title: Librarian

text: Librarians generally hold a university degree in library science. It is also possible to earn a doctorate in library science. The first doctoral degree in library science was offered by the Graduate Library School, University of Chicago, 1928-1989. Graduates with PhDs usually become teaching faculty in schools of library and information science, or sometimes occupy the directorship or deanship of university libraries. Those undertaking research at the doctoral level can pursue a very wide range of interests including information technology, government information policy, social research into information use among particular segments of society, information in organizations and corporate settings, and the history of books and printing.


title: Librarian

text: It is common in academic and other research libraries to require the librarians to obtain master's degrees in some academic subject, sometimes but not necessarily related to their professional responsibilities; in major research libraries, some of the librarians will hold PhD degrees in subject fields. Other advanced degrees often taken in conjunction with a degree in librarianship are law, management, health administration, or public administration. Despite the existence of doctoral programs existing to supplement a master's degree, the American Library Association considers a master's degree from an ALA accredited or approved program to be the terminal degree in the field.


title: Librarian

text: Library technicians, library assistants, and library associates (not to be confused with academic rank of assistant librarian or associate librarian) may have diplomas but usually do not hold library-related degrees. Occasionally they also hold undergraduate or graduate degrees in other disciplines. These workers, sometimes referred to as para-professionals, perform duties such as database management, library cataloging, ready reference, and serials and monograph processing.


title: Librarian

text: In the United Kingdom, a librarian can have a three- or four-year bachelor's degree in library science; separate master's degrees in librarianship, archive management, and records management are also available. These degrees are accredited by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals and the Society of Archivists.


title: Librarian

text: In Germany, the first step for an academic librarian is a PhD in a subject field, followed by additional training in librarianship.


title: Librarian

text: In the United States and Canada, a librarian generally has a one or two-year (more common) master's degree in library science from an accredited university. This master's degree is obtained following graduation from a bachelor's degree program in any discipline. The Library Science master's degree is accredited by the American Library Association and can have specializations within fields such as archival studies, records management, information architecture, public librarianship, medical librarianship, law librarianship, special librarianship, academic librarianship, or school (K-12) librarianship. School librarians often are required to have a teaching credential; however, an additional library science degree is not generally required. Many, if not most, academic librarians also have a second, subject-based master's degree. This is especially true of librarians working at four-year colleges. Beta Phi Mu, the international honor society for library & information science and information technology, honors faculty for distinguished service to education for librarianship with the annual Beta Phi Mu Award.


title: Librarian

text: In Australia, a professional librarian must meet the requirements set out by the Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA). There are three ways in which these requirements can be met: the individual must obtain an ALIA-recognized bachelor's degree in library and information studies, complete a first degree in any discipline followed by an ALIA-recognized postgraduate diploma or masters course, or gain an ALIA-recognized library technician qualifications (undertaken at a Technical and Further Education (TAFE) college/institute followed by an ALIA-recognized bachelor's degree in library and information studies. ALIA is responsible for accreditation of library specific qualifications for both librarians and library technicians. Professional Australian teacher-librarians require slightly different qualifications. In addition to having a degree that meets ALIA's accreditation process, teacher librarians must also hold recognized teaching qualifications.


title: Librarian

text: The increasing role of technology in libraries has a significant impact on the changing roles of librarians. New technologies are dramatically increasing the accessibility of information, and librarians are adapting to the evolving needs of users that emerge from the adoption of these new technologies. Digital librarians have become ubiquitous in the Information Age, so much so that a new word has been coined for such digital curators: "cybrarian", which is a portmanteau of the prefix "cyber-" (used to denote digital technology) and "librarian". The term "cybrarian" can be applied to someone who concerns themselves primarily with the role that technology plays in a traditional library setting. The term is also sometimes used for freelance information consultants.


title: Librarian

text: One of the most significant examples of how technology has changed the role of librarians in the last 50 years has been the move from traditional card catalogs to online public access catalogs (OPACs). Librarians had to develop software and the MARC standards for cataloguing records electronically. They had to purchase and run the computers necessary to use the software. They had to teach the public how to use the new technologies and move to more virtual working environments.


title: Librarian

text: The same could be said of other technology developments, from electronic databases (including the Internet), to logistical functions such as bar codes (or in the near future RFID). Many librarians provide virtual reference services (via web-based chat, instant messaging, text messaging, and e-mail), work in digitizing initiatives for works in the public domain, teach information literacy and technology classes to their users, and work on the development of information architectures for improving access and search functionality. These examples illustrate some of the ways in which librarians are using technology to fulfill and expand upon their historical roles.


title: Librarian

text: Librarians must continually adapt to new formats for information, such as electronic journals and e-books, which present both challenges and opportunities in providing access and promoting them to library patrons.


title: Librarian

text: Increasing technological advance has presented the possibility of automating some aspects of traditional libraries. In 2004 a group of researchers in Spain developed the UJI Online Robot. This robot is able to navigate the library, look for the specified book, and upon its discovery, carefully take it from the shelf and deliver it to the user. Because of the robot's extremely limited function, its introduction into libraries poses little risk of the employment of librarians, whose duties are not defined by menial tasks such as the retrieval of books.


title: Librarian

text: Recently over 100 libraries in the United States have begun adding 3D printers to their collections in an effort to expose the public to cutting-edge technology.


title: Librarian

text: The two largest library associations in the United States are the American Library Association (ALA) and the Special Libraries Association. YALSA, The Young Adult Library Services Association, serves Young Adult librarians, and is part of the American Library Association. Many U.S. states have their own library association as well. Librarians may also join such organizations as the Association of College and Research Libraries and the Public Library Association and the Art Libraries Society of North America. The Canadian Library Association serves Canada and there are provincial associations as well, such as the Ontario Library Association. In the United Kingdom, the professional body for Librarians is the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (formerly known as the Library Association). The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) represents the interests of libraries and librarians internationally. (See also the List of Library Associations.) IFLA hosts the annual IFLA World Library and Information Congress.


title: Librarian

text: Recent issues of concern for U.S. libraries include implementation of the Patriot Act and the Children's Internet Protection Act. Many librarians around the world share American librarians' concern over ethical issues surrounding censorship and privacy.


title: Librarian

text: Some librarians join activist organizations like the UK-based Information for Social Change and the North American-based Progressive Librarians Guild. The Progressive Librarians Guild covers the actions of union library workers in its journal and blog, "Union Library Workers".


title: Librarian

text: Within the American Library Association (ALA), some also join the Social Responsibilities Round Table (SRRT). SRRT came into being amid the social ferment of the 1960s and is often critical of the American Library Association for not living up to its professed ideals. Another important activist organization is the Social Responsibilities Special Interest Section of the American Association of Law Libraries (AALL). These activist organizations are viewed as controversial by some librarians, while others view them as a natural extension and outgrowth of their own deeply held library ethics. Librarians in the United States who as political actors in our times provide examples of a commitment to equality, the right to know or social justice include Peter Chase, George Christian, Janet Nocek, and Barbara Bailey. In the Doe v. Gonzales case, these librarians challenged the constitutionality of the nondisclosure provisions of the National Security Letters issued by the government under the USA Patriot Act in terrorist or other investigations. The four received the Roger Baldwin Medal of Liberty from the American Civil Liberties Union in June 2007.


title: Librarian

text: Librarianship manifests a dual career structure for men and women in the United States. In 2015, 83 percent of librarians were women. In 2018, that number dropped to 79 percent of all librarians working in the United States before jumping back up to 81 percent in 2019.


title: Librarian

text: In spite of women making up most of the workforce, in 2014, women working as full-time librarians reported a median annual salary of $48,589, compared to $52,528 for men. In 2019 the wage gap was still 92 percent of the median annual earnings reported by men. African American women earned just 69.9 cents and Hispanic and Latina women earned 63.8 cents on every dollar earned by a man of any race. Asian women were the only female racial group to earn more than men of all races, but they still only earned 76.7 cents to the dollar reported by Asian men.


title: Librarian

text: Top positions in libraries are more often held by men; for example, the position of Librarian of Congress has been held, mostly, by men since the establishment of the Library of Congress. Librarianship grew into a female-dominated sphere in the late 19th century due to the lower value of women's wages in comparison to men's. Since women had greater difficulty finding work than men, they were more likely to work for lower wages, thus making them more appealing to employers. Women, however, have made continuous progress toward equality, a reform called for following advancements of the American Library Association to amplify female representation in the library field, as well as reflected by the rise of second-wave feminism. Due to the majority ownership of male figures in greater positions of power within the library field, women have also been largely left out of standard histories of U.S. librarianship, but Suzanne Hildenbrand's scholarly assessment of the work done by women has expanded the historical record. Writers, academics, and journal publications have aimed to develop the scholarship around women in librarianship by shedding light on important female librarians of history, acknowledging and analyzing the viewpoints of specific groups of female and minority librarians, and bringing the pay gaps of the library profession into conversation.


title: Librarian

text: In 1911, Theresa Elmendorf became the first woman elected president of the American Library Association (which was founded in 1876); she was also the first woman ever to be nominated for this position. She was ALA president from May 24, 1911, until July 2, 1912.


title: Librarian

text: On July 13, 2016, Carla Hayden became the first female, and the first African American, to become Librarian of Congress. Dr. Hayden was nominated by President Barack Obama in February 2016 as the 14th Librarian of Congress.


title: Librarian

text: The American Library Association's Social Responsibilities Round Table Feminist Task Force (FTF) was founded in 1970 by women who wished to address sexism in libraries and librarianship. FTF was the first ALA group to focus on women's issues.


