title: Tom Tryon

text: During the 1970s, he was in a romantic relationship with Clive Clerk, one of the original cast members of "A Chorus Line" and an interior designer who decorated Tryon's apartment on Central Park West in New York City, which was featured in "Architectural Digest". From 1973 to 1977, Tryon was in a relationship with porn actor Casey Donovan.


title: Tom Tryon

text: Tryon died on September 4, 1991, at the age of 65 in Los Angeles, California. The announced cause of death was "stomach cancer". Tryon's literary executor, C. Thomas Holloway, later stated Tryon's stomach cancer was related to his HIV-positive status. Tryon asked to keep this information private. When Tryon's lover Clive Clerk explained, "Tom didn't want his readers or his relatives to know," Holloway disapproved, writing, "I see it as Tom's selfish silence helped the Dark Ages [of public acceptance of HIV-AIDS] continue into the millennium."


title: Carman (singer)

text: Carmelo Domenic Licciardello (January 19, 1956 – February 16, 2021), known by his stage name Carman, was an American contemporary Christian music singer, songwriter, television host and evangelist. He was nominated for four Grammys, and sold over 10 million records.


title: Carman (singer)

text: Carman's album "" (1998) peaked at number 94 on the "Billboard" 200 chart. His album "No Plan B" (2014) peaked at number 66 on the "Billboard" 200, and at number 3 on the Top Christian Albums charts.


title: Carman (singer)

text: In addition to music, Carman was a frequent host on the Trinity Broadcasting Network, most notably its flagship program "Praise the Lord"


title: Carman (singer)

text: An Italian American, Carman was born in Trenton, New Jersey. As a child he performed in his mother's band. Carman played the drums at the age of 5, learned to play the guitar by the age of 15 and started singing at age 16. As a teen, he found some success performing at casinos in Atlantic City, New Jersey.


title: Carman (singer)

text: While attending an Andraé Crouch concert, Carman became a born again Christian, and embraced evangelical Christianity.


title: Carman (singer)

text: In 1980, Carman made a custom album titled "God's Not Finished with Me". In 1981, he was invited by Bill Gaither to tour with the Bill Gaither Trio.


title: Carman (singer)

text: After relocating to Tulsa, Oklahoma, Carman released a moderately successful eponymous debut album. "Carman" was later issued as "Some-o-Dat" in 1982. The album mostly contained novelty songs. With the release of his next album, "Sunday's on the Way" in 1983, Carman experienced a string of contemporary Christian music chart successes beginning with the title song. As he continued his music career, he established the nonprofit organization Carman Ministries. After the release of "The Champion" in 1985, Carman achieved his first number one song, by the same name. His first number one album on the Christian charts, "Revival in the Land", followed in 1989.


title: Carman (singer)

text: Between 1987 and 1989, Carman was named Readers' Choice for Favorite Male Vocalist by "Charisma" magazine. In 1990 and 1992, "Billboard" named him the Contemporary Christian Artist of the Year. In 1995, he translated some of his songs, and released his first Spanish-language album, "Lo Mejor". "Heart of a Champion", a thirty-song retrospective was released in 2000.


title: Carman (singer)

text: Carman was nominated for four Grammys, and sold over 10 million records. It is believed he holds the world record for the largest single Christian concert in history. In August 1993, with more than 50,000 in attendance, Carman was the main act in Johannesburg, South Africa. The following year he performed a free concert at Texas Stadium October 22, 1994, with 71,132 attendees. Another concert had 80,000 in Chattanooga, Tennessee.


title: Carman (singer)

text: Beyond his music career, Carman participated in various television productions and interview duties as a host, for both the Trinity Broadcasting Network and its flagship program "Praise the Lord". In 2001, he starred in the film "Carman: The Champion".


title: Carman (singer)

text: In late March 2013, Carman announced a Kickstarter campaign for a new album and music video. A short time later, he announced an upcoming sixty-city tour, noting that the online fundraising campaign had raised more than $230,000 within several weeks.


title: Carman (singer)

text: Carman's musical style has been described by "Relevant" magazine as "operatic, story-driven songs that often centered around cosmic battles between God and Satan, similar to Frank Peretti by way of Meatloaf."


title: Carman (singer)

text: In November 2011, Carman was the passenger in a car that was struck by a truck from oncoming traffic. The accident took place just outside the church where his appearance was scheduled. He performed the concert, but collapsed afterward and required surgery to repair internal injuries.


title: Carman (singer)

text: Carman began battling multiple myeloma cancer in 2013, and was given a prognosis of three to four years to live. By early 2014, he said medical tests indicated his body was free of cancer. He then continued preparing for his "Live Across America" album and tour. When the cancer went into remission, Carman attributed his healing to the faith of his fans. He pledged to his Facebook and Kickstarter supporters to begin his "No Plan B Tour" as soon as he regained his health. Later that year he toured the eastern United States.


title: Carman (singer)

text: In December 2017, at the age of 61, Carman married Dana Morrow. His new family included six stepchildren and nine step-grandchildren. Carman filed for divorce in 2018, which was settled in 2019.


title: Carman (singer)

text: In January 2020, Carman announced his cancer had returned. He resumed live concert church tours in June 2020.


title: Carman (singer)

text: Carman died on February 16, 2021 (28 days after his 65th birthday) in a Las Vegas hospital, after a series of complications resulting from surgery to repair a hiatal hernia. He was survived by his ex-wife, six stepchildren and nine step-grandchildren.


title: The Wolf (TV series)

text: The Wolf () is a 2020 Chinese television series starring Darren Wang, Li Qin, Xiao Zhan, Xin Zhilei, Kuo Shu-yao, and Lin Yo-wei. It was aired on Tencent Video, iQiyi, and Youku on November 19, 2020.


title: The Wolf (TV series)

text: Ma Zhaixing, the daughter of Kuizhou city governor Ma Ying, met a kind-hearted teenage boy who grew up in the mountain forest. When the teenage boy saved a young wolf, he was implicated in a murder and was hunted down, falling off a cliff. He was adopted as a son by Chu Kui, (the emperor of Yang empire) and given the title of Prince Bo. Eight years later, Prince Bo encountered Ma Zhaixing by chance. He liked the wisdom and bravery of Ma Zhaixing. Ma Zhaixing also found that although Prince Bo was in a high status, he still retains his natural kindness and sense of justice. With the support of Ma Zhaixing, Prince Bo opposed harsh governance, helped civilians, supported justice, and prevented brothers from fighting. After going through many trials and tribulations, the two finally had their own happiness.


title: The Wolf (TV series)

text: The soundtrack album "The Wolf Original Television Series Soundtrack" was digitally released on November 22, 2020 at NetEast Music and Migu Music in mainland China. The album was divided into two parts, only "Part 1" needs to be paid, "Part 2" is free listening and free download. On December 24, 2020, the album was officially released worldwide.


title: The Wolf (TV series)

