title: Bézout's identity

text: Thus is of the form formula_21, and hence formula_22 However, formula_23 and is the smallest positive integer in : the remainder can therefore not be in , making necessarily 0. This implies that is a divisor of . Similarly is also a divisor of , and therefore is a common divisor of and .


title: Bézout's identity

text: Now, let be any common divisor of and ; that is, there exist and such that formula_24 and formula_25 One has thus


title: Bézout's identity

text: Bézout's identity does not always hold for polynomials. For example, when working in the polynomial ring of integers: the greatest common divisor of and is "x", but there does not exist any integer-coefficient polynomials "p" and "q" satisfying .


title: Bézout's identity

text: However, Bézout's identity works for univariate polynomials over a field exactly in the same ways as for integers. In particular the Bézout's coefficients and the greatest common divisor may be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm.


title: Bézout's identity

text: As the common roots of two polynomials are the roots of their greatest common divisor, Bézout's identity and fundamental theorem of algebra imply the following result:


title: Bézout's identity

text: The generalization of this result to any number of polynomials and indeterminates is Hilbert's Nullstellensatz.


title: Bézout's identity

text: As noted in the introduction, Bézout's identity works not only in the ring of integers, but also in any other principal ideal domain (PID).


title: Bézout's identity

text: then there are elements and in such that formula_32 The reason is that the ideal formula_33 is principal and equal to formula_34


title: Bézout's identity

text: French mathematician Étienne Bézout (1730–1783) proved this identity for polynomials. This statement for integers can be found already in the work of an earlier French mathematician, Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac (1581–1638).


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: Anatoly Yuriyovych Onoprienko (; , Anatoly Yuryevich Onoprienko; July 25, 1959 – August 27, 2013) was a Soviet/Ukrainian serial mass murderer. Known by the nicknames The Beast of Ukraine, The Terminator, and Citizen O, Onoprienko confessed to killing fifty-two people upon being apprehended in April 1996.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: Anatoly Onoprienko was born in the village of Lasky in Zhytomyr Oblast, Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union. He was the younger of two sons; his brother, Valentin, was thirteen years older. His father, Yuri Onoprienko, was decorated for bravery while serving on the Eastern Front during the Second World War.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: Onoprienko's mother died when he was four years old. He was cared for by his grandparents and aunt for a time before being handed over to an orphanage in the village of Pryvitne, Volyn Oblast. According to Onoprienko, he resented the fact that he had been given away by his father, while his brother continued to stay under his care. In one interview, he later alleged that it was this that predetermined his destiny, and remarked that seventy percent of those brought up in orphanages end up in prison as adults.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: When finally arrested by police, Onoprienko was found to be in possession of a total of 122 items, including a sawed-off TOZ-34 shotgun, a number of other weapons which matched those used in several of killings, and a number of items which had been removed from victims. He eventually confessed to eight killings between 1989 and 1995. He initially denied other charges, but ultimately confessed to the killing of fifty-two victims over a six-year period. While in custody, Onoprienko claimed that he killed in response to commands he was given by inner voices.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: 1–10. In 1989, a family of ten two adults and eight children were killed during an attempted robbery. Onoprienko confessed that he and an accomplice, Sergei Rogozin, committed the murders with weapons that they carried for self-defense. He also stated that he cut off all contact with Rogozin afterwards.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: 11–15. In that same year, five people, including an 11-year-old boy, were shot dead while sleeping in a car before their bodies were burned. Onoprienko stated that the murders were unintentional and that he had planned only to burglarize the car.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: 16–19. On December 24, 1995, the Zaichenko family of four were killed with a sawed-off double-barreled shotgun during a robbery in their home at Garmarnia, a village in central Ukraine, which was set ablaze afterwards.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: 20–24. On January 2, 1996, a family of four were shot and killed. The murders were quickly followed by that of a male pedestrian whom Onoprienko killed in order to eliminate potential witnesses.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: 25–28. On January 6, 1996, Onoprienko allegedly killed four people in three separate incidents on the Berdyansk-Dnieprovs'k highway, by stopping cars before killing the drivers. The victims were Kasai, a Ukrainian Navy ensign; Savitsky, a taxi driver; Kochergina, a kolkhoz cook; and an unidentified victim.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: 29–35. On January 17, 1996, the Pilat family of five were shot and killed in their home, which was then set ablaze. Two potential witnesses were then killed, a 27-year-old railroad worker named Kondzela and a 56-year-old pedestrian named Zakharko.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: 36–39. On January 30, 1996, Marusina, her two sons, and a 32-year-old visitor named Zagranichniy were all shot dead in the Fastiv, Kyiv Oblast, region of Ukraine.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: 40–43. On February 19, 1996, the Dubchak family were killed in their home in Olevsk, Zhytomyr Oblast. According to Onoprienko, he shot and killed the father and the son, mauled the mother to death with a hammer, and demanded money from the daughter before mauling her to death as well when she refused.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: 44–48. On February 27, 1996, the Bodnarchuk family were killed in their home in Malyn, Lviv Oblast. According to Onoprienko, he fatally shot the parents and then hacked the daughters, aged seven and eight, to death with an axe. An hour later, Onoprienko then allegedly shot and killed a neighboring businessman named Tsalk who was wandering around the Bodnarchuk property, hacking his corpse with the axe afterwards.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: 49–52. On March 22, 1996, the Novosad family of four was Onoprienko's last alleged victims. According to him, he shot and killed all of the family members and set their home on fire to eliminate any traces of evidence.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: Onoprienko's "modus operandi" consisted of choosing an isolated house and gaining the attention of the occupants by creating a commotion. He would kill all occupants starting with the adult male, before going to find and kill the spouse and finally the children. He would then usually set the buildings alight in an attempt to cover the evidence. He would also kill any potential witness to cross his path during his murderous rampages.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: In March 1996, the Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) and Public Prosecutor's Office specialists detained 26-year-old Yury Mozola as a suspect of several brutal murders. Over the course of three days, six SBU members and one representative of the Public Prosecutor's Office tortured Mozola. Mozola refused to confess to the crimes and died during the torture. Seven responsible for the death were sentenced to prison terms. Seventeen days later, the real murderer, Onoprienko, was found after a massive manhunt, seven years after his first murder. This happened after he moved in with one of his relatives and his stash of weapons was discovered. Onoprienko was forced to leave the house. Days later, from the information received, Onoprienko was captured.


title: Anatoly Onoprienko

text: Onoprienko escaped the death penalty and was sentenced to life imprisonment; in 1995 Ukraine had entered the Council of Europe and thus (at the time) it undertook to abolish the death penalty.


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: The in the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force is a modified version of the equipped with the Aegis Combat System.


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: The Maritime Self-Defense Force (MSDF) began construction of the Aegis-equipped in FY1988 as the core ship for air defense of its fleet. With the commission of the Kongo class, each of the four had one Tartar-equipped destroyer and one Aegis-equipped destroyer.


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: In the 2000s, the steam-powered s were nearing the end of their life, and their Tartar Weapon Systems were becoming obsolete. As their replacements, two Aegis-equipped destroyers, "Atago" class, were built in the FY2002 and 2003 budget.


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: The design is fundamentally an improved and scaled-up version of the "Kongō"-class destroyers with a 4-meter extension of the hull. Just as the "Kongō" class, the superstructure is larger than aboard the American counterparts, Flight IIA.


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: One of the most obvious changes is an additional hangar to carry one SH-60K helicopter. In comparison to the "Kongō" class which only had a helicopter deck, these ships have better helicopter handling facilities.


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: Another external feature is the reduction of the radar cross-sectional area. For example, the "Atago" class use a new stealthier plain-structure mast, which was originally designed in Japan, rather than familiar sturdy truss mast. A new modified smokestack and other improvements were also introduced to make the "Atago"s stealthier.


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: The propulsion systems are almost the same as those of the "Kongō" class and "Arleigh Burke" class, powered by four Ishikawajima-Harima LM2500 gas turbines giving them a top speed of . The installation of three generators is also retained, but the output per unit is increased to 2,800 kilowatts.


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: The class is equipped with the Aegis Weapon System (AWS). The system version was Baseline 7.1 immediately after they were put into service; then both ships have been updated to Baseline 9C with modernization.


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: As surface-to-air missiles, The SM-2MR Block IIIA/B has been used. Since FY 2016, they have also been equipped with a missile defense capability with an Aegis BMD 5.0CU system to launch SM-3 Block IA and IB anti-ballistic missiles.


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: The missile launcher is the same Mark 41 Vertical Launching System as the "Kongo" class, but the missile reloading crane has been omitted, so the number of missile cells is increased by 3 cells each on the bow and stern sides. The Kongo class had 29 cells on the foredeck and 61 cells on the afterdeck, but the Atago class has a hangar, so 64 cells are placed on the foredeck and 32 cells on the afterdeck.


