title: Altar

text: At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the gods or spirits of the departed. (See, for example, Qingming Festival and Ghost Festival.) This may include rice, slaughtered pigs and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Hell Bank Notes, on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, and be available for the departed spirit to use. In Taoist folk religion, sometimes chickens, pigs' feet, and pig heads are given as offerings. But in orthodox Daoist practice, offerings should essentially be incense, candles and vegetarian offerings.


title: Altar

text: In Buddhist-following cultures, structures such as , butsudan, or spirit houses are found in temples or homes. In Japan, the butsudan is a wooden cabinet with doors that enclose and protect a religious image of the Buddha or the Bodhisattvas (typically in the form of a statue) or a mandala scroll, installed in the highest place of honor and centered. The doors are opened to display the image during religious observances. A butsudan usually contains subsidiary religious items—called "butsugu"—such as candlesticks, incense burners, bells, and platforms for placing offerings such as fruit. Some sects place "ihai", memorial tablets for deceased relatives, within or near the butsudan. Butsudans are often decorated with flowers.


title: Altar

text: The shrine is placed in the temple or home as a place of worship to the Buddha, the Law of the Universe, etc. Scrolls ("honzon") or statues are placed in the butsudan and prayed to morning and evening. Zen Buddhists also meditate before the butsudan.


title: Altar

text: The original design for the butsudan began in India, where people built altars as an offering-place to the Buddha. When Buddhism came to China and Korea statues of the Buddha were placed on pedestals or platforms. The Chinese and Koreans built walls and doors around the statues to shield them from the weather and also adapted elements of their respective indigenous religions. They could then safely offer their prayers, incense, etc. to the statue or scroll without it falling and breaking.


title: Altar

text: In Shinto, altars are found in shrines. Originating in ancient times, are temporarily erected sacred spaces or "altars" used as a locus of worship. A physical area is demarcated with branches of green bamboo or at the four corners, between which are strung sacred border ropes (). In the center of the area a large branch of festooned with sacred emblems () is erected as a "yorishiro", a physical representation of the presence of the kami and toward which rites of worship are performed.


title: Altar

text: In more elaborate cases, a may be constructed by placing a rough straw mat upon the ground, then erecting a ceremonial eight-legged stand () upon the mat, and decorating the stand with a frame festooned with sacred border ropes and sacred border emblems. Finally the branch is erected in the center of this stand as the focus of worship.


title: Altar

text: A basic altar, called a , was used for sacrifice in Norse paganism. The was constructed of piled stones, possibly in a wood (harrow), and would be used in sacrifices and perhaps other ceremonies as well.


title: Altar

text: A possible use of the during a sacrifice would be to place upon it a bowl of the blood of an animal sacrificed to a Norse deity (e.g. a goat for Thor, a sow for Freyja, a boar for Freyr), then dipping a bundle of fir twigs into it and sprinkling the participants with the blood. This would consecrate the attendees to the ceremony, such as a wedding.


title: Altar

text: In Nordic Modern Pagan practice, altars may be set up in the home or in wooded areas in imitation of the hörgr of ancient times. They may be dedicated to Thor, Odin, or other Nordic deities.


title: Altar

text: In neopaganism there is a wide variety of ritual practice, running the gamut from a very eclectic syncretism to strict polytheistic reconstructionism. Many of these groups make use of altars. Some are constructed merely of rough-hewn or stacked stone, and some are made of fine wood or other finished material.


title: Altar

text: Modern Neo-Druidism may also make use of altars, often erected in groves. Though little is known of the specific religious beliefs and practices presided over by the ancient Druids, modern people who identify themselves as Druids are free to incorporate their imagination in developing ceremonies and the use of ritual objects in keeping with their belief system. The "Order of Common Worship" of the Reformed Druids of North America' "Liturgy of the Druids" calls for a fire to be started "in or near the altar" and makes use of various objects such as a chalice, staves, and a plant offering. If no altar is used, the objects may be placed on the ground.


title: Altar

text: High places are elevated areas on which altars have been erected for worship in the belief that, as they were nearer heaven than the plains and valleys, they are more favourable places for prayer. High places were prevalent in almost all ancient cultures as centers of cultic worship.


title: Altar

text: High places in Israelite (Hebrew: "Bamah", or "Bama") or Canaanite culture were open-air shrines, usually erected on an elevated site. Prior to the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites in the the high places served as shrines of the Canaanite fertility deities, the Baals (Lords) and the Asherot (Semitic goddesses). In addition to an altar, "matzevot" (stone pillars representing the presence of the divine) were erected.


title: Altar

text: The practice of worship on these spots became frequent among the Hebrews, though after the temple was built it was forbidden. Such worship was with difficulty abolished, though denounced time after time by the prophets as an affront to God. A closely related example is a "backyard" altar, so to speak. Before there was a set temple and an established altar people built their own altars. After the temple was built use of these altars was forbidden. Unlike the case of high places, "backyard" altar worship was quickly eradicated. In following years, the practice drastically decreased in popularity.


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: "What Comes After" is the fifth episode of the ninth season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series "The Walking Dead", which aired on AMC on November 4, 2018. The episode's teleplay was written by Matthew Negrete, from a story by Scott M. Gimple and Negrete, and it was directed by Greg Nicotero. In the episode, a heavily-wounded Rick Grimes struggles to divert a zombie herd while he questions his legacy in maintaining his vision of the united communities.