title: Librarian

text: The Committee on the Status of Women in Librarianship (COSWL) of the American Library Association, founded in 1976, represents the diversity of women's interest within ALA and ensures that the Association considers the rights of the majority (women) in the library field, and promotes and initiates the collection, analysis, dissemination, and coordination of information on the status of women in librarianship. The bibliographic history of women in U.S. librarianship and women librarians developing services for women has been well-documented in the series of publications initially issued by the Social Responsibilities Round Table Task Force on Women and later continued by COSWL.


title: Librarian

text: The Reference and Adult Services Division of the ALA has a discussion group titled "Women's Materials and Women Library Users," formed in the mid-1980s.


title: Librarian

text: The Library Leadership and Management Association Division of the ALA has a discussion group titled "LLAMA Women Administrators Discussion Group," which exists to provide a forum for discussion of problems of particular concern to women in administrative positions.


title: Librarian

text: The ALA also has the Women & Gender Studies Section (WGSS) of its Division "Association of College & Research Libraries"; this section was formed to discuss, promote, and support women's studies collections and services in academic and research libraries.


title: Librarian

text: The ALA Policy Manual states under "B.2.1.15 Access to Library Resources and Services Regardless of Sex, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, or Sexual Orientation (Old Number 53.1.15):" "The American Library Association stringently and unequivocally maintains that libraries and librarians have an obligation to resist efforts that systematically exclude materials dealing with any subject matter, including sex, gender identity or expression, or sexual orientation. The Association also encourages librarians to proactively support the First Amendment rights of all library users, regardless of sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity or expression. Adopted 1993, amended 2000, 2004, 2008, 2010." It also states under "B.2.12 Threats to Library Materials Related to Sex, Gender Identity, or Sexual Orientation"(Old Number 53.12), "The American Library Association supports the inclusion in library collections of materials that reflect the diversity of our society, including those related to sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity or expression. ALA encourages all American Library Association chapters to take active stands against all legislative or other government attempts to proscribe materials related to sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity or expression; and encourages all libraries to acquire and make available materials representative of all the people in our society. Adopted 2005, Amended 2009, 2010."


title: Librarian

text: Stereotypes of librarians in popular culture are frequently negative: librarians are portrayed as puritanical, punitive, unattractive, and timid if female, or timid, unattractive, and effeminate if male. These stereotypes have harmed librarians in the public eye.


title: Librarian

text: Deaf people at the library have the same needs as every other person visiting the library and often have more difficulty accessing materials and services. Australian librarian Karen McQuigg states that “even ten years ago, when I was involved in a project looking at what public libraries could offer the deaf, it seemed as if the gap between the requirements of this group and what public libraries could offer was too great for public libraries to be able to serve them effectively.”


title: Librarian

text: The ALA has admitted that disabled people belong to a minority that is often overlooked and under-represented by people in the library, and the Deaf community belongs in this minority group. However, in the last few decades, libraries across the United States have made great strides in the mission of making libraries more accessible to disabilities in general and to the Deaf community specifically.


title: Librarian

text: One of the first activists in the library community working toward accessibility for the Deaf was Alice Hagemeyer. When disabled communities began demanding equality in the 1970s, Hagemeyer decided to go back to school for her master's degree in library science. While she was studying there, she realized that there was not very much information about the Deaf community at her library or at the libraries of any of her classmates. She soon became an activist for Deaf awareness at her library, and she became the first “Librarian for the Deaf Community” from any public library in the nation. Hagemeyer also constructed a manual of resources for Deaf people and those associated with them called "The Red Notebook", which is now online at the website of the Friends of Libraries for Deaf Action. Hagemeyer was one of the first library activists to make strides for the Deaf community.


title: Librarian

text: New guidelines from library organizations such as International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) and the ALA were written in order to help libraries make their information more accessible to people with disabilities, and in some cases, specifically the Deaf community. IFLA's "Guidelines for Library Services to Deaf People" is one such set of guidelines, and it was published to inform libraries of the services that should be provided for Deaf patrons. Most of the guidelines pertain to ensuring that Deaf patrons have equal access to all available library services. Other guidelines include training library staff to provide services for the Deaf community, availability of text telephones or TTYs not only to assist patrons with reference questions but also for making outside calls, using the most recent technology in order to communicate more effectively with Deaf patrons, including closed captioning services for any television services, and developing a collection that would interest the members of the Deaf community.


title: Librarian

text: Over the years, library services have begun to evolve in order to accommodate the needs and desires of local Deaf communities. At the Queen Borough Public Library (QBPL) in New York, the staff implemented new and innovative ideas in order to involve the community and library staff with the Deaf people in their community. The QBPL hired a deaf librarian, Lori Stambler, to train the library staff about Deaf culture, to teach sign language classes for family members and people who are involved with deaf people, and to teach literacy classes for Deaf patrons. In working with the library, Stambler was able to help the community reach out to its deaf neighbors, and helped other deaf people become more active in their outside community.


title: Librarian

text: The library at Gallaudet University, the only Deaf liberal arts university in the United States, was founded in 1876. The library's collection has grown from a small number of reference books to the world's largest collection of deaf-related materials with over 234,000 books and thousands of other materials in different formats. The collection is so large that the library had to create a hybrid classification system based on the Dewey Decimal Classification System in order to make cataloging and location within the library much easier for both library staff and users. The library also houses the university's archives, which holds some of the oldest deaf-related books and documents in the world.