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: These cells contain not only RIM-162, SM-2, and SM-3, but also VL-ASROCs. Additionally, they are equipped with HOS-302, one of the Japanese variant of the Mark 32 Surface Vessel Torpedo Tubes, as anti-submarine weapons. While the "Kongō" class is equipped with domestic sonar and ASW combat system, the "Atago" class is equipped with American-made AN/SQQ-89(V)15 with AN/SQS-53C sonar. Only the towing sonar was a domestic OQR-2D-1, which was later replaced with an American-made SQR-20 Multi-Function Towed Array (MFTA).


title: Atago-class destroyer

text: The 127mm bore gun's barrel has been extended from the 54 caliber of the "Kongō" class to the 62 caliber with strengthened powder charge enabling a firing range. As with other Japanese ships being refit, the American-made Harpoon missiles (such as in the initial configuration of the "Kongō" class) can be replaced with the Japanese-made Type 90 (SSM-1B) surface-to-surface missiles; those interfaces are compatible.


title: Dancing with Myself

text: "Dancing with Myself" is a song by the punk rock band Gen X, first commercially released in the United Kingdom in October 1980, where it reached number 62 on the singles chart. It was remixed and re-released by the band's singer/frontman Billy Idol as a solo artist in the United States in 1981, where the song reached number 27 on the US "Billboard" Hot Dance Club Play chart.


title: Dancing with Myself

text: The inspiration for the song occurred during a tour of Japan by the English post-punk band Generation X in mid-1979, when its vocalist/frontman Billy Idol and its bassist Tony James were struck by the sight of the young crowd in a Tokyo discotheque dancing with their own reflections in walled mirrors rather than with one another.


title: Dancing with Myself

text: The song was written and first recorded by Generation X during demo sessions in mid-1979 at Olympic Studios in West London (this demo-recording was first commercially released retrospectively on the long-player "K.M.D.-Sweet Revenge" (1998)). After that band had split later in that year Billy Idol and Tony James re-branded the act as 'Gen X', and in production sessions with Keith Forsey for a new long-player at AIR Studios in London in mid-1980 the song was re-recorded for commercial release as a single. The guitar parts of the song were a mix of the playing of three guitarists with distinctively differing styles, viz. Steve New playing the lead, Steve Jones playing rhythm, with another layer being added by Danny Kustow. On commercial sale in October 1980 as a pre-release single from the new band's forthcoming long-player "Kiss Me Deadly" (1981), 'Dancing with Myself' was a retail failure, reaching only #62 in the UK Singles Chart.


title: Dancing with Myself

text: In 1981, Idol, now a solo artist after Gen X had broken up, had Forsey remix the record for its release as a single in the United States, fading down the guitar(s) and bass tracks from their dominance in the 1980 U.K. release and accentuating the vocal and percussion tracks to produce a more rhythmic sound for the American commercial market. It became his first hit single in the United States and launched his career there, two versions being issued: the 3:20 single version (which was later included on Idol's "" compilation) and the 4:50 extended version that appeared on Idol's "Don't Stop" EP.


title: Dancing with Myself

text: For the 1981 United States single release a music video for use on the newly launched MTV was made, directed by Tobe Hooper, with Billy Idol in a scenario drawn from the 1971 cinema film "The Omega Man" playing a lone figure in a post-apocalyptic cityscape besieged upon a skyscraper rooftop by partying mutant street-waifs.


title: Goler clan

text: The Golers are a clan of poor, rural families in Canada, on Nova Scotia's South Mountain, near Wolfville, known for inter-generational poverty and the conviction in the 1980s of many family members for sexual abuse and incest.


title: Goler clan

text: The Goler family lived together in two shacks in a remote wooded area on South Mountain, located south of the community of White Rock, outside the town of Wolfville. Their ancestors occupied this area since at least the mid-1800s and according to a sociologist at Acadia University, showed incest in the family dating back to the 1860s. Charles and Stella Goler, the patriarch and matriarch of the family, lived together with their five sons and grandchildren in a dilapidated shack.


title: Goler clan

text: Like most other mountain clans, they were isolated from most of the residents of the farming district in the Annapolis Valley and most of the nearby towns. The adults of the family, some of whom had intellectual disabilities, had little schooling and rarely worked. One sibling, Cecil (1939–1991), was non-verbal and born paralyzed from the neck down. The Golers supported themselves on a combination of social welfare and occasional labor at the many nearby farms, supplemented by fishing and foraging for berries and other fruits. The children were generally forced to perform any menial chores (such as preparing food or removing trash). Garbage was simply thrown into the attic, until it was completely filled, and then the adults would make the children haul it out.


title: Goler clan

text: From about 1980, several of the children had attempted to tell outsiders and authorities about the abuse they suffered, but were disbelieved and returned to their family who punished them. In 1984, one of the children, a 14-year-old girl, revealed the details of a long history of torture and abuse (physical, sexual, and psychological), to a school official. As the case was investigated, authorities learned that a number of Goler children were victims of sexual abuse at the hands of fathers, mothers, uncles, aunts, sisters, brothers, cousins, and each other. During interrogation by police, several of the adults openly admitted to, and even boasted about, engaging in many forms of sexual activity, up to and including full intercourse, multiple times with the children. They often went into graphic detail, claiming that the children themselves had initiated the activity.


title: Goler clan

text: Eventually, fifteen men and one woman were charged with hundreds of allegations of incest and sexual abuse of children as young as five. Given the detailed confessions by the accused, authorities did not anticipate a trial. However, the accused eventually recanted their confessions and denied any wrongdoing. The case garnered significant attention in the media. The legal system of Kings County was strained by the Goler case. There was only one full-time prosecutor who normally handled one or two rape cases per year, alongside a relatively small number of assaults, thefts, disorderly conduct and other crimes.


title: Goler clan

text: Thirteen of the accused received jail sentences of one to seven years, with William Dennis Goler receiving seven years imprisonment and his nephew William James Goler receiving 4.5 years.


title: Goler clan

text: The event brought to the greater attention the inadequate living conditions of many poorer Kings County residents, not only on North Mountain and South Mountain where some 4,000 poor lived, but in the rich farmlands around Kentville where tar paper shacks blighted the landscape. These communities had been shunned by society forcing them to look inwards for support. Authorities had largely ignored them for a century or more, despite documents dating to the 1860s that showed the prevalence of intra-family relationships through high rates of birth defects and intellectual disabilities, although the county's low-income housing society had been working to build 565-square-feet 'hearth homes'.


title: Goler clan

text: Due to the sensational nature of the crime, the trial received extensive national coverage. A book entitled "On South Mountain: The Dark Secrets of the Goler Clan" was written and published in 1998 covering their story in detail. Donna Goler, one of the abused children who was removed from the Goler household when she was 11, has become an outspoken activist for stricter child abuse laws, and for stronger protection of children from convicted child molesters. Donna's testimony was described by both the prosecutor and defense attorneys as the most important evidence presented at trial. A year after the book "On South Mountain" was published, she began a long fight to revise the Criminal Code, saying that it failed to protect the young relatives of convicted child molesters.


title: Radisson Blu

text: Radisson Blu is an international chain of hotels operated by Radisson Hotels. With roots dating back to the 1960s, the Radisson Blu brand name came into existence in 2009 with a rebranding from Radisson SAS. Its hotels are found in major cities, key airport gateways and leisure destinations.


title: Radisson Blu

text: Radisson Blu has roots dating back to the opening of the SAS Royal Hotel in Denmark in 1960. Designed by Arne Jacobsen for SAS Group, it was the world's first designer hotel. The hotel was initially under the catering division of the group but merged with the hospitality division to become SAS Catering and Hotels. In 1982, the hotels were spun off as a separate division, operating under the name SAS International Hotels. and became known as SAS International Hotels in 1985.


title: Radisson Blu

text: In 1994, Radisson SAS was created as a partnership with Radisson and SAS International Hotels for operations in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. By the year 2000, the brand was operating 100 hotels.


title: Radisson Blu

text: The Radisson Blu brand first came into being in 2009 when Radisson SAS rebranded and changed its name to Radisson Blu. The name ‘Blu’ was chosen as part of a research project to find a new visual identity as the company looked to replace the familiar SAS blue box.


title: Radisson Blu

text: Radisson Blu entered the United States market with the opening of its first hotel in Chicago, Illinois in 2011. The hotel occupies part of the Aqua skyscraper developed by Studio Gang Architects. In 2013, it opened its second location. It is connected to the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota. In 2010, Radisson Blu was named the largest upper upscale hotel chain in Europe.


title: Radisson Blu

text: Radisson Blu hotels are mainly located in major cities, key airport gateways and leisure destinations. It is described as an "upper upscale" hotel brand.


title: Hammer toe

text: A hammer toe or contracted toe is a deformity of the muscles and ligaments of the proximal interphalangeal joint of the second, third, fourth, or fifth toe causing it to be bent, resembling a hammer. In the early stage a flexible hammertoe is movable at the joints; a rigid hammertoe joint cannot be moved and usually requires surgery.


title: Hammer toe

text: Claw toe is another similar condition, with dorsiflexion of the proximal phalanx on the lesser metatarsophalangeal joint, combined with flexion of both the proximal and distal interphalangeal joints. Claw toe can affect the second, third, fourth, or fifth toes.


title: Hammer toe

text: Older people are more likely to develop hammer toes. Women are at higher risk, due to the construction of women's shoes. Injuries to the toes, and being born with a big toe that is short in comparison to the second toe, increase risk. Arthritis and diabetes may also increase the risk of foot deformities.


title: Hammer toe

text: Hammertoes and clawtoes have multiple causes. Hammer toe most frequently results from wearing poorly fitting shoes that can force the toe into a bent position, such as high heels or shoes that are too short or narrow for the foot. Having the toes bent for long periods of time can cause the muscles in them to shorten, resulting in the hammer toe deformity. This is often found in conjunction with bunions or other foot problems (e.g., a bunion can force the big toe to turn inward and push the other toes).


title: Hammer toe

text: The toe muscles work in pairs; if the muscles pulling in one direction are much weaker than those pulling in the other direction, the imbalance can bend the toe. If the bend persists, then as the tendons and ligaments tighten (as they do if not stretched), the bend may become permanent. Ill-fitting shoes are especially likely to push the toes out of balance.


title: Hammer toe

text: Toe deformities can also be caused by muscle, nerve, or joint damage, resulting from conditions such as osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, stroke, Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease, complex regional pain syndrome or diabetes. Hammer toe can also be found in Friedreich's ataxia (GAA trinucleotide repeat).


title: Hammer toe

text: In many cases, conservative treatment consisting of physical therapy and new shoes with soft, spacious toe boxes is enough to resolve the condition, while in more severe or longstanding cases hammertoe surgery may be necessary to correct the deformity. The patient's doctor may also prescribe some toe exercises that can be done at home to stretch and strengthen the muscles. For example, the individual can gently stretch the toes manually, or use the toes to pick things up off the floor.


title: Intel 8085

text: The Intel 8085 (""eighty-eighty-five"") is an 8-bit microprocessor produced by Intel and introduced in March 1976. It is software-binary compatible with the more-famous Intel 8080 with only two minor instructions added to support its added interrupt and serial input/output features. However, it requires less support circuitry, allowing simpler and less expensive microcomputer systems to be built.


title: Intel 8085

text: The "5" in the part number highlighted the fact that the 8085 uses a single +5-volt (V) power supply by using depletion-mode transistors, rather than requiring the +5 V, −5 V and +12 V supplies needed by the 8080. This capability matched that of the competing Z80, a popular 8080-derived CPU introduced the year before. These processors could be used in computers running the CP/M operating system.