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: This episode included guest appearances by former regular cast members Jon Bernthal (Shane Walsh), Sonequa Martin-Green (Sasha Williams), Scott Wilson (Hershel Greene), Sarah Wayne Callies (Lori Grimes), Emily Kinney (Beth Greene), Michael Cudlitz (Abraham Ford), and Lennie James (Morgan Jones). It was Wilson's penultimate on-screen appearance before his death. It also marks the final appearances of Andrew Lincoln (Rick Grimes), and Pollyanna McIntosh (Anne). It was also the last appearance for Lauren Cohan (Maggie Greene) in the season, due to other acting commitments. She returned to the show in late second part season 10 and was a series regular in the third part of season 10.


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: Rick dreams of a swarm of helicopters, before regaining consciousness and finding himself surrounded by walkers. He manages to free himself off the rebar he had been impaled on after being thrown off by his spooked horse, but is bleeding profusely. He makes it back to his horse, barely holding onto consciousness to lead the merged walker hordes away from the construction camp. Getting enough of a lead, he finds an abandoned cabin nearby to create makeshift bandages, before leading the hordes onward. Throughout this, Rick falls in and out of consciousness and has lucid dreams of him trying to find his family, which includes conversations with Shane and Hershel, both of whom urge him to wake back up to reality and stay ahead of the horde.


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: Anne is trying to make her way to a planned rendezvous point in Heath's stolen RV, and is told by the man on the other end of the walkie-talkie that she had misled them before. She assures them she has the "A" they need and needs to get out of this place. Maggie continues onto Alexandria; Michonne hears of this and intercepts her before she reaches the cage where Negan is being kept. Maggie is able to convince Michonne to hand over the keys, telling her she will be able to live with this decision. Negan taunts Maggie about how much he enjoyed killing Glenn, but she remains steadfast. Negan soon starts begging her to kill him so he can be with his wife. Thinking it another trick, Maggie pulls Negan out of the cell into the light, and sees that he is a shadow of his former self. Maggie puts him back in his cell, walking out satisfied, with a better understanding of why Rick kept him alive. She and Michonne then hear word of trouble outside, and race to see what is happening with other residents.


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: In another vision, Rick walks onto a field filled with the bodies of all his friends, where he speaks to Sasha, who reminds him that all he has done has been for the good of all. Sasha tells him that he will find his family, as they are not lost. Rick then awakens to find himself at the now-abandoned camp, with the horse having fled. With walkers - including zombified Saviors and community members from the clash at the camp - closing in on him, Rick keeps on leading them toward the bridge. He stumbles just short of the bridge, but as the walkers near him, he seeds Michonne lead a large group of his allies to dispatch the walkers. Michonne urges Rick to keep on fighting, and Rick comes to realize that Michonne and his friends are now his family. He realizes this is just another vision; he finds himself alone just off the bridge with the horde still following him. He gets back up and continues to lead the walkers across the bridge as the river waters rise. To Rick's dismay, the weight of the walkers is not sufficient to cause the bridge to fall. A group from the united communities – including Saviors – arrive and begin killing off the walkers near Rick. Maggie worries that if the walkers cross, they will continue onto Hilltop, and leads a group to try to turn the horde around, but Rick waves them off, muttering to himself that he found his family. Rick sees some of the dynamite left on the bridge, and fires at it, destroying the bridge and most of the walker horde, causing the remaining to fall into the river. To his allies, Rick appears to have been killed in the explosion, and several break out in tears of grief.


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: Anne sees the smoke from the explosion and chatter over the walkie-talkies about Rick's apparent death while a helicopter lands nearby. She sees Rick on the bank of the river, still alive but severely injured. She tells the pilot that she has a "B", and convinces the helicopter to rescue Rick. She and Rick are airlifted away to places unknown.


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: Six years later, a small group of survivors, Magna, Connie, Kelly, Yumiko, and Luke are trying to hold off a walker horde when a few are shot from a forest nearby. The group is told to take cover, and find that they have been rescued by a now-preteen Judith Grimes, who wears Carl's hat and is armed with Rick's revolver and a katana like Michonne.


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: This episode marks the last appearance of both Andrew Lincoln (Rick Grimes) as well as Pollyanna McIntosh (Jadis/Anne). Both actors have been confirmed to take a role in a series of three AMC Original Films to continue Rick's story, with production on the first to initially start in 2019. Lincoln had been working with Scott Gimple, the former showrunner and now current content manager for all of AMC's "The Walking Dead" properties, about how Rick's story could continue for some time. They had established early on that it needed to involve Jadis and the helicopter, and established these elements in earlier seasons to prepare for this point. Showrunner Angela Kang also confirmed that this episode would be the last episode of this season for Lauren Cohan as Maggie, due to previous commitments she had made for the show "Whiskey Cavalier" prior to signing on for the ninth season, though it is uncertain yet if she will return to the show; Kang stated they have additional stories they can tell with Maggie's character should Cohan be able to return. As to close out Maggie's story, they introduced the scene with Maggie and Negan which took place much later in the comic book series (after the introduction of the Whisperers). This gave them a way to move Maggie forward and beyond her obsession with Negan, should Cohan be able to return.


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: The cabin that Rick stops to rest was modeled after the cabin from the film "The Evil Dead", including a replica of its "Necronomicon" on the table. The episode's producer, Greg Nicotero, had previously worked on "Evil Dead 2".


