum and Hermonassa. On the Sea of Azov (Lake Maiotis to the ancients) they founded Tanais (in Rostov), Tyritace, Myrmeceum, Cecrine and Phanagoria—the last being a colony of the Teians. In 2018, archaeologists discovered a previously unknown ancient Greek settlement of the 4th-3rd centuries BC near the town of Baherove in Crimea. According to the researchers, the settlement was called Manitra.


title: Greek colonisation

text: On the eastern shore, which was known in ancient times as Colchis and in which today for the greater part is in Georgia and the autonomous region of Abkhazia, the Greeks founded the cities of Phasis and Dioscouris. The latter was called "Sebastopolis" by the Romans and Byzantines and is known today as Sukhumi—the ruins of the ancient and Byzantine foundations are now found principally below the waterline.


title: Greek colonisation

text: The Greek colonies expanded as far as the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. In North Africa, on the peninsula of Kyrenaika, colonists from Thera founded Kyrene, which evolved into a very powerful city in the region. Other colonies in Kyrenaika later included Barca, Euesperides (modern Benghazi), Taucheira, and Apollonia.


title: Greek colonisation

text: On the north side of the Mediterranean the Phokaians founded Massalia on the coast of Gaul. Massalia became the base for a series of further foundations farther away in the region of Spain. Phokaia also founded Alalia in Corsica and Olbia in Sardinia. The Phokaians arrived next on the coast of the Iberian peninsula. As related by Herodotos, a local king summoned the Phokaians to found a colony in the region and rendered meaningful aid in the fortification of the city. The Phokaians founded Empuries in this region and later the even more distant Hemeroskopeion.


title: Greek colonisation

text: By the middle of the 7th century the lone Greek colony in Egypt had been founded, Naukratis. The pharaoh Psammitecus I gave a trade concession to Milesian merchants for one establishment on the banks of the Nile, founding a trading post which evolved into a prosperous city by the time of the Persian expedition to Egypt in 525 B.C.


title: Greek colonisation

text: Similar to the emporion established in the Nile Delta it is possible there was a Greek trading colony established by the Euboians along the Syrian coast on the mouth of the Orontes river at the site Al-Mina in the early 8th century BC. The Greek colony of Posideion on the promontory Ras al-Bassit was colonised just to the south of the Orontes estuary later in the 7th century BC.


title: Greek colonisation

text: Modern Georgia/ Abkhazia * Abkhazia is recognised only by Russia and a small number of other countries.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The Cornerstone Speech, also known as the Cornerstone Address, was an oration given by Alexander H. Stephens, Vice President of the Confederate States of America, at the Athenaeum in Savannah, Georgia, on March 21, 1861. The improvised speech, delivered a few weeks before the Civil War began, defended slavery as a fundamental and just result of the supposed inferiority of the black race, explained the fundamental differences between the constitutions of the Confederate States and that of the United States, enumerated contrasts between Union and Confederate ideologies, and laid out the Confederacy's rationale for seceding.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The Cornerstone Speech is so called because Stephens used the word "cornerstone" to describe the "great truth" of white supremacy and black subordination upon which secession and the Confederacy were based:


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: "Our new government['s]...foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests upon the great truth, that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery—subordination to the superior race—is his natural and normal condition. This, our new government, is the first, in the history of the world, based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: Later in the speech, Stephens used biblical imagery (Psalm 118, v.22) in arguing that divine laws consigned African Americans to slavery as the "substratum of our society":


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: Our confederacy is founded upon principles in strict conformity with these laws. This stone which was rejected by the first builders 'is become the chief of the corner'—the real 'corner-stone'—in our new edifice.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The speech was given weeks after the secession of South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and then Texas and less than three weeks after the inauguration of Abraham Lincoln as the 16th President of the United States. The war itself would not begin until the U.S. base of Fort Sumter was attacked by the Confederates in mid-April, so open, large-scale hostilities between the two sides had not yet begun. However, there had been isolated incidents, such as the attack on the U.S. steamship "Star of the West", carrying supplies for Fort Sumter. Referring to the general lack of violence, Stephens stated that the secession had to that point been accomplished without "the loss of a single drop of blood".