title: Intel 8085

text: The 8085 is supplied in a 40-pin DIP package. To maximise the functions on the available pins, the 8085 uses a multiplexed address/data (AD-AD) bus. However, an 8085 circuit requires an 8-bit address latch, so Intel manufactured several support chips with an address latch built in. These include the 8755, with an address latch, 2 KB of EPROM and 16 I/O pins, and the 8155 with 256 bytes of RAM, 22 I/O pins and a 14-bit programmable timer/counter. The multiplexed address/data bus reduced the number of PCB tracks between the 8085 and such memory and I/O chips.


title: Intel 8085

text: Both the 8080 and the 8085 were eclipsed by the Zilog Z80 for desktop computers, which took over most of the CP/M computer market, as well as a share of the booming home-computer market in the early-to-mid-1980s.


title: Intel 8085

text: The 8085 had a long life as a controller, no doubt thanks to its built-in serial I/O and five prioritized interrupts, arguably microcontroller-like features that the Z80 CPU did not have. Once designed into such products as the DECtape II controller and the VT102 video terminal in the late 1970s, the 8085 served for new production throughout the lifetime of those products. This was typically longer than the product life of desktop computers.


title: Intel 8085

text: The 8085 is a conventional von Neumann design based on the Intel 8080. Unlike the 8080 it does not multiplex state signals onto the data bus, but the 8-bit data bus is instead multiplexed with the lower eight bits of the 16-bit address bus to limit the number of pins to 40. State signals are provided by dedicated bus control signal pins and two dedicated bus state ID pins named S0 and S1. Pin 40 is used for the power supply (+5 V) and pin 20 for ground. Pin 39 is used as the Hold pin. The processor was designed using nMOS circuitry, and the later "H" versions were implemented in Intel's enhanced nMOS process called HMOS II ("High-performance MOS"), originally developed for fast static RAM products. Only a single 5-volt power supply is needed, like competing processors and unlike the 8080. The 8085 uses approximately 6,500 transistors.


title: Intel 8085

text: The 8085 incorporates the functions of the 8224 (clock generator) and the 8228 (system controller) on chip, increasing the level of integration. A downside compared to similar contemporary designs (such as the Z80) is the fact that the buses require demultiplexing; however, address latches in the Intel 8155, 8355, and 8755 memory chips allow a direct interface, so an 8085 along with these chips is almost a complete system.


title: Intel 8085

text: The 8085 has extensions to support new interrupts, with three maskable vectored interrupts (RST 7.5, RST 6.5 and RST 5.5), one non-maskable interrupt (TRAP), and one externally serviced interrupt (INTR). Each of these five interrupts has a separate pin on the processor, a feature which permits simple systems to avoid the cost of a separate interrupt controller. The RST 7.5 interrupt is edge triggered (latched), while RST 5.5 and 6.5 are level-sensitive. All interrupts are enabled by the EI instruction and disabled by the DI instruction. In addition, the SIM (Set Interrupt Mask) and RIM (Read Interrupt Mask) instructions, the only instructions of the 8085 that are not from the 8080 design, allow each of the three maskable RST interrupts to be individually masked. All three are masked after a normal CPU reset. SIM and RIM also allow the global interrupt mask state and the three independent RST interrupt mask states to be read, the pending-interrupt states of those same three interrupts to be read, the RST 7.5 trigger-latch flip-flop to be reset (cancelling the pending interrupt without servicing it), and serial data to be sent and received via the SOD and SID pins, respectively, all under program control and independently of each other.


title: Intel 8085

text: SIM and RIM each execute in four clock cycles (T states), making it possible to sample SID and/or toggle SOD considerably faster than it is possible to toggle or sample a signal via any I/O or memory-mapped port, e.g. one of the port of an 8155. (In this way, SID can be compared to the SO ["Set Overflow"] pin of the 6502 CPU contemporary to the 8085.)


title: Intel 8085

text: Like the 8080, the 8085 can accommodate slower memories through externally generated wait states (pin 35, READY), and has provisions for Direct Memory Access (DMA) using HOLD and HLDA signals (pins 39 and 38). An improvement over the 8080 is that the 8085 can itself drive a piezoelectric crystal directly connected to it, and a built-in clock generator generates the internal high-amplitude two-phase clock signals at half the crystal frequency (a 6.14 MHz crystal would yield a 3.07 MHz clock, for instance). The internal clock is available on an output pin, to drive peripheral devices or other CPUs in lock-step synchrony with the CPU from which the signal is output. The 8085 can also be clocked by an external oscillator (making it feasible to use the 8085 in synchronous multi-processor systems using a system-wide common clock for all CPUs, or to synchronize the CPU to an external time reference such as that from a video source or a high-precision time reference).


title: Intel 8085

text: The 8085 is a binary compatible follow-up on the 8080. It supports the complete instruction set of the 8080, with exactly the same instruction behavior, including all effects on the CPU flags (except for the AND/ANI operation, which sets the AC flag differently). This means that the vast majority of object code (any program image in ROM or RAM) that runs successfully on the 8080 can run directly on the 8085 without translation or modification. (Exceptions include timing-critical code and code that is sensitive to the aforementioned difference in the AC flag setting or differences in undocumented CPU behavior.) 8085 instruction timings differ slightly from the 8080—some 8-bit operations, including INR, DCR, and the heavily used MOV r,r' instruction, are one clock cycle faster, but instructions that involve 16-bit operations, including stack operations (which increment or decrement the 16-bit SP register) generally one cycle slower.


title: Intel 8085

text: It is of course possible that the actual 8080 and/or 8085 differs from the published specifications, especially in subtle details. (The same is not true of the Z80.) As mentioned already, only the SIM and RIM instructions were new to the 8085.


title: Intel 8085

text: The processor has seven 8-bit registers accessible to the programmer, named A, B, C, D, E, H, and L, where A is also known as the accumulator. The other six registers can be used as independent byte-registers or as three 16-bit register pairs, BC, DE, and HL (or B, D, H, as referred to in Intel documents), depending on the particular instruction. Some instructions use HL as a (limited) 16-bit accumulator. As in the 8080, the contents of the memory address pointed to by HL can be accessed as pseudo register M. It also has a 16-bit program counter and a 16-bit stack pointer to memory (replacing the 8008's internal stack). Instructions such as PUSH PSW, POP PSW affect the Program Status Word (accumulator and flags). The accumulator stores the results of arithmetic and logical operations, and the flags register bits (sign, zero, auxiliary carry, parity, and carry flags) are set or cleared according to the results of these operations. The sign flag is set if the result has a negative sign (i.e. it is set if bit 7 of the accumulator is set). The auxiliary or half carry flag is set if a carryover from bit 3 to bit 4 occurred. The parity flag is set to 1 if the parity (number of 1-bits) of the accumulator is even; if odd, it is cleared. The zero flag is set if the result of the operation was 0. Lastly, the carry flag is set if a carryover from bit 7 of the accumulator (the MSB) occurred.


title: Intel 8085

text: As in many other 8-bit processors, all instructions are encoded in a single byte (including register-numbers, but excluding immediate data), for simplicity. Some of them are followed by one or two bytes of data, which can be an immediate operand, a memory address, or a port number. A NOP "no operation" instruction exists, but does not modify any of the registers or flags. Like larger processors, it has CALL and RET instructions for multi-level procedure calls and returns (which can be conditionally executed, like jumps) and instructions to save and restore any 16-bit register-pair on the machine stack. There are also eight one-byte call instructions (RST) for subroutines located at the fixed addresses 00h, 08h, 10h...,38h. These are intended to be supplied by external hardware in order to invoke a corresponding interrupt-service routine, but are also often employed as fast system calls. One sophisticated instruction is XTHL, which is used for exchanging the register pair HL with the value stored at the address indicated by the stack pointer.


title: Intel 8085

text: All two-operand 8-bit arithmetic and logical (ALU) operations work on the 8-bit accumulator (the A register). For two-operand 8-bit operations, the other operand can be either an immediate value, another 8-bit register, or a memory cell addressed by the 16-bit register pair HL. The only 8-bit ALU operations that can have a destination other than the accumulator are the unary incrementation or decrementation instructions, which can operate on any 8-bit register or on memory addressed by HL, as for two-operand 8-bit operations. Direct copying is supported between any two 8-bit registers and between any 8-bit register and an HL-addressed memory cell, using the MOV instruction. An immediate value can also be moved into any of the foregoing destinations, using the MVI instruction. Due to the regular encoding of the MOV instruction (using nearly a quarter of the entire opcode space) there are redundant codes to copy a register into itself ("MOV B,B", for instance), which are of little use, except for delays. However, what would have been a copy from the HL-addressed cell into itself (i.e., "MOV M,M") instead encodes the HLT instruction, halting execution until an external reset or unmasked interrupt occurs.


title: Intel 8085

text: Although the 8085 is an 8-bit processor, it has some 16-bit operations. Any of the three 16-bit register pairs (BC, DE, HL or SP) can be loaded with an immediate 16-bit value (using LXI), incremented or decremented (using INX and DCX), or added to HL (using DAD). LHLD loads HL from directly addressed memory and SHLD stores HL likewise. The XCHG operation exchanges the values of HL and DE. Adding HL to itself performs a 16-bit arithmetical left shift with one instruction. The only 16-bit instruction that affects any flag is DAD (adding BC, DE, HL, or SP, to HL), which updates the carry flag to facilitate 24-bit or larger additions and left shifts. Adding the stack pointer to HL is useful for indexing variables in (recursive) stack frames. A stack frame can be allocated using DAD SP and SPHL, and a branch to a computed pointer can be done with PCHL. These abilities make it feasible to compile languages such as PL/M, Pascal, or C with 16-bit variables and produce 8085 machine code. Subtraction and bitwise logical operations on 16 bits is done in 8-bit steps. Operations that have to be implemented by program code (subroutine libraries) include comparisons of signed integers as well as multiplication and division.


title: Intel 8085

text: A number of undocumented instructions and flags were discovered by two software engineers, Wolfgang Dehnhardt and Villy M. Sorensen in the process of developing an 8085 assembler. These instructions use 16-bit operands and include indirect loading and storing of a word, a subtraction, a shift, a rotate, and offset operations.