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: All of the lucid dream shots were filmed on a sound stage at Raleigh Studios, using green-screen effects for the backgrounds. These scenes were to play on the Third man factor, bringing in people from Rick's past that would help keep him moving as he struggled with his blood loss. This led to some discussion about whom to bring back for these shots between Kang and writers Scott Gimple and Matt Negrete, needed characters that were essential to Rick. Shane, as played by Jon Bernthal, was considered essential given Shane's impact on Rick's story throughout the show. Hershel as played by Scott Wilson was seen as a father-figure to Rick, and Sasha as played by Sonequa Martin-Green was seen as a soldier who knew how to put the bigger picture first in her priorities. They had considered bringing back others like Steven Yeun who played Glenn, but there were scheduling conflicts, and the production felt the three guests they had worked strongest for the story. This ended up being Wilson's last on-screen role before his death; on the day that they announced that Bernthal, Wilson, and Martin-Green would return in guest roles for this episode during the 2018 New York Comic Con in October 2018, Wilson died from complications from leukemia. Additionally, former "The Walking Dead" actors Lennie James, Sarah Wayne Callies, Emily Kinney, and Michael Cudlitz all provided voice-line cameos as their former characters Morgan Jones, Lori Grimes, Beth Greene, and Abraham Ford respectively as part of Rick's lucid dreams.


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: The shot of Rick walking among the bodies of those he knew include a mix of his fellow actors, body doubles of former characters, and dummies for other characters. The scene itself was inspired by one of the special covers for issue #100 of the comic book, where Glenn is killed by Negan. This scene was originally to have some of the bodies rise up to make it more harrowing towards Rick, including Negan, but this was ultimately cut. Kang stated they felt that Shane served well-enough as an antagonizing character to Rick but had a friendship and connection with him, while Negan's hostility would have been more direct. The final scenes shot for the episode involved the hospital setting where Rick first woke up in the pilot episode "Days Gone Bye", though with small changes. To further bookend Rick's arc, they reused the song "Space Junk" by Wang Chung which was also featured in "Days Gone Bye".


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: The episode includes an estimated six-year time jump, according to Kang. The episode introduces Cailey Fleming as an older Judith, as well as the members of Magna's (Nadia Hilker) group, including Lauren Ridloff as Connie, Angel Theory as Kelly, Eleanor Matsuura as Yumiko, and Dan Fogler as Luke, who are key elements related to the Whisperers arc in the comic book series.


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: "What Comes After" received mostly positive reviews from critics, with praise being aimed at Andrew Lincoln's performance and the return of Jon Bernthal as Shane Walsh. On Rotten Tomatoes, the episode has an approval rating of 76% with an average score of 6.4 out of 10, based on 33 reviews, the lowest scoring episode of the season on the site. The critical consensus reads: "'What Comes After' serves as an emotionally raw and rousing farewell to series lead Andrew Lincoln, though some viewers may find Rick Grimes' ambiguous departure more of a cop out than a relief."


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: Jeff Stone writing for "Indiewire" praised the episode with a qualification of B and in his review he said: ""What Comes After," at least before things take a serious turn for the bonkers, is a perfectly acceptable, if somewhat, cliché-ridden hour of television, with some extremely welcome returns." Megan McCluskey of "Time Magazine" praised the Lincoln's development and said: "The Walking Dead has a sprawling cast of characters, but the story at its core has always revolved around Rick's leadership of the group of survivors." Noetta Harjo of "Geek Girl Authority" praised the episode and wrote: "I was bawling like a baby. I enjoyed all of the callbacks to episode one. And seeing the return of Jon Bernthal, Scott Wilson and Sonequa Martin-Green was heartwarming."


title: What Comes After (The Walking Dead)

text: "What Comes After" received a total viewership of 5.41million with a 2.1 rating in adults aged 18–49. It was the highest-rated cable program of the night, and the episode marked an increase in viewership from the previous week.


title: BMD-3

text: The BMD-3 ("Boyevaya Mashina Desanta ", Russian "Боевая Машина Десанта", literally "Combat Vehicle of the Airborne") is a light infantry fighting vehicle originating in the Soviet Union that is fully amphibious and air-droppable with crew inside. It is intended to be used by airborne and air assault units. It is not an upgraded BMD-1 but a completely redesigned vehicle with a hydropneumatic suspension, new hull, a more powerful 2V-06-2 diesel engine and fitted with the complete turret of the BMP-2.


title: BMD-3

text: Even before the start of the BMD-2's production, a new model of airborne infantry fighting vehicle was already envisaged by the Soviet military planners. This new type would first replace the BMD-1, and later the BMD-2. Two configurations were considered: one using the same armament as the future BMP-3, and another equipped with the BMP-2's turret. The latter option was chosen, because it would allow for a lighter vehicle (12.5 tonnes, compared to 18 tonnes for the other one). Six "Object 950" prototypes were built in 1985 and 1986. The vehicle was manufactured at the Volgograd Tractor Factory in Volgograd, starting in 1990, the last year before the fall of the Soviet Union. While orders for several hundreds of BMD-3s were originally planned, the poor financial situation of the 1990s resulted in severe reductions of these orders. Only 137 BMD-3s were manufactured, with production stopping in 1997. The BMD-3 may not be in service anymore, or only with a very limited amount of vehicles.


title: BMD-3

text: While still intended to be transported and airdropped by transport aircraft, the BMD-3 is bigger and heavier than its predecessors.


title: BMD-3

text: The BMD-3 is operated by three crew members. The driver is situated in the hull, while the gunner and the commander are in the turret. Thanks to its bigger size, the BMD-3 can carry up to seven dismounts, compared to five for the BMD-2. They are located around the turret basket. If the vehicle is intended to be airdropped, its capacity falls to four dismounts.