text: The series was filmed in various locations in China from April to September 2017. They stayed at Shangri-La City in Yunnan and Xiangshan Film and Television Town in Zhejiang.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: The Eastburn family murders were the murders of Kathryn "Katie" Eastburn and her daughters, Kara and Erin, which occurred in Fayetteville, North Carolina in May 1985. In 1986, United States Army Sergeant Timothy Hennis was tried and convicted for the three murders. In 1988, Hennis' conviction was overturned on appeal, and he was acquitted the following year. In 2006, the Cumberland County Sherriff's Office obtained DNA evidence linking Hennis to the crime. Despite the Fifth Amendment's Double Jeopardy Clause prohibiting retrials after acquittals, the United States Army was able to initiate prosecution and trial proceedings against Hennis under the dual sovereignty doctrine. In 2010, Hennis was tried and convicted by an Army court-martial for the triple murders and sentenced to death.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: The Eastburn family was a military family that lived in Fayetteville, North Carolina. Gary Eastburn was a Captain in the United States Air Force. He had met Kathryn "Katie" Eastburn during the 1970s, with the couple marrying in 1975. Gary and Katie subsequently had three children: Kara, Erin, and Jana (aged 5 years, 3 years, and 22 months, respectively, at the time of the murders). In 1983, the Air Force sent Gary and his family to Pope Air Force Base, where he served as air traffic control chief. In May 1985, Captain Eastburn was undergoing training at a squadron's officer school in Montgomery, Alabama, with his wife and children remaining in Fayetteville.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Timothy Baily Hennis (born February 24, 1958) grew up in Rochester, Minnesota, and graduated from Mayo High School in 1976. His father, Robert Hennis, was a manager at IBM Rochester during the 1970s. Hennis worked in Rochester until he joined the United States Army in 1980. Hennis later married. He and his wife, Angela, had a daughter in 1985. Around May 1985, Hennis worked as a parachute rigger at Fort Bragg.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Since the Eastburn family was planning to relocate to England so that Captain Eastburn could take up a liaison job with the Royal Air Force, Katie made arrangements to rehouse the family's English setter Dixie, posting an advertisement in the local newspaper "Beeline Grab Bragg". On May 7, 1985, 27-year-old U.S. Army Sergeant Timothy Hennis responded to the ad, visiting the Eastburn family home. Hennis's young family owned a spitz at the time. After chatting with Katie, Hennis took home Dixie.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: On May 11, Katie did not respond to her husband Gary's routine phone call. On May 12, a concerned neighbor named Bob Seefeldt and a police officer visited the home, where they discovered the remains of Katie, Kara, and Erin. Katie had been stripped to the waist, raped, and stabbed 15 times. Semen was also found inside her body. Kara had been stabbed repeatedly in the chest, while Erin had been bludgeoned in the chest and back. The youngest child Jana survived the attack but was dehydrated and suffering from diarrhea.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Detectives Robert Bittle and Jack Watts of the Cumberland County Sheriff's Office were in charge of the homicide investigation. While combing the house, investigators found fingerprints and hair. A luminol test of the walls and master bathroom indicated that somebody had tried unsuccessfully to clean up the crime scene. After returning to Fayetteville, Gary Eastburn helped Bittle and Watts identify missing items, including an envelope of cash, Katie's ATM card, and a piece of paper containing her ATM password.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: On the first night of the investigation, a janitor named Patrick Cone approached Bittle and Watts, telling them that he had witnessed a tall white man dressed in jeans, a knit cap, and a black "Members Only" jacket exiting the Eastburns' driveway carrying a garbage bag in the early morning hours of May 10. According to Cone, the man drove away in a white Chevrolet Chevette. Based on Cone's account, investigators believed that the Eastburn murders had occurred between 8 pm on May 9 and 3 am on May 10. Cone's description of the suspect was passed onto local media. Cone also helped the North Carolina State Bureau of Investigation produce a composite sketch of the suspect.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Following media coverage of the Eastburn killings, Hennis visited the local police station on May 15, where he submitted to interrogation by Watts and Bittle. When questioned, Hennis acknowledged that he had picked up the Eastburns' dog on May 7 but had no other contact with Katie apart from a phone call on May 9 discussing how Dixie was settling into the Hennis household. According to Hennis, he had driven his wife and daughter to his in-laws on the night of May 9, returning home after refueling his car. In addition, Hennis also provided investigators with blood, saliva, and hair samples and finger and palm prints. Due to his close resemblance to the composite sketch, investigators identified Hennis as the prime suspect from the onset. Cone identified Hennis during a photo lineup, leading to Hennis' arrest that evening.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In addition to Cone, Watts and Bittle utilized other witnesses and evidence. Investigators determined that Katie's stolen ATM card had been used twice, on the night of May 10 and the morning of May 11, with the two transactions amounting to a total of US$300. Investigators sought to link this to Hennis being late on his monthly rent payment and his prior convictions for writing bad checks. In addition, a female witness who visited the ATM shortly after the second transaction on May 11 had witnessed a blond man matching Hennis' description.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Hennis's alibi that he had returned home on the night of May 9 after dropping his family at the in-laws was challenged when his former girlfriend Nancy Maeser told investigators that he had made an impromptu visit to her home. Investigators also focused on the fact that Hennis had brought a black "Members Only" jacket to the dry cleaner on May 10 and his neighbors' eyewitness accounts alleging that Hennis had burned items within a barrel on the morning of May 11.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Hennis's first trial occurred in Cumberland County in the summer of 1986. He was represented by Fayetteville lawyers Gerald Beaver and Billy Richardson. William VanStory led the prosecution. Before the trial, the prosecution offered Hennis a plea bargain: two counts of second-degree murder, with a likely penalty of two consecutive life sentences. Hennis turned down the plea bargain.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: During the trial, VanStory and his team put forth the theory that Hennis had taken advantage of his wife Angela's absence to initiate a romantic relationship with the married Katie Eastburn. Katie had rebuffed his offer, leading Hennis to kill her and her two older children. In addition, the prosecution drew upon Cone and the female's eyewitness accounts and the transactions resulting from Katie's stolen ATM card. For added psychological effect, the prosecution presented several graphic crime scene photographs to the jury.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Following ten hours of deliberation, the jury found Hennis guilty of three counts of first degree murder and one count of first degree rape. On July 8, he was subsequently sentenced to death. Hennis was transferred to death row at the Central Prison in Raleigh, North Carolina. While in prison, Hennis received an anonymous letter claiming responsibility for the Eastburn murders: The anonymous letter was postmarked on July 8 (the date of the sentencing) and was also sent to the Sheriff's office.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In 1988, Hennis' defense lawyer Gerald Beaver successfully appealed Hennis' conviction at the North Carolina Supreme Court, arguing that the numerous graphic crime scene videos that the prosecution had shown the jury had unduly influenced them against his client. The judges ruled by a margin of five to two in Hennis' favor, granting him a retrial. According to Beaver, this marked the first time a prisoner on death row in North Carolina had been granted a new trial.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: During the retrial held in April 1989, Beaver and Richardson represented Hennis while the prosecution consisted of Calvin Colyer and John Dickson, who had replaced VanStory. The defense challenged the prosecution's witnesses and evidence, focusing on star witness Cone's criminal offenses following the first trial. They also attacked Cone's testimony that the weather on the night of the murder was fair. By contrast, a meteorologist and helicopter pilot called by the defense testified that the weather had been overcast.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Beaver and Richardson also challenged the prosecution's female witness, who had sighted Hennis near the ATM on the morning of March 11, pointing out that she had initially told the investigators that she did not see Hennis but changed her story on the eve of the trial. In addition, Beaver and Richardson presented two new defense witnesses: a newspaper delivery woman who claimed that she saw a long-haired man driving a light-colored van on the morning of March 11 and a local teenager from the Eastburns' neighborhood named John Raupaugh who was jogging near the Eastburns' family home on the night of the murder. Raupaugh resembled Hennis and also wore similar attire that night.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In addition, Beaver and Richardson presented footprints, blood, and hair samples that did not match Hennis or the victims. The defense also presented Hennis' "Members Only" jacket, which had been tested to prove there were no bloodstains. Hennis also took the witness stand during the retrial. Following a three-week trial and two days of deliberation, the jury acquitted him of all charges.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Gary Eastburn relocated with his surviving daughter Jana to a U.S. Air Force base north of London in 1988, taking up a liaison role with the Royal Air Force. Gary subsequently met and married an English nurse in 1991, who became Jana's stepmother. After retiring from the US Air Force, he worked overseas for several years before returning to the States, settling down in Washington.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Following his acquittal, Timothy Hennis re-enlisted in the United States Army and was promoted to the rank of staff sergeant. He saw service in Iraq during Operation Desert Storm and Somalia. Hennis received several awards and accolades for his service. In 1998, Hennis and his family, who were now joined by their six-year-old son Andrew, moved to Fort Lewis, Washington. Hennis became the scoutmaster of Andrew's scouting troop, leading them on hiking expeditions. In 2004, Hennis retired from the U.S. Army with the rank of master sergeant and found work at a waste treatment plant.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In May 2005, Captain Larry Trotter of the Cumberland County Sheriff's Office attended a detectives' seminar on advanced criminal-intelligence techniques, which discussed the Eastburn murders as a case study. After conversing with the journalist Scott Whisnant, who had covered the Eastburn murder trials, Trotter learned that detectives had extracted semen from Katie's body using a vaginal swab. Since DNA testing was still in its infancy in the 1980s, investigators could not test the sample.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Trotter had the semen on the swab tested at the North Carolina State Bureau of Investigation's crime laboratory in Raleigh. In June 2006, a forensic test determined that the sample was 1.2 quadrillion times more likely to come from Hennis. Trotter shared the results with Edward Grannis, the Cumberland County district attorney, and Robert Bittle, who had participated in the 1985 investigation. Bittle also contacted Eastburn, informing him of the news.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Though the Fifth Amendment's Double Jeopardy Clause prohibits retrials after acquittals, the United States Constitution's dual sovereignty doctrine allows a defendant tried and acquitted in a state court to be retried at a federal court. In addition, the Uniform Code of Military Justice permits military personnel tried in a civilian court to be court-martialed. At the request of the Cumberland County Sheriff's Office, Lieutenant General John R. Vines, the commanding officer at Fort Bragg, agreed to recall the retired Hennis back into service as a pretext for charging him with the Eastburn murders based on the new DNA evidence.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: On September 26, 2006, Hennis was recalled to military duty and returned to Fort Bragg the following month. In August 2007, the Commander of the XVIII Airborne Corps ordered that Hennis be court-martialed on three counts of premeditated murder. In December 2007, Hennis appealed this decision because the Army lacked jurisdiction, but this petition was denied on April 2008. In May 2008, Hennis appealed against the court martial decision at the United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals, dismissed the following month. In September 2008, Hennis appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, but this was dismissed. In December 2009, Hennis appealed against the court martial at the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina, but this was rejected in March 2010.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Hennis' court-martial at Fort Bragg began on March 17, 2010, and lasted for three weeks. For the court-martial, Hennis enlisted the services of military lawyer Frank Spinner and two uniformed lawyers. The prosecution was represented by Army Captains Matt Scott and Nathan Huff. Colonel Patrick Parrish presided over the court martial proceedings while a jury panel of 14 military officers and non-commissioned personnel was convened. During the trial, the prosecution focused on the DNA evidence, with the prior eyewitness accounts as corroborating evidence.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Spinner's defense team argued that the footprints, blood, and hair samples found at the crime scene did not match Hennis or the victims. In addition, they suggested that the crime scene evidence at the former Eastburn family home in Fayetteville had been contaminated. In response to the DNA evidence, Spinner suggested that Hennis had consensual sex with Katie before her murder. Following three hours of deliberation, the jury unanimously found Hennis guilty on April 3, 2010.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: On April 15, 2010, the jury panel recommended that Hennis be sentenced to death. In addition, he was demoted to the grade of Private E-1, stripped of all pay and allowances, and dishonorably discharged from the U.S. Army. Hennis was incarcerated at the United States Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth in Kansas, where he remains today.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In January 2011, Hennis' attorneys called for Hennis to be given a new trial because a North Carolina State Bureau of Investigation lab worker named Brenda Bissette Dew, who testified at Hennis' trial, was under investigation for writing misleading reports in other cases. Prosecutor Jody Young questioned the defense attorneys' motives because they had argued that Hennis had consensual intercourse with the victim, Kathryn, before her murder. Judge Colonel Parrish denied the defense's request to obtain documents from the investigation into the SBI lab.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In September 2011, Hennis appealed his second conviction, claiming that the U.S. Army did not have the jurisdiction to try him for the murders. Hennis' appeal was heard at the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit on October 26, 2011. Hennis' attorney Eric Allen argued that the U.S. military's jurisdiction over Hennis had expired at the time of the 2010 court martial, thus voiding the verdict. Citing the 1949 Supreme Court decision "United States ex rel. Hirshberg v. Cooke", Allen pointed out that Hennis had been honorably discharged in 1989 following his acquittal but had re-enlisted. Based on this, he argued that this "break in service" rendered any crimes committed during his first term of service immune from prosecution.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In January 2012, The Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the U.S. District Court's 2009 decision to dismiss Hennis' petition and deferred discussion of jurisdiction until Hennis' military appeals had been exhausted. In addition, the Acting Commander of Fort Bragg approved Hennis' murder convictions and the death penalty. In May 2012, the United States Supreme Court rejected Hennis' appeal to have the court review his case.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In September 2013, Hennis filed a second challenge at the Army Court of Criminal Appeals against the Army's jurisdiction to try him. This petition was denied in October 2013. In November 2013, Hennis appealed for the Army Court to reconsider its decision, suggesting that the petition be reviewed by all of the court's judges instead of a panel. This appeal was also denied.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In February 2014, Hennis filed a second appeal at the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, claiming that the U.S. Army lacked the jurisdiction to try him for the Eastburn murders.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In December 2017, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces ruled that it was unable to force the United States Government to provide additional financial support to Hennis' request for the services of a lawyer with experience in capital cases, a mitigation specialist, and a fact investigator.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In October 2019, Hennis' lawyers filed an appeal at the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, challenging the Army's jurisdiction to try Hennis citing constitutional double jeopardy prohibitions. In late February 2020, the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces affirmed the U.S. Army Court of Criminal Appeals' verdict rejecting Hennis' appeal against the court martial proceedings.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: On September 4, 2020, Attorneys for Hennis filed a writ for "certiorari" with the United States Supreme Court. The United States Supreme Court denied the writ on January 11, 2021.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Defense attorneys still invoke the North Carolina Supreme Court's 1988 Hennis ruling to limit the presentation of redundant photographs that could unduly influence jurors.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: Following Hennis' second retrial and acquittal in April 1989, the Wilmington– based "Star-News" journalist Scott Whisnant wrote a book looking at the Hennis trials called "Innocent Victims", which was published in 1993. The book sold 175,000 copies and was later adapted into a 1996 ABC mini-series called "Innocent Victims". Tim Hennis was portrayed by John Corbett, his parents Robert and Marylou Hennis were portrayed by Hal Holbrook and Rue McClanahan while the lawyers Beaver and Richard were portrayed by Rick Schroder and Tom Irwin.


