title: David Dimbleby

text: On 24 July 1967, Dimbleby was one of seventy signatories to an advertisement in "The Times" advocating the decriminalisation of cannabis use, which had been written by campaigner Stephen Abrams. An incident in 1969 led to Dimbleby, then freelance, being called in by the BBC's Director of Television. During U.S. President Richard Nixon's visit to the UK, a reference by Dimbleby to UK and US government heads' "'expensively hired" press secretaries "whose job is to disguise the truth" was given much attention by the British press.


title: David Dimbleby

text: Dimbleby became involved in a number of projects that combined his established role as presenter and interviewer with documentary making. An early example of this was "Yesterday's Men" (1971), a film which the BBC recognises "ridiculed" the Labour opposition and led to a major conflict between the Corporation and the Labour Party; Dimbleby had his name removed from the credits because of the concessions that were made. In 1974, he became the presenter of "Panorama", which had been presented by his father.


title: David Dimbleby

text: Dimbleby anchored the BBC's overnight coverage of the 1979 general election, and continued in this role for the following ten general elections. In addition to election coverage, he also hosted BBC Budget specials, and was a presenter of the BBC early evening weekday current affairs series "Nationwide". During the same period (beginning in 1979), Dimbleby has also been the anchor for the BBC's European Elections results programmes and in 2008 and 2012, anchored the BBC's coverage of the US Election night.


title: David Dimbleby

text: Dimbleby was the main presenter of the BBC's political series "This Week Next Week" (1984–88), broadcast on Sunday early afternoons, as a competitor to ITV's established "Weekend World" series. As early as 1987, he was a contender for the position of Director-General of the BBC (losing out to Michael Checkland). "This Week Next Week" was replaced in 1988 by the "On the Record", a political series presented until 1993 by his younger brother, Jonathan Dimbleby. Meanwhile, he continued to work in documentaries, including "The White Tribe of Africa" (1979), an award-winning four-part history of South Africa's Afrikaans community and the rise of apartheid, "An Ocean Apart" (1988), an examination of the history of Anglo-American relations, and "Rebellion!" (1999), a history of Britain's troubled relations with Zimbabwe.


title: David Dimbleby

text: By this time, Dimbleby was established as the anchor for the BBC's coverage of events of national importance, such as the State Opening of Parliament, the Trooping the Colour, the National Service of Remembrance service at the Cenotaph in Whitehall.


title: David Dimbleby

text: Dimbleby served as chairman of the BBC's Thursday evening topical debate programme "Question Time" from 1994 until 2018. One of the most memorable moments from "Question Time" was when Dimbleby accidentally referred to Robin Cook as "Robin Cock", to which Cook responded by jokingly referring to Dimbleby as "David Bumblebee".


title: David Dimbleby

text: In 1999, Dimbleby opened "2000 Today", the BBC's coverage of the millennium celebrations, from Greenwich, England. He commentated on the funerals of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother in 2002 and former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in 2013, as well as the state visit of US President George W. Bush to the UK in 2003. In 2002, Dimbleby hosted the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II coverage. A profile by Ben Summerskill for "The Observer" in 2001 quoted an unnamed former Cabinet Minister who had observed Dimbleby's career for many decades: "I suspect he has an almost medieval view, that the Queen governs through Parliament... There are a few quarrels among the subjects – over which he presides very capably – but they have very little to do with what Britain is really about." Dimbleby, though, has himself criticised what he sees as archaic elements of the State Opening of Parliament.


title: David Dimbleby

text: David Dimbleby was chairman of the Dimbleby Newspaper Group, former publishers of the "Richmond and Twickenham Times", acquired by the Newsquest Media Group in 2001 for a reported £12,000,000.


title: David Dimbleby

text: There were reports in 2004 that Dimbleby was shortlisted for the chairmanship of the BBC. However, the position was eventually awarded to Michael Grade. Dimbleby was a contender for the chairmanship in the corporation's tumultuous period following 2001, which went to Gavyn Davies. He has instead remained, according to Mark Duguid for the BFI's screenonline website, best known for his "gravitas, journalistic integrity and consummate professionalism" and as "a paragon of impartiality" as a narrator and moderator, of British politics.


title: David Dimbleby

text: In 2005, he hosted a BBC One series, "A Picture of Britain", celebrating British and Irish paintings, poetry, music and landscapes. In June 2007 he wrote and presented a follow-up, the BBC series, "How We Built Britain", in which he explored the history of British architecture by visiting a region of Britain and its historic buildings each week. David Dimbleby also presented a new series on BBC One, "Seven Ages of Britain". In early editions of the programme, he looked at the Bayeux Tapestry and exhibits to do with Thomas Becket.


title: David Dimbleby

text: On 12 November 2009, Dimbleby missed his first "Question Time" in over fifteen years, having been taken to hospital as a precaution after being briefly knocked out by a rearing bullock at his farm in Sussex.


title: David Dimbleby

text: Dimbleby hosted the third of three televised election debates featuring the leaders of the three main political parties held in the run-up to the 2010 general election. On the night of the 2010 general election, Dimbleby hosted the BBC coverage, along with Jeremy Vine, Jeremy Paxman, Nick Robinson, and Emily Maitlis. Presenting from BBC Television Centre Studio 1, he was an anchor and involved commentary contributions, guest interviews, and introducing live outside broadcasts. In 2013, Dimbleby presented "Britain and the Sea" and a year later, he presented "". In 2015, Dimbleby hosted the first BBC general election debate, in spite of the fact that neither Prime Minister David Cameron nor Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg took part.


title: David Dimbleby

text: Dimbleby hosted the EU referendum results show on BBC One, BBC News and BBC World News overnight on 23–24 June 2016, when the UK became the first and only country to vote to leave the European Union. In this programme, he made the following quote to the country when the BBC released its forecast for a Leave win at 04:40 BST:


title: David Dimbleby

text: On 20 April 2017, the BBC announced Dimbleby would host their coverage of the 2017 general election despite having announced that the 2015 general election would be his last.


title: David Dimbleby

text: On 17 June 2018, the BBC announced Dimbleby would leave "Question Time" after 25 years at the end of that year. On 7 December 2018, the BBC announced that Fiona Bruce would take over presenting duties from January 2019.


title: David Dimbleby

text: Since his retirement from "Question Time", Dimbleby has presented occasional documentaries for the BBC.


title: David Dimbleby

text: In 2019, and in some of his first work outside the BBC for decades, he presented an acclaimed series of podcasts on the life of media mogul Rupert Murdoch entitled "The Sun King". This focused on various key moments in Murdoch's professional career such as his takeover of newspapers around the world, Fox News, his battles with print unions and the phone hacking scandal. It also attempts to examine Murdoch's personal motivations and his political influence.


title: David Dimbleby

text: In 2020 Dimbleby continued his foray into podcasting, presenting a series on the lead-up to the Iraq War. The series examined the events in the lead-up to the 2003 invasion asking whether it was justified at the time, and whether it could have been avoided. It also closely analysed the relationship between George W. Bush and Tony Blair, with Blair being interviewed as part of the series.


title: David Dimbleby

text: In October 2020 Dimbleby said he was again considering putting his name forward for chairman of the BBC.


title: David Dimbleby

text: In September 2022, Dimbleby came out of retirement to commentate on the state funeral of Queen Elizabeth II for the BBC, in particular the committal service at St George's Chapel, Windsor.


title: David Dimbleby

text: In October 2022, Dimbleby stated that the BBC does not appropriately question the power of the royal family. He said that the BBC would not address controversial topics to do with the monarchy, such as its ability to change tax legislation or the fact that the Duchy of Cornwall doesn’t pay capital gains tax, and stated his disagreement that such matters were not examined. He also stated his shock for the amount of control the monarchy have over broadcasting covering them.


title: David Dimbleby

text: Although the brothers presented election coverage on competing channels, when asked in an interview about rival ITV's plans to include a riverboat party with the likes of Kevin Spacey and Richard Branson in their 2005 election broadcast, Dimbleby commented, "They've got Jonathan Dimbleby, what do they need Kevin Spacey for?"


title: David Dimbleby

text: Dimbleby has three children with his first wife, Josceline Dimbleby, a cookery writer: Liza, an artist; Henry, a chef and co-founder of the fast-food chain Leon; and Kate, a jazz and folk singer.


title: David Dimbleby

text: In 2000, Dimbleby married Belinda Giles, a granddaughter of Herbrand Sackville, 9th Earl De La Warr with whom he had a son, Fred, in February 1998. Dimbleby lives in Polegate, East Sussex with a second home in Dartmouth, Devon. He is a supporter of Tranmere Rovers Football Club.


title: David Dimbleby

text: Dimbleby was made an honorary graduate of the University of Essex in 2005, and is the President of the Institute for Citizenship. In 2019, he received the Special Recognition Award for his services to news and current affairs at the National Television Awards in London.


title: Asphodel Meadows

text: The Asphodel Meadows is a section of the ancient Greek underworld where ordinary souls are sent to live after death.


title: Asphodel Meadows

text: The Asphodel Meadows is most probably where the souls of people who lived mediocre lives remain. Its relationship to other places in the Greek afterlife remains uncertain.