title: Librarian

text: In Nashville, Tennessee, Sandy Cohen manages the Library Services for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing (LSDHH). The program was created in 1979 in response to information accessibility issues for the Deaf in the Nashville area. Originally, the only service provided was the news via a teletypewriter or TTY, but today, the program has expanded to serving the entire state of Tennessee by providing all different types of information and material on deafness, Deaf culture, and information for family members of Deaf people, as well as a historical and reference collection.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Retrograde motion in astronomy is, in general, orbital or rotational motion of an object in the direction opposite the rotation of its primary, that is, the central object (right figure). It may also describe other motions such as precession or nutation of an object's rotational axis. Prograde or direct motion is more normal motion in the same direction as the primary rotates. However, "retrograde" and "prograde" can also refer to an object other than the primary if so described. The direction of rotation is determined by an inertial frame of reference, such as distant fixed stars.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: In the Solar System, the orbits around the Sun of all planets and most other objects, except many comets, are prograde. They orbit around the Sun in the same direction as the sun rotates about its axis, which is counterclockwise when observed from above the Sun's north pole. Except for Venus and Uranus, planetary rotations around their axes are also prograde. Most natural satellites have prograde orbits around their planets. Prograde satellites of Uranus orbit in the direction Uranus rotates, which is retrograde to the Sun. Nearly all regular satellites are tidally locked and thus have prograde rotation. Retrograde satellites are generally small and distant from their planets, except Neptune's satellite Triton, which is large and close. All retrograde satellites are thought to have formed separately before being captured by their planets.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Most low-inclination artificial satellites of Earth have been placed in a prograde orbit, because in this situation less propellant is required to reach the orbit.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: When a galaxy or a planetary system forms, its material takes a shape similar to that of a disk. Most of the material orbits and rotates in one direction. This uniformity of motion is due to the collapse of a gas cloud. The nature of the collapse is explained by conservation of angular momentum. In 2010 the discovery of several hot Jupiters with backward orbits called into question the theories about the formation of planetary systems. This can be explained by noting that stars and their planets do not form in isolation but in star clusters that contain molecular clouds. When a protoplanetary disk collides with or steals material from a cloud this can result in retrograde motion of a disk and the resulting planets.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: A celestial object's inclination indicates whether the object's "orbit" is prograde or retrograde. The inclination of a celestial object is the angle between its orbital plane and another reference frame such as the equatorial plane of the object's primary. In the Solar System, inclination of the planets is measured from the ecliptic plane, which is the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun. The inclination of moons is measured from the equator of the planet they orbit. An object with an inclination between 0 and 90 degrees is orbiting or revolving in the same direction as the primary is rotating. An object with an inclination of exactly 90 degrees has a perpendicular orbit that is neither prograde nor retrograde. An object with an inclination between 90 degrees and 180 degrees is in a retrograde orbit.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: A celestial object's axial tilt indicates whether the object's "rotation" is prograde or retrograde. Axial tilt is the angle between an object's rotation axis and a line perpendicular to its orbital plane passing through the object's centre. An object with an axial tilt up to 90 degrees is rotating in the same direction as its primary. An object with an axial tilt of exactly 90 degrees, has a perpendicular rotation that is neither prograde nor retrograde. An object with an axial tilt between 90 degrees and 180 degrees is rotating in the opposite direction to its orbital direction. Regardless of inclination or axial tilt, the north pole of any planet or moon in the Solar System is defined as the pole that is in the same celestial hemisphere as Earth's north pole.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: All eight planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in the direction of the Sun's rotation, which is counterclockwise when viewed from above the Sun's north pole. Six of the planets also rotate about their axis in this same direction. The exceptions – the planets with retrograde rotation – are Venus and Uranus. Venus's axial tilt is 177°, which means it is rotating almost exactly in the opposite direction to its orbit. Uranus has an axial tilt of 97.77°, so its axis of rotation is approximately parallel with the plane of the Solar System. The reason for Uranus's unusual axial tilt is not known with certainty, but the usual speculation is that during the formation of the Solar System, an Earth-sized protoplanet collided with Uranus, causing the skewed orientation.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: It is unlikely that Venus was formed with its present slow retrograde rotation, which takes 243 days. Venus probably began with a fast prograde rotation with a period of several hours much like most of the planets in the Solar System. Venus is close enough to the Sun to experience significant gravitational tidal dissipation, and also has a thick enough atmosphere to create thermally driven atmospheric tides that create a retrograde torque. Venus's present slow retrograde rotation is in equilibrium balance between gravitational tides trying to tidally lock Venus to the Sun and atmospheric tides trying to spin Venus in a retrograde direction. In addition to maintaining this present day equilibrium, tides are also sufficient to account for evolution of Venus's rotation from a primordial fast prograde direction to its present-day slow retrograde rotation. In the past, various alternative hypotheses have been proposed to explain Venus's retrograde rotation, such as collisions or it having originally formed that way.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Despite being closer to the Sun than Venus, Mercury is not tidally locked because it has entered a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance due to the eccentricity of its orbit. Mercury's prograde rotation is slow enough that due to its eccentricity, its angular orbital velocity exceeds its angular rotational velocity near perihelion, causing the motion of the sun in Mercury's sky to temporarily reverse. The rotations of Earth and Mars are also affected by tidal forces with the Sun, but they have not reached an equilibrium state like Mercury and Venus because they are further out from the Sun where tidal forces are weaker. The gas giants of the Solar System are too massive and too far from the Sun for tidal forces to slow down their rotations.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: All known dwarf planets and dwarf planet candidates have prograde orbits around the Sun, but some have retrograde rotation. Pluto has retrograde rotation; its axial tilt is approximately 120 degrees. Pluto and its moon Charon are tidally locked to each other. It is suspected that the Plutonian satellite system was created by a massive collision.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: If formed in the gravity field of a planet as the planet is forming, a moon will orbit the planet in the same direction as the planet is rotating and is a regular moon. If an object is formed elsewhere and later captured into orbit by a planet's gravity, it can be captured into either a retrograde or prograde orbit depending on whether it first approaches the side of the planet that is rotating towards or away from it. This is an irregular moon.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: In the Solar System, many of the asteroid-sized moons have retrograde orbits, whereas all the large moons except Triton (the largest of Neptune's moons) have prograde orbits. The particles in Saturn's Phoebe ring are thought to have a retrograde orbit because they originate from the irregular moon Phoebe.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: All retrograde satellites experience tidal deceleration to some degree. The only satellite in the Solar System for which this effect is non-negligible is Neptune's moon Triton. All the other retrograde satellites are on distant orbits and tidal forces between them and the planet are negligible.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Within the Hill sphere, the region of stability for retrograde orbits at a large distance from the primary is larger than that for prograde orbits. This has been suggested as an explanation for the preponderance of retrograde moons around Jupiter. Because Saturn has a more even mix of retrograde/prograde moons, however, the underlying causes appear to be more complex.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: With the exception of Hyperion, all the known regular planetary natural satellites in the Solar System are tidally locked to their host planet, so they have zero rotation relative to their host planet, but have the same type of rotation as their host planet relative to the Sun because they have prograde orbits around their host planet. That is, they all have prograde rotation relative to the Sun except those of Uranus.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: If there is a collision, material could be ejected in any direction and coalesce into either prograde or retrograde moons, which may be the case for the moons of dwarf planet Haumea, although Haumea's rotation direction is not known.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Asteroids usually have a prograde orbit around the Sun. Only a few dozen asteroids in retrograde orbits are known.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Some asteroids with retrograde orbits may be burnt-out comets, but some may acquire their retrograde orbit due to gravitational interactions with Jupiter.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Due to their small size and their large distance from Earth it is difficult to telescopically analyse the rotation of most asteroids. As of 2012, data is available for less than 200 asteroids and the different methods of determining the orientation of poles often result in large discrepancies. The asteroid spin vector catalog at Poznan Observatory avoids use of the phrases "retrograde rotation" or "prograde rotation" as it depends which reference plane is meant and asteroid coordinates are usually given with respect to the ecliptic plane rather than the asteroid's orbital plane.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Asteroids with satellites, also known as binary asteroids, make up about 15% of all asteroids less than 10 km in diameter in the main belt and near-Earth population and most are thought to be formed by the YORP effect causing an asteroid to spin so fast that it breaks up. As of 2012, and where the rotation is known, all satellites of asteroids orbit the asteroid in the same direction as the asteroid is rotating.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Most known objects that are in orbital resonance are orbiting in the same direction as the objects they are in resonance with, however a few retrograde asteroids have been found in resonance with Jupiter and Saturn.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Comets from the Oort cloud are much more likely than asteroids to be retrograde. Halley's Comet has a retrograde orbit around the Sun.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Most Kuiper belt objects have prograde orbits around the Sun. The first Kuiper belt object discovered to have a retrograde orbit was


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: . Other Kuiper belt objects with retrograde orbits are (471325) 2011 KT, , and 2011 MM. All of these orbits are highly tilted, with inclinations in the 100°–125° range.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Meteoroids in a retrograde orbit around the Sun hit the Earth with a faster relative speed than prograde meteoroids and tend to burn up in the atmosphere and are more likely to hit the side of the Earth facing away from the Sun (i.e. at night) whereas the prograde meteoroids have slower closing speeds and more often land as meteorites and tend to hit the Sun-facing side of the Earth. Most meteoroids are prograde.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: The Sun's motion about the centre of mass of the Solar System is complicated by perturbations from the planets. Every few hundred years this motion switches between prograde and retrograde.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Retrograde motion, or retrogression, within the Earth's atmosphere is seen in weather systems whose motion is opposite the general regional direction of airflow, i.e. from east to west against the westerlies or from west to east through the trade wind easterlies. Prograde motion with respect to planetary rotation is seen in the atmospheric super-rotation of the thermosphere of Earth and in the upper troposphere of Venus. Simulations indicate that the atmosphere of Pluto should be dominated by winds retrograde to its rotation.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Artificial satellites destined for low inclination orbits are usually launched in the prograde direction, since this minimizes the amount of propellant required to reach orbit by taking advantage of the Earth's rotation (an equatorial launch site is optimal for this effect). However, Israeli Ofeq satellites are launched in a westward, retrograde direction over the Mediterranean to ensure that launch debris does not fall onto populated land areas.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Stars and planetary systems tend to be born in star clusters rather than forming in isolation. Protoplanetary disks can collide with or steal material from molecular clouds within the cluster and this can lead to disks and their resulting planets having inclined or retrograde orbits around their stars. Retrograde motion may also result from gravitational interactions with other celestial bodies in the same system (See Kozai mechanism) or a near-collision with another planet, or it may be that the star itself flipped over early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: The accretion disk of the protostar IRAS 16293-2422 has parts rotating in opposite directions. This is the first known example of a counterrotating accretion disk. If this system forms planets, the inner planets will likely orbit in the opposite direction to the outer planets.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: WASP-17b was the first exoplanet that was discovered to be orbiting its star opposite to the direction the star is rotating. A second such planet was announced just a day later: HAT-P-7b.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: In one study more than half of all the known hot Jupiters had orbits that were misaligned with the rotation axis of their parent stars, with six having backwards orbits.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: The last few giant impacts during planetary formation tend to be the main determiner of a terrestrial planet's rotation rate. During the giant impact stage, the thickness of a protoplanetary disk is far larger than the size of planetary embryos so collisions are equally likely to come from any direction in three dimensions. This results in the axial tilt of accreted planets ranging from 0 to 180 degrees with any direction as likely as any other with both prograde and retrograde spins equally probable. Therefore, prograde spin with small axial tilt, common for the solar system's terrestrial planets except for Venus, is not common for terrestrial planets in general.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: The pattern of stars appears fixed in the sky, insofar as human vision is concerned; this is because their massive distances relative to the Earth result in motion imperceptible to the naked eye. In reality, stars orbit the center of their galaxy.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Stars with an orbit retrograde relative to a disk galaxy's general rotation are more likely to be found in the galactic halo than in the galactic disk. The Milky Way's outer halo has many globular clusters with a retrograde orbit and with a retrograde or zero rotation. The structure of the halo is the topic of an ongoing debate. Several studies have claimed to find a halo consisting of two distinct components. These studies find a "dual" halo, with an inner, more metal-rich, prograde component (i.e. stars orbit the galaxy on average with the disk rotation), and a metal-poor, outer, retrograde (rotating against the disc) component. However, these findings have been challenged by other studies, arguing against such a duality. These studies demonstrate that the observational data can be explained without a duality, when employing an improved statistical analysis and accounting for measurement uncertainties.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: The nearby Kapteyn's Star is thought to have ended up with its high-velocity retrograde orbit around the galaxy as a result of being ripped from a dwarf galaxy that merged with the Milky Way.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: Close-flybys and mergers of galaxies within galaxy clusters can pull material out of galaxies and create small satellite galaxies in either prograde or retrograde orbits around larger galaxies.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: A galaxy called Complex H, which was orbiting the Milky Way in a retrograde direction relative to the Milky Way's rotation, is colliding with the Milky Way.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: NGC 7331 is an example of a galaxy that has a bulge that is rotating in the opposite direction to the rest of the disk, probably as a result of infalling material.


title: Retrograde and prograde motion

text: The center of a spiral galaxy contains at least one supermassive black hole. A retrograde black hole – one whose spin is opposite to that of its disk – spews jets much more powerful than those of a prograde black hole, which may have no jet at all. Scientists have produced a theoretical framework for the formation and evolution of retrograde black holes based on the gap between the inner edge of an accretion disk and the black hole.


title: Bulls and Cows

text: Bulls and Cows (also known as Cows and Bulls or Pigs and Bulls) is a code-breaking mind or paper and pencil game for two or more players, predating the commercially marketed board game "Mastermind" and the hit word game Wordle.


title: Bulls and Cows

text: The game is played in turns by two opponents who aim to decipher the other's secret code by trial and error.