title: Eastburn family murders

text: In September 2014, the CNN crime documentary series "Death Row Stories" released an episode covering Eastburn family murders and trials of Hennis.


title: Caucus

text: A caucus is a meeting of supporters or members of a specific political party or movement. The exact definition varies between different countries and political cultures.


title: Caucus

text: The term originated in the United States, where it can refer to a meeting of members of a political party to nominate candidates, plan policy, etc., in the United States Congress, or other similar representative organs of government. It has spread to certain Commonwealth countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa, where it generally refers to a regular meeting of all members of Parliament (MPs) who belong to a parliamentary party: in such a context, a party caucus can be quite powerful, as it has the ability to elect or dismiss the party's parliamentary leader. The term was used historically in the United Kingdom (UK) to refer to the Liberal Party's internal system of management and control.


title: Caucus

text: The word "caucus" first came into use in the British colonies of North America, in reference to clubs or private meetings at which political matters were discussed. However, its etymology remains uncertain.


title: Caucus

text: The "Boston Gazette" of May 5, 1760, includes the statement: "It is reported, that certain Persons ... are called by the Name of the New and Grand Corcas."


title: Caucus

text: A February 1763 entry in the diary of John Adams demonstrates that the word already held its modern connotations of a "smoke-filled room" where candidates for public election were pre-selected in private:


title: Caucus

text: In United States politics and government, "caucus" has several distinct but related meanings. Members of a political party or subgroup may meet to coordinate members' actions, choose group policy, or nominate candidates for various offices.


title: Caucus

text: There is no provision for the role of political parties in the United States Constitution. In the first two presidential elections, the Electoral College handled nominations and elections in 1789 and 1792 which selected George Washington. After that, Congressional party or a state legislature party caucus selected the party's presidential candidates. Nationally, these caucuses were replaced by the party convention starting in 1832 following the lead of the Anti-Masonic Party 1831 convention.


title: Caucus

text: The term "caucus" is frequently used to discuss the procedures used by some states to select presidential nominees such as the Iowa caucuses, the first of the modern primary presidential election cycle, and the Texas caucuses. Since 1980 such caucuses have become, in the aggregate, an important component of the nomination process.


title: Caucus

text: Another meaning is a sub grouping of officials with shared affinities or ethnicities who convene, often but not always to advocate, agitate, lobby or to vote collectively, on policy. At the highest level, in Congress and many state legislatures, Democratic and Republican members organize themselves into a caucus (occasionally called a "conference"). There can be smaller caucuses in a legislative body, including those that are multi-partisan or even bicameral. Of the many Congressional caucuses, one of the best-known is the Congressional Black Caucus, a group of African-American members of Congress. Another prominent example is the Congressional Hispanic Caucus, whose members voice and advance issues affecting Hispanics in the United States, including Puerto Rico. In a different vein, the Congressional Internet Caucus is a bipartisan group of Members who wish to promote the growth and advancement of the Internet. Other congressional caucuses such as the Out of Iraq Caucus, are openly organized tendencies or political factions (within the House Democratic Caucus, in this case), and strive to achieve political goals, similar to a European "platform", but generally organized around a single issue.


title: Caucus

text: The term is also used in certain Commonwealth nations, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. However, when used in these countries, "caucus" is more usually a collective term for all members of a party in Parliament, otherwise called a parliamentary group, rather than a word for a regular meeting of these Members of Parliament. Thus, the Australian Federal Parliamentary Labor Party is commonly called "the Labor Caucus".


title: Caucus

text: The word was used in New Zealand from at least the 1890s, when organized political parties began to emerge: the largest of them, the Liberal Party, used it to refer to its parliamentary members. It was introduced to Australia in 1901 by King O'Malley, an American-born Labour member of the first Federal Parliament.


title: Caucus

text: In New Zealand, the term is now used by all political parties, but in Australia, it continues to be used only by the Labor Party. For the Australian Liberal, National and Green parties, the usual equivalent term is "party room". In South Africa all parties use the term "caucus". In Canada, "caucus" refers to all members of a particular party in Parliament, including senators, or a provincial legislature. These members elect among themselves a caucus chair who presides over their meetings. This person is an important figure when the party is in opposition, and is an important link between cabinet and the backbench when the party is in government.


title: Caucus

text: In such contexts, a party caucus can be quite powerful, as it can elect or dismiss the party's parliamentary leader. The caucus system is a departure from the Westminster tradition in giving members of the upper house a say in the election of the party leader, who may become head of government. The caucus also determines some matters of policy, parliamentary tactics, and disciplinary measures against disobedient MPs. In some parties, the caucus also has the power to elect MPs to Cabinet when the party is in government. For example, this is traditionally so in the Australian Labor Party and the New Zealand Labour Party.


title: Caucus

text: The word "caucus" had a wide currency in the United Kingdom in the late 19th century, meaning a highly structured system of management and control within a political party, equivalent to a "party machine" in the United States. It was used with specific reference to the structure of the Liberal Party. Originally a pejorative term, used by detractors of the system with overtones of corrupt American practices, the name was soon adopted by the Liberals themselves.


title: Caucus

text: The system had originated at a local level in Birmingham in preparation for the 1868 general election, when, under the 1867 Reform Act, the city had been allocated three parliamentary seats, but each elector had only two votes. In order to spread votes evenly, the secretary of the Birmingham Liberal Association, William Harris (later dubbed the "father of the Caucus") devised a four-tier organizational structure (of ward committees, general committee, executive committee, and management committee) through which Liberal voters in different wards could be instructed in the precise combinations in which to cast their votes. In 1877 the newly formed National Liberal Federation was given a similar structure, on the initiative of Joseph Chamberlain, and again worked out in detail by Harris.