title: Intel 8085

text: The 8085 supports both port-mapped and memory-mapped io. It supports up to 256 input/output (I/O) ports via dedicated Input/Output instructions, with port addresses as operands. Port-mapped IO can be an advantage on processors with limited address space. During a port-mapped I/O bus cycle, the 8-bit I/O address is output by the CPU on both the lower and upper halves of the 16-bit address bus.


title: Intel 8085

text: Devices designed for memory mapped I/O can also be accessed by using the LDA (load accumulator from a 16-bit address) and STA (store accumulator at a 16-bit address specified) instructions, or any other instructions that have memory operands. A memory-mapped IO transfer cycle appears on the bus as a normal memory access cycle.


title: Intel 8085

text: Intel produced a series of development systems for the 8080 and 8085, known as the MDS-80 Microprocessor System. The original development system had an 8080 processor. Later 8085 and 8086 support was added including ICE (in-circuit emulators). It is a large and heavy desktop box, about a 20" cube (in the Intel corporate blue color) which includes a CPU, monitor, and a single 8-inch floppy disk drive. Later an external box was made available with two more floppy drives. It runs the ISIS operating system and can also operate an emulator pod and an external EPROM programmer. This unit uses the Multibus card cage which was intended just for the development system. A surprising number of spare card cages and processors were being sold, leading to the development of the Multibus as a separate product.


title: Intel 8085

text: The later iPDS is a portable unit, about 8"16"20", with a handle. It has a small green screen, a keyboard built into the top, a 5¼ inch floppy disk drive, and runs the ISIS-II operating system. It can also accept a second 8085 processor, allowing a limited form of multi-processor operation where both processors run simultaneously and independently. The screen and keyboard can be switched between them, allowing programs to be assembled on one processor (large programs took awhile) while files are edited in the other. It has a bubble memory option and various programming modules, including EPROM, and Intel 8048 and 8051 programming modules which are plugged into the side, replacing stand-alone device programmers. In addition to an 8080/8085 assembler, Intel produced a number of compilers including those for PL/M-80 and Pascal, and a set of tools for linking and statically locating programs to enable them to be burned into EPROMs and used in embedded systems.


title: Intel 8085

text: A lower cost "MCS-85 System Design Kit" (SDK-85) board contains an 8085 CPU, an 8355 ROM containing a debugging monitor program, an 8155 RAM and 22 I/O ports, an 8279 hex keypad and 8-digit 7-segment LED, and a TTY (Teletype) current loop serial interface. Pads are available for one more 2K×8 8755 EPROM, and another RAM 8155 I/O Timer/Counter can be optionally added. All data, control, and address signals are available on dual pin headers, and a large prototyping area is provided.


title: Intel 8085

text: The 8085 processor was used in a few early personal computers, for example, the TRS-80 Model 100 line used an OKI manufactured 80C85 (MSM80C85ARS). The CMOS version 80C85 of the NMOS/HMOS 8085 processor has several manufacturers. In the Soviet Union, an 80C85 clone was developed under the designation IM1821VM85A () 2016 was still in production. Some manufacturers provide variants with additional functions such as additional instructions.


title: Intel 8085

text: The radiation hardened version of the 8085 has been in on-board instrument data processors for several NASA and ESA space physics missions in the 1990s and early 2000s, including CRRES, Polar, FAST, Cluster, HESSI, the Sojourner Mars Rover, and THEMIS. The Swiss company SAIA used the 8085 and the 8085-2 as the CPUs of their PCA1 line of programmable logic controllers during the 1980s.


title: Intel 8085

text: Pro-Log Corp.put the 8085 and supporting hardware on an STD Bus format card containing CPU, RAM, sockets for ROM/EPROM, I/O and external bus interfaces. The included Instruction Set Reference Card uses entirely different mnemonics for the Intel 8085 CPU. The product was a direct competitor to Intel's Multibus card offerings.


title: Intel 8085

text: The 8085 CPU is one part of a family of chips developed by Intel for building a complete system. Many of these support chips were also used with other processors. The original IBM PC based on the Intel 8088 processor used several of these chips; the equivalent functions today are provided by VLSI chips, namely the "Southbridge" chips.


title: Intel 8085

text: In many engineering schools the 8085 processor is used in introductory microprocessor courses. Trainer kits composed of a printed circuit board, 8085, and supporting hardware are offered by various companies. These kits usually include complete documentation allowing a student to go from soldering to assembly language programming in a single course. Also, the architecture and instruction set of the 8085 are easy for a student to understand. Shared Project versions of educational and hobby 8085-based single-board computers are noted below in the External Links section of this article.


title: Intel 8085

text: Software simulators are available for the 8085 microprocessor, which allow simulated execution of opcodes in a graphical environment.


title: Teen film

text: Teen film is a film genre targeted at teenagers, preteens, or young adults by the plot being based on their special interests, such as coming of age, attempting to fit in, bullying, peer pressure, first love, teen rebellion, conflict with parents, and teen angst or alienation. Often these normally serious subject matters are presented in a glossy, stereotyped or trivialized way. Many teenage characters are portrayed by young adult actors between the ages of 20 and 30. Some teen films appeal to young males, while others appeal to young females.


title: Teen film

text: Films in this genre are often set in high schools and colleges, or contain characters who are of high school or college age.


title: Teen film

text: Additional types of teen films can be divided again into sub-categories. These can be found at list of teen films.


title: Teen film

text: Early examples of the genre in the United States include the "beach party films" of the 1950s and 1960s, such as the "Gidget" series.


title: Teen film

text: Codes and conventions of teen films vary depending on the cultural context of the film, but they can include puberty, proms, alcohol, illegal substances, high school, parties, virginity, teen pregnancy, social groups and cliques, interpersonal conflict with peers and/or the older generations, fitting in, peer pressure, and popular culture.


title: Teen film

text: The classic codes and conventions of the teen film come from American films. One of the most widely used conventions is an emphasis on stereotypes and social groups. The stereotypes most commonly used include:


title: Teen film

text: Apart from the characters, there are many other codes and conventions of teen film. These films are often set in or around high schools and places frequented by teens, such as shopping malls and themed restaurants. This technique allows for many different social cliques to be shown. These settings are typical for the classic romantic comedy teen film.


title: Teen film

text: A good example of the use of archetypes in the teen film was displayed in the 1985 film, "The Breakfast Club". These archetypes have since become a larger part of the culture. The jock, cheerleader, and social outcast, among others, become a familiar and pleasurable feature for the audience. However, genres are dynamic; they change and develop to meet the expectations of their target audience.


title: Teen film

text: Herman Raucher, along with Robert Mulligan, popularized the genre with "Summer of '42" (1971), and Raucher continued the trend by writing "Class of '44" (1973).


title: Teen film

text: George Lucas has been credited for perfecting the genre by writing and directing "American Graffiti" (1973).


title: Teen film

text: The genre gained more credibility during the 1980s with the works of writer and director John Hughes. His legacy of teen films, including "The Breakfast Club", "Ferris Bueller's Day Off", "Sixteen Candles", and many more, proved to be popular not only with audiences but also with critics.


title: Teen film

text: Gregg Araki filmed independent films in the 1990s. His films, particularly the "Teen Apocalypse Trilogy" (consisting of "Totally Fucked Up", "The Doom Generation", and "Nowhere"), are notable for capturing the disaffected attitudes of suburban teenagers of Generation X.


title: Teen film

text: Éric Rohmer, a pioneering director of the French New Wave, was notable for focusing on young adults or youth and their complications with love in a number of his films. Some of these works are "La Collectionneuse", "Claire's Knee", "Pauline at the Beach", "My Girlfriend's Boyfriend", and "A Summer's Tale".


title: Teen film

text: Popular actors in teen films have included Annette Funicello, Hayley Mills, and Sal Mineo in the 1960s and 1970s; Molly Ringwald, Anthony Michael Hall, Brendan Fraser, Luke Perry, Johnny Depp, Christina Applegate, Winona Ryder, John Cusack, Michael J. Fox, Robert Downey Jr., Matthew Broderick and members of the Brat Pack in the 1980s and early 1990s; and Sarah Michelle Gellar, Neve Campbell, Chris Evans, Rose McGowan, Jennifer Love Hewitt, Heath Ledger, Britney Spears, Kirsten Dunst, Shannon Elizabeth, Breckin Meyer, Seth Green, Tobey Maguire, Alicia Silverstone, Gina Ravera, Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen, Frankie Muniz, Hilary Duff, Lindsay Lohan, Rachael Leigh Cook, Drew Barrymore, Freddie Prinze Jr., Amanda Bynes, Leonardo DiCaprio, and Hayden Panettiere in the mid-to-late-1990s and throughout the 2000s. Many of these actors were either pre-teens or teens themselves when the movies were made.


title: Teen film

text: Notable teen genre actors in the 2010s include Leighton Meester, Blake Lively, Zendaya, Noah Centineo, Timothée Chalamet, Zac Efron, Lucy Hale, Lucas Hedges, Tom Holland, Anna Kendrick, Katherine Langford, Keiynan Lonsdale, Ezra Miller, Evan Peters, Nick Robinson, Cole Sprouse, Amandla Stenberg, Emma Stone, Ashley Tisdale, Emma Watson, Charlie Heaton, Justice Smith, Hailee Steinfeld, Odeya Rush, Madison Iseman, Dylan Minnette, Storm Reid, Asher Angel, Jack Dylan Grazer, Charlie Plummer, Sophia Lillis, and Finn Wolfhard.


title: PASOK

text: The Panhellenic Socialist Movement (, ), known mostly by its acronym PASOK, (; , ) is a social-democratic political party in Greece. Until 2012, it was one of the two major parties in the country, along with New Democracy, its main political rival.


title: PASOK

text: Following the collapse of the Greek military dictatorship of 1967–1974, PASOK was founded on 3 September 1974 as a socialist, democratic socialist and left-wing nationalist party.


title: PASOK

text: Formerly the largest left-wing party in Greece between 1977 and 2012, PASOK lost much of its popular support as a result of the Greek debt crisis. When the crisis begun, PASOK was the ruling party and negotiated the first Greek bailout package with the European troika which necessitated harsh austerity measures. It caused a significant loss in popularity as a result of the economic crisis, the party was part of two coalition governments from 2011 to 2015, during which further austerity measures were taken in response to the crisis. Due to said measures and the crisis, PASOK went from being the largest party in the Hellenic Parliament with 160 seats (43.92% of the popular vote) in the 2009 election to being the smallest party with 13 seats (4.68% of the popular vote) in the January 2015 election. This decline became known as Pasokification.