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: Stephens's speech declared that disagreements over the enslavement of African Americans were the "immediate cause" of secession and that the Confederate constitution had resolved such issues, saying:


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The new Constitution has put at rest forever all the agitating questions relating to our peculiar institution—African slavery as it exists among us—the proper status of the negro in our form of civilization. This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution. Jefferson, in his forecast, had anticipated this, as the "rock upon which the old Union would split." He was right. What was conjecture with him, is now a realized fact. But whether he fully comprehended the great truth upon which that rock stood and stands, may be doubted. The prevailing ideas entertained by him and most of the leading statesmen at the time of the formation of the old Constitution were, that the enslavement of the African was in violation of the laws of nature; that it was wrong in principle, socially, morally and politically. It was an evil they knew not well how to deal with; but the general opinion of the men of that day was, that, somehow or other, in the order of Providence, the institution would be evanescent and pass away. [...] Those ideas, however, were fundamentally wrong. They rested upon the assumption of the equality of races. This was an error. It was a sandy foundation, and the idea of a Government built upon it—when the "storm came and the wind blew, it fell."


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: Stephens contended that advances and progress in the sciences proved that the United States Declaration of Independence's view that "all men are created equal" was erroneous and that all men were not created equal. He stated that advances in science proved that enslavement of African Americans by white men was justified and that it coincided with the Bible's teachings. He also stated that the Confederacy was the first country in the world founded on the principle of white supremacy:


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: Our new government is founded upon exactly the opposite ideas; its foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery, subordination to the superior race, is his natural and normal condition. This, our new government, is the first, in the history of the world, based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth. This truth has been slow in the process of its development, like all other truths in the various departments of science.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: Stephens stated that the Confederacy's belief in human inequality was adhering to the "laws of nature":


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: May we not therefore look with confidence to the ultimate universal acknowledgement of the truths upon which our system rests? It is the first government ever instituted upon the principles in strict conformity to nature, and the ordination of Providence, in furnishing the materials of human society. Many governments have been founded upon the principle of the subordination and serfdom of certain classes of the same race; such were and are in violation of the laws of nature. Our system commits no such violation of nature's laws.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The phrases "laws of nature" and "all men are created equal" from the U.S. Declaration of Independence had formed part of the basis of Lincoln's assertion that he was defending the principles of the Founding Fathers by being opposed to slavery. Democrats such as John C. Calhoun and Stephen A. Douglas had differing views on what the latter phrase meant. Calhoun had contended that the idea was peculiar to Thomas Jefferson and not a universal principle, whereas Douglas maintained that it referred to white men only. In this context, Stephens' assertion has been read as validating Lincoln's interpretation of the U.S. Founding Fathers' principles, but countering with an assertion of "racial inequality".


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: After the Confederacy's defeat at the hands of the U.S. in the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, Stephens attempted to retroactively deny and retract the opinions he had made in the speech. Denying his earlier statements that slavery was the Confederacy's cause for leaving the Union, he contended to the contrary that he thought that the war was rooted in constitutional differences as detailed below.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: In the speech, Stephens also outlined how the Confederate constitution eliminated the tariff and prohibited the central government from spending on internal improvements. The reasoning was on a states' rights argument, with the Georgia Railroad as a first example:


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The cost of the grading, the superstructure, and the equipment of our roads was borne by those who had entered into the enterprise. Nay, more not only the cost of the iron—no small item in the aggregate cost—was borne in the same way, but we were compelled to pay into the common treasury several millions of dollars for the privilege of importing the iron, after the price was paid for it abroad. What justice was there in taking this money, which our people paid into the common treasury on the importation of our iron, and applying it to the improvement of rivers and harbors elsewhere?