title: Caucus

text: Shortly afterwards the term "caucus" was applied to this system by "The Times" newspaper, which referred to "the 'caucus' with all its evils", and by the Conservative prime minister, Benjamin Disraeli. In 1880 Queen Victoria, following a meeting with Disraeli, wrote disapprovingly in a private note of "that American system called caucus". The Liberal Caucus was also vilified by socialists and trade unionists, who (prior to the establishment of the Independent Labour Party) sought a route to parliamentary representation through the Liberal Party via the Labour Representation League and the Labour Electoral Association, but found their way barred by the party's management structures.


title: Caucus

text: Moisey Ostrogorsky devoted some nine chapters of his "Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties" (1902) to discussion of the development and operation of the "Caucus" in this sense.


title: Caucus

text: The word "caucus" is only occasionally encountered in contemporary politics in the British Isles. In contrast to other Anglosphere nations, it is never used for all members of a party in Parliament: the usual term for that concept, both in the UK and in the Republic of Ireland, is "parliamentary party".


title: Caucus

text: On the rare occasions when the term is used, it generally refers to a subgroup, faction or pressure group within a political party. For example, in 2019 the One Nation Conservatives and Blue Collar Conservatives were established as factions within the Conservative Party, both being described as "caucuses".


title: Caucus

text: In conventions, where the membership from different parts of the organization may gather, each separate group within the organization may meet prior to the convention as a caucus. Each caucus may decide how the group would vote on various issues that may come up at the convention. Unless the votes are made binding, however, each delegate is still free to vote in any fashion.


title: Caucus

text: The term "caucus" is also used in mediation, facilitation and other forms of alternative dispute resolution to describe circumstances wherein, rather than meeting at a common table, the disputants retreat to a more private setting to process information, agree on negotiation strategy, confer privately with counsel or with the mediator, or simply gain "breathing room" after the often emotionally difficult interactions that can occur in the common area where all parties are present. The degree to which caucuses are used can be a key defining element, and often an identifier, of the mediation model being used. For example, "facilitative mediation" tends to discourage the use of caucuses and tries to keep the parties talking at a single table, while "evaluative mediation" may allow parties to separate more often and rely on the mediator to shuttle information and offers back and forth.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Poverty reduction, poverty relief, or poverty alleviation, is a set of measures, both economic and humanitarian, that are intended to permanently lift people out of poverty.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Measures, like those promoted by Henry George in his economics classic "Progress and Poverty", are those that raise, or are intended to raise, ways of enabling the poor to create wealth for themselves as a conduit of ending poverty forever. In modern times, various economists within the Georgism movement propose measures like the land value tax to enhance access to the natural world for all. Poverty occurs in both developing countries and developed countries. While poverty is much more widespread in developing countries, both types of countries undertake poverty reduction measures.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Poverty has been historically accepted in some parts of the world as inevitable as non-industrialized economies produced very little, while populations grew almost as fast, making wealth scarce. Geoffrey Parker wrote that: Poverty reduction occurs largely as a result of overall economic growth. Food shortages were common before modern agricultural technology and in places that lack them today, such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation methods. The dawn of the Industrial Revolution led to high economic growth, eliminating mass poverty in what is now considered the developed world. World GDP per person quintupled during the 20th century. In 1820, 75% of humanity lived on less than a dollar a day, while in 2001 only about 20% did.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Today, continued economic development is constrained by the lack of economic freedoms. Economic liberalization requires extending property rights to the poor, especially to land. Financial services, notably savings, can be made accessible to the poor through technology, such as mobile banking. Inefficient institutions, corruption, and political instability can also discourage investment. Aid and government support in health, education, and infrastructure helps growth by increasing human and physical capital.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Poverty alleviation also involves improving the living conditions of people who are already poor. Aid, particularly in the medical and scientific areas, is essential in providing better lives, such as the Green Revolution and the eradication of smallpox. Problems with today's development aid include the high proportion of tied aid, which mandates receiving nations to buy products, often more expensive, originating only from donor countries. Nevertheless, some believe (Peter Singer in his book "The Life You Can Save") that small changes in the ways people in affluent nations live their lives could solve world poverty.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Proponents of economic liberalization have argued that it reduces poverty. Other commentators have claimed that, due to economic liberalization, poverty in the world is rising rather than declining, and the data provided by the World Bank, echoing that poverty is decreasing, is flawed. They also argue that extending property rights protection to the poor is one of the most important poverty reduction strategies a nation can implement. Securing property rights to land, the largest asset for most societies, is vital to their economic freedom. The World Bank concludes that increasing land rights is 'the key to reducing poverty' citing that land rights greatly increase poor people's wealth, in some cases doubling it. It is estimated that state recognition of the property of the poor would give them assets worth 40 times all the foreign aid since 1945. Although approaches varied, the World Bank said the key issues were security of tenure and ensuring land transactions were low cost. In China and India, noted reductions in poverty in recent decades have occurred mostly as a result of the abandonment of collective farming in China and the cutting of government red tape in India.


title: Poverty reduction

text: New enterprises and foreign investment can be driven away by the results of inefficient institutions, corruption, the weak rule of law and excessive bureaucratic burdens. It takes two days, two bureaucratic procedures, and $280 to open a business in Canada while an entrepreneur in Bolivia must pay $2,696 in fees, wait 82 business days, and go through 20 procedures to do the same. Such costly barriers favor big firms at the expense of small enterprises where most jobs are created. In India before economic reforms, businesses had to bribe government officials even for routine activities, which was in effect a tax on business.


title: Poverty reduction

text: However, the free market principle of ending government sponsorship of social programs has also had negative consequences. For example, the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer that many farmers cannot afford at market prices. The reconfiguration of public financing in former Soviet states during their transition to a market economy called for reduced spending on health and education, sharply increasing poverty.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Trade liberalization increases total surplus of trading nations. Remittances sent to poor countries, such as India, are sometimes larger than foreign direct investment and total remittances are more than double aid flows from OECD countries. Foreign investment and export industries helped fuel the economic expansion of fast growing Asian nations. However, trade rules are often unfair as they block access to richer nations' markets and ban poorer nations from supporting their industries. Processed products from poorer nations, in contrast to raw materials, get vastly higher tariffs at richer nations' ports. A University of Toronto study found the dropping of duty charges on thousands of products from African nations because of the African Growth and Opportunity Act was directly responsible for a "surprisingly large" increase in imports from Africa. Deals can sometimes be negotiated to favor the developing country such as in China, where laws compel foreign multinationals to train their future Chinese competitors in strategic industries and render themselves redundant in the long term. In Thailand, the 51 per cent rule compels multinational corporations starting operations in Thailand give 51 per cent control to a Thai company in a joint venture. Additionally, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 17 advocates respect for countries leadership to implement policies for poverty eradication and sustainable development.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Oxfam, among others, has called for an international movement to end extreme wealth concentration arguing that the concentration of resources in the hands of the top 1% depresses economic activity and makes life harder for everyone else—particularly those at the bottom of the economic ladder. And they say that the gains of the world's billionaires in 2017, which amounted to $762 billion, were enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Long run economic growth per person is achieved through increases in capital (factors that increase productivity), both human and physical, and technology. Improving human capital, in the form of health, is needed for economic growth. Nations do not necessarily need wealth to gain health. For example, Sri Lanka had a maternal mortality rate of 2% in the 1930s, higher than any nation today. It reduced it to 0.5–0.6% in the 1950s and to 0.06% today. However, it was spending less each year on maternal health because it learned what worked and what did not. Knowledge on the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive but educational measures to disseminate what works are available, such as the disease control priorities project. Promoting hand washing is one of the most cost effective health intervention and can cut deaths from the major childhood diseases of diarrhea and pneumonia by half.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Human capital, in the form of education, is an even more important determinant of economic growth than physical capital. Deworming children costs about 50 cents per child per year and reduces non-attendance from anemia, illness and malnutrition and is only a twenty-fifth as expensive to increase school attendance as by constructing schools.


title: Poverty reduction

text: UN economists argue that good infrastructure, such as roads and information networks, helps market reforms to work. China claims it is investing in railways, roads, ports and rural telephones in African countries as part of its formula for economic development. It was the technology of the steam engine that originally began the dramatic decreases in poverty levels. Cell phone technology brings the market to poor or rural sections. With necessary information, remote farmers can produce specific crops to sell to the buyers that brings the best price.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Such technology also helps bring economic freedom by making financial services accessible to the poor. Those in poverty place overwhelming importance on having a safe place to save money, much more so than receiving loans. Also, a large part of microfinance loans are spent on products that would usually be paid by a checking or savings account. Mobile banking addresses the problem of the heavy regulation and costly maintenance of saving accounts. Mobile financial services in the developing world, ahead of the developed world in this respect, could be worth $5 billion by 2012. Safaricom's M-Pesa launched one of the first systems where a network of agents of mostly shopkeepers, instead of bank branches, would take deposits in cash and translate these onto a virtual account on customers' phones. Cash transfers can be done between phones and issued back in cash with a small commission, making remittances safer.