title: BMD-3

text: The BMD-3 is armed with one stabilised 30 mm 2A42 autocannon with 500 rounds, with elevation angles up to 75°, and one coaxial 7.62 mm PKT machine gun. It also has a 9P135M missile launcher for 9K111 Fagot and 9M113 Konkurs ATGMs. An RPK-74 5.45 mm machine gun is placed on the right-hand side of the hull, while an AGS-17 automatic grenade launcher is placed on the left-hand side.


title: BMD-3

text: The BMD-3 is powered by a 450 hp 2V-06-2 engine. Its maximum speed is 70 km/h on roads, and 45 km/h cross-country. The BMD-3 is amphibious, with a maximum speed of 10 km/h on water. A new parachute system was specifically designed for the BMD-3, in order to cope with its higher weight.


title: Alexandra Richards

text: Alexandra Nicole Richards (born July 28, 1986) is an American model, artist, and DJ in New York City. She is the daughter of Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards and model and actress Patti Hansen, and the sister of Theodora Richards.


title: Alexandra Richards

text: Her modeling portfolio includes images by Sante D'Orazio, Carter Smith, Annie Leibovitz, Craig McDean, Mario Testino, Bruce Weber, Patrick Demarchelier, Steven Meisel and Tony Kelly. Richards' face has appeared in magazines including "Vogue", British "Glamour", American "Glamour", Italian "Glamour", "Vanity Fair", "ID" magazine, "Harper's Bazaar", "Jane", "Teen Vogue", and French "Jalouse". In 2010, she appeared in the French edition of "Playboy".


title: Alexandra Richards

text: She participated in the "Fashion for Relief" show on September 16, 2005, in New York, a benefit for AmeriCares to support victims of Hurricane Katrina.


title: Hand fetishism

text: Hand fetishism or hand partialism or also cheirophilia is the sexual fetish for hands. This may include the sexual attraction to a specific area such as the fingers, palm, back of the hand and/or nails, or the attraction to a specific action performed by the hands; which may otherwise be considered non-sexual—such as washing and drying dishes, painting of the fingernails and nail-biting. This fetish may manifest itself as a desire to experience physical interaction, or as a source of sexual fantasy.


title: Hand fetishism

text: Hand fetishism is recognized by the porn industry; however, aside from handjobs, it is one of the least common fetishes, despite foot fetishism being the most common.


title: Hand fetishism

text: A hand fetish involves a sexual attraction to the hands. This attraction is most commonly expressed with fingering, handjobs, sucking on the fingers, and licking the palms.


title: Hand fetishism

text: A sub-type of hand fetishism that is often expressed with attraction towards the fingernails. Most commonly scratching with the fingernails, painting the fingernails, and fingernail length.


title: Hand fetishism

text: In 2007, a study was conducted by the University of Bologna on around 5000 fetishist participants to see the prevalence of fetishes. The study analyzed the content inside online fetish communities and found only 669 participants (less than 1%) referring to nails, an extension of hand fetishism. This did not refer to fingernails specifically.


title: Hand fetishism

text: In Hirohiko Araki's popular manga series, "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure Part 4: Diamond Is Unbreakable", the main villain, a serial killer named Yoshikage Kira, has a notable hand fetish which drives most of his homicidal actions. He often goes for the hands of females he deems as “pieces of trash” and murders the woman while severing one of their hands easily with his ability. He keeps the hands of his victims as his 'girlfriends', which he treats like an actual person until they start decomposing, where he will then search for a new victim. His hand fetish had been stated to have begun early in his teens after he witnessed the portrait of the Mona Lisa, saw her hands, and “got an erection”.


title: Price

text: A price is the (usually not negative) quantity of payment or compensation given by one party to another in return for goods or services. In some situations, the price of production has a different name. If the product is a "good" in the commercial exchange, the payment for this product will likely be called its "price". However, if the product is "service", there will be other possible names for this product's name. For example, the graph on the bottom will show some situations A good's price is influenced by production costs, supply of the desired item, and demand for the product. A price may be determined by a monopolist or may be imposed on the firm by market conditions.


title: Price

text: In many financial transactions, it is customary to quote prices in other ways. The most obvious example is in pricing a loan, when the cost will be expressed as the percentage rate of interest. The total amount of interest payable depends upon credit risk, the loan amount and the period of the loan. Other examples can be found in pricing financial derivatives and other financial assets. For instance the price of inflation-linked government securities in several countries is quoted as the actual price divided by a factor representing inflation since the security was issued.


title: Price

text: "Price" sometimes refers to the quantity of payment requested by a seller of goods or services, rather than the eventual payment amount. This requested amount is often called the asking price or selling price, while the actual payment may be called transaction price or traded price. Likewise, the bid price or buying price is the quantity of payment "offered" by a buyer of goods or services, although this meaning is more common in asset or financial markets than in consumer markets.


title: Price

text: Economic price theory asserts that in a free market economy the market price reflects interaction between supply and demand: the price is set so as to equate the quantity being supplied and that being demanded. In turn, these quantities are determined by the marginal utility of the asset to different buyers and to different sellers. Supply and demand, and hence price, may be influenced by other factors, such as government subsidy or manipulation through industry collusion.


title: Price

text: When a raw material or a similar economic good for sale at multiple locations, the law of one price is generally believed to hold. This essentially states that the cost difference between the locations cannot be greater than that representing shipping, taxes, other distribution costs and more.