title: PASOK

text: To halt the party's decline, Fofi Gennimata was elected as the new president of the party and formed a political alliance known as the Democratic Alignment (DISI). In the September 2015 election, DISI was the fourth most voted-for party. In 2018, PASOK merged into a new political alliance of centre-left parties, again led by Gennimata, called the Movement for Change (KINAL), becoming the third largest party in the parliament in the 2019 election.


title: PASOK

text: The first members of the party were the main organizers of the collapse of the military junta of 1967–1974 and the re-establishment of democracy on 3 September 1974. Its founder was Andreas Papandreou, son of the late Greek liberal leader and three-time Prime Minister of Greece Georgios Papandreou Sr, and its co-founder was trade unionist Georgios Daskalakis. Its founding mottos were "National Independence, Popular Sovereignty, Social Emancipation, Democratic Process." Andreas Papandreou was offered the leadership of the liberal political forces immediately after the restoration of democracy, but in a risky move he declined, so the leadership was assumed by Georgios Mavros. Papandreou, a powerful orator and charismatic leader, explicitly rejected the Venizelist ideological heritage of his father, and stressed the fact that he was a socialist, not a liberal.


title: PASOK

text: At the November 1974 elections the Party received only 13.5% of the vote and won 15 seats (out of 300), coming third behind the centre-right New Democracy of Konstantinos Karamanlis and the Centre Union – New Forces (EK-ND) of Giorgos Mavros. At the November 1977 elections, however, PASOK eclipsed the EK-ND, doubled its share of the vote and won 93 seats, becoming the main opposition party.


title: PASOK

text: At the October 1981 national elections the PASOK won a landslide victory with 48.1% of the vote and capturing 172 seats; it formed the first socialist government in the history of Greece since 1924. Although Papandreou had campaigned for withdrawal of Greece from NATO and the European Economic Community, after a strong request by the rest of the party members and its supporters, changed his policy towards both institutions. He proved to be an excellent negotiator when it came to securing benefits and subsidies for Greece from the EEC. For example, in 1985 he openly threatened Jacques Delors to veto the entry of Spain and Portugal in the Community in order to secure more monetary aid for Greece.


title: PASOK

text: In 1986, the PASOK government amended the Greek constitution to remove most powers from the President and give wider authority to the Prime Minister and the Executive Government. Civil marriages, not consecrated by religious ceremony, were recognized as equally valid with religious weddings. The left-wing Resistance movement against the Axis in World War II was finally formally recognized, and former leftist resistance fighters were given state pensions, while leftist political refugees of the Greek Civil War were finally given permission to return to Greece. The National Health System was created and various repressive laws of the anti-communist postwar establishment were abolished, wages were boosted, an independent and multidimensional foreign policy was pursued, many reforms in family law to strengthen the rights of women were undertaken and the Greek Gendarmerie was abolished in 1984. At the June 1985 elections, received 46% of the vote and won 161 seats, thus securing a stable parliamentary majority for its second term in power.


title: PASOK

text: It continued to be popular for much of its second term, especially in March 1987 when Andreas Papandreou successfully handled a crisis in the Aegean with Turkey. By late 1988 however, both the government's popularity and Papandreou's health had declined. The former, because of press reports of financial and corruption scandals that surfaced, implicating Ministers and, allegedly, Andreas Papandreou himself as well as because of fiscal austerity measures imposed after the Keynesian policies of the first term. PASOK lost the June 1989 elections with 40% of the vote while the opposing New Democracy received 44.3%. PASOK had changed the electoral law before the elections, making it harder for the leading party to form a majority government, so the legislature was deadlocked.


title: PASOK

text: Another election in November produced a very similar result. After a brief period of a grand coalition government, in which PASOK participated, a third election in April 1990 brought New Democracy back to power. Despite a 7% lead in popular vote over PASOK, New Democracy could only secure a marginal majority in the Hellenic Parliament, electing 152 MPs out of a total of 300; PASOK had secured a larger number of representatives on a lower percentage of votes, as well as a small overall lead, in the elections of 1985, under the previous electoral system. Its representation in the Parliament shrunk to 121 MPs in 1990.


title: PASOK

text: In opposition, PASOK underwent a leadership crisis when Andreas Papandreou was prosecuted over his supposed involvement in the Bank of Crete scandal. He was eventually acquitted and, in a dramatic reversal of fortunes, at the October 1993 elections he led the party to another landslide victory. Papandreou returned to office with 47% of the vote and his re-election was considered by many a vote of confidence of the public against his prosecution. In November 1995, however, Papandreou's health began to deteriorate and the Party was racked with leadership conflicts.


title: PASOK

text: In January 1996 Andreas Papandreou retired after a protracted three-month-long hospitalization, during which he retained the role of Prime Minister; he died six months later. He was succeeded by Costas Simitis, the candidate of the modernising, pro-European wing of PASOK (the so-called "modernizers", εκσυγχρονιστές "eksynchronistes"), who won an internal vote against Akis Tsochatzopoulos, a Papandreou confidant. In the first days following his election, Costas Simitis faced the biggest crisis in Greek politics for over 20 years, with the Imia crisis. He was criticized for his soft stance against Turkey and especially for praising in public the American intervention on the issue.


title: PASOK

text: In a PASOK conference held in the summer of 1996, following Andreas Papandreou's death, Costas Simitis was elected leader of the party and called early elections seeking a renewed public vote of confidence. Although the Imia crisis had somewhat tarnished his image, the country's economic prosperity and his matter-of-fact administration won him the September 1996 general election with a 41.5% of the vote. Under Costas Simitis' leadership, PASOK had two major successes: In September 1997 Greece won the right to stage the 2004 Summer Olympic Games and in 2001 it was confirmed that the country would be included in the Eurozone, for which it had failed to meet the convergence criteria in 1998. Costas Simitis won another term in April 2000, narrowly winning with 43.8% of the vote and 158 seats: a substantial achievement for a Party which had been in power almost continuously for nearly 20 years.


title: PASOK

text: In 2000, after the assassination of Brigadier Saunders by the terrorist group 17 November (17N), and especially with the forthcoming Athens Olympics being a major terrorist target, a significant international pressure was exerted on PASOK to recognise that Greece had a terrorist problem and do everything possible to bring the terrorist group to justice. Some amongst the western media had even falsely accusing the party of colluding with the terrorists, due to the fact that the authorities were unable to arrest the terrorists. Under the guidance of British and U.S. experts, the government intensified its efforts and finally, with a string of events starting at 29 June 2002, the 17N members were captured and put to trial.


title: PASOK

text: Nevertheless, the party was losing its traditional appeal to the Greek lower and middle classes. In order to revitalize the party's chances for the next elections, Costas Simitis announced his resignation as the leader of the party on 7 January 2004. He was succeeded by George Papandreou, son of Andreas Papandreou. The party members were expecting that Papandreou could reverse the slide in the opinion polls which saw the opposition New Democracy (ND), under Kostas Karamanlis, 7% ahead at the start of the year.


title: PASOK

text: Although Papandreou reduced ND's lead in the polls to 3%, he was unable to reverse the view of the majority of Greek voters that PASOK had been in power too long and had grown lazy, corrupt and had abandoned the inclusive and progressive principles of economic parity on which it was founded. ND had a comfortable win at the 2004 legislative elections held on 7 March 2004, placing the party in opposition after eleven years in office with 40.55% share of the vote and 117 seats.


title: PASOK

text: On 16 September 2007, New Democracy headed by Costas Karamanlis won re-election with a marginal majority of 152 seats in the Parliament. Despite ND's falling performance in the 2007 legislative election, PASOK suffered a crushing defeat, registering 38.1% of the vote, its lowest percentage in almost 30 years, and 102 seats in the Hellenic Parliament.


title: PASOK

text: The dismal result led to activation of the procedure to select new leadership, or to reaffirm the previous one. The main competitors for the leadership were the incumbent George Papandreou and the Party's informal second in command, Professor Evangelos Venizelos. M.P. for A' Thessaloniki. M.P. Kostas Skandalidis also announced his candidacy in September. According to Party regulation, leaders are elected in a voting process open to all members. During the leadership election of 11 November 2007 George Papandreou was re-elected by the friends and members of the party as its leader.


title: PASOK

text: In June 2009, the PASOK won the 2009 European Parliament election in Greece. Four months later, the Party enjoyed a resounding victory in the October 2009 general elections with 43.92% of the popular vote to ND's 33.48%, and 160 parliament seats to 91. Due to a number of defections and expulsions after 2009, by November 2011 PASOK held a slim majority of 152 of the parliament's 300 seats.


title: PASOK

text: A poll in October 2011 on behalf of the Greek TV channel Skai TV and the newspaper "Kathimerini" (after the austerity measures that were taken to tackle the financial crisis) revealed that of the people asked, 92% felt disappointed by the government while only 5% believed that a PASOK government would be best for the nation in the next elections. In the same survey, when asked about whether people have a positive or negative opinion of the various political parties in Greece, PASOK scored as the lowest, with 76% answering "negative".


title: PASOK

text: Because of the financial crisis and the measures that were taken by the party from 2009 to 2012, PASOK, having been the largest party in the outgoing coalition government, achieved only third place with a mere 13.18%, retaining just 41 seats.


title: PASOK

text: After the elections of 6 May 2012, the President of Greece, Karolos Papoulias, mandated New Democracy leader Antonis Samaras to form a coalition government. On 7 May 2012, Samaras gave up the attempt and on the following day, President Papoulias mandated Alexis Tsipras, president of the Synaspismos political party and head of the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA) parliamentary group. After Tsipras was also unable to form a government, Evangelos Venizelos was mandated, but he too had no success. The legislative elections of June 2012 resulted in a further reduction in PASOK's popular support, probably as a result of the unpopular memorandum signed by former Prime Minister George Papandreou with the IMF, European Commission and European Central Bank. PASOK's share of the overall vote was its worst ever showing since the party was formed (12.28%). However PASOK decided to help the formation of a government by joining with New Democracy (ND) as well as the Democratic Left (DIMAR) of Fotis Kouvelis in a coalition under Prime Minister Samaras.