title: Poverty reduction

text: However, several academic studies have shown that mobile phones have only limited effect on poverty reduction when not accompanied by other basic infrastructure development.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Economic growth has the indirect potential to alleviate poverty, as a result of simultaneous increases in employment opportunities and labour productivity. A study by researchers at the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) of 24 countries that experienced growth found that in 18 cases, poverty was alleviated. However, employment is no guarantee of escaping poverty. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that as many as 40% of workers are poor, not earning enough to keep their families above the $2 a day poverty line. For instance, in India most of the chronically poor are wage earners in formal employment owing to the fact that their jobs are insecure and low paid and offer no chance to accumulate wealth to avoid risks. This appears to be the result of a negative relationship between employment creation and increased productivity, when a simultaneous positive increase is required to reduced poverty. According to the UNRISD, increasing labour productivity appears to have a negative impact on job creation: in the 1960s, a 1% increase in output per worker was associated with a reduction in employment growth of 0.07%, by the first decade of this century the same productivity increase implies reduced employment growth by 0.54%.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Increases in employment without increases in productivity leads to a rise in the number of "working poor", which is why some experts are now promoting the creation of "quality" and not "quantity" in labour market policies. This approach does highlight how higher productivity has helped reduce poverty in East Asia, but the negative impact is beginning to show. In Vietnam, for example, employment growth has slowed while productivity growth has continued. Furthermore, productivity increases do not always lead to increased wages, as can be seen in the US, where the gap between productivity and wages has been rising since the 1980s. The ODI study showed that other sectors were just as important in reducing unemployment, as manufacturing. The services sector is most effective at translating productivity growth into employment growth. Agriculture provides a safety net for jobs and economic buffer when other sectors are struggling. This study suggests a more nuanced understanding of economic growth and quality of life and poverty alleviation.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Due to COVID-19, poverty rates have risen higher between 75 million and 95 million individuals suffering from extreme poverty between pre-pandemic to 2022. This higher increase in poverty rates can be reflected by the rise in unemployment and work productivity caused by the pandemic. It is said that the global labor productivity between 200-2007 to 2011-2019 with a difference of 0.9 per cent productivity decrease has a similar rate which is seen between the years 2019 to 2021 and slowly declining since 2010. The International Labour Organization has estimated that global unemployment was increased to 33 million in the year 2020 which was four times higher than the global financial crisis that happened in 2009. According to the World Health Organization job losses for low-skilled workers were 11%, a much higher rate compared to medium and high-skilled workers, and 71% of the lower-income household at least one person in the household was unemployed or had to shut down their business due to the pandemic (61%).


title: Poverty reduction

text: Raising farm incomes is described as the core of the antipoverty effort as three-quarters of the poor today are farmers. Estimates show that growth in the agricultural productivity of small farmers is, on average, at least twice as effective in benefiting the poorest half of a country's population as growth generated in non-agricultural sectors. For example, a 2012 study suggested that new varieties of chickpea could benefit Ethiopian farmers in future. The study assessed the potential economic and poverty impact of 11 improved chickpea varieties, released by the national agricultural research organization of Ethiopia in collaboration with the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, (ICRISAT). The researchers estimated that using the varieties would bring about a total benefit of US$111 million for 30 years with consumers receiving 39% of the benefit and producers 61%. They expected the generated benefit would lift more than 0.7 million people (both producers and consumers) out of poverty. The authors concluded that further investments in the chickpea and other legume research in Ethiopia were therefore justified as a means of poverty alleviation.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Improving water management is an effective way to help reduce poverty among farmers. With better water management, they can improve productivity and potentially move beyond subsistence-level farming. During the Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, for example, irrigation was a key factor in unlocking Asia's agricultural potential and reducing poverty. Between 1961 and 2002, the irrigated area almost doubled, as governments sought to achieve food security, improve public welfare and generate economic growth. In South Asia, cereal production rose by 137% from 1970 to 2007. This was achieved with only 3% more land.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The International Water Management Institute in Colombo, Sri Lanka, aims to improve the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment. One project its scientists worked on demonstrates the impact that improving water management in agriculture can have. The study, funded by the Japan Bank for International Cooperation, initially upgraded and irrigated the irrigation system on the Walawe Left Bank, Sri Lanka, in 1997. In 2005, irrigation was extended to a further area. An analysis of the whole area was carried out in 2007 and 2008. This study found that access to irrigation provided families with opportunities to diversify their livelihood activities and potentially increase their incomes. For example, people with land could reliably grow rice or vegetables instead of working as labourers or relying on rainfall to water their crops. Those without land could benefit by working within new inland fisheries. Within the project's control area, 57% of households were below the poverty line in 2002 compared with 43% in 2007.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Making employment opportunities available is just as important as increasing income and access to basic needs. Poverty activist Paul Polak has based his career around doing both at once, creating companies that employ the poor while creating "radically" affordable goods. In his book "Out of Poverty" he argues that traditional poverty eradication strategies have been misguided and fail to address underlying problems. He lists "Three Great Poverty Eradication Myths": that we can donate people out of poverty, that national economic growth will end poverty, and that Big Business, operating as it does now, will end poverty. Economic models which lead to national growth and more big business will not necessarily lead to more opportunities for self-sufficiency. However, businesses designed with a social goal in mind, such as micro finance banks, may be able to make a difference.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Aid in its simplest form is a basic income grant, a form of social security periodically providing citizens with money. In pilot projects in Namibia, where such a program pays just $13 a month, people were able to pay tuition fees, raising the proportion of children going to school by 92%, child malnutrition rates fell from 42% to 10% and economic activity grew 10%. Aid could also be rewarded based on doing certain requirements. Unconditional cash transfer, widely credited as a successful anti-poverty program, is based on actions such as enrolling children in school or receiving vaccinations. In Mexico, for example, the country with the largest such program, dropout rates of 16- to 19-year-olds in rural area dropped by 20% and children gained half an inch in height. Initial fears that the program would encourage families to stay at home rather than work to collect benefits have proven to be unfounded. Instead, there is less excuse for neglectful behavior as, for example, children are prevented from begging on the streets instead of going to school because it could result in suspension from the program. Unconditional cash transfer appear to be an effective intervention for reducing poverty, while at the same time improving health and education outcomes.<ref name="doi10.1002/14651858.CD011135.pub2"></ref><ref name="doi10.1002/14651858.CD011135.pub3"></ref>


title: Poverty reduction

text: Welfare states have an effect on poverty reduction. Currently modern, expansive welfare states that ensure economic opportunity, independence and security in a near universal manner are still the exclusive domain of the developed nations. commonly constituting at least 20% of GDP, with the largest Scandinavian welfare states constituting over 40% of GDP. These modern welfare states, which largely arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, seeing their greatest expansion in the mid 20th century, and have proven themselves highly effective in reducing relative as well as absolute poverty in all analyzed high-income OECD countries.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Philosopher Thomas Pogge is a supporter of gathering funds for the poor by using a sort of Global Resources Dividend.


title: Poverty reduction

text: A major proportion of aid from donor nations is 'tied', mandating that a receiving nation buy products originating only from the donor country. This can be harmful economically. For example, Eritrea is forced to spend aid money on foreign goods and services to build a network of railways even though it is cheaper to use local expertise and resources. Money from the United States to fight AIDS requires it be spent on U.S brand name drugs that can cost up to $15,000 a year compared to $350 a year for generics from other countries. Only Norway, Denmark, Netherlands and Britain have stopped tying their aid.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Some people disagree with aid when looking at where the development aid money from NGOs and other funding is going. Funding tends to be used in a selective manner where the highest ranked health problem is the only thing treated, rather than funding basic health care development. This can occur due to a foundation's underlying political aspects to their development plan, where the politics outweigh the science of disease. The diseases then treated are ranked by their prevalence, morbidity, risk of mortality, and the feasibility of control. Through this ranking system, the disease that cause the most mortality and are most easily treated are given the funding. The argument occurs because once these people are treated, they are sent back to the conditions that led to the disease in the first place. By doing this, money and resources from aid can be wasted when people are re-infected. This was seen in the Rockefeller Foundation's Hookworm campaign in Mexico in the 1920s, where people were treated for hookworm and then contracted the disease again once back in the conditions from which they came. To prevent this, money could be spent on teaching citizens of the developing countries health education, basic sanitation, and providing adequate access to prevention methods and medical infrastructure. Not only would NGO money be better spent, but it would be more sustainable. These arguments suggest that the NGO development aid should be used for prevention and determining root causes rather acting upon political endeavours and treating for the sake of saying they helped.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Some think tanks and NGOs have argued that Western monetary aid often only serves to increase poverty and social inequality, either because it is conditioned with the implementation of harmful economic policies in the recipient countries, or because it is tied to the importing of products from the donor country over cheaper alternatives. Sometimes foreign aid is seen to be serving the interests of the donor more than the recipient, and critics also argue that some of the foreign aid is stolen by corrupt governments and officials, and that higher aid levels erode the quality of governance. Policy becomes much more oriented toward what will get more aid money than it does towards meeting the needs of the people. Problems with the aid system and not aid itself are that the aid is excessively directed towards the salaries of consultants from donor countries, the aid is not spread properly, neglecting vital, less publicized area such as agriculture, and the aid is not properly coordinated among donors, leading to a plethora of disconnected projects rather than unified strategies.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Supporters of aid argue that these problems may be solved with better auditing of how the aid is used. Immunization campaigns for children, such as against polio, diphtheria and measles have saved millions of lives. Aid from non-governmental organizations may be more effective than governmental aid; this may be because it is better at reaching the poor and better controlled at the grassroots level. As a point of comparison, the annual world military spending is over $1 trillion.