title: Bulls and Cows

text: The numerical version of the game is usually played with 4 digits, but can be played with any number of digits.


title: Bulls and Cows

text: On a sheet of paper, the players each write a 4-digit secret number. The digits must be all different. Then, in turn, the players try to guess their opponent's number who gives the number of matches. The digits of the number guessed also must all be different. If the matching digits are in their right positions, they are "bulls", if in different positions, they are "cows". Example:


title: Bulls and Cows

text: The game may also be played by two teams of players, with the team members discussing their strategy before selecting a move.


title: Bulls and Cows

text: Computer versions of the game starting appearing on mainframes in the 1970s. One version called BASIC MOO was published in the DECUS Program Library for PDP computers and another was available through the DEC Users Society, both dating from 1971. In 1972, a version was written for the Multics operating system at MIT. A version written by Lane Hauck in the language FOCAL for the PDP-8 later served as the basis for the handheld game Comp IV by Milton Bradley.


title: Bulls and Cows

text: These programs maintained a league table of players' scores, and protecting the integrity of this league table became a popular case study for researchers into computer security. Because the game has simple rules while still being difficult and entertaining, there are many computer variants; it is often included on cellphones and PDAs.


title: Bulls and Cows

text: It is proved that any number can be solved within seven turns. The average minimal game length is turns.


title: Bulls and Cows

text: This version is usually played orally, but is easier to play if each player (or each team) keeps written notes. It is exactly like the numerical version, except instead of 4-digit numbers, 4-letter words are used. They must be real words, according to whatever language or languages you are playing the game in. Alternative versions of the game can be played with 3-letter or 5-letter words, but the 4-letter version remains the most popular one.


title: Bulls and Cows

text: For example, if the secret word is HEAT, a guess of COIN would result in "0 Bulls, 0 Cows" (none of the guessed letters are present); a guess of EATS would result in "0 Bulls, 3 Cows" (since E, A, T are all present, but in the wrong positions from the guess), and a guess of TEAL would result in "2 Bulls, 1 Cow" (since E and A are in the right positions, while T is in the wrong position). The game continues until one of the Guessers scores "4 Bulls" for guessing HEAT exactly.


title: Bulls and Cows

text: The word version of Bulls and Cows was later adapted to Wordle, a web-based word game released in 2021 which almost immediately became a popular social media sensation. Players have six attempts to guess a five-letter word.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: Claude Henri Jean Chabrol (; 24 June 1930 – 12 September 2010) was a French film director and a member of the French New Wave ("nouvelle vague") group of filmmakers who first came to prominence at the end of the 1950s. Like his colleagues and contemporaries Jean-Luc Godard, François Truffaut, Éric Rohmer and Jacques Rivette, Chabrol was a critic for the influential film magazine "Cahiers du cinéma" before beginning his career as a film maker.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: Chabrol's career began with "Le Beau Serge" (1958), inspired by Hitchcock's "Shadow of a Doubt" (1943). Thrillers became something of a trademark for Chabrol, with an approach characterized by a distanced objectivity. This is especially apparent in "Les Biches" (1968), "La Femme infidèle" (1969), and "Le Boucher" (1970) – all featuring Stéphane Audran, who was his wife at the time.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: Sometimes characterized as a "mainstream" New Wave director, Chabrol remained prolific and popular throughout his half-century career. In 1978, he cast Isabelle Huppert as the lead in "Violette Nozière". On the strength of that effort, the pair went on to others including the successful "Madame Bovary" (1991) and "La Cérémonie" (1995). Film critic John Russell Taylor has stated that "there are few directors whose films are more difficult to explain or evoke on paper, if only because so much of the overall effect turns on Chabrol's sheer hedonistic relish for the medium...Some of his films become almost private jokes, made to amuse himself." James Monaco has called Chabrol "the craftsman par excellence of the New Wave, and his variations upon a theme give us an understanding of the explicitness and precision of the language of the film that we don't get from the more varied experiments in genre of Truffaut or Godard."


title: Claude Chabrol

text: Claude Henri Jean Chabrol was born on 24 June 1930 to Yves Chabrol and Madeleine Delarbre in Paris and grew up in Sardent, France, a village in the region of Creuse 400 km (240 miles) south of Paris. Chabrol said that he always thought of himself as a country person, and never as a Parisian. Both Chabrol's father and grandfather had been pharmacists, and Chabrol was expected to follow in the family business. But as a child, Chabrol was "seized by the demon of cinema" and ran a film club in a barn in Sardent between the ages of 12 and 14. It was at this time that he developed his passion for the thriller genre, detective stories and other forms of popular fiction.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: After World War II, Chabrol moved to Paris to study pharmacology and literature at the Sorbonne, where he received a licence en lettres. Some biographies also state that he briefly studied law and political science at the École Libre des Sciences Politiques. While living in Paris Chabrol became involved with the postwar cine club culture and frequented Henri Langlois's Cinémathèque Française and the Ciné-Club du Quartier Latin, where he first met Éric Rohmer, Jacques Rivette, Jean-Luc Godard, François Truffaut and other future "Cahiers du Cinéma" journalists and French New Wave filmmakers. After graduating, Chabrol served his mandatory military service in the French Medical Corps, serving in Germany and reaching the rank of sergeant. Chabrol has said that while in the army he worked as a film projectionist. After he was discharged from the army, he joined his friends as a staff writer for "Cahiers du Cinéma", who were challenging then-contemporary French films and championing the concept of Auteur theory. As a film critic, Chabrol advocated realism both morally and aesthetically, mise-en-scene, and deep focus cinematography, which he wrote "brings the spectator in closer with the image" and encourages "both a more active mental attitude on the part of the spectator and a more positive contribution on his part to the action in progress." He also wrote for "Arts" magazine during this period. Among Chabrol's most famous articles were "Little Themes", a study of genre films, and "The Evolution of Detective Films".


title: Claude Chabrol

text: In 1955 Chabrol was briefly employed as a publicity man at the French offices of 20th Century Fox, but was told that he was "the worst press officer they'd ever seen" and was replaced by Jean-Luc Godard, who they said was even worse. In 1956 he helped finance Jacques Rivette's short film "Le coup du berger", and later helped finance Rohmer's short "Véronique et son cancre" in 1958. Unlike all of his future New Wave contemporaries, Chabrol never made short film nor did he work as an assistant on other directors' work before making his feature film debut. In 1957 Chabrol and Eric Rohmer co-wrote "Hitchcock" (Paris: Éditions Universitaires, 1957), a study of the films made by director Alfred Hitchcock through the film "The Wrong Man". Chabrol had said that Rohmer deserves the majority of the credit for the book, while he mainly worked on the sections pertaining to Hitchcock's early American films, "Rebecca", "Notorious", and "Stage Fright". Chabrol had interviewed Hitchcock with François Truffaut in 1954 on the set of "To Catch a Thief", where the two famously walked into a water tank after being starstruck by Hitchcock. Years later, when Chabrol and Truffaut had both become successful directors themselves, Hitchcock told Truffaut that he always thought of them when he saw "ice cubes in a glass of whiskey."


title: Claude Chabrol

text: The most prolific of the major New Wave directors, Chabrol averaged almost one film a year from 1958 until his death. His early films (roughly 1958–1963) are usually categorized as part of the New Wave and generally have the experimental qualities associated with the movement; while his later early films are usually categorized as being intentionally commercial and far less experimental. In the mid-sixties it was difficult for Chabrol to obtain financing for films so he made a series of commercial "potboilers" and spy spoofs, which none of the other New Wave filmmakers did.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: Chabrol had married Agnès Goute in 1952 and in 1957 his wife inherited a large sum of money from relatives. In December of that year Chabrol used the money to make his feature directorial debut with "Le Beau Serge". Chabrol spent three months shooting in his hometown of Sardent using a small crew and little known actors. The film's budget was $85,000. The film starred Jean-Claude Brialy as François and Gérard Blain as Serge, two childhood friends reunited when the recent medical school graduate François returns to Sardent and discovers that Serge has become an alcoholic after the stillbirth of his physically retarded first child. Despite suffering from tuberculosis, François drags Serge through a snowstorm to witness the birth of his second child, thus giving Serge a reason to live while killing himself in the process. "Le Beau Serge" is considered the inaugural film of the French New Wave Film movement that would peak between 1959 and 1962. Chabrol was the first of his friends to complete a feature film (although Jacques Rivette had already begun filming his first feature "Paris nous appartient"), and it immediately received critical praise and was a box office success. It won the Grand Prix at the Locarno Film Festival and the Prix Jean Vigo. Critics noticed similarities to Hitchcock's films, such as the motifs of doubling and re-occurrences and the "Catholic guilt transference" that Chabrol had also written about extensively in his and Rohmer's book the year earlier. Chabrol stated that he made the film as a "farewell to Catholicism", and many critics have called his first film vastly different from any of his subsequent films.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: Chabrol quickly followed this success up with "Les Cousins" in 1958. The film is a companion piece and a reversal to "Le Beau Serge" in many ways, such as having the responsible student Brialy now play the decadent and insensitive Paul while the reckless Blain now plays the hard-working law student Charles. In this film, the country cousin Charles arrives in the big city of Paris to live with his corrupt cousin Paul while attending school. This was the first of many Chabrol films to include characters named Paul and Charles, and later films would often include a female named Hélène. More so than his first film, "Les Cousins" features many characteristics that would be seen as "Chabrolian", including the Hitchcock influence, a depiction of the French bourgeoisie, characters with ambiguous motives and a murder. It was also Chabrol's first film co-written with his longtime collaborator Paul Gégauff, of whom Chabrol once said "when I want cruelty, I go off and look for Gégauff. Paul is very good at gingering things up...He can make a character look absolutely ridiculous and hateful in two seconds flat." "Les Cousins" was another box office success in France and won the Golden Bear at the 9th Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: Chabrol formed his own production company AJYM Productions (acronym based on the initials of his wife's and children's names) at the time of making "Le Beau Serge". After the success of "Le Beau Serge" and "Les Cousins", Chabrol began funding many of the films of his friends. AJYM helped fund Eric Rohmer's feature debut "The Sign of Leo", partially funded Rivette's "Paris nous appartient", and Philippe de Broca's films "Les Jeux de l'amour" and "Le farceur". He also donated excess film stock from "Les Cousins" to Rivette to complete "Paris nous appartient". Chabrol was also a technical advisor on Jean-Luc Godard's feature debut "Breathless" and acted in small parts in many of his friends' and his own early films. For his support to the early careers of so many of his friends, Chabrol has been referred to as "the godfather of the French New Wave", although many film histories tend to overlook this contribution and dismiss Chabrol altogether.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: After two box office hits in a row, Chabrol was given a big budget to make his first color film, "À double tour" ("Léda") in the spring of 1959. The film stars Jean-Paul Belmondo as Laszlo and Antonella Lualdi as Léda, two outsiders of a bourgeois family who experience different results when attempting to enter that family. Chabrol adapted the script with Paul Gégauff from a novel by Stanley Ellin, and the film is known for its oedipal sex triangle and murder scenario. The film was shot on location in Aix-en-Provence with cinematographer Henri Decaë and includes choppy, hand-held camera footage that is atypical of a Chabrol film despite being present in many of the New Wave films made at the same time. The film was both a box office and critical disappointment, and critic Roy Armes criticized "Chabrol's lack of feeling for his characters and love of overacting."