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: If Charleston Harbor needs improvement, let the commerce of Charleston bear the burden. If the mouth of the Savannah river has to be cleared out, let the sea-going navigation which is benefited by it, bear the burden.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: Stephens noted that the new country would have a clear delineation between federal and state responsibilities and took the position similar to that of South Carolina during the nullification crisis, namely that the federal government should not pay for internal improvements.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The first change was apparently very important to Stephens and he would have made the constitution even closer to that of the United Kingdom's, but he felt it was still an improvement over the U.S. Constitution, saying that "cabinet ministers and heads of departments may have the privilege of seats upon the floor of the Senate and House of Representatives and may have the right to participate in the debates and discussions upon the various subjects of administration".


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: As an example, in the U.S. Constitution the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury had no chance to explain his budget or to be held accountable except by the press.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The President was to serve a single six-year term in the hope that it would "remove from the incumbent all temptation to use his office or exert the powers confided to him for any objects of personal ambition".


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The seven states that seceded, Stephens thought, were sufficient to form a successful republic, with a population of five million (including blacks) and a land area larger than that of France, Spain, Portugal and the United Kingdom combined. The seven states contained taxable property of $2,200,000,000 and debts of only $18,000,000 whereas the remaining United States had a debt of $174,000,000.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The Confederate constitution allowed new states to join easily. Stephens said that surely North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas would be members in the near future and that Virginia, Kentucky and Missouri would eventually join.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: Stephens expected the swift evacuation of Fort Sumter, a U.S. Army stronghold in South Carolina, but what "course will be pursued toward Fort Pickens, and the other [U.S.] forts on the gulf, is not so well understood". Since the Confederacy up to that point had been born bloodless, Stephens stated that he had wanted that to continue and to make peace "not only with the North, but with the world". Even so, he surmised that the U.S. would not follow a peaceful course and accused the Republicans of being hypocritical in being opposed to slavery but at the same time refusing to acquiesce slave states seceding from the U.S.:


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The principles and position of the present Administration of the United States—the Republican Party—present some puzzling questions. While it is a fixed principle with them, never to allow the increase of a foot of Slave Territory, they seem to be equally determined not to part with an inch "of the accursed soil." Notwithstanding their clamor against the institution, they seemed to be equally opposed to getting more, or letting go what they have got. They were ready to fight on the accession of Texas, and are equally ready to fight now on her secession. Why is this? How can this strange paradox be accounted for? There seems to be but one rational solution—and that is, notwithstanding their professions of humanity, they are disinclined to give up the benefits they derive from slave labor. Their philanthropy yields to their interest. The idea of enforcing the laws, has but one object, and that is a collection of the taxes, raised by slave labor to swell the fund necessary to meet their heavy appropriations. The spoils is what they are after—though they come from the labor of the slave.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: Finally, Stephens predicted that the nascent Confederate regime would succeed or fail based on the character of its constituent body politic.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: When war broke out and the Confederacy refused to release captured black U.S. soldiers in exchange for imprisoned Confederates in U.S. custody, Union official Benjamin Butler alluded to all this, telling the Confederates that "your fabric of opposition to the Government of the United States has the right of property in man as its corner-stone". Abolitionist Frederick Douglass, in an 1863 speech in Pennsylvania encouraging black men to fight for the U.S. cause, also alluded to the speech, stating that: "Stephens has stated, with the utmost clearness and precision, the difference between the fundamental ideas of the Confederate Government and those of the Federal Government. One is based on the idea that colored men are an inferior race who may be enslaved and plundered forever and to the hearts content of any men of different complexion..."