title: Price

text: According to Milton Friedman, price has five functions in a free-enterprise exchange economy which is characterized by private ownership of the means of production:


title: Price

text: The paradox of value was observed and debated by classical economists. Adam Smith described what is now called the "diamond – water paradox": diamonds command a higher price than water, yet water is essential for life and diamonds are merely ornamentation. Use value was supposed to give some measure of usefulness, later refined as marginal benefit while exchange value was the measure of how much one good was in terms of another, namely what is now called relative price.


title: Price

text: Negative prices are very unusual but possible under certain circumstances. Effectively, the owner or producer of an item pays the "buyer" to take it off their hands.


title: Price

text: In April 2020, for the first time in history, due to the global health/economic crisis situation, price of (futures contract for) West Texas Intermediate benchmark crude oil turned negative, with a barrel of oil at -$37.63 a barrel, a one-day drop of $55.90, or 306%, according to Dow Jones Market Data. "Negative prices means someone with a long position in oil would have to pay someone to take that oil off of their hands. Why would they do that? The main reason is a fear that if forced to take delivery of crude on the expiration of the May oil contract, there would be nowhere to put it as a glut of crude fills up available storage." In a sense the price is still positive, just the direction of payment reverses, i.e. in this case you are paid to take some goods.


title: Price

text: One solution offered to the paradox of the value is through the theory of marginal utility proposed by Carl Menger, one of the founders of the Austrian School of economics.


title: Price

text: As William Barber put it, human volition, the human subject, was "brought to the centre of the stage" by marginalist economics, as a bargaining tool. Neoclassical economists sought to clarify choices open to producers and consumers in market situations, and thus "fears that cleavages in the economic structure might be unbridgeable could be suppressed".


title: Price

text: Without denying the applicability of the Austrian theory of value as "subjective" only, within certain contexts of price behavior, the Polish economist Oskar Lange felt it was necessary to attempt a serious "integration" of the insights of classical political economy with neo-classical economics. This would then result in a much more realistic theory of price and of real behavior in response to prices. Marginalist theory lacked anything like a theory of the social framework of real market functioning, and criticism sparked off by the capital controversy initiated by Piero Sraffa revealed that most of the foundational tenets of the marginalist theory of value either reduced to tautologies, or that the theory was true only if counter-factual conditions applied.


title: Price

text: One insight often ignored in the debates about price theory is something that businessmen are keenly aware of: in different markets, prices may not function according to the same principles except in some very abstract (and therefore not very useful) sense. From the classical political economists to Michał Kalecki it was known that prices for industrial goods behaved differently from prices for agricultural goods, but this idea could be extended further to other broad classes of goods and services.


title: Price

text: Marxists assert that value derives from the volume of socially necessary labour time exerted in the creation of an object. This value does not relate to price in a simple manner, and the difficulty of the conversion of the mass of values into the actual prices is known as the transformation problem. However, many recent Marxists deny that any problem exists. Marx was not concerned with proving that prices derive from values. In fact, he admonished the other classical political economists (like Ricardo and Smith) for trying to make this proof. Rather, for Marx, price equals the cost of production (capital-cost and labor-costs) plus the average rate of profit. So if the average rate of profit (return on capital investment) is 22% then prices would reflect cost-of-production plus 22%. The perception that there is a transformation problem in Marx stems from the injection of Walrasian equilibrium theory into Marxism where there is no such thing as equilibrium.


title: Price

text: Price is commonly confused with the notion of cost of production, as in "I paid a high cost for buying my new plasma television"; but technically these are different concepts. Price is what a buyer pays to acquire products from a seller. Cost of production concerns the seller's expenses (e.g., manufacturing expense) in producing the product being exchanged with a buyer. For marketing organizations seeking to make a profit, the hope is that price will exceed cost of production so that the organization can see financial gain from the transaction.


title: Price

text: Finally, while pricing is a topic central to a company's profitability, pricing decisions are not limited to for-profit companies. The behavior of non-profit organizations, such as charities, educational institutions and industry trade groups, also involve setting prices. For instance, charities seeking to raise money may set different "target" levels for donations that reward donors with increases in status (e.g., name in newsletter), gifts or other benefits; likewise educational and cultural nonprofits often price seats for events in theatres, auditoriums and stadiums. Furthermore, while nonprofit organizations may not earn a "profit", by definition, it is the case that many nonprofits may desire to maximize "net revenue"—total revenue less total cost—for various programs and activities, such as selling seats to theatrical and cultural performances.


title: Price

text: The price of an item is also called the "price point", especially if it refers to stores that set a limited number of price points. For example, Dollar General is a general store or "five and dime" store that sets price points only at even amounts, such as exactly one, two, three, five, or ten dollars (among others). Other stores have a policy of setting most of their prices ending in 99 cents or pence. Other stores (such as dollar stores, pound stores, euro stores, 100-yen stores, and so forth) only have a single price point ($1, £1, €1, ¥100), but in some cases, that price may purchase more than one of some very small items.


title: Price

text: In economics, the market price is the economic price for which a good or service is offered in the marketplace. It is of interest mainly in the study of microeconomics. Market value and market price are equal only under conditions of market efficiency, equilibrium, and rational expectations. Market price is measured during a specific period of time and is greatly affected by the supply and demand for a good or service. For example, if demand for a good increases and supply of the good is held constant, the price for the good will rise in a marketplace with open competition.


title: Price

text: On restaurant menus, the market price (often abbreviated to "m.p." or "mp") is written instead of a specific price, meaning "price of dish depends on market price of ingredients, and price is available upon request", and is particularly used for seafood, notably lobsters and oysters.