title: Asphodel Meadows

text: For later Greek poets the very ancient pre-Homeric association of the asphodel flower with a positive form of afterlife as well as the enlarged role of Elysium as it became the destination of more than just a few lucky heroes, altered the character of the meadows. Greek poets who wrote after Homer's time describe them as untouched, lovely, soft and holy. Such an evolutionary change is quite common: "Like most cultures throughout human history, both ancient and modern, the Greeks held complex and sometimes contradictory views about the afterlife".


title: Asphodel Meadows

text: Some depictions describe it as a land of utter neutrality. That is, while the inhabitants were in life neither good nor evil, so they are treated in the afterlife. Other depictions have also stated that all residents drink from the river Lethe before entering the fields, thus losing their identities. This somewhat negative outlook on the afterlife for those who make little impact was perhaps passed down to encourage militarism in Greek cultures (as opposed to inaction). In fact, those who did take up arms and became heroes were rewarded with everlasting joy in the fields of Elysium.


title: Asphodel Meadows

text: Edith Hamilton suggested in 1999 that the asphodel of these fields are not exactly like the asphodel of our world, but are "presumably strange, pallid, ghostly flowers." Others have suggested, in 2002, that they were actually narcissi.


title: Asphodel Meadows

text: There is an area named Asphodelos in the Pandaemonium raid in , likely referencing the Asphodel Meadows.


title: CNA (TV network)

text: CNA (stylised as cna), which is an acronym derived from its previous name, Channel NewsAsia, is a Singaporean multinational news channel owned by the country's national public broadcaster Mediacorp. It broadcasts free-to-air domestically in Singapore and as a pay television channel internationally to 29 territories across the Asia-Pacific. The channel's logo is a stylised red letter A with folding patterns.


title: CNA (TV network)

text: The network has been positioned as an alternative to Western-based international media in its presentation of news from "an Asian perspective". It is run by Mediacorp News Pte Ltd, a subsidiary of the Singapore's media conglomerate Mediacorp Pte Ltd.


title: CNA (TV network)

text: Alongside its main focus as an English-language news television channel, CNA also broadcasts and produces news and current affairs content in Singapore's other official languages: Chinese, Malay and Tamil. Content is produced for Mediacorp's online platforms, with news bulletins made for and shown on the company's mass entertainment channels Suria, Channel 5, Channel U, Channel 8 and Vasantham in their respective languages.


title: CNA (TV network)

text: CNA provides news broadcasts through its own domestic radio station. It also provides live streaming of world news through its official online portal, and its social media presence through Facebook, Instagram, YouTube and Twitter as well as apps for tablets and mobile devices to allow viewers to access content at any time.


title: CNA (TV network)

text: Channel NewsAsia was first launched on 1 March 1999 under the Television Corporation of Singapore (TCS). The network aired only in Singapore at the beginning, as it was only focused on news from that country. It started to be distributed in other Asian countries on 28 September 2000.


title: CNA (TV network)

text: In August 2012, CNA reached an agreement to be broadcast in Myanmar through satellite-TV operator Sky Net. CNA opened its Myanmar news bureau in the capital Yangon in October 2013 – the bureau officially opened in January 2014 – as only one of four foreign news organisations licensed to operate in the country at the time.


title: CNA (TV network)

text: On 21 January 2013, CNA underwent a major relaunch, introducing a new studio at the Marina Bay Financial Centre, an expansion in programming, and the new slogan "Understand Asia". With the changes, CNA added additional news and current affairs programmes focusing on business and the "dynamism and progress" of Asia, and added the new late-night newscast "News Pulse" (which would feature coverage of international headlines, predominantly involving the Americas and Europe) to expand into a 24-hour service. managing director Debra Soon explained that "as the locus of the world economy shifts towards Asia, we believe we are well positioned to deliver what we've been doing daily since 1999, and help audiences around the world better Understand Asia."


title: CNA (TV network)

text: In July 2014, CNA opened its Vietnam bureau. Other bureaus the channel had opened at the time were Beijing, Hong Kong, Jakarta, Seoul and Tokyo; unofficial offices were also maintained in other cities such as Mumbai, New Delhi and Washington D.C.


title: CNA (TV network)

text: In September 2014, the channel announced plans to expand its studio in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, into a fully functional satellite office with high definition capabilities.


title: CNA (TV network)

text: On 26 May 2015, CNA began broadcasting in high definition. In July 2015, CNA's reach was placed at 58 million households in 26 countries. CNA began broadcasting in India on 19 November 2015, through satellite operator Tata Sky. The move extended the network's reach to 14 million households in India,


title: CNA (TV network)

text: On 1 August 2018, CNA was launched on Astro in Malaysia. It stayed on Channel 533 and moved to Channel 515 on 1 April 2020.


title: CNA (TV network)

text: In March 2019, Mediacorp announced that Channel NewsAsia would rebrand as "CNA" full-time, in an effort to abandon a "TV-centric" identity to emphasise its multi-platform operations. This would include the relaunch of its news radio station 938Now in as CNA Talk, and the upcoming citizen journalism initiative Tell CNA.


title: Naan Kadavul

text: Naan Kadavul () is a 2009 Indian Tamil-language action drama film co-written and directed by Bala. The film is based on the Tamil novel "Yezhaam Ulagam" by Jeyamohan, who also penned the dialogues for the film. The film stars Arya and Pooja.


title: Naan Kadavul

text: The film produced by K. S. Sreenivasan and jointly distributed by Vasan Visual Ventures and Pyramid Saimira, had background score and soundtrack composed by Ilaiyaraaja. Arthur A. Wilson handled the cinematography while Suresh Urs looked after the editing. The film had been in making for over three years, finally released on 6 February 2009. Upon release the film received critical acclaim, winning two National Film Awards, including the Best Director Award for Bala, four Vijay Awards, three Tamil Nadu State Film Awards and two Filmfare Awards. It was also shown at film festivals, such as the 2010 Fantastic Fest and the 2011 Beloit International Film Festival.


title: Naan Kadavul

text: For astrological reasons, a father (Azhagan Thamizhmani) has to leave his son Rudran (Arya) in Kashi for 14 years.


title: Naan Kadavul

text: 14 years later, repenting his act, he goes with his daughter in search of the boy. He finds him there but is shocked to learn he has become an Aghori, a fierce, tigerish sadhu who gives moksha and prevents the soul from getting reborn. Nevertheless, he brings him back to Tamil Nadu as he had promised the boy's mother (Vijaya Bharathi).


title: Naan Kadavul

text: The story takes a turn here and introduces us to the world of physically and mentally challenged beggars, a world controlled by the cruel Thandavan (Rajendran). Hamsavalli (Pooja Umashankar) is a blind girl who was with a group of street actors, but on one day was forcefully separated from her troupe and made to join the beggars controlled by Thandavan. Soon, she becomes a victim of Thandavan's cruelty.


title: Naan Kadavul

text: Meanwhile, Rudran leaves his house to find his place in a small cave near a hill temple. One day, Rudran's mother comes to plead with him to come back to their house but is unsuccessful. Following this, Hamsavalli tries to convince Rudran to return to his house, but fails. In the meantime, Thandavan makes a deal with another man of the same profession to sell some of his beggars to him for a tidy profit. The man forcefully takes the beggars away, although they want to stay with the rest of the beggars. He then returns with a man with a deformed face trying to force Hamsavalli to marry him for 10 lakhs worth of money. Thandavan orders his men to bring Hamsavalli, but they take her to Rudran to help her. Rudran kills the new man and is arrested by the local police, who are forced to let him go as they are not able to locate the body and are afraid of forcing a confession from Rudran for fear of being curse. This agitates Thandavan.


title: Naan Kadavul

text: Hamsavalli seeks protection and solace from the church, but Thandavan finds her and tortures her as she refused to marry the deformed man, thus making him lose out on a good amount of money. An angered and humiliated Thandavan beats up Hamsavalli badly. Rudran is shown wounded in his forehead, with blood oozing out. In a flashback, Thandavan appears face-to-face against Rudran and fights him, the result of the fight being the wound. Rudran kills Thandavan. Hamsavalli finds her way to Rudran and beseeches him to free her from her misery and the earthly life. She also pleads with him to grant her moksha so that she never has to be born again. Rudran slashes Hamsavalli's throat, performs her last rites and returns to his guru in Kashi.


title: Naan Kadavul

text: After the release of "Pithamagan" (2003), Bala began to work on a script for a film for which he sought inspiration from a scene in "Anbe Sivam" which had inspired him to make his film, referring to a scene where Kamal Haasan states to Madhavan that "when we love others unconditionally without any expectation, we become Gods". It was announced that the film would star Ajith Kumar in the lead role and produced by A. M. Rathnam. Ajith signed a contract for the film stating that he would work in the film for 150 days, and the project was titled "Naan Kadavul". However Ratnam, the producer of the film dropped out in December 2004, opting to concentrate on his Telugu film "Bangaram" and his son's venture, "Kedi". Early sources indicated that Cleeny, sister of actress Gopika, would play the lead role in the film although this later proved to be untrue and Meera Jasmine was selected. As pre-production work continued, Ajith grew his hair for the role and subsequently appeared in a song in the much-delayed film, "Varalaru" with the long hair he grew for "Naan Kadavul", when doing patchwork. The film was briefly shelved in August 2005 and Ajith moved on to sign other films such as P. Vasu's "Paramasivan", which was initially set to be produced by Bala, and Perarasu's "Thirupathi". The film then re-emerged and in April 2006, Bala announced the technical crew of the film revealing that Arthur A. Wilson would be cinematographer, Krishnamoorthy as art director and that Ilaiyaraaja would score the film's music. Pre-production on the film began in early 2006, with Bala's assistants already scouting for ideal filming locations in the city of Varanasi. Ajith announced that the shoot of the film would start in the city in May 2006, with the actor refusing to speculate the story of the film. However, as the film yet again failed to take off, Ajith finally pulled out of the project in June 2006 stating he could wait no longer for Bala.