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: Historian Harry V. Jaffa discusses the speech at length in his 2000 book "A New Birth of Freedom". He concludes that "this remarkable address conveys, more than any other contemporary document, not only the soul of the Confederacy but also of that Jim Crow South that arose from the ashes of the Confederacy". Jaffa equated the racism of Stephens and the Confederacy to that of Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany, stating the two were not that different in principle:


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: The speech was given extemporaneously and thus transcripts of it were published based on notes, approved by Stephens, written by reporters who were in attendance. After the war, Stephens attempted to retroactively downplay the importance of slavery as the cause of Confederacy's secession. In a 1865 diary entry, he accused reporters of having misquoted him and that constitutional issues were more important. He further expounded on this allegation in his 1868 book "A Constitutional View of the Late War between the States". According to one scholar, the "misquotations" alleged by Stephens after the war are so numerous as to be highly unlikely.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: There is a misconception that Jefferson Davis, the leader of the Confederacy, was outraged by Stephens's admission that slavery was the reason behind the slave states' secession, for Davis himself was attempting to garner foreign support for the nascent regime from countries that were not very accepting of slavery. However, there is no evidence that this actually happened. Stephens, Davis, and Davis's wife Varina did not discuss any such disagreement in their respective autobiographies, nor did Stephens's official biographers. The first mention of Davis's supposed reaction was in a 1959 biography of Davis by Hudson Strode, who appears to have presented his own conjecture as fact.


title: Cornerstone Speech

text: Stephens kept a diary while imprisoned, in which he referred to the speech as "extemporaneous". He wrote that the notes of the reporter who recorded the speech were "very imperfect" and "hastily corrected" by himself, and that his speech was published "without further revision and with several glaring errors". This was a private diary which Stephens never expected to be published.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: During the 20th century, there were various alleged instances of soap being made from human body fat. During World War I the British press claimed that the Germans operated a corpse factory in which they made glycerine and soap from the bodies of their own soldiers. Both during and after World War II, widely circulated rumors claimed that soap was being mass-produced from the bodies of the victims of Nazi concentration camps which were located in German-occupied Poland. During the Nuremberg trials items were presented as evidence of such production. The Yad Vashem Memorial has stated that the Nazis did not produce soap with fat which was extracted from Jewish corpses on an industrial scale, saying that the Nazis may have frightened camp inmates by deliberately circulating rumors in which they claimed that they were able to extract fat from human corpses, turn it into soap, mass-produce and distribute it.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: In 1780, the former Holy Innocents' Cemetery in Paris was closed because of overuse. In 1786, the bodies were exhumed and the bones were moved to the Catacombs. Many bodies had incompletely decomposed and had reduced into deposits of fat. During the exhumation, this fat was collected and subsequently turned into candles and soap.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: The claim that Germans used the fat from human corpses to make products, including soap, was made during World War I. This allegation appears to have originated as a rumor which was spread by the British and Belgian media. The first recorded reference was made in 1915 when Cynthia Asquith noted in her diary (16 June 1915): "We discussed the rumour that the Germans utilise even their corpses by converting them into glycerine with the by-product of soap." It became a major international story when "The Times" of London reported in April 1917 that the Germans had admitted rendering the bodies of their dead soldiers for fat to make soap and other products.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: After the war John Charteris, the former head of army intelligence, was reported to have claimed in a 1925 speech that he had invented the story. He subsequently insisted that his remarks had been misreported. The controversy led the British Foreign Secretary Sir Austen Chamberlain to officially state that the government accepted that the "corpse factory" story was untrue. The belief that the British had deliberately invented the story was later used by the Nazis.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Rumors which alleged that the Nazis produced soap from the bodies of concentration camp inmates were widely circulated during the war. Germany suffered from a shortage of fats during World War II, and the production of soap was put under government control. The "human soap" rumours may have originated because bars of soap were marked with the Fraktur initials (RIF), which some believed stood for "'" ("pure Jewish fat"); in German Blackletter font, I and J are only different in length ( vs. ). However, in fact, stood for ' ("National Center for Industrial Fat Provisioning", the German government agency which was responsible for the wartime production and distribution of soap and washing products). soap was a poor quality substitute for soap and did not contain any fat, human or otherwise.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Rumors about the origin of soap and the meaning of the labeling were also spread in the concentration camps. In his book "Solitary in the Overwhelming Turbulence: Five Years as a Prisoner-of-War in East Prussia", Naphtali Karchmer describes his years in captivity as a Jewish-Polish POW. He writes about gray, rectangular, low-quality pieces of soap which he and other POWs received with the letters " " inscribed on a center depression. These were only claimed to be made of """" ("pure Jewish fat") when prisoners complained about the low-foam, smooth soap. A version of the story is included in "The Complete Black Book of Russian Jewry", one of the earliest collections of firsthand accounts of the Holocaust, assembled by Soviet writers Ilya Ehrenburg and Vasily Grossman. The specific story is part of a report which is titled "The Extermination of the Jews of Lvov" attributed to I. Herts and Naftali Nakht:


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Raul Hilberg reports that such stories were circulated in Lublin as early as October 1942. The Germans were aware that the stories were being circulated, because SS-chief Heinrich Himmler received a letter which described the Poles' belief that Jews were being "boiled into soap", an indication that the Poles feared that they would suffer a similar fate. Because the rumors were circulated so widely, some segments of the Polish population boycotted the purchase of soap.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Historian Joachim Neander, in a German paper which he presented at the 28th conference of the German Studies Association in Washington D.C., cites the following comment, which is contained in a letter Himmler wrote to the head of the Gestapo, Heinrich Müller; the letter is dated 20 November 1942. Himmler wrote the letter to Müller in response to an exposé by Stephen Wise that mentioned the soap rumor, and was printed in "The New York Times":


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Müller was instructed to make inquiries if "abuse" had happened somewhere, and he was also instructed to report the results of his inquiries to Himmler "on an SS oath". Neander goes on to state that the letter represents circumstantial evidence which indicates that it was Nazi policy to abstain from processing corpses due to their known desire to keep their mass murder as secret as possible.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: While the soap-making rumor was widely circulated and published as fact in numerous books and newspaper articles after the war, the myth has been debunked for many decades. Historians such as Deborah Lipstadt have frequently stated: "It is a fact that the Nazis never used the bodies of Jews, or for that matter anyone else, for the production of soap […]. The soap rumor was thoroughly investigated after the war and proved to be untrue." Despite this fact, many "believers" of the myth persist, and Joachim Neander believes that they are unwittingly playing into the hands of Holocaust deniers by giving them a chance to easily debunk the legend, allowing them to cast doubt upon the veracity of the entire Holocaust as such.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Soap-making rumors were underlying a cycle of Holocaust jokes of the time: "Moishe, why are you using soap with so much fragrance?" - "When they turn me into soap, at least I will smell good" or "Don't eat much: the Germans will have less soap!"


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: During the Nuremberg Trials, Sigmund Mazur, a laboratory assistant at the Danzig Anatomical Institute, testified that soap had been made from corpse fat at the institute, and he also claimed that 70 to 80 kg (155–175 lb) of fat which was collected from 40 bodies could produce more than of soap, and the finished soap was retained by Professor Rudolf Spanner. Two British POWs who had to perform auxiliary tasks at the Institute provided witness-accounts.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: In his book "Russia at War, 1941–1945", Alexander Werth claims that while visiting /Danzig in 1945 shortly after its conquest by the Red Army, he saw an experimental factory outside the city for making soap from human corpses. According to Werth, it had been run by "a German professor called Spanner" and it "was a nightmarish sight, with its vats full of human heads and torsos pickled in some liquid, and its pails full of a flakey substance—human soap".