title: Price

text: Basic Price: It is the amount that producer receive from buyer for a unit of good or service produced minus any taxes payable and plus subsidies payable on that unit as the result of its production or sales. It does not include any producer transport charges which involves separately.


title: Price

text: Producer Price Index: It measures the average change of the selling price of domestic producers' products over time.


title: Price

text: Purchase Price: It refers to the amount paid by the purchaser for receiving a unit of goods or services at the time and place required by the purchaser and any deductible taxes will not be included. The purchase price also include any transport charge for purchase to pick up the goods to specific location in the required time.


title: Price

text: Price optimization is the use of mathematical techniques by a company to determine how customers will respond to different prices for its products and services through different channels.


title: Shelley Morrison

text: Shelley Morrison (born Rachel Mitrani; October 26, 1936 – December 1, 2019) was an American actress. Morrison was known for her role as maid Rosario Salazar in the NBC comedy "Will & Grace", which she played from 1999 to 2006. She was also a regular performer on the sitcom "The Flying Nun", playing Sister Sixto, a nun known mostly for mangling the English language, and she had a recurring role in the soap opera "General Hospital" in 1982. She was also the voice of Mrs. Portillo in the animated Disney show "Handy Manny".


title: Shelley Morrison

text: Morrison was born in the South Bronx, the only daughter of Sephardic Jewish parents. She was initially raised in the Bronx, New York before moving to Los Angeles, California when she was ten years old. Her mother, Hortense, was a homemaker, and her father, Maurice Mitrani, was a clothing manufacturer.


title: Shelley Morrison

text: Morrison studied acting at Los Angeles City College and landed early film roles in "Divorce American Style" and "How to Save a Marriage and Ruin Your Life".


title: Shelley Morrison

text: From 1965 to 1967, she appeared four times as an American Indian, Linda Little Trees, in the television series "Laredo" (in the episodes "Yahoo", "Jinx", "No Bugles, One Drum", and "Split the Difference.") In 1966 she played “Addie Moonercan” in the episode “Which Doctor” of "Gunsmoke". In 1967, she capitalized on her own experiences learning English to play the Puerto Rican nun Sister Sixto, who had trouble with English, in Sally Field's show "The Flying Nun". She played this role until the show was cancelled in 1970. Morrison also appeared in the 1997 romantic comedy film "Fools Rush In", starring Salma Hayek and Matthew Perry, as well as more dramatic films such as "Blume in Love" and "Breezy" (both 1973).


title: Shelley Morrison

text: One of Morrison's notable roles was as the Salvadoran maid Rosario Inés Consuelo Yolanda Salazar on sitcom "Will & Grace". She appeared in 64 episodes from 1999 to 2006 (as well as a brief cameo on the September 2016 "Will & Grace" webisode in support of Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign). The role originally was created for a brief one-episode appearance, but Rosario was so popular with viewers that she became a recurring character. In addition to sparring with her libertine and very spoiled employer Karen Walker (Megan Mullally), Rosario married Karen's gay friend Jack McFarland (Sean Hayes) to prevent her deportation.


title: Shelley Morrison

text: Among approximately 25 film appearances and 200 television appearances, Morrison portrayed a maid or housekeeper on 32 separate occasions. Morrison had just informed her agent not to offer her any more "maid parts" when the call came for "Will & Grace". In 2017, NBC revived "Will & Grace" for a new series of episodes. On August 3, 2017, co-creator Max Mutchnick announced to reporters that Morrison had been asked to reprise her role as Salazar on the show, but that she ultimately decided to retire completely from acting. Although her last official acting role was a voiceover in the 2012 animated film "Foodfight!", her final appearance as an actress was the 2016 election-themed webisode of "Will & Grace".


title: Shelley Morrison

text: Morrison died at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles on December 1, 2019, as a result of heart failure after a brief illness. She was 83 years old.


title: Revolutionary

text: A revolutionary is a person who either participates in, or advocates a revolution. The term "revolutionary" can also be used as an adjective, to refer to something that has a major, sudden impact on society or on some aspect of human endeavor.


title: Revolutionary

text: The term—both as a noun and adjective—is usually applied to the field of politics, but is also occasionally used in the context of science, invention or art. In politics, a revolutionary is someone who supports abrupt, rapid, and drastic change, usually replacing the status quo, while a reformist is someone who supports more gradual and incremental change, often working within the system. In that sense, revolutionaries may be considered radical, while reformists are moderate by comparison. Moments which seem revolutionary on the surface may end up reinforcing established institutions. Likewise, evidently small changes may lead to revolutionary consequences in the long term. Thus the clarity of the distinction between revolution and reform is more conceptual than empirical.


title: Revolutionary

text: A conservative is someone who generally opposes such changes. A reactionary is someone who wants things to go back to the way they were before the change has happened (and when this return to the past would represent a major change in and of itself, reactionaries can simultaneously be revolutionaries). A revolution is also not the same as a coup d'etat: while a coup usually involves a small group of conspirators violently seizing control of government, a revolution implies mass participation and popular legitimacy. Again, the distinction is often clearer conceptually than empirically.


title: Revolutionary

text: According to sociologist James Chowning Davies, political revolutionaries may be classified in two ways:


title: Revolutionary

text: The revolutionary anarchist Sergey Nechayev argued in "Catechism of a Revolutionary": "The revolutionary is a doomed man. He has no private interests, no affairs, sentiments, ties, property nor even a name of his own. His entire being is devoured by one purpose, one thought, one passion - the revolution. Heart and soul, not merely by word but by deed, he has severed every link with the social order and with the entire civilized world; with the laws, good manners, conventions, and morality of that world. He is its merciless enemy and continues to inhabit it with only one purpose - to destroy it."