title: Naan Kadavul

text: Suriya was named as a potential replacement, but the actor was committed to several other films during the period. It was reported that Narain, who also made his debut with "Chithiram Pesuthadi", would do the role but producers wanted a more saleable name, and hence Arya was signed up. Arya was eager to appear in the film but had already given dates to Saran for "Vattaram", and unsuccessfully attempted to drop out of that film to allot dates for "Naan Kadavul". Saran's refusal meant that Arya had to wait and complete the film before joining Bala's team. Bala stated in an interview that to play the character of Rudran, he needs a person who doesn't have mercy when we look into his eyes. So he opted Ajith first and later chosen Arya to play the character of Rudran. Bhavana was signed for the film after the success of "Chithiram Pesuthadi", replacing Meera Jasmine. Ravi, director of Vignesh starrer "Aacharya" and Kannan, director of "Raasaiyya", made their debuts as actors with this film. Rajendran, a fight master who earlier appeared in a small role in director Bala's previous film "Pithamagan" was selected to play main villain thus making his debut as full-fledged actor. The film also introduced 175 new faces to the screen in which most of them being physically challenged people. The film was consequently launched in June 2006 at Hotel Green Park, Chennai with P. L. Thenappan's Sri Rajalakshmi Films as producers. Arya grew his hair out for the film.


title: Naan Kadavul

text: The photo shoot of the film was held in August 2006 with Arya and Bhavana and images of Arya were released showing him in different postures of Yoga including Sirasasanam and Padmasanam. The film's first schedule began later that month in Nazarethpettai, near Chennai. Shoots continued in Kasi and Varanasi in January 2007, with Arya opting against working in any other films till "Naan Kadavul" was complete. Producer Thennapan also backed out of the film in early 2007 but Srinivasan of Vasan Visual Ventures took over swiftly.


title: Naan Kadavul

text: Bhavana also walked out of the film in early 2007 as she was unable to allot dates for the film and a search for another new cast member began. Meenakshi, Anjali and Parvathy Thiruvothu were heavily linked to the role to replace Bhavana, but Bala opted against selecting either. Subsequently, Karthika, who had been seen in small budget films such as "Thootukudi" and "Pirappu", was booked as heroine and she was made to beg in the streets of Periyakulam during an audition. However Bala was still unimpressed. Hindi actress, Neetu Chandra, was flown down to Theni for a test shoot but Bala felt she did not have the looks for the role of a beggar girl. Actress Pooja was later finalised as lead actress in September 2007 and joined the sets of the film in Periyakulam in late 2007. She revealed that she went to the audition of the film only after being compelled by director Seeman and thought twice about accepting the film due to her commitments in a Sinhalese film, before the producer of that film released her from her contract.


title: Naan Kadavul

text: This film features 7 songs composed by Ilaiyaraaja. The audio was released on 1 January 2009. Lyrics have been penned by Vaali except for the track "Pitchai Paathiram" which has been penned by Ilaiyaraaja himself and the title song "Maa Ganga" written by Bharath Achaarya. The song "Matha Un Kovilil" was reused from Raja's own song which he had composed for "Achchani" (1978).


title: Naan Kadavul

text: Malathi Rangarajan of "The Hindu" called it "a rare offering for intrepid folks who plump for true-to-life depictions". "The Times of India" wrote, "At a time when the clutter of routine commercial cinema gets to you, it's apt that you resort to an eerie film like "Naan Kadavul"." Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff.com gave the film a rating of three out of five stars, writing, ""Naan Kadavul" is definitely worth a watch for its superb secondary characters, setting and music", but noted weaknesses with the script, describing it as lacking "punch." Svrinavasan wrote, "Aside from mumbling mantras at strategic points, Rudhran doesn't do anything much ... Very little of the sharp-sightedness that's gone in showcasing the world of beggars has gone into the mental make-up of Rudhran, and it shows." Sify wrote, "Watch "Naan Kadavul", because it's one of those films that won't easily get out of your head long after the film is over."


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: During World War I, the German Empire was one of the Central Powers. It began participation in the conflict after the declaration of war against Serbia by its ally, Austria-Hungary. German forces fought the Allies on both the eastern and western fronts, although German territory itself remained relatively safe from widespread invasion for most of the war, except for a brief period in 1914 when East Prussia was invaded. A tight blockade imposed by the Royal Navy caused severe food shortages in the cities, especially in the winter of 1916–17, known as the Turnip Winter. At the end of the war, Germany's defeat and widespread popular discontent triggered the German Revolution of 1918–1919 which overthrew the monarchy and established the Weimar Republic.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: The German population responded to the outbreak of war in 1914 with a complex mix of emotions, in a similar way to the populations in other countries of Europe; notions of overt enthusiasm known as the Spirit of 1914 have been challenged by more recent scholarship. The German government, dominated by the Junkers, saw the war as a way to end being surrounded by hostile powers France, Russia and Britain. The war was presented inside Germany as the chance for the nation to secure "our place under the sun," as the Foreign Minister Bernhard von Bülow had put it, which was readily supported by prevalent nationalism among the public. The German establishment hoped the war would unite the public behind the monarchy, and lessen the threat posed by the dramatic growth of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which had been the most vocal critic of the Kaiser in the Reichstag before the war. Despite its membership in the Second International, the Social Democratic Party of Germany ended its differences with the Imperial government and abandoned its principles of internationalism to support the war effort. The German state spent 170 billion Marks during the war. The money was raised by borrowing from banks and from public bond drives. Symbolic purchasing of nails which were driving into public wooden crosses spurred the aristocracy and middle class to buy bonds. These bonds became worthless with the 1923 hyperinflation.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: It soon became apparent that Germany was not prepared for a war lasting more than a few months. At first, little was done to regulate the economy for a wartime footing, and the German war economy would remain badly organized throughout the war. Germany depended on imports of food and raw materials, which were stopped by the British blockade of Germany. First food prices were limited, then rationing was introduced. In 1915 five million pigs were massacred in the so-called Schweinemord, both to produce food and to preserve grain. The winter of 1916/17 was called the "turnip winter" because the potato harvest was poor and people ate animal food, including vile-tasting turnips. From August 1914 to mid-1919, the excess deaths compared to peacetime caused by malnutrition and high rates of exhaustion and disease and despair came to about 474,000 civilians.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: According to biographer Konrad H. Jarausch, a primary concern for Bethmann Hollweg in July 1914 was the steady growth of Russian power, and the growing closeness of the British and French military collaboration. Under these circumstances he decided to run what he considered a calculated risk to back Vienna in a local small-scale war against Serbia, while risking a major war with Russia. He calculated that France would not support Russia. It failed when Russia decided on general mobilization, and his own Army demanded the opportunity to use the Schlieffen Plan for quick victory against a poorly prepared France. By rushing through Belgium, Germany expanded the war to include England. Bethmann thus failed to keep France and Britain out of the conflict.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: The crisis came to a head on 5 July 1914 when the Count Hoyos Mission arrived in Berlin in response to Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Leopold Berchtold's plea for friendship. Bethmann Hollweg was assured that Britain would not intervene in the frantic diplomatic rounds across the European powers. However, reliance on that assumption encouraged Austria to demand Serbian concessions. His main concern was Russian border manoeuvres, conveyed by his ambassadors at a time when Raymond Poincaré himself was preparing a secret mission to St Petersburg. He wrote to Count Sergey Sazonov, "Russian mobilisation measures would compel us to mobilise and that then European war could scarcely be prevented."