title: PASOK

text: To contest the 2014 European election, PASOK founded the Olive Tree electoral alliance on 7 March 2014. In the May 2014 European elections, the Olive Tree list came in fourth place nationally, receiving 8.02% of the vote, electing 2 MEPs.


title: PASOK

text: On 29 December 2014, following the failure of the government to elect a presidential candidate, a snap January 2015 legislative election was called by Prime Minister Samaras, scheduled for 25 January 2015.


title: PASOK

text: On 2 January 2015, in the run-up to the legislative election, former Prime Minister and PASOK leader George Papandreou announced the formation of a breakaway party called Movement of Democratic Socialists (KIDISO), a move immediately condemned by PASOK officials. Five PASOK members of the Hellenic Parliament were expected to join the new party, including the former ministers Philippos Sachinidis and Dimitris Reppas.


title: PASOK

text: In the 25 January 2015 legislative election, PASOK received 4.7% of the vote, with mandate for 13 seats in the Hellenic Parliament.


title: PASOK

text: On 30 August 2015, ahead of the upcoming September snap election, PASOK announced an electoral alliance with DIMAR, dubbed the Democratic Coalition.


title: PASOK

text: In the September 2015 legislative election on 20 September 2015, the PASOK–DIMAR list received 6.3% of the vote, and 17 seats.


title: PASOK

text: On 12 November 2017, an open primary was used as the first round of elections to select the leader of a new, as yet unfounded centre-left party in which PASOK would be folded. Nine initial leadership candidates include PASOK leader Fofi Gennimata, The River leader Stavros Theodorakis and incumbent Athens mayor Giorgos Kaminis. Reaching the second-round election were Gennimata, with 44.5% of the vote, and PASOK MEP Nikos Androulakis with 25.4%. The run-off election on 19 November was won by Gennimata with 56% of the vote. On 28 November 2017, the preliminary name of the new party was announced as "Movement for Change" ("Kinima Allagis or KINAL").


title: PASOK

text: On 2 July 2018, The River left KINAL. On 20 January 2019, DIMAR also left KINAL due to its position of supporting the Prespa agreement. On 1 June 2019 former PASOK leader Evangelos Venizelos left KINAL, accusing Gennimata of turning the Movement into "SYRIZA's tail".


title: PASOK

text: KINAL increased its obtained seats in the 2019 Greek legislative election compared to Democratic Alignment, becoming Greece's third-largest party or coalition and securing 22 seats in the Hellenic Parliament. Following the election, KINAL positioned itself into opposition to the new Mitsotakis Government.


title: PASOK

text: Elections for the new leader took place in December 2021, with the main candidates being Andreas Loverdos, Nikos Androulakis, and George Papandreou. Nikos Androulakis was elected to lead the KINAL and PASOK on 12 December 2021.


title: PASOK

text: On 9 May 2022 the alliance was rebranded "PASOK – Movement for Change" (PASOK-KINAL) and became a political party and absorbed the original party incarnation and restoring the old PASOK symbol (the green sun) soon after that.


title: PASOK

text: PASOK is a member of the Socialist International, the Progressive Alliance and the Party of European Socialists. PASOK MEPs sit with the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats (S&D) group in the European Parliament.


title: PASOK

text: Pasokification refers to the decline and rightward political shift of centre-left parties across Europe.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: The Iowa Barnstormers are a professional indoor football team based in Des Moines, Iowa. They are currently members of the Indoor Football League (IFL). They play their home games at Wells Fargo Arena, known in indoor football circles as "The Well".


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: Several teams called the Iowa Barnstormers have played in different indoor football leagues since 1995. The original Arena Football League team played in Des Moines' Veterans Memorial Auditorium from 1995 to 2001, and subsequently relocated to Uniondale, New York, where they were known as the New York Dragons. Des Moines was awarded a franchise in the developmental AF2 league in 2001 that carried on the Barnstormers name and branding, but the team suspended operations after the end of the season. In 2008 a new Barnstormers team began play in the AF2, now based in the new Wells Fargo Arena; this team joined the new AFL in 2010 following the league's reorganization. For the 2015 season, the Barnstormers left the AFL and became members of the IFL.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: On April 25, 1994, the Arena Football League approved an expansion team to be based in Des Moines, Iowa, to begin play in the 1995 season. The team was owned by Jim Foster, the inventor/creator of arena football, and the founder of the Arena Football League. On May 12, 1995, the Barnstormers played their first regular season game, on the road against the Milwaukee Mustangs. In a wild finish that saw both teams combine to score 24 points in the final 40.4 seconds of the fourth quarter, the Barnstormers won, 69–61. The next weekend, May 20, 1995, the Barnstormers played their first regular season home game against the Miami Hooters at Veterans Memorial Auditorium, winning 41–29.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: Behind the strength of AFL Coach of the Year John Gregory, the Barnstormers raced to a 3–0 start and secured the 5th seed for the playoffs. After upsetting defending ArenaBowl champion Arizona, 56–52, in their first playoff game, the Barnstormers fell, 56–49, to 6th-seeded Orlando in the semifinals.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: After an 0–1 start to their second season, the Barnstormers won their first Central Division title on the strength of eight consecutive wins to close the season. After edging St. Louis and Albany in the first two rounds of the playoffs, the top-seeded Barnstormers lost a 42–38 heartbreaker at home to second-seeded Tampa Bay in ArenaBowl X.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: In 1997, the Barnstormers repeated as Central Division champions with an 11–3 record, including a 61–38 road thrashing of the rival Storm to avenge the previous season's ArenaBowl defeat. With the 2nd seed in the playoffs, the Barnstormers avenged a regular season defeat against 7th-seeded San Jose, 68–59, before racing past 4th-seeded Orlando 52–34 to reach the franchise's second ArenaBowl in three seasons. However, in ArenaBowl XI, Arizona used a 42–13 scoring stretch over the 2nd and 3rd Quarters to roll past Iowa, 55–33.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: Star offensive specialist Willis Jacox retired after the 1997 season, while star quarterback Kurt Warner signed with the St. Louis Rams of the National Football League (NFL). Forced to rebuild after losing the eventual two-time NFL MVP, the Barnstormers limped to an 0–5 start in 1998. After acquiring Aaron Garcia from New Jersey, the Barnstormers improved, with a three-game winning streak sparked by Garcia and rookie sensation Kevin Swayne, putting the Barnstormers in playoff contention late in the year. But, in the end, they faltered, finishing 5–9, their worst season of their years in Iowa.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: In 1999, the Barnstomer resurgence under Garcia continued, with Iowa winning nine of their last ten regular season games (following a 2–2 start) to capture their third Central Division title in four seasons and secure the 2nd seed in the playoffs. A thrashing of division rival Milwaukee in the quarterfinals paired with 8th-seeded Orlando's 41–19 shocker at Tampa Bay set Iowa up at home against the 6th-seeded Predators with a chance to advance to another home ArenaBowl. However, Orlando continued its shocking run to ArenaBowl XIII with a 56–49 upset of the Barnstormers.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: The 2000 Barnstormers put up startling offensive numbers, as Garcia threw for 92 touchdowns against just 8 interceptions, with 46 of the touchdowns going to Mike Horacek. Despite this prolific offense, Iowa started slowly, losing three of their first four games. However, a five-game winning streak return the Barnstormers to the thick of the playoff hunt. Iowa went on to win their fourth Central Division crown in six seasons of play, earning the 3rd seed in the newly expanded playoffs. However, Iowa's playoff run came to a quick end on a Sunday afternoon in the quarterfinals, as the 6th-seeded Nashville scored the final 14 points to defeat Iowa, 49–42. Historically, the Barnstormers have ranked high in home paid attendance. In the Arena Football League, they finished 7th in 1995, 8th in 1996, 9th in 1997, 8th in 1998, 9th in 1999, and 9th in 2000.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: The need for a more modern venue as well as the league's desire for a larger market led to the move to New York City despite two failed past attempts in the city, the New York Knights (1988) and the New York CityHawks (1997–1998), both of which played at Madison Square Garden in Manhattan. The team was purchased by Charles Wang, who is also the Islanders' majority owner, and renamed the New York Dragons.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: Aside from the league's desire to re-enter the New York market, another major reason cited for the team's relocation was the inadequacy of their Des Moines venue, the Iowa Veterans Memorial Auditorium, also known as "The Barn". Most of the seats in this venue were located directly along the sidelines as is typical of high school sports venues. The Barnstormers organization constantly lobbied for the construction of a better facility during their time in Des Moines to no avail.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: The arena Football organization awarded an AF2 franchise to Iowa for the 2001 season, which continued the Barnstormer name. However, low attendance (less than half of the average of the AFL franchise) and a relatively poor season (a five-game winning streak to close the season wasn't able to turn a 4–7 start into a playoff berth) would lead to that franchise suspending operations following their first season.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: On September 20, 2007, the AF2 announced that they had approved the inactive franchise's new ownership, meaning that the Barnstormers resumed play in 2008 at the Wells Fargo Arena. They held practices at the historic Veterans Memorial Auditorium, and they inherited the tradition of the original Barnstormers. The team adopted the original unique uniforms, which in keeping with the aviation theme included the depiction of goggles on the helmets, wings on the shoulders of the jerseys, and propellers on the pants legs. The mascot, a dog named Ace, is featured in this helmet, along with the uniform jersey and pants.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: After being on hiatus for six seasons, the Barnstormers played their first regular season game of 2008, falling at the Louisville Fire 58–28 on March 29, 2008. The following week, they would return home for a Monday Night primetime match-up with the Lexington Horsemen on April 14, 2008. In the debut of Arena Football at the Wells Fargo Arena, the Barnstormers lost a close 43–41 contest. The next week, Iowa won their first regular season match-up since 2001 (their 75th overall), defeating the Quad City Steamwheelers 58–38 on April 19 in Moline, Illinois. The team would win their first home game at the Wells Fargo Arena on April 26, 2008, defeating the Stockton Lightning 47–24. During the 2008 season, the Barnstormers ranked 17th in average home paid attendance out of the 46 combined teams in the Arena Football League and AF2. In both 2008 and 2009, Iowa ranked second in AF2 attendance to the Spokane Shock, with attendances of 9,341 and 9,520, respectively.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: On September 28, 2009, the Barnstormers announced their status as a charter member of the new Arena Football League, marking their return to playing top-notch arena football after almost a decade of lower levels and inactivity. A franchise-record 12,184 fans attended the 2010 opener; however, Iowa's first play from scrimmage resulted in an interception return for a touchdown by the Chicago Rush, an ominous harbinger of an eventual 7–9 season.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: On July 27, 2014, Barnstormers president Jeff Lamberti told WHO-TV in Des Moines that the franchise will explore "all options" in the off-season of their continuance to play, including leaving the AFL and going to the Indoor Football League for 2015. The Barnstormers had not had a winning season since their revival as a top-level arena football team, mainly because of the difficulty in attracting top-ticket free agents to the AFL's smallest market.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: On August 27, 2014, Lamberti announced that the Iowa Barnstormers had officially become members of the IFL and named former Barnstormers quarterback Joe Brannen to replace Mike Hohensee. The Barnstormers became the first team to directly leave the AFL for a new league, although previously the Austin Wranglers had been demoted from the AFL to the AFL's former minor league, af2. The Arkansas Twisters, Tri-Cities Fever, and Green Bay Blizzard were former af2 teams which jumped to the IFL.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: "We are excited to bring the Barnstormers to the IFL", said Lamberti. "The chance to sign more local players, see more fans at road games, and create friendly rivalries with other teams of the Midwest are just a few of the opportunities that we look forward to."