title: Claude Chabrol

text: In 1960 Chabrol made what is considered by many critics as his best early film, "Les Bonnes Femmes". The film stars Bernadette Lafont, Clotilde Joano, Stéphane Audran and Lucile Saint-Simon as four Parisian appliance store employees who all dream of an escape from their mediocre lives, and the different outcomes for each girl. Most critics praised the film, such as Robin Wood and James Monaco. However some left-wing critics disliked Chabrol's depiction of working-class people and accused him of making fun of their lifestyles. The film was another box office disappointment for Chabrol. It was followed with two films that were also financially unsuccessful and which Chabrol has admitted to making purely for "commercial reasons". "Les Godelureaux" was made in 1960 and hated by Chabrol. "The Third Lover" ("L'Œil du Malin"), released in 1961, received better reviews than Chabrol's previous films, with critics pointing out that the films that Chabrol wrote without Paul Gégauff were much more compassionate and realistic than the ones with Gégauff. It was shot on location in Munich. Although she had appeared in supporting roles in several Chabrol films before, "The Third Lover" was the first Chabrol film in which Stéphane Audran appeared as the female lead. They later married in 1964 and worked together until the late 1970s.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: In 1962 Chabrol made "Ophelia", a loose adaptation of "Hamlet" that was another box office disappointment. Later that year he had a minor hit film with "Landru", written by Françoise Sagan and starring Charles Denner, Michèle Morgan, Danielle Darrieux and Hildegard Knef. The film depicts the famous French serial killer Henri Désiré Landru, a story that had previously inspired Charlie Chaplin's film "Monsieur Verdoux".


title: Claude Chabrol

text: From 1964 to 1967 Chabrol made six films and one short that were critically and commercially disastrous, and this period is considered a low point of his career. Four of these films were in the then-popular genre of spy spoof films, including "Le Tigre aime la chair fraiche" and "Le Tigre se parfume à la dynamite". Chabrol had said that "I like to get to the absolute limit of principles...In drivel like the Tiger series I really wanted to get the full extent of the drivel. They were drivel, so OK, let's get into it up to our necks." During this period a Variety headline read "Vital To Keep Making Pictures, and What Sort Not Relevant; Chabrol No 'Doctrinaire' Type." In 1965 Chabrol also contributed to the New Wave portmanteau film "Six in Paris" with the segment "La Muette". Chabrol co-starred with Stéphane Audran as a middle aged couple dealing with their rebellious teenage daughter. In 1964 Chabrol also directed a stage production of "MacBeth" for the Théâtre Récamier.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: In 1968 Chabrol began working with film producer André Génovès and started to make more critically acclaimed films that would later be considered his "Golden Era". Most of these films revolved around themes of bourgeois characters and a murder is almost always part of the plot. Unlike his earlier films, most of these films centered around middle aged people. Chabrol often worked with the same people during this period including actors Audran and Michel Bouquet, cinematographer Jean Rabier, editor Jacques Gaillard, sound technician Guy Chichignoud, composer Pierre Jansen, set designer Guy Littaye, as well as producer Génovés and co-writer Paul Gégauff.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: In 1968 Chabrol made "Les Biches", one of his most acclaimed works. The film stars Stéphane Audran as the dominant and bisexual Frédérique, who finds a young protege in the bisexual Why (Jacqueline Sassard), until they both become the lover of a young architect named Paul (Jean-Louis Trintignant). Why ends up killing Frédérique, but it is unclear whether she murdered her cheating lover or the person that her lover was cheating with. The film received critical praise and was a box office hit. Chabrol followed this with a similar film "The Unfaithful Wife" ("La Femme infidèle"), in which a husband named Charles murders the lover of his cheating wife. It was later remade in 2002 by director Adrian Lyne. Chabrol finished the decade with "This Man Must Die" ("Que la bête meure") in 1969. Based on an original story by Cecil Day-Lewis, in the film Charles (Michel Duchaussoy) plots to kill Paul (Jean Yanne) after Paul killed Charles' son in a hit and run car accident. However the film's ending is left intentionally ambiguous, and Chabrol has stated that "you'll never see a Charles kill a Paul. Never." The film was especially praised for its landscape cinematography.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: In 1970 Chabrol made "The Butcher" ("Le boucher") starring Jean Yanne and Stéphane Audran. Yanne plays Popaul, a former war hero known for his violent behavior, much like that depicted in the prehistoric cave drawings that the characters look at in their Périgord community. The French newspaper "Le Figaro" called it "the best French film since the liberation." After another examination of bourgeois life in "The Breach" ("La Rupture") in 1970, Chabrol made "Just Before Nightfall" ("Juste avant la nuit") in 1971. The film stars Michel Bouquet as an ad executive named Charles who kills his mistress but cannot handle the guilt, so he confesses his crime to her husband (François Périer) and his wife (Stéphane Audran), expecting their condemnation. To his surprise they are only compassionate and forgiving to his crime and Charles cannot find relief from the guilt of what he has done. Later in 1971 Chabrol made "Ten Days' Wonder" ("La Décade prodigieuse"), based on a novel by Ellery Queen. The film was shot in English and starred Michel Piccoli, Anthony Perkins and Orson Welles. It received poor critical reviews. He followed this with the equally disliked "Dr. Popaul", starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Mia Farrow. Critics compared the film unfavorably with Chabrol's earlier film that centered on a "Landru-like" theme. Critic Jacques Siclier said that "the "novelty" of "Docteur Popaul" comes from the offhandedness with which the criminal history is treated."


title: Claude Chabrol

text: Chabrol took a slight change of pace with his 1973 film "Wedding in Blood" ("Les Noces rouges") by making his first film with political themes. The film stars Audran and Michel Piccoli as lovers who plot to murder Audran's husband, who is the corrupt gaullist mayor of their town. To their surprise the President of France orders that no investigation be made of the mayor's death, leading the murdering couple to suspect political interest in their crime. In the spring of 1973 the French government banned the film for one month, allegedly so that it would not influence members of the jury of a controversial criminal trial. Chabrol followed this political theme with "Nada", in which a group of young anarchists kidnap an American ambassador. It was Chabrol's first film to not center on the bourgeois since "Le Beau Serge". Chabrol returned to more familiar ground in 1975 with "A piece of pleasure" ("Une partie de plaisir"). In this film screenwriter Paul Gégauff plays a writer with a troubled marriage that ends in tragedy. (In 1983, Gégauff was stabbed to death in real life by his second wife.) Gégauff's wife is played by his real-life first wife Danièle Gégauff (already divorced when this film was made) and his daughter is played by real life daughter Clemence Gégauff. The film received poor critical reviews, with Richard Roud calling it "rather interestingly loathsome."


title: Claude Chabrol

text: Chabrol ended his Golden Period with one of his most admired and his most controversial films "Violette Nozière" in 1978. The film starred a young Isabelle Huppert as a real life Parisian girl from a respectable petit-bourgeois family in the 1930s. At night Violette sneaks out to pick up men and eventually contracts syphilis, which she convinces her parents must be hereditary before she kills them. The film was controversial in France but praised in other countries.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: In the 1980's and 1990's Chabrol engaged himself with many different projects for both TV and the silver screen. His films "Poulet au vinaigre" (1985) and "Masques" (1987) were entered into the 38th Cannes Film Festival and 37th Berlin International Film Festival respectively. "Madame Bovary" (1991) was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film and for the Academy Award for Best Costume Design. It was also entered into the 17th Moscow International Film Festival. "La Cérémonie" (1995) is perhaps his most acclaimed film from this period, as it was nominated for numerous César Awards and was entered into the 52nd Venice International Film Festival among other. His 1999 film "The Color of Lies" was entered into the 49th Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Claude Chabrol

text: Chabrol's first marriage to Agnès Goute (1956–1962) produced a son, Matthieu Chabrol, a composer who scored most of his father's films from the early 1980s. He divorced Agnès to marry the actress Stéphane Audran, with whom he had a son, actor Thomas Chabrol. They remained married from 1964 to 1978. His third wife was Aurore Paquiss, who has been a script supervisor since the 1950s. He had four children. Chabrol was a known gourmet chef and shot "10 Days Wonder" in Alsace only because he wanted to visit its restaurants. Although he acknowledges the influence of Alfred Hitchcock in his work, Chabrol has stated that "others have influenced me more. My three greatest influences were Murnau, the great silent film director...Ernst Lubitsch and Fritz Lang."


title: Claude Chabrol

text: Chabrol died on 12 September 2010 of leukemia. He is buried in Pere Lachaise Cemetery in north-east Paris.