title: Poverty reduction

text: One of the proposed ways to help poor countries that emerged during the 1980s has been debt relief. Given that many less developed nations have gotten themselves into extensive debt to banks and governments from the rich nations, and given that the interest payments on these debts are often more than a country can generate per year in profits from exports, cancelling part or all of these debts may allow poor nations "to get out of the hole". If poor countries do not have to spend so much on debt payments, they can use the money instead for priorities which help reduce poverty such as basic health-care and education. Many nations began offering services, such as free health care even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from the rounds of debt relief in 2005.


title: Poverty reduction

text: In 1996 the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative by the World Bank, which gave voluntary debt relief to creditors and on foreign debt for Multilateral and Bilateral debt, which was pushed later in a second phase known as the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative in order to provide debt relief, that helped the IDA, IMF, and to lower-income countries that went through the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The process by the IMF to carry out the initiative could be broken down into two steps, the first would be meeting four criteria including a track record and the second encompasses three criteria which include implementing and adopting key reforms, such as the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The UN Deputy Secretary-General Amina J. Mohammed reflects debt relief for Developing Countries which showed that between 2019-2021 debt from governments has risen from 58 to 65 per cent in GDP, and the World Bank have predicted at least a billion people would be in extreme poverty, from the war aftermath in Ukraine. Some suggestions that were made were based on countries having the stability to stable access limits, addressing debt risks early, and aligning financial goals with sustainable development goals.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Universal public education has some role in preparing youth for basic academic skills and perhaps many trade skills, as well. Apprenticeships clearly build needed trade skills. If modest amounts of cash and land can be combined with a modicum of agricultural skills in a temperate climate, subsistence can give way toward modest societal wealth. As has been mentioned, education for women will allow for reduced family size—an important poverty reduction event in its own right. While all components mentioned above are necessary, the portion of education pertaining to the variety of skills needed to build and maintain the infrastructure of a developing (moving out of poverty) society: building trades; plumbing; electrician; well-drilling; farm and transport mechanical skills (and others) are clearly needed in large numbers of individuals, if the society is to move out of poverty or subsistence. Yet, many well-developed western economies are moving strongly away from the essential apprenticeships and skill training which affords a clear vocational path out of modern urban poverty.


title: Poverty reduction

text: One of the most popular of the new technical tools for economic development and poverty reduction are microloans made famous in 1976 by the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. The idea is to loan small amounts of money to farmers or villages so these people can obtain the things they need to increase their economic rewards. A small pump costing only $50 could make a very big difference in a village without the means of irrigation. A specific example is the Thai government's People's Bank which is making loans of $100 to $300 to help farmers buy equipment or seeds, help street vendors acquire an inventory to sell, or help others set up small shops. The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Vietnam country programme supports operations in 11 poor provinces. Between 2002 and 2010 around 1,000 saving and credit groups (SCGs) were formed, with over 17,000 members; these SCGs increased their access to microcredit for taking up small-scale farm activities.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The empowerment of women has relatively recently become a significant area of discussion with respect to development and economics; however it is often regarded as a topic that only addresses and primarily deals with gender inequality. Because women and men experience poverty differently, they hold dissimilar poverty reduction priorities and are affected differently by development interventions and poverty reduction strategies. In response to the socialized phenomenon known as the feminization of poverty, policies aimed to reduce poverty have begun to address poor women separately from poor men. In addition to engendering poverty and poverty interventions, a correlation between greater gender equality and greater poverty reduction and economic growth has been illustrated by research through the World Bank, suggesting that promoting gender equality through empowerment of women is a qualitatively significant poverty reduction strategy.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Addressing gender equality and empowering women are necessary steps in overcoming poverty and furthering development as supported by the human development and capabilities approach and the Millennium Development Goals. Disparities in the areas of education, mortality rates, health and other social and economic indicators impose large costs on well-being and health of the poor, which diminishes productivity and the potential to reduce poverty. The limited opportunities of women in most societies restrict their aptitude to improve economic conditions and access services to enhance their well-being.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Gender mainstreaming, the concept of placing gender issues into the mainstream of society, was established by the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women as a global strategy for promoting gender equality; the UN conference emphasized the necessity to ensure that gender equality is a primary goal in all areas of social and economic development, which includes the discussion of poverty and its reduction. Correspondingly, the World Bank also created objectives to address poverty with respect to the different effects on women. One important goal was the revision of laws and administrative practices to ensure women's equal rights and access to economic resources. Mainstreaming strengthens women's active involvement in poverty alleviation by linking women's capabilities and contributions with macro-economic issues. The underlying purpose of both the UN and World Bank policies speaks to the use of discussion of gender issues in the promotion of gender equality and reduction of poverty.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Several platforms have been adopted and reiterated across many organizations in support of the empowerment of women with the specific aim of reducing poverty. Encouraging more economic and political participation by women increases financial independence from and social investment in the government, both of which are critical to pulling society out of poverty.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Women's economic empowerment, or ensuring that women and men have equal opportunities to generate and manage income, is an important step to enhancing their development within the household and in society. Additionally, women play an important economic role in addressing poverty experienced by children. By increasing female participation in the labor force, women are able to contribute more effectively to economic growth and income distribution since having a source of income elevates their financial and social status. However, women's entry into the paid labor force does not necessarily equate to reduction of poverty; the creation of decent employment opportunities and movement of women from the informal work sector to the formal labor market are key to poverty reduction. Other ways to encourage female participation in the workforce to promote decline of poverty include providing childcare services, increasing educational quality and opportunities, and furthering entrepreneurship for women.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Protection of property rights is a key element in economically empowering women and fostering economic growth overall for both genders. With legitimate claims to land, women gain bargaining power, which can be applied to their lives outside of and within the household. The ability and opportunity for women to lawfully own land also decreases the asset gap that exists between women and men, which promotes gender equality.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Political participation is supported by organizations such as IFAD as one pillar of gender equality and women's empowerment. Sustainable economic growth requires poor people to have influence on the decisions that affect their lives; specifically strengthening women's voices in the political process builds social independence and greater consideration of gender issues in policy. In order to promote women's political empowerment, the United Nations Development Programme advocated for several efforts: increase women in public office; strengthen advocacy of women's organizations; ensure fair legal protection; and provide equivalent health and education. Fair political representation and participation enable women to lobby for more female-specific poverty reduction policies and programs.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Efficient institutions that are not corrupt and obey the rule of law make and enforce good laws that provide security to property and businesses. Efficient and fair governments would work to invest in the long-term interests of the nation rather than plunder resources through corruption. Researchers at UC Berkeley developed what they called a "Weberianness scale" which measures aspects of bureaucracies and governments which Max Weber described as most important for rational-legal and efficient government over 100 years ago. Comparative research has found that the scale is correlated with higher rates of economic development. With their related concept of good governance World Bank researchers have found much the same: Data from 150 nations have shown several measures of good governance (such as accountability, effectiveness, rule of law, low corruption) to be related to higher rates of economic development.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Funds from aid and natural resources are often diverted into private hands and then sent to banks overseas as a result of graft. If Western banks rejected stolen money, says a report by Global Witness, ordinary people would benefit "in a way that aid flows will never achieve". The report asked for more regulation of banks as they have proved capable of stanching the flow of funds linked to terrorism, money-laundering or tax evasion.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Some, like Thomas Pogge, call for a global organization that can manage some form of Global Resources Dividend, which could evolve in complexity with time.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Examples of good governance leading to economic development and poverty reduction include Thailand, Taiwan, Malaysia, South Korea, and Vietnam, which tend to have a strong government, called a "hard state" or "development state". These "hard states" have the will and authority to create and maintain policies that lead to long-term development that helps all their citizens, not just the wealthy. Multinational corporations are regulated so that they follow reasonable standards for pay and labor conditions, pay reasonable taxes to help develop the country, and keep some of the profits in the country, reinvesting them to provide further development.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The United Nations Development Program published a report in April 2000 which focused on good governance in poor countries as a key to economic development and overcoming the selfish interests of wealthy elites often behind state actions in developing nations. The report concludes that "Without good governance, reliance on trickle-down economic development and a host of other strategies will not work." Despite the promise of such research several questions remain, such as where good governance comes from and how it can be achieved. The comparative analysis of one sociologist suggests that broad historical forces have shaped the likelihood of good governance. Ancient civilizations with more developed government organization before colonialism, as well as elite responsibility, have helped create strong states with the means and efficiency to carry out development policies today. On the other hand, strong states are not always the form of political organization most conducive to economic development. Other historical factors, especially the experiences of colonialism for each country, have intervened to make a strong state and/or good governance less likely for some countries, especially in Africa. Another important factor that has been found to affect the quality of institutions and governance was the pattern of colonization (how it took place) and even the identity of colonizing power. International agencies may be able to promote good governance through various policies of intervention in developing nations as indicated in a few African countries, but comparative analysis suggests it may be much more difficult to achieve in most poor nations around the world.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Another approach that has been proposed for alleviating poverty is Fair Trade which advocates the payment of an above market price as well as social and environmental standards in areas related to the production of goods. The efficacy of this approach to poverty reduction is controversial.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The Toronto Dollar is an example of a local currency oriented towards reducing poverty. Toronto Dollars are sold and redeemed in such a way that raise funds which are then given as grants to local charities, primarily ones oriented towards reducing poverty. Toronto Dollars also provide a means to create an incentive for welfare recipients to work: Toronto dollars can be given as gifts to welfare recipients who perform volunteer work for charitable and non-profit organizations, and these gifts do not affect welfare benefits.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Some have argued for radical economic change in the system. There are several fundamental proposals for restructuring existing economic relations, and many of their supporters argue that their ideas would reduce or even eliminate poverty entirely if they were implemented. Such proposals have been put forward by both left-wing and right-wing groups: socialism, communism, anarchism, libertarianism, binary economics and participatory economics, among others.