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Historian Joachim Neander states that the rumors which allege that the Nazis produced soap from the bodies of Jews who they murdered in their concentration camps, long-since thoroughly debunked, are still widely believed, and they are exploited by Holocaust deniers. However, he goes on to say that even scholars who reject the aforementioned claim that the Germans made soap from human fat and mass-produced it are sometimes still convinced that the Germans attempted "experimental" soap production on a smaller scale in Danzig and this claim is still repeated as if it is a firm fact in several remembrance contexts. He, and the Polish historian Monika Tomkiewicz, who works in the investigative department of the Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) in Gdańsk, and Piotr Semków, formerly also an employee of the IPN, later a lecturer at the Naval Academy in Gdynia, have thoroughly investigated Spanner's claims which surround the Danzig Anatomical Institute and all of them have concluded that the Holocaust-related soap-making claims which surround it are myths, particularly cemented into Polish consciousness by Zofia Nałkowska's 1946 book "Medaliony", which was mandatory reading in Poland until 1990, was widely distributed in the Eastern Bloc, and it is still popular today. They all alleged that such secondary sources have played a far greater role in spreading information about the claim than scholarly research has.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: According to both Neander, and Tomkiewicz and Semków, "soap", made from human cadavers, came into existence at the Danzig institute, it was not related to the alleged Holocaust-related crimes of "harvesting" Jews or Poles for soap-making purposes, because the connection between "the Holocaust" on one side and the "Danzig soap" on the other side only exists by way of the confirmed false rumors of "concentration camp soap" which were circulated during the war. The idea that the Danzig Anatomical Institute, and Dr. Spanners work therein, was related to the Holocaust originally stemmed from the findings of bodies and bone maceration processes in the creation of anatomical models in a small brick building on the premise of the anatomical institute. This, and the soapy grease which was created for the purpose of injecting it into the models' flexible joints, was used by the Soviets and the newly established Polish Chief Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation as proof of human soap production in Nazi concentration camps. The latter claims had been presented as fact and they had also become a stock phrase in Soviet propaganda, but no evidence of it could be found in the liberated camps. The "human soap" which was made from the bone maceration which was found in Danzig was conflated with the separate rumors regarding the Nazi concentration camps and they were presented together during the Nuremberg trials.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Semków states that the presence of human fat tissue has been confirmed in the samples of soapy grease from Danzig which were presented at the trials (which was claimed to be "unfinished soap") through analysis which was performed by the IPN and Gdańsk University of Technology in 2011 and 2006 respectively, but his and Tomkiewicz research concluded that this was a by-product stemming from Spanner's work in bone maceration. Spanner, a well-respected physician who was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1939, would also not have been "experimenting" with soap production (which was widely understood and not something which needed experimentation) instead of teaching his students.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: An investigation also maintained that at least 10 kg of soap from human fat was produced, sourced from the Stutthof concentration camp, based on the aforementioned testimonies which were delivered in 1945 and the presence of kaolin in the samples indicated that it was probably used as a cleaning soap due to its abrasive qualities, but the criminal investigation of this claim was discontinued because it lacked grounds which would indicate that Spanner had incited killings in order to obtain corpses for the Institute. Neander points out that the soap-making recipe from Mazur's testimony was contradictory and unrealistic, with a testimony from 12 May 1945 which claimed that 75 kg of fat were produced and 8 kg of soap were produced from the first boiling, a testimony from 28 May 1945 which claimed that 70–80 kg of fat were produced from 40 bodies and 25 kg of soap were produced from both boilings, and a testimony from 7 June 1945 which claimed that 40 bodies produced 40 kg of soap from both boilings. These inconsistencies were even pointed out before the Chief Commission. The witness testimonies of the two British POWs were also noted and they were described as being "contradictory and inconclusive" in a 1990s report which was compiled by the newly established Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington D.C., which holds a cautious stance with regard to the Danzig Soap issue. Regarding the presence of kaolin, the abrasiveness of which has also been criticized as being unsuitable for flexible model-joints, it was noted by Tomkiewicz and Semków that Spanner had previously done research on kaolin injections into cadavers, meaning that the kaolin found in the soap could have come from the cadaver itself, rather than as later additive.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Tomkiewicz and Semków write that when Zofia Nałkowska, Vice-Chairperson of the Chief Commission, was already writing her short-story "Professor Spanner" (which would be published in "Medaliony"), Spanner was again working as a medical doctor, under his own name, in Schleswig-Holstein in September 1945, unaware that he was being linked to any possible crimes. He was arrested in May 1947, but was released after three days, later being arrested again, but he was once again released after explaining how he had conducted the maceration and injection process. Spanner would ""repeat my statement given at the police and add: At the Danzig Anatomic Institute soap was manufactured to a limited extent from human fat. This soap was only used for the manufacturing of joint preparations"". After being dismissed by intervention from the British occupation authorities he was declared "clean" by the denazification program in 1948, officially exonerated, and resumed his academic career, becoming director of the Institute of Anatomy in Cologne in 1957 and editor of the esteemed Werner Spalteholz anatomical atlas, before dying in 1960.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Neander concludes that no research or experiments on soap-making were conducted in Danzig, that Mazur never made soap according to his "recipe", that corpses which were delivered to be boiled and turned into anatomical models were all the corpses of Germans who had not been killed in order to "harvest" their bodies, and that the only soap created was a byproduct of this. He also concludes that what the IPN called the "chemical substance which was essentially soap", obtained by human fat, was used for laboratory cleaning purposes towards the end of the war, with Spanner, as head of the institute, bearing responsibility for this, but that such handling of dead bodies amounted to a misdemeanor as opposed to any criminal behavior, let alone a crime against humanity or involvement in any genocidal activities, something which is today officially acknowledged in Poland. As Holocaust deniers employ this controversy in order to criticize the veracity of the Nazi genocide, Neander states:


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Alain Resnais, who treated the testimony of Holocaust survivors as fact, continued the accusation in his noted 1955 Holocaust documentary film "Nuit et brouillard". Some postwar Israelis (in the army, schools) also referred disdainfully to Jewish victims of Nazism who arrived in Israel with the Hebrew word ("", "soap"). In fact, this offensive word was not linked to the rumours about Nazi crimes and human soap, but it had the sense of "soft", "weaklings".


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Though some still claim that evidence of "human soap" from the Danzig institute as proof, mainstream scholars of the Holocaust consider the idea that the Nazis manufactured soap as part of the Holocaust to be part of World War II folklore. Historian Israel Gutman has stated that "it was never done on a mass scale".


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: A BBC documentary about the death camps which was produced at the end of the war shows bars of "RIF" soap, which were alleged to be made of human fat, and evidence of similar atrocities including shrunken prisoner heads and preserved tattoos, which were put on display in Buchenwald and shown to the population of Weimar after the camp's liberation.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: Several burial sites in Israel include graves for "soap made of Jewish victims by the Nazis". These are probably bars of RIF soap. Following a heated discussion about these graves in the media in 2003, Yad Vashem publicized Professor Yehuda Bauer's research which says that RIF soap was not made of human fat, and the RIF myth was probably propagated by the Nazi guards in order to taunt the Jews. Yad Vashem includes an image of an emotional funeral and a burial of "Jewish" soap in Romania.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: A small bar of soap was on display at the Nazareth holocaust memorial museum in Israel, and a similar bar of soap was buried in the "holocaust cellar" live-museum in mount Zion in Jerusalem, Israel, during the museum's inception in 1958. A replica was on display there. Following the publication of Yad Vashem Professor Yehuda Bauer's conclusion that soap was not manufactured from the bodies of Jews or other Nazi concentration camp inmates in industrial quantities, Tom Segev, a "new historian" and an anti-establishment Israeli author, wrote in his book "The Seventh Million" that the belief in the existence of the Holocaust-Cellar soap was "idol worshiping in Jerusalem".