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, Bethmann Hollweg and his foreign minister, Gottlieb von Jagow, were instrumental in assuring Austria-Hungary of Germany's unconditional support, regardless of Austria's actions against Serbia. While Grey was suggesting a mediation between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Bethmann Hollweg wanted Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia and so he tampered with the British message and deleted the last line of the letter: "Also, the whole world here is convinced, and I hear from my colleagues that the key to the situation lies in Berlin, and that if Berlin seriously wants peace, it will prevent Vienna from following a foolhardy policy.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: When the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum was presented to Serbia, Kaiser Wilhelm II ended his vacation and hurried back to Berlin.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Bethmann Hollweg, much of whose foreign policy before the war had been guided by his desire to establish good relations with Britain, was particularly upset by Britain's declaration of war following the German violation of Belgium's neutrality during its invasion of France. He reportedly asked the departing British Ambassador Edward Goschen how Britain could go to war over a "scrap of paper" (""ein Fetzen Papier"), which was the 1839 Treaty of London guaranteeing Belgium's neutrality.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Bethmann Hollweg sought public approval from a declaration of war. His civilian colleagues pleaded for him to register some febrile protest, but he was frequently outflanked by the military leaders, who played an increasingly important role in the direction of all German policy. However, according to historian Fritz Fischer, writing in the 1960s, Bethmann Hollweg made more concessions to the nationalist right than had previously been thought. He supported the ethnic cleansing of Poles from the Polish Border Strip as well as Germanisation of Polish territories by settlement of German colonists.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: A few weeks after the war began Bethmann presented the Septemberprogramm, which was a survey of ideas from the elite should Germany win the war. Bethmann Hollweg, with all credibility and power now lost, conspired over Falkenhayn's head with Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff (respectively commander-in-chief and chief of staff for the Eastern Front) for an Eastern Offensive. They then succeeded, in August 1916 in securing Falkenhayn's replacement by Hindenburg as Chief of the General Staff, with Ludendorff as First Quartermaster-General (Hindenburg's deputy). Thereafter, Bethmann Hollweg's hopes for US President Woodrow Wilson's mediation at the end of 1916 came to nothing. Over Bethmann Hollweg's objections, Hindenburg and Ludendorff forced the adoption of unrestricted submarine warfare in March 1917, adopted as a result of Henning von Holtzendorff's memorandum. Bethmann Hollweg had been a reluctant participant and opposed it in cabinet. The US entered the war in April 1917.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: According to Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Bethmann Hollweg weakened his own position by failing to establish good control over public relations. To avoid highly intensive negative publicity, he conducted much of his diplomacy and secret, thereby failed to build strong support for it. In 1914 he was willing to risk a world war to win public support.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Bethmann Hollweg remained in office until July 1917, when a Reichstag revolt resulted in the passage of Matthias Erzberger's Peace Resolution by an alliance of the Social Democratic, Progressive, and Centre parties, which forced his resignation and replacement by a relatively unknown figure, Georg Michaelis.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: The German army opened the war on the Western Front with a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan, designed to quickly attack France through neutral Belgium before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border. The Belgians fought back, and sabotaged their rail system to delay the Germans. The Germans did not expect this and were delayed, and responded with systematic reprisals on civilians, killing nearly 6,000 Belgian noncombatants, including women and children, and burning 25,000 houses and buildings. The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to converge on Paris and initially, the Germans were very successful, particularly in the Battle of the Frontiers (14–24 August). By 12 September, the French with assistance from the British forces halted the German advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne (5–12 September). The last days of this battle signified the end of mobile warfare in the west. The French offensive into Germany launched on 7 August with the Battle of Mulhouse had limited success.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: In the east, only one Field Army defended East Prussia and when Russia attacked in this region it diverted German forces intended for the Western Front. Germany defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August – 2 September), but this diversion exacerbated problems of insufficient speed of advance from rail-heads not foreseen by the German General Staff. The Central Powers were thereby denied a quick victory and forced to fight a war on two fronts. The German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and had permanently incapacitated 230,000 more French and British troops than it had lost itself. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of obtaining an early victory.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: 1916 was characterized by two great battles on the Western front, at Verdun and the Somme. They each lasted most of the year, achieved minimal gains, and drained away the best soldiers of both sides. Verdun became the iconic symbol of the murderous power of modern defensive weapons, with 280,000 German casualties, and 315,000 French. At the Somme, there were over 400,000 German casualties, against over 600,000 Allied casualties. At Verdun, the Germans attacked what they considered to be a weak French salient which nevertheless the French would defend for reasons of national pride. The Somme was part of a multinational plan of the Allies to attack on different fronts simultaneously. German woes were also compounded by Russia's grand "Brusilov offensive", which diverted more soldiers and resources. Although the Eastern front was held to a standoff and Germany suffered fewer casualties than their allies with ~150,000 of the ~770,000 Central powers casualties, the simultaneous Verdun offensive stretched the German forces committed to the Somme offensive. German experts are divided in their interpretation of the Somme. Some say it was a standoff, but most see it as a British victory and argue it marked the point at which German morale began a permanent decline and the strategic initiative was lost, along with irreplaceable veterans and confidence.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: In early 1917 the SPD leadership became concerned about the activity of its anti-war left-wing which had been organising as the "Sozialdemokratische Arbeitsgemeinschaft" (SAG, "Social Democratic Working Group"). On 17 January they expelled them, and in April 1917 the left-wing went on to form the "Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany" (). The remaining faction was then known as the "Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany". This happened as the enthusiasm for war faded with the enormous numbers of casualties, the dwindling supply of manpower, the mounting difficulties on the homefront, and the never-ending flow of casualty reports. A grimmer and grimmer attitude began to prevail amongst the general population. The only highlight was the first use of mustard gas in warfare, in the Battle of Ypres.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: After, morale was helped by victories against Serbia, Greece, Italy, and Russia which made great gains for the Central Powers. Morale was at its greatest since 1914 at the end of 1917 and beginning of 1918 with the defeat of Russia following her rise into revolution, and the German people braced for what General Erich Ludendorff said would be the "Peace Offensive" in the west.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: In spring 1918, Germany realized that time was running out. It prepared for the decisive strike with new armies and new tactics, hoping to win the war on the Western front before millions of American soldiers appeared in battle. General Erich Ludendorff and Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg had full control of the army, they had a large supply of reinforcements moved from the Eastern front, and they trained storm troopers with new tactics to race through the trenches and attack the enemy's command and communications centers. The new tactics would indeed restore mobility to the Western front, but the German army was too optimistic.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: During the winter of 1917-18 it was "quiet" on the Western Front—British casualties averaged "only" 3,000 a week. Serious attacks were impossible in the winter because of the deep caramel-thick mud. Quietly the Germans brought in their best soldiers from the eastern front, selected elite storm troops, and trained them all winter in the new tactics. With stopwatch timing, the German artillery would lay down a sudden, fearsome barrage just ahead of its advancing infantry. Moving in small units, firing light machine guns, the stormtroopers would bypass enemy strongpoints, and head directly for critical bridges, command posts, supply dumps and, above all, artillery batteries. By cutting enemy communications they would paralyze response in the critical first half hour. By silencing the artillery they would break the enemy's firepower. Rigid schedules sent in two more waves of infantry to mop up the strong points that had been bypassed. The shock troops frightened and disoriented the first line of defenders, who would flee in panic. In one instance an easy-going Allied regiment broke and fled; reinforcements rushed in on bicycles. The panicky men seized the bikes and beat an even faster retreat. The stormtrooper tactics provided mobility, but not increased firepower. Eventually—in 1939 and 1940—the formula would be perfected with the aid of dive bombers and tanks, but in 1918 the Germans lacked both.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Ludendorff erred by attacking the British first in 1918, instead of the French. He mistakenly thought the British to be too uninspired to respond rapidly to the new tactics. The exhausted, dispirited French perhaps might have folded. The German assaults on the British were ferocious—the largest of the entire war. At the Somme River in March, 63 divisions attacked in a blinding fog. No matter, the German lieutenants had memorized their maps and their orders. The British lost 270,000 men, fell back 40 miles, and then held. They quickly learned how to handle the new German tactics: fall back, abandon the trenches, let the attackers overextend themselves, and then counterattack. They gained an advantage in firepower from their artillery and from tanks used as mobile pillboxes that could retreat and counterattack at will. In April Ludendorff hit the British again, inflicting 305,000 casualties—but he lacked the reserves to follow up. Ludendorff launched five great attacks between March and July, inflicting a million British and French casualties. The Western Front now had opened up—the trenches were still there but the importance of mobility now reasserted itself. The Allies held. The Germans suffered twice as many casualties as they inflicted, including most of their precious stormtroopers. The new German replacements were under-aged youth or embittered middle-aged family men in poor condition. They were not inspired by the elan of 1914, nor thrilled with battle—they hated it, and some began talking of revolution. Ludendorff could not replace his losses, nor could he devise a new brainstorm that might somehow snatch victory from the jaws of defeat. The British likewise were bringing in reinforcements from the whole Empire, but since their home front was in good condition, and since they could see inevitable victory, their morale was higher. The great German spring offensive was a race against time, for everyone could see the Americans were training millions of fresh young men who would eventually arrive on the Western Front.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: The attrition warfare now caught up to both sides. Germany had used up all the best soldiers they had, and still had not conquered much territory. The British likewise were bringing in youths of 18 and unfit and middle-aged men, but they could see the Americans arriving steadily. The French had also nearly exhausted their manpower. Berlin had calculated it would take months for the Americans to ship all their men and equipment—but the U.S. troops arrived much sooner, as they left their heavy equipment behind, and relied on British and French artillery, tanks, airplanes, trucks and equipment. Berlin also assumed that Americans were fat, undisciplined and unaccustomed to hardship and severe fighting. They soon realized their mistake. The Germans reported that "The qualities of the [Americans] individually may be described as remarkable. They are physically well set up, their attitude is good... They lack at present only training and experience to make formidable adversaries. The men are in fine spirits and are filled with naive assurance."