title: Poverty reduction

text: In his book "The End of Poverty", prominent economist Jeffrey Sachs laid out a plan to eradicate global poverty by 2025. Following his recommendations, international organizations such as the Global Solidarity Network are working to help eradicate poverty worldwide with intervention in the areas of housing, food, education, basic health, agricultural inputs, safe drinking water, transportation and communications.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The Poor People's Economic Human Rights Campaign is an organization in the United States working to secure freedom from poverty for all by organizing the poor themselves. The Campaign believes that a human rights framework, based on the value of inherent dignity and worth of all persons, offers the best means by which to organize for a political solution to poverty.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The increase in extreme weather events, linked to climate change, and resulting disasters is expected to continue. Disasters are a major cause of impoverishment and can reverse progress towards poverty reduction. A report by the World Bank shows that poor persons are most prone to climate disasters.


title: Poverty reduction

text: It is predicted that by 2030, 325 million (plus) extremely poor people will be living in the 49 most hazard prone countries. Most of these are located in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa.


title: Poverty reduction

text: A researcher at a leading global think-tank, the Overseas Development Institute, suggests that far more effort should be done to better coordinate and integrate poverty reduction strategies with climate change adaptation. The two issues are argued to be currently only dealt with in parallel as most poverty reduction strategy papers ignore climate change adaptation altogether, while National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) likewise do not deal directly with poverty reduction. Adaptation-poverty linkages were found to be strongest in NAPAs from sub-Saharan Africa LDCs.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Experiments done in Africa (Uganda and Tanzania) and Sri Lanka on hundreds of households have shown that a bicycle can increase the income of a poor family by as much as 35%. Transport, if analyzed for the cost-benefit analysis for rural poverty alleviation, has given one of the best returns in this regard. For example, road investments in India were a staggering 3–10 times more effective than almost all other investments and subsidies in rural economy in the decade of the 1990s. What a road does at a macro level to increase transport, the bicycle supports at the micro level. The bicycle, in that sense, can be one of the best means to eradicate poverty in poor nations.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Eradication of extreme poverty and hunger by 2015 is one of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). In addition to broader approaches, the Sachs Report (for the UN Millennium Project) proposes a series of "quick wins", approaches identified by development experts which would cost relatively little but could have a major constructive effect on world poverty. The quick wins are:


title: Poverty reduction

text: The first of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) calls for an end to poverty by 2030 and seeks to ensure social protection for the poor and supporting people affected by climate-related extreme events. As the decade that began in 2002, the percentage of the world's population living under the poverty line reduced by half, from 26 per cent to 13 per cent. If the growth rate during those 10 years had prevailed over the next 15 years, it would be possible to decrease the rate of extreme poverty in the world to 4 per cent by 2030, assuming the growth will benefit all income groups of the population on an equal footing. However, if the growth rate was over a longer period of 20 years, the rate of prevalent global poverty is likely to be about 6 per cent. In other words, the eradication of extreme poverty will require a significant change from its historical growth rates.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Poverty reduction requires governments to identify and reach out to extremely poor and help them out of poverty through sustainable measures. One such approach supported by many international donors is of targeted poverty reduction programmes. There are several poverty targeting methods through which poor communities are identified and tracked for poverty reduction programmes. For instance, one common method of poverty targeting is 'means testing' that uses a certain income or expenditure threshold for an individual or the a household to be considered as poor and eligible for support.


title: Poverty reduction

text: An important part of the fight against poverty are efforts to end hunger and achieve food security. In April 2012, the Food Assistance Convention was signed, the world's first legally binding international agreement on food aid. The May 2012 Copenhagen Consensus recommended that efforts to combat hunger and malnutrition should be the first priority for politicians and private sector philanthropists looking to maximize the effectiveness of aid spending. They put this ahead of other priorities, like the fight against malaria and AIDS.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The main global policy to reduce hunger and poverty are the recently approved Sustainable Development Goals. In particular Goal 2: Zero Hunger sets globally agreed targets to end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.


title: Poverty reduction

text: In 2013 Caritas International started a Caritas-wide initiative aimed at ending systemic hunger by 2025. The One human family, food for all campaign focuses on awareness raising, improving the impact of Caritas programs and advocating the implementation of the right to food.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The partnership Compact2025, led by IFPRI with the involvement of UN organisations, NGOs and private foundations develops and disseminates evidence-based advice to politicians and other decision-makers aimed at ending hunger and undernutrition in the coming 10 years, by 2025.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The EndingHunger campaign is an online communication campaign aimed at raising awareness of the hunger problem. It has many worked through viral videos depicting celebrities voicing their anger about the large number of hungry people in the world.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Another initiative focused on improving the hunger situation by improving nutrition is the Scaling up Nutrition movement (SUN). Started in 2010, this movement of people from governments, civil society, the United Nations, donors, businesses and researchers publishes a yearly progress report on the changes in their 57 partner countries.


title: Poverty reduction

text: In spite of the intensive reduction strategies deployed in the previous two decades, poverty levels in several countries of the world has not been reduced. Recent research has demonstrated that the low wage levels of the needy families have risen gradually, although in some scenarios they have declined. While wage level is the main median pointer of welfare, such results suggest that past poverty reduction procedures have not been precise. Unless suitable reduction procedures are formulated and implemented in the near future, rustic poverty will probably be a real issue for quite some long time. Families are determined to be low-pay if their monthly income does not surpass the evaluated monthly minimum set by every city or region. To meet the family's essential needs (shelter, food, clothing, and education) in Taipei, one would need to have $337 every month. This sum changes relying upon the city's way of life; for instance, one would just need to have $171 every month to live in Kinmen County.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Sustained economic growth is noted as the main propelling agent for Poverty Reduction in Taiwan. While internal FDI has no noteworthy effect on the mean wage of poor people, outward FDI from Taiwan in the previous two decades appears to have adversely affected the poorest 20% of the populace. Poverty in Taiwan has nearly been eliminated, with under 1 per cent of the populace considered as poor or earning the low-level pay. This implies more than 99 per cent of the populace appreciates the advantages of Taiwan's economic flourishing and extraordinarily enhanced personal satisfaction. Beside lowly-paid families, the government offers support to other individuals, for example, the elderly and the incapacitated, who cannot work. During 1980 to 1999 Taiwanese government developed a program called National Health Insurance program. NHI mainly provides economically disadvantaged people with quality healthcare at an affordable price. July 1993, the government of Taiwan started giving a monthly sponsorship to elderly people. People beyond 65 years old whose normal family salary is not exactly, or equivalent to, 1.5 times the base monthly costs are fit to get a monthly sponsorship of $174. Private transfers also play an important role in Taiwan for antipoverty according to the date Taiwan provided to the Luxembourg Income Studies, the results indicates the private transfer has greater impact than public transfers in terms of proving welfare state.


title: Poverty reduction

text: In 1999, the government of Taiwan spent US$5.08 billion on social welfare projects and offered numerous sorts of assistance to people and families from low-pay sets. Notwithstanding money, assistance to get employment is given to the breadwinners in families, alongside educational guide for school-age children and well-being programs for women and children. In addition, there are additionally community associations, scholastic organizations, and private establishments arranged by government offices to help needy people. In principle, Taiwan is currently a liberal and elections based society. Hence social versatility ought to be the standard. Notably, as per an investigation of extra cash in Taiwan by the Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, families with the most astounding dispensable salaries number 2.6 people, while families with the least discretionary cash flow number 4.7 people. With rising costs of simple commodities and privatization of the training market, economically distraught families will end up in an undeniably hard position to educate their own children. However, this type of social welfare will significantly lower the Taiwan's revenue. Due to the slow economic development in the past years, this method will no longer close the income inequality or reduce the unemployment rate effectively in the future.


title: Poverty reduction

text: The concept of business serving the world's poorest four billion or so people has been popular since CK Prahalad introduced the idea through his book "Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Eradicating Poverty Through Profits" in 2004, among many business corporations and business schools. Kash Rangan, John Quelch, and other faculty members at the Global Poverty Project at Harvard Business School "believe that in pursuing its own self-interest in opening and expanding the BoP market, business can make a profit while serving the poorest of consumers and contributing to development." According to Rangan "For business, the bulk of emerging markets worldwide is at the bottom of the pyramid so it makes good business sense – not a sense of do-gooding – to go after it."