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: A bar of soap is displayed at the National Museum of the History of Ukraine in the Second World War inside the Motherland Monument in Kyiv, Ukraine.


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: The manufacture of soap from stolen liposuction waste is a major plot point in the 1999 film "Fight Club".


title: Soap made from human corpses

text: In September 2016, Dutch artist, Julian Hetzel, created an art installation called Schuldfabrik using soap made from donated human fat, highlighting human excess and waste. "Schuld" is a German term that has two different yet related meanings: 'guilt' as a moral duty, and 'debt' as an economical obligation.


title: Snatched (2017 film)

text: Snatched is a 2017 American comedy film directed by Jonathan Levine and written by Katie Dippold. The film stars Amy Schumer and Goldie Hawn (in her first film since 2002's "The Banger Sisters"), with Joan Cusack, Ike Barinholtz, Wanda Sykes, and Christopher Meloni in supporting roles, and follows a mother and daughter who are abducted while on vacation in South America.


title: Snatched (2017 film)

text: "Snatched" premiered in New York City on May 2, 2017, and was theatrically released on May 12, 2017, by 20th Century Fox. The film received mixed reviews and grossed $60 million worldwide on a $42 million budget.


title: Snatched (2017 film)

text: At the 38th Golden Raspberry Awards, Hawn was nominated for Worst Supporting Actress for her performance.


title: Snatched (2017 film)

text: Recently fired from her job and dumped by her rock musician boyfriend, Emily Middleton is determined to enjoy a previously planned nonrefundable trip to Ecuador. Learning of her relationship status from social media, her mother, Linda, tells her to come home in order to move on, where she reunites with her agoraphobic brother, Jeffrey. Initially refusing, Linda agrees to go on the trip with her daughter.


title: Snatched (2017 film)

text: In Ecuador, after they check into the upscale hotel, Emily meets a handsome man named James at the hotel bar, and they begin a relationship. After one night of drinking and dancing with James, Emily and her mother take a sightseeing day trip with him. During their ride, a white van rams James' Jeep and the masked men abduct Emily and Linda. James escapes, but Linda suspects he was in on the kidnapping plot from the start. Emily awakens inside a cell and begins to panic, while Linda tries to calm herself by reading men's magazines. The leader, Hector Morgado, contacts Jeffrey and demands $100,000 in ransom money. Morgado then has his nephew take both women away from the kidnappers' hideout to another location. They manage to escape from their captors' car and stow away into a passing truck. As it drives away, Emily kills the leader's nephew who is chasing them by pounding his head with a shovel. The truck's driver then stops his truck and leaves them both in the middle of the jungle.


title: Snatched (2017 film)

text: They find a phone at a nearby bar, where they call the U.S. State Department officer Morgan Russell, saying that they are in peril, and Morgan advises them to go to the US Embassy in Bogota, Colombia. They meet a rugged-looking American named Roger Simmons. He agrees to help them find the consulate. After the three share a meal, Morgado and his men track them down. Morgado is about to kill them both as revenge for his only nephew's death, but Linda distracts him while Emily retrieves a nearby spear gun with which to threaten him. As she retrieves it, she accidentally fires it, killing Morgado's only son. They manage to escape with Simmons onto a boat. Soon, however, they are forced off the boat when the captain detects another boat nearby that is looking for the two women.


title: Snatched (2017 film)

text: Meanwhile, Jeffrey, learning that his mother and sister have been kidnapped, calls Morgan at the State Department, saying he will join forces with the agents in order to find his mother and sister. Morgan reluctantly agrees. In Colombia, Emily, Linda, and Simmons hike through the jungle until Simmons falls to his death from a cliff. Later, Emily passes out from the effects of a tapeworm infestation. After a local village doctor removes the tapeworm from her body, Morgado and his men track them down again. They spot a zip line and decide to use it to escape. Unfortunately, the zip line is good for only one person. Linda forces Emily to leave her behind and is recaptured.