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: AFL commissioner Jerry Kurz released a statement regarding the Barnstormers departure from the AFL: "We wish the Iowa Barnstormers all the best in their new endeavor. Their organization has been a part of the rich history of Arena Football for years now and will always be thought of fondly by those who love our sport." It was also noted that players currently under contract with the team were not obligated to remain with the club, essentially making them free agents.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: IFL commissioner Mike Allshouse commented: "This is a monumental day in the history of the Indoor Football League. These are exciting times for the IFL as we continue to improve and expand our business model."


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: To adjust to their new league, the Barnstormers removed the word "arena" from their logo as they are no longer with the Arena Football League, yet will retain the history of their time with the AFL. They did use the rebound nets they owned from their AFL days in 2015, but under IFL rules, any ball that hits the netting is a dead ball. The rebound nets were taken down in 2016 and replaced by the standard indoor football goalposts with netting surrounding each end zone.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: On July 11, 2016, Brannen was fired as the Barnstormers head coach. On August 24, 2016, Brannen was replaced by Dixie Wooten. Wooten had been serving as the offensive coordinator for the Cedar Rapids Titans. In his second year as head coach, Wooten led the Barnstormers to their first championship on July 7, 2018, over the Sioux Falls Storm 42–38 in the United Bowl. Wooten led the team to a 12–2 record in 2019, but again lost to Sioux Falls in the semifinals. After the season, he was hired away by the 2019 expansion team Tucson Sugar Skulls. Wooten was replaced by Ameer Ismail, the former head coach of the Massachusetts Pirates. However, he would not coach a game for the team as the 2020 season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: Longtime general manager John Pettit died in December 2020 after complications from COVID-19 and his daughter Juli was named the team's new general manager. The Barnstormers hired former Jacksonville Sharks head coach Les Moss for the 2021 season. Moss then brought former Albany Empire head coach Rob Keefe to Iowa after serving as Keefe's assistant in Albany. The Barnstormers finished 6–6 and were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs. Moss was released in September 2021.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: The Barnstormers then hired former Albany Empire assistant general manager Dave Mogensen as its head coach for the 2022 season.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: When the Barnstormers began playing in 1995, the team's logo consisted of a circular logo, which depicted a barnstorming airplane over the city of Des Moines. The logo was surrounded by a circular script reading, "Arena Football Club". The word "Arena" was removed when the team moved to the IFL. The circle logo also has wings on each side, with the words "Iowa" and "Barnstormers" on two lines above the circle logo. Below the logo was the words, "Des Moines." The team's colors consisted of black, gold and cardinal. The three colors are a combination of the Iowa Hawkeyes black and gold, and the Iowa State Cyclones cardinal and gold.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: The goggles on the team's helmet make the Barnstormers helmet one of the most recognized helmets in AFL history. In a 2008 Yahoo! article, the Barnstormers' helmet was ranked as the 8th best helmet in pro football history. Until 2012, the helmet was gold with black goggles; this was reversed beginning in the 2013 season.


title: Iowa Barnstormers

text: The Barnstormers' original uniform designed consisted of a gold helmet, and either black or white jerseys with gold numbers on the black jerseys and black numbers on the white jersey with pilots' wings on the front of both. Gold pants were used with both jerseys. A side stripe on the pants was in the design of a propeller blade. Upon the club's return, the wings were removed from the jersey. Beginning in 2013, the team switched to black pants.


title: Lady Chatterley's Lover (2015 film)

text: Lady Chatterley's Lover is a 2015 British romantic drama television film starring Holliday Grainger, Richard Madden and James Norton. It is an adaption by Jed Mercurio of D. H. Lawrence's 1928 novel "Lady Chatterley's Lover", and premiered on BBC One on 6 September 2015.


title: Lady Chatterley's Lover (2015 film)

text: The adaptation is part of a series of four 20th-century literary adaptations by the BBC, including Laurie Lee's "Cider With Rosie", L. P. Hartley's "The Go-Between" and J. B. Priestley's play "An Inspector Calls".


title: Lady Chatterley's Lover (2015 film)

text: Lady Constance Chatterley (Holliday Grainger) enjoys a happy marriage to the dashing aristocrat Sir Clifford Chatterley (James Norton), until he is severely wounded serving in the First World War. Confined to a wheelchair and impotent, Clifford becomes more distant, and Constance finds comfort in the company of the estate's brooding, lonely gamekeeper, Oliver Mellors (Richard Madden). In the Britain of the 1920s, the social divide between the upper class and their servants was unbreakable: an affair between a lady and a working man would scandalise society and ostracise them both. Lady Chatterley must choose between propriety and love, while Mellors risks his safety, as they both strive to evade the growing suspicions of her jealous and vengeful husband.


title: Lady Chatterley's Lover (2015 film)

text: The film stars Holliday Grainger as Lady Chatterley, Richard Madden as Oliver Mellors, James Norton as Sir Clifford Chatterley, and Jodie Comer as Ivy Bolton.


title: Lady Chatterley's Lover (2015 film)

text: In UK newspaper "The Guardian", Sam Wollaston wrote of the film's opening scene, "Hang on, what mining disaster at the start of "Lady Chatterley's Lover", you might ask, as I did. It has admittedly been an awful long time since I read it, and then I was probably just skimming for smut (imagine if today's teens got their porn from D. H. Lawrence rather than the internet, they might think sex was something earthy and profound, rather than hairless and mechanical), but I don't remember any accident at a mine. It's not there, I looked. Well, it's hinted at – the husband of Mrs Bolton the nurse was killed down the pit many years before; she still longs for his touch and loathes the mine bosses she blames for his loss. But the accident itself plays no part in the novel". He noted that director Mercurio has "added bits here, borrowed there, taken plenty away. No doubt people will be cross. They shouldn't be: what works on 400 or so printed pages is different to what works in 90 minutes of television. […] The accident at the mine provides a dramatic opening and is powerful and exciting even on a small screen budget, as well as quickly getting to ideas of injustice and social conflict." Wollaston found the adaptation had simplified aspects of social class, before adding, "In other ways, though, Mercurio has made things more complex and interesting: like Sir Clifford Chatterley, not just a silly toff, but a man who had everything struggling to come to terms with becoming disabled. I felt a lot of sympathy for him." Overall, he concluded, "But I do think – in spite of the deviation and modernisation – that this is loyal to Lawrence, in its themes of class, the ridiculous social order of things, nature and physical love, and in its language and spirit. And if I'm wrong about that, then it still works as a damn good love story, moving and sad and captivatingly performed."


title: Lady Chatterley's Lover (2015 film)

text: In "The Independent", Amy Burns began by noting: "D. H. Lawrence's tale of Lady Chatterley and her groundskeeper lover is famous for many things – smutty language being perhaps highest on the list. It was thanks to this so-called 'obscene language' that the book was banned in the UK for more than 30 years. So how would the ever-sensible Beeb handle such dialogue? The answer, as it turned out during last night's 90-minute adaptation, was simple. It didn't." She went on to add, "And yet, this story of love – and lust – across the class divide lost nothing for losing the profanities". Burns found that, "Cleverly cast with the charismatic James Norton in the role of Sir Cliff, this version left the viewer struggling to choose with whom to sympathise. He appeared kind and caring towards his wife and rather than simply wanting to whore her out, Sir Cliff made it clear 'it is the living together day to day not the sleeping together once or twice' that makes a marriage. And Lady C – played in excellent haughty fashion by Holliday Grainger – was deliciously dislikeable." She was less impressed with Richard Madden's attempts to capture Mellors' accent, writing that he "couldn't get it quite 'reight' – and phrases such as 'you have the nicest tail of any lass' were laugh-out-loud funny rather than romantic or raunchy"; but concluded, "Still, he gev it 'is best shot and thou can't say owt fairer than that."