title: Revolutionary

text: According to Che Guevara, "the true revolutionary is guided by a great feeling of love. It is impossible to think of a true revolutionary lacking in this quality"


title: Revolutionary

text: According to the Marxist Internet Archive, a revolutionary "amplif[ies] the differences and conflicts caused by technological advances in society. Revolutionaries provoke differences and violently ram together contradictions within a society, overthrowing the government through the rising to power of the class they represent. After destructing the old order, revolutionaries help build a new government that adheres to the emerging social relationships that have been made possible by the advanced productive forces."


title: 50 States of Fright

text: 50 States of Fright is a horror anthology series that debuted on Quibi on April 6, 2020, for pre-signed up users and on April 13 for the general public.


title: 50 States of Fright

text: The series features self-contained scary stories, each located in a different state of the state in the United States. To fit Quibi's format, each story was spread across two or three episodes.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Bedford Vehicles, usually shortened to just Bedford, was a brand of vehicle manufactured by Vauxhall Motors, then a subsidiary of multinational corporation General Motors. Established in April 1931, Bedford Vehicles was set up to build commercial vehicles. The company was a leading international lorry brand, with substantial export sales of light, medium, and heavy lorries throughout the world.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Bedford's core heavy trucks business was divested by General Motors (GM) as AWD Trucks in 1987, whilst the Bedford brand continued to be used on light commercial vehicles and car-derived vans based on Vauxhall/Opel, Isuzu and Suzuki designs. The brand was retired in 1991.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The van manufacturing plant of Bedford, now called GM Manufacturing Luton, is now owned and operated by Stellantis, following Vauxhall's acquisition by PSA Group in 2017.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Until 1925, General Motors assembled trucks in Britain from parts manufactured at its Canadian works. This enabled them to import vehicles into Britain under Imperial Preference, which favoured products from the British Empire as far as import duties were concerned. Such trucks were marketed as "British Chevrolet".