title: Poverty reduction

text: In their 2013 book, "The Business Solution to Poverty", Paul Polak and Mal Warwick directly addressed the criticism leveled against Prahalad's concept. They noted that big business often failed to create products that actually met the needs and desires of the customers who lived at the bottom-of-the-pyramid. Their answer was that a business that wanted to succeed in that market had to spend time talking to and understanding those customers. Polak had previously promoted this approach in his previous book, "Out of Poverty", that described the work of International Development Enterprises (iDE), which he had formed in 1982. Polak and Warwick provided practical advice: a product needed to affect at least a billion people (i.e., have universal appeal), it had to be able to be delivered to customers living where there was not a FedEx office or even a road, and it had to be "radically affordable" to attract someone who earned less than $2 a day.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Rather than encouraging multinational businesses to meet the needs of the poor, some organizations such as iDE, the World Resources Institute, and the United Nations Development Programme began to focus on working directly with helping bottom-of-the-pyramid populations become local, small-scale entrepreneurs. Since so much of this population is engaged in agriculture, these NGOs have addressed market gaps that enable small-scale (i.e., plots less than 2 hectares) farmers to increase their production and find markets for their harvests. This is done by increasing the availability of farming equipment (e.g., pumps, tillers, seeders) and better quality seed and fertilizer, as well as expanding access for training in farming best practices (e.g., crop rotation).


title: Poverty reduction

text: Creating entrepreneurs through microfinance can produce unintended outcomes: Some entrepreneurial borrowers become informal intermediaries between microfinance initiatives and poorer micro-entrepreneurs. Those who more easily qualify for microfinance split loans into smaller credit to even poorer borrowers. Informal intermediation ranges from casual intermediaries at the good or benign end of the spectrum to 'loan sharks' at the professional and sometimes criminal end of the spectrum.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Milton Friedman argues that the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits only; thus, it needs to be examined whether business in BoP markets is capable of achieving the dual objective of "making a profit while serving the poorest of consumers and contributing to development"? Erik Simanis has reported that the model has a fatal flaw. According to Simanis:Despite achieving healthy penetration rates of 5% to 10% in four test markets, for instance, Procter & Gamble couldn't generate a competitive return on its Pur water-purification powder after launching the product on a large scale in 2001... DuPont ran into similar problems with a venture piloted from 2006 to 2008 in Andhra Pradesh, India, by its subsidiary Solae, a global manufacturer of soy protein ... Because the high costs of doing business among the very poor demand a high contribution per transaction, companies must embrace the reality that high margins and price points aren't just a top-of-the-pyramid phenomenon; they're also a necessity for ensuring sustainable businesses at the bottom of the pyramid.Marc Gunther states that "The bottom-of-the-pyramid (BOP) market leader, arguably, is Unilever ... Its signature BOP product is Pureit, a countertop water-purification system sold in India, Africa and Latin America. It's saving lives, but it's not making money for shareholders." This leaves the ideal of "eradicating poverty through profits" or with a "good business sense – not a sense of do-gooding" rather questionable.


title: Poverty reduction

text: Others have noted that relying on BoP consumers to choose to purchase items that increase their incomes is naive. Poor consumers may spend their income disproportionately on events or goods and services that offer short-term benefits rather than invest in things that could change their lives in the long-term.


title: Bokmål

text: Bokmål () (, ; ) is an official written standard for the Norwegian language, alongside Nynorsk. Bokmål is the preferred written standard of Norwegian for 85% to 90% of the population in Norway. Unlike, for instance, the Italian language, there is no nationwide standard or agreement on the pronunciation of Bokmål.


title: Bokmål

text: Bokmål is regulated by the governmental Language Council of Norway. A more conservative orthographic standard, commonly known as "Riksmål", is regulated by the non-governmental Norwegian Academy for Language and Literature. The written standard is a Norwegianised variety of the Danish language.


title: Bokmål

text: The first Bokmål orthography was officially adopted in 1907 under the name "Riksmål" after being under development since 1879. The architects behind the reform were Marius Nygaard and Jacob Jonathan Aars. It was an adaptation of written Danish, which was commonly used since the past union with Denmark, to the Dano-Norwegian koiné spoken by the Norwegian urban elite, especially in the capital. When the large conservative newspaper "Aftenposten" adopted the 1907 orthography in 1923, Danish writing was practically out of use in Norway. The name "Bokmål" was officially adopted in 1929 after a proposition to call the written language "Dano-Norwegian" lost by a single vote in the Lagting (a chamber in the Norwegian parliament).


title: Bokmål

text: The government does not regulate "spoken" Bokmål and recommends that normalised pronunciation should follow the phonology of the speaker's local dialect. Nevertheless, there is a spoken variety of Norwegian that, in the region of South-Eastern Norway, is commonly seen as the "de facto" standard for spoken Bokmål. In "The Phonology of Norwegian", Gjert Kristoffersen writes that


title: Bokmål

text: Standard Østnorsk (Standard East Norwegian) is the pronunciation most commonly given in dictionaries and taught to foreigners in Norwegian language classes. Standard Østnorsk as a spoken language is not used and does not have any particular prestige outside South-Eastern Norway. All spoken variations of the Norwegian language are used e.g. in the Storting and in Norwegian national broadcasters such as NRK and TV 2, even in cases where the conventions of Bokmål are used. The spoken variation typically reflects the region the person grew up in.


title: Bokmål

text: Up until about 1300, the written language of Norway, Old Norwegian, was essentially the same as the other Old Norse dialects. The speech, however, was gradually differentiated into local and regional dialects. As long as Norway remained an independent kingdom, the written language remained essentially constant.


title: Bokmål

text: In 1380, Norway entered into a personal union with Denmark. By the early 16th century, Norway had lost its separate political institutions, and together with Denmark formed the political unit known as Denmark–Norway until 1814, progressively becoming the weaker member of the union. During this period, the modern Danish and Norwegian languages emerged. Norwegian went through a Middle Norwegian transition, and a Danish written language more heavily influenced by Low German was gradually standardised. This process was aided by the Reformation, which prompted Christiern Pedersen's translation of the Bible into Danish. Remnants of written Old Norse and Norwegian were thus displaced by the Danish standard, which became used for virtually all administrative documents.


title: Bokmål

text: Norwegians used Danish primarily in writing, but it gradually came to be spoken by urban elites on formal or official occasions. Although Danish never became the spoken language of the vast majority of the population, by the time Norway's ties with Denmark were severed in 1814, a Dano-Norwegian vernacular often called the "educated daily speech" had become the mother tongue of elites in most Norwegian cities, such as Bergen, Kristiania and Trondheim. This Dano-Norwegian "koiné" could be described as Danish with regional Norwegian pronunciation (see Norwegian dialects), some Norwegian vocabulary, and simplified grammar.


title: Bokmål

text: With the gradual subsequent process of Norwegianisation of the written language used in the cities of Norway, from Danish to Bokmål and Riksmål, the upper-class sociolects in the cities changed accordingly. In 1814, when Norway was ceded from Denmark to Sweden, Norway defied Sweden and her allies, declared independence and adopted a democratic constitution. Although compelled to submit to a dynastic union with Sweden, this spark of independence continued to burn, influencing the evolution of language in Norway. Old language traditions were revived by the patriotic poet Henrik Wergeland (1808–1845), who championed an independent non-Danish written language. Haugen indicates that:


title: Bokmål

text: "Within the first generation of liberty, two solutions emerged and won adherents, one based on the speech of the upper class and one on that of the common people. The former called for Norwegianisation of the Danish writing, the latter for a brand new start."


title: Bokmål

text: The more conservative of the two language transitions was advanced by the work of writers like Peter Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, schoolmaster and agitator for language reform Knud Knudsen, and Knudsen's famous disciple, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, as well as a more cautious Norwegianisation by Henrik Ibsen. In particular, Knudsen's work on language reform in the mid-19th century was important for the 1907 orthography and a subsequent reform in 1917, so much so that he is now often called the "father of Bokmål".


title: Bokmål

text: Since the creation of Landsmål, the Danish written in Norway was referred to as "(det almindelige) Bogmaal" etc. ("(The ordinary) book language"), e.g. in "Den norske Literatur fra 1814 indtil vore Dage" (Hans Olaf Hansen, 1862), or the synonym "Bogsprog", e.g. in the 1885 decision that adopted Landsmål as a co-official language.


title: Bokmål

text: The term "Riksmål" ("Rigsmaal"), meaning "National Language", was first proposed by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1899 as a name for the Norwegian variety of written Danish as well as spoken Dano-Norwegian. It was borrowed from Denmark where it denoted standard written and spoken Danish. The same year the Riksmål movement became organised under his leadership in order to fight against the growing influence of Nynorsk, eventually leading to the foundation of the non-governmental organisation Riksmålsforbundet in 1907, which he led until his death in 1910.


title: Bokmål

text: The 1907 reform documents do not mention the language by name, but the term "Riksmål" eventually caught on and was adopted by the Ministry of Church and Education in the years leading up to the 1917 spelling reform, appearing in its 1908 publication "Utredning av spørsmaalet om et mulig samarbeide mellem landsmaal og riksmaal i retskrivningen" ("Investigation of the question of a possible cooperation between Landmål and Riksmål with regards to orthography"). Through this work an official policy to merge the standards (to a common "") through spelling reforms came to be.