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: The iodine clock reaction is a classical chemical clock demonstration experiment to display chemical kinetics in action; it was discovered by Hans Heinrich Landolt in 1886. The iodine clock reaction exists in several variations, which each involve iodine species (iodide ion, free iodine, or iodate ion) and redox reagents in the presence of starch. Two colourless solutions are mixed and at first there is no visible reaction. After a short time delay, the liquid suddenly turns to a shade of dark blue due to the formation of a triiodide–starch complex. In some variations, the solution will repeatedly cycle from colorless to blue and back to colorless, until the reagents are depleted.


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: This method starts with a solution of hydrogen peroxide and sulfuric acid. To this a solution containing potassium iodide, sodium thiosulfate, and starch is added. There are two reactions occurring simultaneously in the solution.


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: When the solutions are mixed, the second reaction causes the iodine to be consumed much faster than it is generated, and only a small amount of iodine is present in the dynamic equilibrium. Once the thiosulfate ion has been exhausted, this reaction stops and the blue colour caused by the iodine – starch complex appears.


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: Anything that accelerates the first reaction will shorten the time until the solution changes color. Decreasing the pH (increasing concentration), or increasing the concentration of iodide or hydrogen peroxide will shorten the time. Adding more thiosulfate will have the opposite effect; it will take longer for the blue colour to appear.


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: The iodine produced in the first reaction is reduced back to iodide by the reducing agent, cysteine. At the same time, cysteine is oxidized into cystine.


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: An alternative protocol uses a solution of iodate ion (for instance potassium iodate) to which an acidified solution (again with sulfuric acid) of sodium bisulfite is added.


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: In this protocol, iodide ion is generated by the following slow reaction between the iodate and bisulfite:


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: This first step is the rate determining step. Next, the iodate in excess will oxidize the iodide generated above to form iodine:


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: When the bisulfite is fully consumed, the iodine will survive (i.e., no reduction by the bisulfite) to form the dark blue complex with starch.


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: This clock reaction uses sodium, potassium or ammonium persulfate to oxidize iodide ions to iodine. Sodium thiosulfate is used to reduce iodine back to iodide before the iodine can complex with the starch to form the characteristic blue-black color.


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: Once all the thiosulfate is consumed the iodine may form a complex with the starch. Potassium persulfate is less soluble (cfr. Salters website) while ammonium persulfate has a higher solubility and is used instead in the reaction described in examples from Oxford University.


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: An experimental iodine clock sequence has also been established for a system consisting of iodine potassium-iodide, sodium chlorate and perchloric acid that takes place through the following reactions.


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: Chlorate ion oxidizes iodide ion to hypoiodous acid and chlorous acid in the slow and rate-determining step:


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: Chlorate consumption is accelerated by reaction of hypoiodous acid to iodous acid and more chlorous acid:


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: More autocatalysis when newly generated iodous acid also converts chlorate in the fastest reaction step:


title: Iodine clock reaction

text: In this clock the induction period is the time it takes for the autocatalytic process to start after which the concentration of free iodine falls rapidly as observed by UV–visible spectroscopy.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: The Democratic Action Party (abbreviation: DAP; ; ; ) is a centre-left social democratic political party in Malaysia. As one of four component parties of the Pakatan Harapan (PH) coalition, it formed the federal government after defeating Barisan Nasional in the 2018 Malaysian general election, ending the party's 53 year-long stay in the opposition. However, before the coalition finished its first term, defections from partnering parties caused it to lose power after 22 months, culminating in the 2020 Malaysian political crisis. At the 2022 Malaysian general election, the PH coalition which the DAP was part of was returned to power again, albeit with a smaller majority leading it to form a unity government with political rivals.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: The DAP was founded in 1965 by Malaya–based members of the Singaporean People's Action Party (PAP) Chen Man Hin and Devan Nair. The DAP had splintered from the PAP shortly after Singapore's expulsion from Malaysia in the same year, due to intense ideological differences between the ruling federal government United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), who favoured the idea of "Ketuanan Melayu" and Malay racial nationalism for the country, and the then state government the PAP, who favoured a more egalitarian and civic nationalist Malaysian Malaysia, which the DAP continues to espouse as one of its main ideologies today. The PAP, the ruling government of a now independent and sovereign Singapore, would form many of its policies over the decades influenced by the ideas the party had first espoused for the whole of Malaysia when Singapore was a state.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: The DAP draws much of its support from secular and liberal voters with a stable electorate from voters of cities, coastal regions, the middle class (comprising professionals), and the working class. The party's strongholds are primarily in the urban and semi-urban areas of Penang, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Johor, Malacca and the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. In the 2018 Malaysian general election, the party contested in 47 federal and 104 state constituencies under the banner of its ally the People's Justice Party, winning 42 and 102 seats respectively, except in Sarawak, where the party's state branch chose to contest under its own banner.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: On 11 October 1965, the DAP was formed by former members of the deregistered Malaysia branch of the Singapore–based People's Action Party (PAP), which was then known as the People's Action Party of Malaya prior to Singapore's expulsion. One of its co-founders include Bangsar Member of Parliament Devan Nair, who later returned to Singapore and became President of Singapore. The party formally registered itself as a democratic socialist party on 18 March 1966.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: The ten members of the pro-tem committee were Devan Nair as secretary-general, Chen Man Hin (who won the Seremban state constituency as an independent) as chairman, D. P. Xavier as assistant secretary-general, Goh Hock Guan as vice-chairman, Seeveratnam Sinnathamby (younger brother of Singapore minister S. Rajaratnam) as treasurer and Zain Azahari bin Zainal Abidin, Chin Chan Sung, Michael Khong Chye Huat, Tan Chong Bee and Too Chee Cheong as members.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: In the August of that year, the official party organ, "The Rocket", was first published. At the first DAP National Congress held in Setapak, Kuala Lumpur on 29 July 1967, the DAP declared itself to be "irrevocably committed to the ideal of a free, democratic and socialist Malaysia, based on the principles of racial and religious equality, social and economic justice, and founded on the institution of parliamentary democracy".


title: Democratic Action Party

text: In October that year, the DAP joined 55 other socialist parties belonging to the Socialist International at the SI International Conference in Zurich, Switzerland. Devan Nair, who was amongst those who founded the DAP, later returned to Singapore. Lee Kuan Yew, then Prime Minister of Singapore under the PAP, explained in 1981 that "the Cabinet decided that Singapore-Malaysia relations would always be bedevilled if Devan Nair remained a DAP leader. I persuaded him to come back".