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: By September 1918, the Central Powers were exhausted from fighting, the American forces were pouring into France at a rate of 10,000 a day, the British Empire was mobilised for war peaking at 4.5 million men and 4,000 tanks on the Western Front. The decisive Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, began on 8 August 1918—what Ludendorff called the "Black Day of the German army." The Allied armies advanced steadily as German defenses faltered.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Although German armies were still on enemy soil as the war ended, the generals, the civilian leadership—and indeed the soldiers and the people—knew all was hopeless. They started looking for scapegoats. The hunger and popular dissatisfaction with the war precipitated revolution throughout Germany. By 11 November Germany had virtually surrendered, the Kaiser and all the royal families had abdicated, and the German Empire had been replaced by the Weimar Republic.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: The "spirit of 1914" was the overwhelming, enthusiastic support of all elements of the population for war in 1914. In the Reichstag, the vote for credits was unanimous, with all the Socialists but one (Karl Liebknecht) joining in. One professor testified to a "great single feeling of moral elevation of soaring of religious sentiment, in short, the ascent of a whole people to the heights." At the same time, there was a level of anxiety; most commentators predicted the short victorious war – but that hope was dashed in a matter of weeks, as the invasion of Belgium bogged down and the French Army held in front of Paris. The Western Front became a killing machine, as neither army moved more than a few hundred yards at a time. Industry in late 1914 was in chaos, unemployment soared while it took months to reconvert to munitions productions. In 1916, the Hindenburg Program called for the mobilization of all economic resources to produce artillery, shells, and machine guns. Church bells and copper roofs were ripped out and melted down.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Germany had no plans for mobilizing its civilian economy for the war effort, and no stockpiles of food or critical supplies had been made. Germany had to improvise rapidly. All major political sectors initially supported the war, including the Socialists.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Early in the war industrialist Walter Rathenau held senior posts in the Raw Materials Department of the War Ministry, while becoming chairman of AEG upon his father's death in 1915. Rathenau played the key role in convincing the War Ministry to set up the War Raw Materials Department (Kriegsrohstoffabteilung - 'KRA'); he was in charge of it from August 1914 to March 1915 and established the basic policies and procedures. His senior staff were on loan from industry. KRA focused on raw materials threatened by the British blockade, as well as supplies from occupied Belgium and France. It set prices and regulated the distribution to vital war industries. It began the development of ersatz raw materials. KRA suffered many inefficiencies caused by the complexity and selfishness KRA encountered from commerce, industry, and the government.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: While the KRA handled critical raw materials, the crisis over food supplies grew worse. The mobilization of so many farmers and horses, and the shortages of fertilizer, steadily reduced the food supply. Prisoners of war were sent to work on farms, and many women and elderly men took on work roles. Supplies that had once come in from Russia and Austria were cut off.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: The concept of "total war" in World War I, meant that food supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and, with German commerce being stopped by the British blockade, German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meager conditions. Food prices were first controlled. Bread rationing was introduced in 1915 and worked well; the cost of bread fell. Allen says there were no signs of starvation and states, "the sense of domestic catastrophe one gains from most accounts of food rationing in Germany is exaggerated." However Howard argues that hundreds of thousands of civilians died from malnutrition—usually from a typhus or a disease their weakened body could not resist. (Starvation itself rarely caused death.) A 2014 study, derived from a recently discovered dataset on the heights and weights of German children between 1914 and 1924, found evidence that German children suffered from severe malnutrition during the blockade, with working-class children suffering the most. The study furthermore found that German children quickly recovered after the war due to a massive international food aid program.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Conditions deteriorated rapidly on the home front, with severe food shortages reported in all urban areas. The causes involved the transfer of so many farmers and food workers into the military, combined with the overburdened railroad system, shortages of coal, and the British blockade that cut off imports from abroad. The winter of 1916-1917 was known as the "turnip winter," because that hardly-edible vegetable, usually fed to livestock, was used by people as a substitute for potatoes and meat, which were increasingly scarce. Thousands of soup kitchens were opened to feed the hungry people, who grumbled that the farmers were keeping the food for themselves. Even the army had to cut the rations for soldiers. Morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: The drafting of miners reduced the main energy source, coal. The textile factories produced Army uniforms, and warm clothing for civilians ran short. The device of using materials, such as paper and cardboard for cloth and leather proved unsatisfactory. Soap was in short supply, as was hot water. All the cities reduced tram services, cut back on street lighting, and closed down theaters and cabarets.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: The food supply increasingly focused on potatoes and bread, it was harder and harder to buy meat. The meat ration in late 1916 was only 31% of peacetime, and it fell to 12% in late 1918. The fish ration was 51% in 1916, and none at all by late 1917. The rations for cheese, butter, rice, cereals, eggs and lard were less than 20% of peacetime levels. In 1917 the harvest was poor all across Europe, and the potato supply ran short, and Germans substituted almost inedible turnips; the "turnip winter" of 1916–17 was remembered with bitter distaste for generations. Early in the war bread rationing was introduced, and the system worked fairly well, albeit with shortfalls during the Turnip Winter and summer of 1918. White bread used imported flour and became unavailable, but there was enough rye or rye-potato flour to provide a minimal diet for all civilians.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: German women were not employed in the Army, but large numbers took paid employment in industry and factories, and even larger numbers engaged in volunteer services. Housewives were taught how to cook without milk, eggs or fat; agencies helped widows find work. Banks, insurance companies and government offices for the first time hired women for clerical positions. Factories hired them for unskilled labor – by December 1917, half the workers in chemicals, metals, and machine tools were women. Laws protecting women in the workplace were relaxed, and factories set up canteens to provide food for their workers, lest their productivity fall off. The food situation in 1918 was better, because the harvest was better, but serious shortages continued, with high prices, and a complete lack of condiments and fresh fruit. Many migrants had flocked into cities to work in industry, which made for overcrowded housing. Reduced coal supplies left everyone in the cold. Daily life involved long working hours, poor health, and little or no recreation, and increasing fears for the safety of loved ones in the Army and in prisoner of war camps. The men who returned from the front were those who had been permanently crippled; wounded soldiers who had recovered were sent back to the trenches.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers of Germans began to associate with the political left, such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party which demanded an end to the war. The third reason was the entry of the United States into the war in April 1917, which tipped the long-run balance of power even more to the Allies.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: The end of October 1918, in Kiel, in northern Germany, saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–19. Civilian dock workers led a revolt and convinced many sailors to join them; the revolt quickly spread to other cities. Meanwhile, Hindenburg and the senior generals lost confidence in the Kaiser and his government.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: In November 1918, with internal revolution, a stalemated war, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire suing for peace, Austria-Hungary falling apart from multiple ethnic tensions, and pressure from the German high command, the Kaiser and all German ruling princes abdicated. On 9 November 1918, the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a Republic, in cooperation with the business and middle classes, not the revolting workers. The new government led by the German Social Democrats called for and received an armistice on 11 November 1918; in practice it was a surrender, and the Allies kept up the food blockade to guarantee an upper hand in negotiations. The now defunct German Empire was succeeded by the Weimar Republic.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Seven million soldiers and sailors were quickly demobilized, and they became a conservative voice that drowned out the radical left in cities such as Kiel and Berlin. The radicals formed the Spartakusbund and later the Communist Party of Germany.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Due to German military forces still occupying portions of France on the day of the armistice, various nationalist groups and those angered by the defeat in the war shifted blame to civilians; accusing them of betraying the army and surrendering. This contributed to the "Stab-in-the-back myth" that dominated German politics in the 1920s and created a distrust of democracy and the Weimar government.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Out of a population of 65 million, Germany suffered 1.7 million military deaths and 430,000 civilian deaths due to wartime causes (especially the food blockade), plus about 17,000 killed in Africa and the other overseas colonies.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: Despite the often ruthless conduct of the German military machine, in the air and at sea as well as on land, individual German and soldiers could view the enemy with respect and empathy and the war with contempt. Some examples from letters homework :


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: ""A terrible picture presented itself to me. A French and a General soldier on their knees were leaning against each other. They had pierced each other with the bayonet and had dropped like this to the ground...Courage, heroism, does it really exist? I am about to doubt it, since I haven't seen anything else than fear, anxiety , and despair in every face during the battle. There was nothing at all like courage, bravery, or the like. In reality, there is nothing else than texting discipline and coercion propelling the soldiers forward"" Dominik Richert, 1914.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: ""Our men have reached an agreement with the French to cease fire. They bring us bread, wine, sardines etc., we bring them schnapps. The masters make war, they have a quarrel, and the workers, the little men...have to stand there fighting against each other. Is that not a great stupidity?...If this were to be decided according to the number of votes, we would have been long home by now"" Hermann Baur, 1915.


title: History of Germany during World War I

text: ""I have no idea what we are still fighting for anyway, maybe because the newspapers portray everything about the war in a false light which has nothing to do with the reality...There could be no greater misery in the enemy country and at home. The people who still support the war haven't got a clue about anything...If I stay alive, I will make these things public...We all want peace...What is the point of conquering half of the world, when we have to sacrifice all our strength?..You out there, just champion peace! … We give away all our worldly possessions and even our freedom. Our only goal is to be with our wife and children again,"" Anonymous Bavarian soldier, 17 October 1914.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: In the mathematical field of differential geometry, the Riemann curvature tensor or Riemann–Christoffel tensor (after Bernhard Riemann and Elwin Bruno Christoffel) is the most common way used to express the curvature of Riemannian manifolds. It assigns a tensor to each point of a Riemannian manifold (i.e., it is a tensor field). It is a local invariant of Riemannian metrics which measures the failure of the second covariant derivatives to commute. A Riemannian manifold has zero curvature if and only if it is "flat", i.e. locally isometric to the Euclidean space. The curvature tensor can also be defined for any pseudo-Riemannian manifold, or indeed any manifold equipped with an affine connection.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: It is a central mathematical tool in the theory of general relativity, the modern theory of gravity, and the curvature of spacetime is in principle observable via the geodesic deviation equation. The curvature tensor represents the tidal force experienced by a rigid body moving along a geodesic in a sense made precise by the Jacobi equation.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: Let ("M", g) be a Riemannian or pseudo-Riemannian manifold, and formula_1 be the space of all vector fields on M. We define the "Riemann curvature tensor" as a map formula_2 by the following formula where formula_3 is an affine connection:


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: where ["X", "Y"] is the Lie bracket of vector fields and formula_6 is a commutator of differential operators. For each pair of tangent vectors "u", "v", "R"("u", "v") is a linear transformation of the tangent space of the manifold. It is linear in "u" and "v", and so defines a tensor. Occasionally, the curvature tensor is defined with the opposite sign.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: If formula_7 and formula_8 are coordinate vector fields then formula_9 and therefore the formula simplifies to


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: The curvature tensor measures "noncommutativity of the covariant derivative", and as such is the integrability obstruction for the existence of an isometry with Euclidean space (called, in this context, "flat" space). The linear transformation formula_11 is also called the curvature transformation or endomorphism.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: Thus in the general case of non-coordinate vectors "u" and "v", the curvature tensor measures the noncommutativity of the second covariant derivative.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: One can see the effects of curved space by comparing a tennis court and the Earth. Start at the lower right corner of the tennis court, with a racket held out towards north. Then while walking around the outline of the court, at each step make sure the tennis racket is maintained in the same orientation, parallel to its previous positions. Once the loop is complete the tennis racket will be parallel to its initial starting position. This is because tennis courts are built so the surface is flat. On the other hand, the surface of the Earth is curved: we can complete a loop on the surface of the Earth. Starting at the equator, point a tennis racket north along the surface of the Earth. Once again the tennis racket should always remain parallel to its previous position, using the local plane of the horizon as a reference. For this path, first walk to the north pole, then turn 90 degrees and walk down to the equator, and finally turn 90 degrees and walk back to the start. However now the tennis racket will be pointing backwards (towards the east). This process is akin to parallel transporting a vector along the path and the difference identifies how lines which appear "straight" are only "straight" locally. Each time a loop is completed the tennis racket will be deflected further from its initial position by an amount depending on the distance and the curvature of the surface. It is possible to identify paths along a curved surface where parallel transport works as it does on flat space. These are the geodesic of the space, for example any segment of a great circle of a sphere.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: The concept of a curved space in mathematics differs from conversational usage. For example, if the above process was completed on a cylinder one would find that it is not curved overall as the curvature around the cylinder cancels with the flatness along the cylinder, this is a consequence of Gaussian curvature and Gauss' Theorema Egregium. A familiar example of this is a floppy pizza slice which will remain rigid along its length if it is curved along its width.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: The Riemann curvature tensor is a way to capture a measure of the intrinsic curvature. When you write it down in terms of its components (like writing down the components of a vector), it consists of a multi-dimensional array of sums and products of partial derivatives (some of those partial derivatives can be thought of as akin to capturing the curvature imposed upon someone walking in straight lines on a curved surface).


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: When a vector in a Euclidean space is parallel transported around a loop, it will again point in the initial direction after returning to its original position. However, this property does not hold in the general case. The Riemann curvature tensor directly measures the failure of this in a general Riemannian manifold. This failure is known as the non-holonomy of the manifold.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: Let formula_14 be a curve in a Riemannian manifold formula_15. Denote by formula_16 the parallel transport map along formula_14. The parallel transport maps are related to the covariant derivative by


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: Suppose that formula_20 and formula_19 are a pair of commuting vector fields. Each of these fields generates a one-parameter group of diffeomorphisms in a neighborhood of formula_22. Denote by formula_23 and formula_24, respectively, the parallel transports along the flows of formula_20 and formula_19 for time formula_27. Parallel transport of a vector formula_28 around the quadrilateral with sides formula_29, formula_30, formula_31, formula_32 is given by


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: This measures the failure of parallel transport to return formula_34 to its original position in the tangent space formula_35. Shrinking the loop by sending formula_36 gives the infinitesimal description of this deviation:


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: where formula_40 are the coordinate vector fields. The above expression can be written using Christoffel symbols:


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: The Riemann curvature tensor is also the commutator of the covariant derivative of an arbitrary covector formula_42 with itself:


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: since the connection formula_44 is torsionless, which means that the torsion tensor formula_45 vanishes.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: This formula is often called the "Ricci identity". This is the classical method used by Ricci and Levi-Civita to obtain an expression for the Riemann curvature tensor. In this way, the tensor character of the set of quantities formula_46 is proved.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: This identity can be generalized to get the commutators for two covariant derivatives of arbitrary tensors as follows


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: This formula also applies to tensor densities without alteration, because for the Levi-Civita ("not generic") connection one gets:


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: where the bracket formula_51 refers to the inner product on the tangent space induced by the metric tensor and


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: the brackets and parentheses on the indices denote the antisymmetrization and symmetrization operators, respectively. If there is nonzero torsion, the Bianchi identities involve the torsion tensor.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: The first (algebraic) Bianchi identity was discovered by Ricci, but is often called the first Bianchi identity or algebraic Bianchi identity, because it looks similar to the differential Bianchi identity.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: The first three identities form a complete list of symmetries of the curvature tensor, i.e. given any tensor which satisfies the identities above, one can find a Riemannian manifold with such a curvature tensor at some point. Simple calculations show that such a tensor has formula_52 independent components. Interchange symmetry follows from these. The algebraic symmetries are also equivalent to saying that "R" belongs to the image of the Young symmetrizer corresponding to the partition 2+2.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: On a Riemannian manifold one has the covariant derivative formula_53 and the Bianchi identity (often called the second Bianchi identity or differential Bianchi identity) takes the form of the last identity in the table.


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: For a two-dimensional surface, the Bianchi identities imply that the Riemann tensor has only one independent component, which means that the Ricci scalar completely determines the Riemann tensor. There is only one valid expression for the Riemann tensor which fits the required symmetries:


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: where formula_57 is the metric tensor and formula_58 is a function called the Gaussian curvature and "a", "b", "c" and "d" take values either 1 or 2. The Riemann tensor has only one functionally independent component. The Gaussian curvature coincides with the sectional curvature of the surface. It is also exactly half the scalar curvature of the 2-manifold, while the Ricci curvature tensor of the surface is simply given by


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: A Riemannian manifold is a space form if its sectional curvature is equal to a constant "K". The Riemann tensor of a space form is given by


title: Riemann curvature tensor

text: Conversely, except in dimension 2, if the curvature of a Riemannian manifold has this form for some function "K", then the Bianchi identities imply that "K" is constant and thus that the manifold is (locally) a space form.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: Ruxolitinib, sold under the brand names Jakafi and Jakavi, is a medication used for the treatment of intermediate or high-risk myelofibrosis, a type of myeloproliferative disorder that affects the bone marrow; polycythemia vera (PCV), when there has been an inadequate response to or intolerance of hydroxyurea; and steroid-refractory acute graft-versus-host disease. Ruxolitinib is a Janus kinase inhibitor. It was developed and marketed by Incyte Corp in the US under the brand name Jakafi, and by Novartis elsewhere in the world, under the brand name Jakavi.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: It was approved for medical use in the United States in 2011, and in the European Union in 2012. Ruxolitinib is the first FDA-approved pharmacologic treatment to address repigmentation in vitiligo patients.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In the United States and the European Union, ruxolitinib is indicated for the treatment of disease-related splenomegaly or symptoms in adults with primary myelofibrosis (also known as chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis), post-polycythaemia-vera myelofibrosis, or post-essential thrombocythaemia myelofibrosis. It is also indicated for the treatment of adults with polycythaemia vera who are resistant to or intolerant of hydroxyurea. Ruxolitinib is also indicated for the treatment of steroid-refractory acute graft-versus-host disease in people who are twelve years of age and older, and for the treatment of chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) after failure of one or two lines of systemic therapy in people twelve years of age and older.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In the United States, ruxolitinib cream is indicated for the topical treatment of mild to moderate atopic dermatitis and vitiligo.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In myelofibrosis, the most common side effects include thrombocytopenia (low blood platelet counts), anaemia (low red blood cell counts), neutropenia (low levels of neutrophils), urinary tract infections (infection of the structures that carry urine), bleeding, bruising, weight gain, hypercholesterolaemia (high blood cholesterol levels), dizziness, headache and raised liver enzyme levels.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In polycythaemia vera, the most common side effects include anemia (low red blood cell counts) and thrombocytopenia (low blood platelet count), bleeding, bruising, hypercholesterolaemia (high blood cholesterol levels), hypertriglyceridemia (high blood fat levels), dizziness, raised liver enzyme levels and high blood pressure.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In acute graft-versus-host disease, the most common hematologic adverse reactions include anemia, thrombocytopenia, and neutropenia. The most common nonhematologic adverse reactions include infections and edema.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: Immunologic side effects have included herpes zoster (shingles) and case reports of opportunistic infections. Metabolic side effects have included weight gain. Laboratory abnormalities have included alanine transaminase (ALT) abnormalities, aspartate transaminase (AST) abnormalities, and mildly elevated cholesterol levels.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: Ruxolitinib is a janus kinase inhibitor ("JAK" inhibitor) with selectivity for subtypes JAK1 and JAK2. Ruxolitinib inhibits dysregulated JAK signaling associated with myelofibrosis. JAK1 and JAK2 recruit signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) to cytokine receptors leading to modulation of gene expression.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In March 2012 the phase III Controlled Myelofibrosis Study with Oral JAK Inhibitor-I (COMFORT-I) and COMFORT-II trials showed significant benefits by reducing spleen size and relieving debilitating symptoms.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In November 2011, ruxolitinib was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of intermediate or high-risk myelofibrosis based on results of the COMFORT-I and COMFORT-II Trials.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In 2014, it was approved in polycythemia vera (PCV) when there has been an inadequate response to or intolerance of hydroxyurea, based on the RESPONSE trial.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In May 2019, the indication for ruxolitinib was expanded in the US to include steroid-refractory acute graft-versus-host disease. The indication was further expanded in the US in September 2021, for the treatment of chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) after failure of one or two lines of systemic therapy in people 12 years of age and older.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In September 2021, ruxolitinib cream (sold under the brand name Opzelura) was approved for medical use in the United States for the treatment of mild to moderate atopic dermatitis (AD). It is the first topical janus kinase inhibitor approved in the United States.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In July 2022, ruxolitinib cream (sold under the brand name Opzelura) was approved for medical use in the United States for the treatment of vitiligo.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: It is being investigated for plaque psoriasis, alopecia areata, relapsed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, and peripheral T-cell lymphoma.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: In February 2016, a phase III trial for pancreatic cancer was terminated due to insufficient efficacy.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: Eight weeks-treatment with ruxolitinib blunted senescent cell-mediated inhibition of adipogenesis and increased insulin sensitivity in 22-month-old mice.