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: The economy of Bulgaria functions on the principles of the free market, having a large private sector and a smaller public one. Bulgaria is an industrialised upper-middle-income country according to the World Bank, and is a member of the European Union (EU), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC). The Bulgarian economy has experienced significant growth (538%), starting from $13.15 billion (nominal, 2000)<ref name="countryeconomy.com/gdp/bulgaria"></ref> and reaching estimated gross domestic product (GDP) of $86 billion (nominal, 2022 est.) or $203 billion (PPP, 2022 est.), GDP per capita of $31,148 (PPP, 2022 est.), average gross monthly salary of 1,771 leva (906 euro) (April 2022), and average net monthly salary of $1,838 (adjusted for living costs in PPP) (2021). The national currency is the lev (plural leva), pegged to the euro at a rate of 1.95583 leva for 1 euro. The lev is the strongest and most stable currency in Eastern Europe.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: The strongest sectors in the economy are energy, mining, metallurgy, machine building, agriculture and tourism. Primary industrial exports are clothing, iron and steel, machinery and refined fuels.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: Sofia is the capital and economic heart of Bulgaria and home to most major Bulgarian and international companies operating in the country, as well as the Bulgarian National Bank and the Bulgarian Stock Exchange. Plovdiv is the second-largest city and has one of the largest economies in Bulgaria. Varna is the third largest city in Bulgaria and the largest city and seaside resort on the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast. Situated strategically in the Gulf of Varna, economically, Varna is among the best-performing and fastest-growing Bulgarian cities.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: The Bulgarian economy has developed significantly in the last 26 years, despite all difficulties after the disband of Comecon in 1991. In the early 1990s, the country's slow pace of privatization, contradictory government tax and investment policies, and bureaucratic red tape kept the foreign direct investment (FDI) among the lowest in the region. Total FDI from 1991 through 1996 was $831 million.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: In December 1996, Bulgaria joined the World Trade Organization. In the years since 1997, Bulgaria begun to attract substantial foreign investment. In 2004 alone, over 2.72 billion euro ($3.47 billion) were invested by foreign companies. In 2005, economists observed a slowdown to about 1.8 billion euro ($2.3 billion) in the FDI, which is attributed mainly to the end of the privatization of the major state owned companies.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: After joining the European Union in 2007, Bulgaria registered a peak in foreign investment of about 6 bln euro.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: Low productivity and competitiveness on the European and world markets alike due to inadequate R&D funding, however, still remain a significant obstacle for foreign investment.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: Nevertheless, according to the latest Annual report of the Economic Research Institute at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, the average salary in Bulgaria is a quarter (1/4) of the average salary in the European Union, and should be two times higher when the labour productivity is calculated in the formula.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: During the Great Recession, Bulgaria saw its economy decline by 5.5% in 2009, but quickly restored positive growth levels to 0.2% in 2010, in contrast to other Balkan countries. However, the growth continued to be weak in the following years, and GDP only reached pre-crisis levels in 2014.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: During the 17th and 18th century Bulgaria had a largely undeveloped industry with agriculture, crafts, and partly trade being the only developed industry sectors.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: Bulgaria was one of the more dynamic industrial areas of the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria experienced an economic boom in export-oriented textiles in the period 1815–65, even while the Ottoman Empire's economy was in decline. Bulgaria had comparatively weak economic growth from the 1870s to World War I. The Bulgarian export sector collapsed after Bulgarian independence in 1878. By 1903, industrial output in Bulgaria was far lower than in 1870.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: During the 1930s, the Bulgarian economy was described as an economy militarily bound to Germany. In the early 1940s, as Germany began to lose the Second World War, the Bulgarian economy suffered a decline.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: During the Socialism era, Bulgarian economy continued to be industrialized, although free market trade substantially decreased, as private market initiatives became state-regulated. Still, the Bulgarian economy made significant overall progress in modernizing road infrastructure, airline transportation, as well as developing the tourism sector by building tourist resorts along the Black sea coast and the mountain regions.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: From the end of World War II until the widespread change of regime in Eastern Europe in November 1989, the Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP) exerted complete economic, social and political control in Bulgaria. The party's ascent to power in 1944 had marked the beginning of economic change towards planned economy. During that time, Bulgaria followed the Soviet model of economic development more closely than any other member of the Eastern Bloc, while becoming one of the first members of Comecon. The new regime shifted the economy type from a predominantly agrarian one towards an industrial economy, while encouraging the relocation of the labour force from the countryside to the cities, thus providing workers for the newly built large-scale industrial complexes. At the same time, the focus of Bulgarian international trade shifted from Central Europe to Eastern Europe and the USSR.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: These new policies resulted in impressive initial rates of economic development. Bulgarian economy closely resembled that of the Soviet Union. Soviet-style centralised planning formed by consecutive five-year plan periods had more immediate benefits there compared to the other Eastern European states where it was first applied in the early 1950s. Throughout the postwar period, economic progress was also substantially assisted by a level of internal political stability unseen in other Eastern European countries during the same period. That represented a change on the Bulgarian political scene as political turbulence was common before BCP's ascent to power.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: Nonetheless, beginning in the early 1960s, low capital and labour productivity, as well as expensive material inputs, plagued the Bulgarian economy. With disappointing rates of growth came a high degree of economic experimentation. This experimentation took place within the socialist economic framework, although never approaching a market-based economy.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: In the late 1980s, continuing poor economic performance intensified economic hardship. By that time, the misdirection and irrationality of BCP economic policies had become quite clear. Bulgaria's economy contracted dramatically after 1987, shortly before Comecon, with which the Bulgarian economy had integrated closely, dissolved in 1991. On 10 November 1989, at the November plenum of BCP, Todor Zhivkov was dismissed from his long-held party leader and head of state positions. The communist regime gave way to democratic elections and government. Unlike the communist parties in most other Eastern European states, the BCP (changing its name to Bulgarian Socialist Party) retained power by winning the first free national elections in June 1990. That was made possible by changes in party leadership, programme, reduction of its power base and other moves which permitted economic re-orientation toward a market system. This difficult transition combined with political vagueness and unpreparedness of the Bulgarian people for social and economic changes led to dramatically worsening economic conditions during the early 1990s.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: Economic performance declined dramatically at the beginning of the 1990s after the disbandment of the Comecon system and the loss of the Soviet and Comecon market, to which the country had been entirely tied. Also, as a result of political unrest with the first attempts to re-establish a democratic political system and free market economy the standard of living fell by about 40%, and only started to stabilize significantly after 1998 after the fall of Jean Videnov's socialist government. It regained pre-1989 levels by June 2004.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: First signs of recovery showed in 1994 when GDP grew by 1.4%. This progress continued with a 2.5% rise in 1995. Inflation, which surged to 122% in 1994, fell to normal rates of 32.9% in 1995. During 1996, however, the economy collapsed during Jean Videnov's government. That was due to the Bulgarian Socialist Party's inability to introduce vital economic reforms and failure to set legislative standards for banking and financial institutions, thus forcing an unstable banking system. All this led to an inflation rate of 311%, and the collapse of the lev. In the spring 1997, the pro-reform United Democratic Forces coalition came to power with its ambitious economic reform package. The reforms included introduction of a currency board regime, which was agreed to with the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and allowed the economy to stabilize. The 2000s saw a steady pace of growth and budget surpluses, but shaky inflation.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: Successful foreign direct investment and successive governments have demonstrated a commitment to economic reforms and responsible fiscal planning that have contributed greatly to the Bulgarian economy, with a historical growth rate average of 6% a year. Corruption in the public administration and a weak judiciary have continued to be long-term problems, with presence of organized crime remaining very high.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: Although politicians were giving warranties that the late-2000s recession would not hit Bulgaria, the economy suffered a 5.5% GDP decline in that period. Unemployment rose for at least five-quarters bringing Bulgaria's worst recession since the early 1990s. Still, economic circumstances were not too severe when compared to the rest of Europe. Future prospects are tied to the country's increasingly important integration with the European Union member states.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: Members of the government promised to move forward on cash and mass privatization upon taking office in January 1995 but were slow to act. United Nations sanctions against Yugoslavia and Iraq (1990–2003), two of the country's most significant trading partners, took a heavy toll on the Bulgarian economy. The first signs of recovery emerged in 1994 when the GDP grew and inflation fell. The first round of mass privatisation finally began in January 1996, and auctions began toward the end of that year. The second and third rounds were conducted in Spring 1997 under a new government. In July 1998, the UDF-led government and the IMF reached an agreement on a 3-year loan worth about $800 million, which replaced the 14-month stand-by agreement that expired in June 1998. The loan was used to develop financial markets, improve social safety net programmes, strengthen the tax system, reform agricultural and energy sectors, and further liberalise trade. The European Commission, in its 2002 country report, recognised Bulgaria as a functioning market economy, acknowledging the progress made by Prime Minister Ivan Kostov's government toward market-oriented reforms.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: In April 1997, the Union of Democratic Forces (SDS) won pre-term parliamentary elections and introduced an IMF currency board system which succeeded in stabilizing the economy. The triple digit inflation of 1996 and 1997 has given way to an official economic growth, but forecasters predicted accelerated growth over the next several years. The government's structural reform program includes:


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: Despite reforms, weak control over privatization led many successful state enterprises to bankruptcy. The SDS government also failed to stop the growing negative account balance, which has since then continued to increase, reaching a negative of $12.65 billion in 2008. The government elected in 2001 pledged to maintain the fundamental economic policy objectives adopted by its predecessor in 1997, specifically: retaining the Currency Board, implementing sound financial policies, accelerating privatisation, and pursuing structural reforms. Both governments failed to implement sound social policies.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: The economy really took off between 2003 and 2008 and growth figures quickly shot up, fluctuating between figures as high as 6.6% (2004) and 5.0% (2003). Even in the last pre-crisis year, 2008, the Bulgarian economy was growing rapidly at 6.0%, despite significantly slowing down in the last quarter.


title: Economy of Bulgaria

text: On 1 January 2007 Bulgaria entered the European Union. This led to some immediate international trade liberalization, but there was no shock to the economy. The government ran annual surpluses of above 3%. This fact, together with annual GDP growth of above 5%, has brought the government indebtedness to 22.8% of GDP in 2006 from 67.3% five years earlier. This is to be contrasted with enormous current account deficits. Low interest rates guaranteed availability of funds for investment and consumption. For example, a boom in the real estate market started around 2003. At the same time annual inflation in the economy was variable and during the last five years (2003–2007) has seen a low of 2.3% and high of 7.3%. Most importantly, this poses a threat to the country's accession to the Eurozone. The Bulgarian government originally planned to adopt the Euro no sooner than 2015. Although Bulgaria will have to adopt the euro as a condition to membership, plans have since been postponed for better economic times. From a political point of view, there is a trade-off between Bulgaria's economic growth and the stability required for early accession to the monetary union. Bulgaria's per-capita PPP GDP is still only about a half of the EU27 average, while the country's nominal GDP per capita is about 20% of the EU27 average. However, Bulgaria ranks 38th (2015) in the Ease of Doing Business rank list, higher than most other Eastern European states, and 40th (2012) in the Economic Freedom of the World index, outperforming Belgium, Spain, Poland, Hungary, Portugal. Bulgaria also has the lowest personal and corporate income tax rates in the EU, as well as the second lowest public debt of all European Union member states at 16.2% of GDP in 2010.