title: Democratic Action Party

text: The DAP contested a general election for the first time in 1969. In line with their commitment to equality, the DAP originally campaigned against Bumiputera privileges, such as those afforded to them by Article 153 of the Constitution. They also continued Lee Kuan Yew's campaign for a "Malaysian Malaysia", the idea of which was originally conveyed by Lee in Parliament: "Malaysia – to whom does it belong? To Malaysians. But who are Malaysians? I hope I am, Mr Speaker, Sir. But sometimes, sitting in this chamber, I doubt whether I am allowed to be a Malaysian". The DAP went on to win 13 Parliamentary seats and 31 State Assembly seats, with 11.9% of all valid votes that were cast in the election; the Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia (Gerakan) which campaigned on a similar platform also made major gains. The 1969 election marked the biggest gains ever made by an opposition party in Malaysia (before 2008), and came close to seeing the ruling Alliance toppled from power. However, a march made by the DAP along with Gerakan as part of the opposition team led to violence, and resulted in what was euphemistically termed the 13 May Incident. Parliament was suspended for two years, and the executive branch of the government assumed power.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: When Parliament reconvened, it passed pieces of legislation such as the Sedition Act that illegalised discussion of repealing certain portions of the Constitution. Most of these concerned Bumiputra privileges, such as Article 153. The DAP and the People's Progressive Party were the only parties that voted against the Act, which passed by a vote of 125 to 17. After the 1969 election, the DAP would never come close to repeating its past successes for the next 38 years. Although the DAP remained a major opposition party, the ruling coalition had clung solidly to its two-thirds parliamentary majority. The DAP, however, continued campaigning on its platform of abolishing the Bumiputra privileges, giving equal rights for all Malaysians regardless of race and establishing a democratic socialist state in Malaysia. During the Mahathir administration in 1987, several DAP leaders, including Parliamentary Opposition Leader Lim Kit Siang, were detained by the government without trial during Operation Lalang, under the accusation of being a national security threat. It is widely believed they were arrested for protesting the expansion of the New Economic Policy.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: In 1995, the party ran what has become widely known as the "Robocop" campaign to wrest Penang from the Barisan Nasional. Despite the hype, the campaign was a failure as the party only won one state and three parliamentary seats. The strategy backfired when Prime Minister Mahathir, BN leaders and the media criticised Lim Kit Siang as a "robot" and "soulless" person.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: Following the ousting of Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim in September 1998, DAP co-founded the Barisan Alternatif coalition along with Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party and the newly formed People's Justice Party. However, the coalition did not work out very well for the DAP, with two of its top leaders, Lim Kit Siang and Karpal Singh losing their Parliamentary seats in the 1999 election; the DAP managed to win only 5% (10 out of 193) of the seats in Parliament. PAS became the leading opposition party in Parliament. It left the coalition in 2001 due to a disagreement with PAS over the issue of an Islamic state.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: In the 2004 general election, the DAP managed to capture 12 seats in Parliament, while PAS and Keadilan suffered major setbacks, with PAS losing 20 of the 27 seats it had held after the 1999 elections, and Keadilan lost all seats except one returned after a recount. The eventual outcome saw Lim Kit Siang, who had been elected in his constituency of Ipoh Timur with a majority of 10,000 votes, formally elected as the leader of the opposition in Parliament, a post he had lost to the president of PAS in 1999.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: In the 2006 Sarawak state election, the Democratic Action Party won 6 of the 12 seats it contested and narrowly lost three other seats with small majorities. Up til then it was the party's best showing ever in the history of Sarawak's state elections since 1979.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: Pakatan Rakyat was formed in 2008 by DAP, PKR and PAS. In the 2008 general election, the DAP won 13% (28 out of 222) of the seats in the Dewan Rakyat, with PAS and PKR making substantial gains as well with 23 seats and 31 seats respectively. In total, the taking of 82 seats (37%) by the opposition to Barisan Nasional's 140 seats (63%), makes it the best performance in Malaysian history by the opposition, and denied Barisan Nasional the two-thirds majority required to make constitutional changes in the Dewan Rakyat. DAP advisor Lim Kit Siang expressed surprise at the election results but declared it to be the true power of the voice of the Malaysian people for the leaders of the country to hear them. In addition, DAP, having secured all its contested seats in the state of Penang, formed the Penang state government with its alliance partners PKR and PAS, the Chief Minister being DAP's Lim Guan Eng, son of Lim Kit Siang.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: In the 2011 Sarawak state election, DAP furthered its gains from the previous election, winning 12 out of the 70 state assembly seats, with PR winning a total of 15 state seats and 41% of the popular vote. The PR's success was further enhanced in the 2013 general election when DAP went on to win 17% (38 out of 222) of the seats in the Dewan Rakyat and the PR coalition won the popular vote, giving the BN government its worst election showing since independence. In 2015, the PR alliance broke up after a PAS Muktamar (General Assembly) motion unanimously approved the breaking of ties with DAP due to disagreements over PAS's decision to propose a private member's bill to implement "hudud" (Islamic penal code). Following PAS's decision to cut ties with DAP, DAP announced that PR had "ceased to exist".


title: Democratic Action Party

text: At the DAP election in December 2012, Vincent Wu, who was initially declared to have secured the sixth spot with 1,202 votes, dropped to 26th place because he had actually secured only 669. Zairil Khir Johari was elected to the central executive committee (CEC) with 803 votes to secure the 20th spot. The glitch, reportedly because of a vote tabulation error due to the copy-and-paste method in Microsoft Excel, had raised suspicion. The DAP admitted to the counting error after discovering the mistake. The DAP election fiasco had caused unease among party members and led to protests to the Registrar of Societies (RoS). Two dissatisfied life members of the DAP then lodged reports with the RoS on the party elections following the revelations. Following the report the RoS had informed DAP of the dispute by its members and in turn as provided for under Section 3A of the Societies Act 1966 did recognise the office-bearers of the committee formed in the party elections on 15 December 2012, the point of contention.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: DAP chairperson Karpal Singh said DAP will contest under the PAS logo for the Peninsula and PKR logo in Sabah and Sarawak in the 13th general election, following the Registrar of Societies' (RoS) failure to respond on the withdrawal letter of RoS informing that it does not recognise the party's top leadership line-up. DAP had appealed to the RoS to withdraw its letter to suspend the party's existing central executive committee (CEC) but the department was silent on the matter.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: On 19 April 2013, DAP secretary-general Lim Guan Eng informed all its 51 parliament and 103 state candidates to use the rocket symbol first during nomination tomorrow, and show the Election Commission the letter of authorisation signed by secretary-general Lim Guan Eng. If the rocket symbol is rejected, then use the letter of authorisation signed by PAS secretary-general Mustafa Ali for Peninsula Malaysia and PKR letter of authorisation for Sabah and Sarawak. This came after the DAP decided to use PAS and PKR symbols for the coming general election on 5 May. He said the DAP headquarters in Kuala Lumpur received a letter by hand from the RoS at 10 p.m. on 19 April, stating that it had no objections to the DAP using the logo, and that the Election Commission (EC) had informed all returning officers to accept nominations from the DAP.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: On 22 September 2015, Pakatan Harapan was formed by DAP, PKR and National Trust Party to succeed PR. In the 2016 Sarawak state election, DAP lost its gains from the previous election, retained only 7 out of the 82 state assembly seats, with PH retained only a total of 10 state seats and 29.43% of the popular vote. On 12 February 2017, Kota Melaka MP, Sim Tong Him along with three other DAP state assemblymen from Melaka namely Goh (Duyong), Lim Jack Wong (Bachang), and Chin Choong Seong (Kesidang) announced their resignation from the party to be Independent, citing lack of trust in the party leadership. On 14 March 2017, PPBM officially joined PH as a member party. This made the coalition parties increase to four, where they competed in the 2018 general election against the BN coalition. During the election, PH achieved simple majority in Parliament when the coalition has secured 113 seats and finally able to form a new federal government through an early pact signed with Sabah Heritage Party. DAP won 42 seats out of the 47 seats it contested, making it the second-highest number of seats in PH behind PKR with 47 seats. Together with other coalition members, Lim Guan Eng and his peers took on ministerial roles in the newly formed cabinet. Lim became the Minister of Finance of the current ruling government when Mahathir announced the initial 10 minister portfolio holders. He subsequently became the first Malaysian Chinese to hold the post in 44 years since Tun Tan Siew Sin of Malaysian Chinese Association, who served from 1959 until 1974. Loke Siew Fook, who was the new Minister of Transport, replaced Lim Kit Siang as DAP parliamentary leader on 11 July 2018 for the 14th Dewan Rakyat session.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: On 24 February 2020, the DAP became the largest party in the Dewan Rakyat for the first time after 11 out of 50 PKR MPs resigned during the political crisis. UMNO had also lost 16 out of 54 MPs over several months, mostly through defections to Bersatu. Even though it lost power, the 42 MPs of the DAP remained intact.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: However, a few state assemblymen defected. On 9 March 2020, Paul Yong and A Sivasubramaniam quit the party to join the new Perikatan Nasional state government in Perak. The next day on 10 March, DAP expelled Norhizam Hassan Baktee, Pengkalan Batu assemblyman, after he decided to support the new PN state government in Melaka. DAP also expelled a nominated Sabah assemblyman, Ronnie Loh, for supporting the PN's treacherous attempt to topple the Warisan Plus Sabah state government led by Shafie Apdal.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: One assemblyman who did not defect but became disillusioned with the party's direction and management was Padungan assemblyman and Sarawak DAP vice-chairman Wong King Wei, who resigned on 27 July 2020 claiming that the party had deviated from the aims, objectives and struggle of the earlier days when he joined in 2006. He stayed on as an independent until his term ended in 2021.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: DAP was founded by Chen Man Hin and Devan Nair, who were ethnic Chinese and Indian respectively. The majority of DAP's party membership is of ethnic Chinese and Indian heritage, with most elected positions within the party being held by Chinese or Indian members. The party's first Malay Member of Parliament, Ahmad Nor, only won his seat in the 1990 general election, The DAP also only gained its first native Sabahan (Kadazandusun) legislator in the 2013 election, Edwin Jack Bosi who sat in Sabah State Legislative Assembly. The lack of Malay members within the party has led to DAP being viewed as a "racist" or "anti-Malay" party by political opponents in that it is exclusively concerned with the issues of the Chinese or Indian communities that they viewed were orchastrated by Malays.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: Despite constant rebuttals by party leaders, DAP has been depicted by their political opponents, especially from UMNO, as a party that favours the Malaysian Chinese minority above others. This allegation of racial chauvinism culminated in a two-piece television program broadcast on government-controlled TV channel "Radio Televisyen Malaysia" (RTM) entitled "Bahaya Cauvinisme", which translates to "Dangers of Chauvinism". The program forced then party leader Lim Kit Siang to issue a formal media statement to counter the allegations.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: On 15 November 2011, Ismail Sabri Yaakob, the Malaysian Minister for Domestic Trade, Co-operatives and Consumerism, accused DAP's publicity chief, Tony Pua of racism for making repeated attacks against the Kedai Rakyat 1Malaysia, a government initiative to supply cheap retail products to Malaysian consumers. Tony Pua was criticised for singling out Kedai Rakyat 1Malaysia, whose suppliers to the store generally come from the Malaysian Bumiputra community, and for not investigating the quality of products supplied by Malaysian-Chinese suppliers or making similar accusations against independent Malaysian-Chinese stores.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: Allegations of racism have forced DAP party leader Lim Guan Eng to issue a formal denial in the Penang High Court.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: The symbol or logo of the DAP (see above) is the rocket, which it has used since the 1969 general election. Its components are symbolised as follows:


title: Democratic Action Party

text: In 2008, DAP initially introduced "Rocket Kid", a rocket as the party's official mascot during the 12th Malaysian general election. This was then changed to Ubah bird, a hornbill which was designed by Ooi Leng Hang and was launched during the Sarawak state election in 2011 and also used as part of their political campaigning during the 13th Malaysian general election in 2013. DAP had adopted this bird as a symbol for change both for its unique characteristics, hardiness and representation of the unity of both East Malaysia and West Malaysia into a Malaysian nation. Its merchandise such as plush toys, buttons and car stickers were very well received by the public. The idea of the mascot came from Sarawak DAP Secretary, Chong Chieng Jen, who felt a mascot would boost the spirit of the people. The name "Ubah", which means "change" in Malay, is in line with the party's aspirations in changing the ruling party of the Malaysian federal government. In addition to its original Sarawak Iban costume, "Ubah" now comes in a Malay costume for Hari Raya, Indian costume for Deepavali, Chinese costume for Chinese New Year, Santa Claus costume for Christmas, and a Superman costume that depicts the power of the people. On 13 July 2013, a gigantic float known as the "Ubah Inflatable Bird (Water Ubah)" was officially launched at IJM Promenade, Jelutong, Penang by DAP Secretary General Lim Guan Eng.