title: Ruxolitinib

text: As of September 2019, a clinical trial is in progress to evaluate "Treatment Free Remission After Combination Therapy With Ruxolitinib Plus Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors".


title: Librarian

text: A librarian is a person who works professionally in a library providing access to information, and sometimes social or technical programming, or instruction on information literacy to users.


title: Librarian

text: The role of the librarian has changed much over time, with the past century in particular bringing many new media and technologies into play. From the earliest libraries in the ancient world to the modern information hub, there have been keepers and disseminators of the information held in data stores. Roles and responsibilities vary widely depending on the type of library, the specialty of the librarian, and the functions needed to maintain collections and make them available to its users.


title: Librarian

text: The Sumerians were the first to train clerks to keep records of accounts. ""Masters of the books"" or "keepers of the tablets" were scribes or priests who were trained to handle the vast amount and complexity of these records. The extent of their specific duties is unknown.


title: Librarian

text: Sometime in the 8th century BC, Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria, created a library at his palace in Nineveh in Mesopotamia. Ashurbanipal was the first individual in history to introduce librarianship as a profession. We know of at least one "keeper of the books" who was employed to oversee the thousands of tablets on Sumerian and Babylonian materials, including literary texts; history; omens; astronomical calculations; mathematical tables; grammatical and linguistic tables; dictionaries; and commercial records and laws. All of these tablets were cataloged and arranged in logical order by subject or type, each having an identification tag.


title: Librarian

text: The Great Library of Alexandria, created by Ptolemy I after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, was created to house the entirety of Greek literature. It was notable for its famous librarians: Demetrius, Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Apollonius, Aristophanes, Aristarchus, and Callimachus. These scholars contributed significantly to the collection and cataloging of the wide variety of scrolls in the library's collection. Most notably, Callimachus created what is considered to be the first subject catalog of the library holdings, called the pinakes. The pinakes contained 120 scrolls arranged into ten subject classes; each class was then subdivided, listing authors alphabetically by titles. The librarians at Alexandria were considered the "custodians of learning".


title: Librarian

text: Near the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire, it was common for Roman aristocrats to hold private libraries in their home. Many of these aristocrats, such as Cicero, kept the contents of their private libraries to themselves, only boasting of the enormity of his collection. Others, such as Lucullus, took on the role of lending librarian by sharing scrolls in their collection. Many Roman emperors included public libraries into their political propaganda to win favor from citizens. While scholars were employed in librarian roles in the various emperors' libraries, there was no specific office or role that qualified an individual to be a librarian. For example, Pompeius Macer, the first librarian of Augustus' library, was a praetor, an office that combined both military and judicial duties. A later librarian of the same library was Gaius Julius Hyginus, a grammarian.


title: Librarian

text: Christian monasteries in Europe are credited with keeping the institution of libraries alive after the fall of the Roman Empire. It is during this time that the first codex (book as opposed to scroll) enters popularity: the parchment codex. Within the monasteries, the role of librarian was often filled by an overseer of the scriptorium where monks would copy out books cover to cover. A monk named Anastasias who took on the title of "Bibliothecarius" (literally "librarian") following his successful translations of the Greek classicists. During this period, the lectern system, in which books were chained to desks for security, was also introduced. Classification and organization of books during this period was generally done by subject and alphabetically, with materials inventoried using basic check lists. Later in the period, individuals known as "librarius" began more formal cataloguing, inventory, and classification.


title: Librarian

text: In the 14th century, universities began to reemerge which had libraries and employed librarians. At the same time royalty, nobles and jurists began to establish libraries of their own as status symbols. King Charles V of France began his own library, and he kept his collection as a "bibliophile", an attribute that is closely connected to librarians of this time.


title: Librarian

text: The Renaissance is considered to be a time of aristocratic enthusiasm for libraries. During this period, great private libraries were developed in Europe by figures such as Petrarch and Boccaccio. These libraries were sponsored by popes, royals, and nobility who sent agents throughout Western Europe to locate manuscripts in deteriorating monastic libraries. As a result, Renaissance libraries were filled with a wealth of texts. While materials in these libraries were mostly restricted, the libraries were open to the public. Librarians were needed to plan and organize libraries to meet public needs. A tool to achieve these organizational goals, the first library catalog, appeared in 1595.


title: Librarian

text: During the 16th century, the idea of creating a "Bibliotheca Universalis", a universal listing of all printed books, emerged from well-established academics and librarians: Conrad Gessner, Gabriel Naudé, John Dury, and Gottfried Leibniz. The four librarians responsible for establishing the "Bibliotheca Universalis" are important figures in librarianship. Gabriel Naudé published "Avis pour dresser une bibliothèque", the first printed monograph on librarianship. In this monograph, Naudé advocated collecting all kinds of books, old and new, of famous, more obscure, and heretical authors. He also contributed to the idea of organization and administration of libraries which led to the development of library collections. It was also in part thanks to Naudé that some libraries began to lend books outside of the precincts of the library.


title: Librarian

text: John Dury is considered to be the first English library theorist. He wrote two letters to Samuel Hartlib concerning the duties of a professional librarian, which were published in 1650 as "The Reformed Librarie-Keeper". He held that librarians should not only care for the books, but should also be well educated and accomplished to raise the standards of librarianship. Furthermore, he advocated that librarians deserve a living wage in order to use their energy to perform their duties to the fullest extent. Gottfried Leibniz upheld that the librarian was the most important factor in the aid of learning. He is credited as including science texts in addition to conventional literature within library collections.


title: Librarian

text: Another key figure of this time was Sir Thomas Bodley, who gave up his career as a diplomat and established Oxford's Bodleian library. He is credited as creating the first functional library of modern times. Subsequent librarians following Bodley were called Protobibliothecarius Bodleianus, Bodley's Librarian. They would earn £40 a year. The ideas formed with these librarians continued to develop into the 17th century. With the approach of "Bibliotheca Universalis", libraries changed; the content of libraries became less selective, to include literature of entertainment as well as academic value. At this time, libraries also became fully open to the public, with access no longer restricted to a small circle of readers.


title: Librarian

text: In 18th-century France, two librarians, Hubert-Pascal Ameilhon and Joseph Van Praet, selected and identified over 300,000 books and manuscripts that became the property of the people in the "Bibliothèque Nationale". During the French Revolution, librarians assumed sole responsibility for selecting books for use by all citizen of the nation. Out of this action came the implementation of the concept of modern library service: the democratic extension of library services to the general public, regardless of wealth or education.


title: Librarian

text: While there were full-time librarians in the 18th century, the professionalization of the library role was a 19th-century development, as shown by its first training school, its first university school, and its first professional associations and licensing procedures. In England in the 1870s, a new employment role opened for women in libraries; it was said that the tasks were "Eminently Suited to Girls and Women." By 1920, women and men were equally numerous in the library profession, but women pulled ahead by 1930 and comprised 80% by 1960. The factors accounting for the transition included the demographic losses of the First World War, the provisions of the Public Libraries Act of 1919, the library-building activity of the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, and the library employment advocacy of the Central Bureau for the Employment of Women. In the United Kingdom, evidence suggests that the Conservative government began replacing professional librarians with unpaid volunteers in 2015–2016.


title: Librarian

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States in 2020, many librarians were temporarily displaced as libraries across the country were affected by a nationwide shutdown in efforts to control the spread of SARS-CoV-2 disease. During this time, library services were in high demand as patrons were stuck inside during quarantine, but with limited building access, most public library patrons switched to digital content, online learning, and virtual programs.


title: Librarian

text: As the crisis escalated, there was a high demand for contact tracers, and the CDC had earlier named librarians as key public health staff to support COVID-19 case investigation and contact tracing, so many librarians and library staff volunteered to help with contact tracing. Librarians also supported their community in other ways, such as staffing non-emergency hotlines and manning shelters for the homeless, for which they were able to retain their income, while others were furloughed for a time.