title: Democratic Action Party

text: Other than the official party anthem, DAP has also unveiled several theme songs and music videos mostly with an Ubah theme such as "Ubah" with over 1,000,000 views, 明天 with over 500,000 views and "Ubah Rocket Style" with over 300,000 views, which is a parody of the viral YouTube hit "Gangnam Style".


title: Democratic Action Party

text: The Central Executive Committee (CEC) serves as the party's executive body and its 30 members are elected by party delegates during a national congress held every three years. The CEC, in turn, elects the party's national leadership from among its own members, including the Secretary-General, in whom executive power is vested. The current Secretary-General is former Minister of Transport Anthony Loke. The latest leadership structure can be found below.


title: Housemarque

text: Housemarque Oy is a Finnish video game developer based in Helsinki. The company was founded by Ilari Kuittinen and Harri Tikkanen in July 1995, through the merger of their previous video game companies, Bloodhouse and Terramarque, both of which were founded in 1993 as Finland's first commercial developers. Housemarque is the oldest active developer in Finland and has about 80 employees as of January 2020. It was acquired by Sony Interactive Entertainment in June 2021, becoming a part of PlayStation Studios.


title: Housemarque

text: Bloodhouse and Terramarque were founded in 1993, becoming Finland's first commercial video game developers. Bloodhouse was led by Harri Tikkanen, and released their first game, "Stardust" in 1993, with a version updated for the Amiga 1200, titled "Super Stardust", released the following year. Terramarque was founded by Ilari Kuittinen and Stavros Fasoulas, and hired Miha Rinne in 1994. Fasoulas, at the time, was working on a clone of "Bubble Bobble" titled "Galactic", but failed to find a publisher, wherefore the game ended up on a covermount in British magazine "The One". The first game from Terramarque was "Elfmania", released in 1994 to mixed reception. The company started work on a second game, "P.I.D." (short for Private Investigator Dollarally), to be published by Renegade Software. When the Amiga was discontinued mid-development, production on "P.I.D." was halted; when Terramarque members discussed whether the game should be ported to PlayStation, Fasoulas decided not to and quit game programming. A demo of the game has been released, but the game itself was not finished.


title: Housemarque

text: In December 1994, Kuittinen began working closely with Tikkanen, and their two companies formally merged in 1995 to form Housemarque. Housemarque Oy, the legal entity, was registered on 19 July 1995. Housemarque is the oldest active video game developer in Finland. Both Bloodhouse and Terramarque were developing games for personal computers (PCs) at the time, with the joint team deciding to focus specifically on the evolving PC gaming market. The company started out by freelancing, and after setting up their first office in the Punavuori area of Helsinki, started hiring employees and ceased freelance work.


title: Housemarque

text: The first PC games developed by Housemarque were the MS-DOS conversion of Bloodhouse's space shooter "Super Stardust" (1996), adventure game "Alien Incident" (1996), and shooter game "The Reap" (1997), all of which gained favourable reception but failed to succeed commercially.


title: Housemarque

text: In February 2014, Housemarque had over 50 employees. In November 2017, the company announced that it would be stepping away from the arcade genre, which it had incorporated in all of its games since "Super Stardust", as it was not generating enough revenue to justify developing further games in the genre. The following April, it announced "Stormdivers", a battle royale game, anticipating a 2019 release. In December 2018, Housemarque's staff count was approaching 70 people. Housemarque eventually put all of its in-development projects, including "Stormdivers", on halt in January 2020. Instead, it shifted its focus on a project the company considered to be its most ambitious thus far and had been in pre-production for three years. At the time, Housemarque had close to 80 staff members.


title: Housemarque

text: At the PlayStation 5 reveal event on June 11, 2020, Housemarque announced its first AAA title "Returnal". The title was developed for and released exclusively on the PlayStation 5 on April 30, 2021, with the game selling over 560,000 copies by July 18, 2021. "Returnal"s commercial performance and Housemarque's increased collaboration with Sony Interactive Entertainment for this game led the latter to acquire the studio by June 29, 2021, becoming a part of SIE Worldwide Studios.


title: No Escape (2020 film)

text: No Escape, also known as "Follow Me", is a 2020 American adventure horror mystery film written and directed by Will Wernick and starring Keegan Allen, Holland Roden, Denzel Whitaker, Ronen Rubinstein, Pasha D. Lychnikoff, George Janko and Siya.


title: No Escape (2020 film)

text: Cole Turner is an image-obsessed internet celebrity with millions of followers on his channel, "Escape From Reality". He often does live video and posts photos and videos on his Youtube channel.


title: No Escape (2020 film)

text: To celebrate the tenth anniversary of his channel, Cole, his girlfriend Erin, and his friends Dash, Samantha, and Thomas, go to Moscow in order to partake in an escape room that Dash organised with the help of Alexei Koslov, a wealthy Russian fan of Cole's.


title: No Escape (2020 film)

text: In Moscow, they meet Alexei and spend the evening at a dodgy club. However, after getting harassed and threatened by a pair of Russian mobsters, they return to Alexei's mansion.


title: No Escape (2020 film)

text: On the day of the escape room, Alexei takes Cole's phone and connects it to the surveillance system so it can be streamed to his fans live and millions of people can watch. Alexei warns the group the escape room is extreme and unpredictable. They are all blindfolded and led to their starting positions in the escape room. Cole is placed into a dark room with a dead Russian soldier and a table of surgical equipment. He cuts open the dead body and retrieves a key from the man's stomach. He finds the other four connected to realistic deadly traps. He completes a cog puzzle to free Thomas and Dash seconds before they are killed, and the three complete a maze puzzle to free Samantha. The four find Erin in a glass box slowly filling with water. Erin nearly drowns, but Cole uses one of the cogs to smash open the lock and free her. After they realize the game is genuinely dangerous, they escape the room but are captured by Andrei, one of the mobsters from the club. He knocks Cole unconscious and kidnaps the others.


title: No Escape (2020 film)

text: Cole wakes tied up in a small cell. On a screen, he witnesses Andrei kill Samantha. Whilst escaping through an air duct, he watches Dash get his limbs sawn off to 'entertain' Andrei's own online fanbase. Cole finds Thomas and they attempt to escape together, but Thomas is pushed down an old elevator shaft by one of the guards. He learns that Alexei works for the mobsters, and finds Erin tied to a chair.


title: No Escape (2020 film)

text: Andrei threatens to kill Erin. Cole tries to shoot him but misses, and Andrei shoots Erin in the head. Two guards drag Cole to another locked room. He finds a small duct and crawls through it into a large dark room. Cole finds Alexei and beats him to death out of anger for killing his friends.


title: No Escape (2020 film)

text: It is revealed the entire experience was an elaborate prank organized by his friends to celebrate his tenth anniversary, with every aspect of the escape room being carefully planned to shock Cole. The lights turn on to reveal Erin and his friends still alive, looking in shock as Cole sits next to Alexei's corpse while his millions of followers send horrified messages in the livestream.


title: No Escape (2020 film)

text: On July 10, 2020, social media accounts were set up for the film ahead of its Australian theatrical release.


title: British war crimes

text: British war crimes are acts by the armed forces of the United Kingdom that have violated the laws and customs of war since the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. Such acts have included the summary executions of prisoners of war and unarmed shipwreck survivors, the use of excessive force during the interrogation of POWs and enemy combatants, and the use of violence against civilian non-combatants and their property.


title: British war crimes

text: War crimes are defined as acts which violate the laws and customs of war (established by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907), or acts that are grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I and Additional Protocol II. The Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 extends the protection of civilians and prisoners of war during military occupation, even in the case where there is no armed resistance, for the period of one year after the end of hostilities, although the occupying power should be bound to several provisions of the convention as long as "such Power exercises the functions of government in such territory."


title: British war crimes

text: "The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict" published by the UK Ministry of Defence uses the 1945 definition from the Nuremberg Charter, which defines a war crime as "Violations of the laws or customs of war. Such violations shall include, but not be limited to, murder, ill-treatment or deportation to slave labour or for any other purpose of civilian population of or in occupied territory, murder or ill-treatment of prisoners of war or persons on the seas, killing of hostages, plunder of public or private property, wanton destruction of cities, towns or villages, or devastation not justified by military necessity." The manual also notes that "violations of the 1949 Geneva Conventions not amounting to 'grave breaches' are also war crimes."


title: British war crimes

text: The 2004 "Laws of Armed Combat Manual" says The 2004 publication also notes that "A person is normally only guilty of a war crime if he commits it with intent and knowledge."


title: British war crimes

text: As part of the strategy to defeat the guerrilla warfare of the Boer Commandos, farms were destroyed to prevent the Boers from resupplying from a home base. This included the systematic destruction of crops and slaughtering of livestock.