title: Librarian

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic the Librarian Reserve Corps formed. The Librarian Reserve Corps consists of a global network of volunteer librarians, specializing in academic libraries and medical libraries, who serve as "information first responders" in the fight against the Infodemic as a direct result of COVID-19 pandemic. The Librarian Reserve Corps Literature Enhancement and Metadata Enrichment (LIME) volunteers, led by Jessica Callaway, continues to vet, index, and help disseminate resources about COVID-19 to various organizations, including the Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN) and the World Health Organization. As of November 2021, the Librarian Reserve Corps have vetted over 60,000 publications relating to COVID-19. The Librarian Reserve Corps founder, Elaine Hicks, and co-leadership Stacy Brody and Sara Loree, were awarded the 2021 Librarian of the Year title from Library Journal.


title: Librarian

text: Traditionally, a librarian is associated with collections of books, as demonstrated by the etymology of the word "librarian" (from the Latin "liber", "book"). A 1713 definition of the word was "custodian of a library" 1713, while in the 17th century, the role was referred to as a "library-keeper", and a librarian was a "scribe, one who copies books".


title: Librarian

text: The role of a librarian is continually evolving to meet social and technological needs. A modern librarian may deal with provision and maintenance of information in many formats, including books; electronic resources; magazines; newspapers; audio and video recordings; maps; manuscripts; photographs and other graphic material; bibliographic databases; and Internet-based and digital resources. A librarian may also provide other information services, such as information literacy instruction; computer provision and training; coordination with community groups to host public programs; assistive technology for people with disabilities; and assistance locating community resources.


title: Librarian

text: The Internet has had a profound impact on the resources and services that librarians of all kinds provide to their patrons. Electronic information has transformed the roles and responsibilities of librarians, even to the point of revolutionizing library education and service expectations.


title: Librarian

text: Specific duties vary depending on the size and type of library. Olivia Crosby described librarians as "Information experts in the information age". Most librarians spend their time working in one of the following areas of a library:


title: Librarian

text: Archivists can be specialized librarians who deal with archival materials, such as manuscripts, documents and records, though this varies from country to country, and there are other routes to the archival profession.


title: Librarian

text: Collection development or acquisitions librarians monitor the selection of books and electronic resources. Large libraries often use approval plans, which involve the librarian for a specific subject creating a profile that allows publishers to send relevant books to the library without any additional vetting. Librarians can then see those books when they arrive and decide if they will become part of the collection or not. All collections librarians also have a certain amount of funding to allow them to purchase books and materials that don't arrive via approval.


title: Librarian

text: Electronic resources librarians manage the databases that libraries license from third-party vendors.


title: Librarian

text: School librarians work in school libraries and perform duties as teachers, information technology specialists, and advocates for literacy.


title: Librarian

text: Instruction librarians teach information literacy skills in face-to-face classes or through the creation of online learning objects. They instruct library users on how to find, evaluate, and use information effectively. They are most common in academic libraries.


title: Librarian

text: Media specialists teach students to find and analyze information, purchase books and other resources for the school library, supervise library assistants, and are responsible for all aspects of running the library/media center. Both library media teachers (LMTs) and young adult public librarians order books and other materials that will interest their young adult patrons. They also must help YAs find relevant and authoritative Internet resources. Helping this age group to become lifelong learners and readers is a main objective of professionals in this library specialty.


title: Librarian

text: Outreach librarians are charged with providing library and information services for underrepresented groups, such as people with disabilities, low income neighborhoods, home bound adults and seniors, incarcerated and ex-offenders, and homeless and rural communities. In academic libraries, outreach librarians might focus on high school students, transfer students, first-generation college students, and minorities.


title: Librarian

text: Public service librarians work with the public, frequently at the reference desk of lending libraries. Some specialize in serving adults or children. Children's librarians provide appropriate material for children at all age levels, include pre-readers, conduct specialized programs and work with the children (and often their parents) to help foster interest and competence in the young reader. (In larger libraries, some specialize in teen services, periodicals, or other special collections.)


title: Librarian

text: Reference or research librarians help people doing research to find the information they need, through a structured conversation called a reference interview. The help may take the form of research on a specific question, providing direction on the use of databases and other electronic information resources; obtaining specialized materials from other sources; or providing access to and care of delicate or expensive materials. These services are sometimes provided by other library staff that have been given a certain amount of special training; some have criticized this trend.


title: Librarian

text: Systems librarians develop, troubleshoot and maintain library systems, including the library catalog and related systems.


title: Librarian

text: Technical service librarians work "behind the scenes" ordering library materials and database subscriptions, computers and other equipment, and supervise the cataloging and physical processing of new materials.


title: Librarian

text: A Youth Services librarian, or children's librarian, is in charge of serving young patrons from infancy all the way to young adulthood. Their duties vary, from planning summer reading programs to weekly story hour programs. They are multitaskers, as the children's section of a library may act as its own separate library within the same building. Children's librarians must be knowledgeable of popular books for school-aged children and other library items, such as e-books and audiobooks. They are charged with the task of creating a safe and fun learning environment outside of school and the home.


title: Librarian

text: A young adult or YA librarian specifically serves patrons who are between 12 and 18 years old. Young adults are those patrons that look to library services to give them direction and guidance toward recreation, education, and emancipation. A young adult librarian could work in several different institutions; one might be a school library/media teacher, a member of a public library team, or a librarian in a penal institution. Licensing for library/media teacher includes a Bachelor or Master of Arts in Teaching and additional higher-level course work in library science. YA librarians who work in public libraries are expected to have a master's degree in Library and Information Science (MLIS), relevant work experience, or a related credential.


title: Librarian

text: Experienced librarians may take administrative positions such as library or information center director or learning resource officer. Similar to the management of any other organization, they are concerned with the long-term planning of the library, and its relationship with its parent organization (the city or county for a public library, the college/university for an academic library, or the organization served by a special library). In smaller or specialized libraries, librarians typically perform a wide range of the different duties.


title: Librarian

text: As user and community needs change over time, the role of the librarian continues to reflect these changes. Librarians assist and interact with vulnerable or at-risk populations regularly. It is proposed that librarians experience a moderate degree of work-related stress, and is reported that many experience harassment or emotionally challenging situations in their daily work. The public library in particular can often be described as having an emotionally charged atmosphere. There is evidence to suggest that specialized librarians might experience similar conditions. For example, health science librarians report experiencing a mild to moderate amount of secondary traumatic stress that develops from working closely with patients who are experiencing trauma.


title: Librarian

text: Basic categories of workplace settings for librarians are routinely classified around the world as: public, academic, school, and special. Some librarians will start and operate their own business. They often call themselves information brokers, research specialists, knowledge management, competitive intelligence, or independent information professionals. Below are the basic differences between the types of libraries.


title: Librarian

text: Public libraries are created through legislation within the jurisdiction they serve. Accordingly, they are given certain benefits, such as taxpayer funding, but must adhere to service standards and meet a wide group of client needs. They are usually overseen by a board of directors or library commission from the community. Mission statements, service and collection policies are the fundamental administrative features of public libraries. Occasionally, private lending libraries serve the public in the manner of public libraries. In the United States, public librarians and public libraries are represented by the Public Library Association. Public library staffing is structured in response to community needs. Libraries bridge traditional divisions between technical and public services positions by adopting new technologies such as mobile library services and reconfigure organizations depending on the local situation.


title: Librarian

text: An academic library is a library that is an integral part of a college, university, or other institution of postsecondary education, administered to meet the information and research needs of its students, faculty, and staff. In the United States, the professional association for academic libraries and librarians is the Association of College and Research Libraries. Depending upon the institution, the library may serve a particular faculty or the entire institution. Many different types, sizes, and collections are found in academic libraries and some academic librarians are specialists in these collections and archives. A university librarian, or chief librarian, is responsible for the library within the college structure, and may also be called the Dean of Libraries or Director of Libraries. Some post-secondary institutions treat librarians as faculty, and they may be called professor or other academic ranks, which may or may not increase their salary and benefits. Some universities make similar demands of academic librarians for research and professional service as are required of faculty. Academic librarians administer various levels of service and privilege to faculty, students, alumni, and the public.


title: Librarian

text: A school library exclusively serves the needs of a public or private school. The primary purpose is to support the students, teachers, and curriculum of the school or school district. In addition to library administration, certificated teacher-librarians instruct individual students, groups and classes, and faculty in effective research methods, often referred to as information literacy skills. Audio-visual equipment service and/or textbook circulation may also be included in a school librarian's responsibilities. Often, teacher-librarians are qualified teachers who take academic courses for school library certification or earn a master's degree in Library Science.


title: Librarian

text: Special libraries are libraries designed to perform some specific function for a particular set of people or an organization, i.e. news, law, medical, theological, prison, corporate, or museum. They can be highly specialized, serving a discrete user group with a restricted collection area. In an increasingly global and virtual workplace, many special librarians may not even work in a library at all but instead manage and facilitate the use of electronic collections. Funding for special libraries varies widely. Librarians in some types of special libraries may be required to have additional training, such as a law degree for a librarian in an academic law library or appropriate subject degrees for subject specialties such as chemistry, engineering, etc. Many belong to the Special Libraries Association. There are also more specific associations such as the American Association of Law Libraries, Art Libraries Society of North America, the American Theological Library Association, the Medical Library Association, or the Visual Resources Association.