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: In November 1925, GM purchased Vauxhall Motors with production transferred from Hendon to Luton, Vauxhall's headquarters, production commencing there in 1929.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The AC and LQ models were produced at Luton from 1929 to 1931, and styled as the "Chevrolet Bedford", taking the name from the county town of Bedfordshire, in which Luton is located. The AC was bodied as a light van (12 cwt), and the LQ in a wide variety of roles, including a lorry, ambulance, van and bus versions. The name "Chevrolet" was dropped, and the first Bedford was produced in April 1931. This vehicle, a 2-ton lorry, was virtually indistinguishable from its LQ Chevrolet predecessor, apart from detail styling of the radiator, and was available as the WHG with a wheelbase, or as the WLG with a longer wheelbase of . However, the Chevrolet LQ and AC continued in production alongside the new product for a further year. In August 1931, a bus chassis was added to the range, and was designated WHB and WLB.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: A large part of Bedford's original success in breaking into the UK and British Empire markets lay in the overhead-valve (OHV) six-cylinder Chevrolet engine, now known as Chevrolet Stovebolt engine – well ahead of its time, this smooth running inline six-cylinder engine formed the basis of Bedford and Vauxhall petrol engines almost until the marque ceased building trucks and buses.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: In April 1932, a 30 cwt lorry was introduced, together with a 12 cwt light delivery van, designated as the WS and VYC models respectively. Bedford continued to develop its share of the light transport market, with the introduction of the 8 cwt ASYC and ASXC vans, a close derivative of the Vauxhall Light Six car. The AS series of vans continued in production until 1939.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Bedford introduced the 3 ton WT series in November 1933. Again, a short wheelbase WHT (), or long wheelbase WLG () version was offered. A change in design of the WLG produced the WTL, with its cab, internal combustion engine and radiator moved forward to allow a bodylength. In 1935, the WTB bus version appeared, and the WS and VYC models were updated – the latter being redesignated BYC as it was fitted with the engine and synchromesh gearbox of the Big Six Vauxhall cars. The 5–6 cwt HC light van was introduced in 1938, based on the Vauxhall Ten car, and the WT and WS acquired a newly styled grill.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Mid -1939 saw a complete revamp of Bedfords, with only the HC van continuing in production. The new range consisted of the K (30–40 cwt), MS and ML (2–3 ton), OS and OL (3–4 ton), OS/40 and OL/40 (5 ton) series, and the OB bus. Also on offer was a new 10–12 cwt van, the JC, derived from the new J Model Vauxhall car. Many of the trucks sold by Bedford between June and September 1939 were requisitioned for military use on the outbreak of World War II; many were abandoned after the retreat from Dunkirk, rendered useless to the enemy by removing the engine oil drain plug and running the engine. Because the German armed forces in 1940 were, contrary to their popular image, desperately short of motor transport, many of these captured Bedfords were repaired and pressed into service alongside Opel Blitz (also part of GM) trucks by the German armed forces – although the Bedfords mainly filled second-line roles, including civil defence.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Production of the new range ceased, apart from a few examples made for essential civilian duties, when Bedford went onto a war footing. Production resumed in 1945.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: In 1935, Bedford began the development of a 15 cwt truck for the British War Office. This entered service as the MW in 1939, and 65,995 examples had been built by the end of the war in 1945. The MW appeared in a wide range of roles, as a water tanker, general duties truck, personnel carrier, petrol tanker, wireless truck and anti-aircraft gun tractor – among others.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The War Office designated 15 cwt vehicles, such as the MW, as trucks, and larger vehicles as lorries.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The 1939 K-, M-, and O-series lorries were quickly redesigned for military use. This was largely a matter of styling, involving a sloping bonnet with a flat front with headlights incorporated and a crash bar to protect the radiator in a minor collision. The military versions were designated OX and OY series, and again were put to a wide range of tasks, including mobile canteens, tankers, general purpose lorries, and a version with a Tasker semi-trailer used by the Royal Air Force to transport dismantled or damaged aircraft. This variant was popularly known as the Queen Mary. A number of Bedford OXD 1.5 ton chassis were converted to make the Bedford OXA armoured vehicle. A total of 72,385 OY and 24,429 OX lorries were built. The Armadillo was an OY fitted for airfield defence with Lewis guns and an ex-aircraft COW 37 mm gun.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: A radical departure from Bedford's design norms came in October 1939, with the development of a four-wheel drive, forward control lorry, which entered service in March 1941 as the QL, quickly nicknamed the "Queen Lizzie". As with the MW and OY / OX models, the QL went on to serve in a large number of roles, such as artillery tractor, gun porter, command vehicle, wireless lorry and petrol tanker, as well as the troop-carrying QLD, the most common variant. An experimental version used the track unit of a Bren gun carrier (or Universal Carrier), as an answer to the German half-track vehicles, which had superior cross-country capability. Production ran at around 12,000 units per year between 1942 and 1944. Many QLs and other Bedford World War II military vehicles served with the British Army, and other forces into the 1960s, and many others were purchased for civilian use after the war.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: After the Dunkirk evacuation in June 1940, the British Army had around 100 tanks, most of which were obsolete and inferior to the German tanks of the day. Vauxhall Motors was given one year to design and produce a suitable heavy tank. In May 1941, the Churchill tank derived from work on the A22 tank with Harland & Wolff went into production at Luton, some 5,640 units and 2,000 spare engines being produced at Luton, and other sites under contract to Vauxhall. The resultant need to continue truck production brought about the development of the new Bedford Dunstable plant, which came online in 1942.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: For wartime production the OB was temporarily replaced by the "utility" OWB, with which Bedford became the only British manufacturer authorised to build single-deck buses during hostilities.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Apart from vehicle manufacture during World War II, Vauxhall Motors produced steel helmets, RP-3 rocket bodies, and components for Frank Whittle's top-secret jet engine.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The HC 5–6 cwt van continued briefly after the war, and the JC 10–12 cwt was fitted with the column gear change; and engine from the Vauxhall L Model Wyvern in late 1948; and became the PC. 1952 saw the launch of the Bedford CA light commercial, signifying the end of the road for the outmoded HC and JC models. The CA was a range of vans and pick-ups similar in concept and size to (although pre-dating) the Ford Transit of 1965. These were semi-forward control, having a short bonnet with the rear of the engine protruding into the cab. Engines were the Vauxhall-based OHV in-line four petrol engine, with the option of a Perkins 4/99 or 4/108 diesel engine later on. Performance was adequate for the time, a maximum speed of being attainable with the petrol engine, and offering fuel economy of . The van initially featured a three-speed column gearchange, changing later on to a four-speed column change.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The CA was a huge seller both at home and in various overseas markets. The standard panel van was available in short- and long-wheelbase forms, and was also sold as chassis cab / chassis cowl, and became a popular basis for ice-cream vans, ambulances and camper vans. Known affectionately as "the Tilley", the CA enjoyed a very long production span, with only minor tweaks throughout its life, including the replacement of the two piece windscreen of earlier models with a single sheet. Production ended in 1969.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The CA was replaced by the CF, a highly redesigned vehicle, albeit architecturally similar, but rather larger, using new overhead camshaft (OHC) engines, which was to have a much harder time proving itself thanks to the Ford Transit.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Perhaps the major event of the 1950s, was the transfer of all non-car based commercial vehicle manufacture to the former Vauxhall shadow factory at Boscombe Road, Dunstable. Bedford Dunstable plant, dating originally from 1942, was extensively rebuilt and extended between 1955 and 1957, when all production lines were said to be over a mile long. Subsequently, all commercial vehicle manufacture would be concentrated there, with only vans and car-based commercials remaining at the Luton plant. Production of the Bedford commercial vehicle range remained there until production ceased in the 1980s.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The 1950s also saw the launch of the popular S type trucks, the so-called Big Bedfords, which brought Bedford into the 7-ton range. The S series was immortalised in RL form – a four-wheel drive, high ground clearance version, as the Green Goddess emergency fire tender, used by the Auxiliary Fire Service until 1968, then until 2004 over 1,000 were held in reserve by the Home Office for use in the event of fire-service industrial action or other serious emergencies. They were disposed of by the Home Office in 2005. Several have found new homes in African countries that lack a developed fire-fighting service, such as Kenya. The C series of 1957 was a forward-control derivative of the S series, and outwardly very similar to it.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: These vehicles were available in rigid and tractor units, with either petrol or diesel engines. The UK military were a huge customer for Bedford RLs using a 4.9-litre straight six petrol engine. Many RLs found their way into the armed forces of Commonwealth countries and later into civilian use.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Alongside the S series trucks, the SB bus was released in 1950, and immediately became a big seller in India, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand and Africa, as well as in the UK. The SB chassis was also used as a basis for specialised vehicles, such as mobile libraries, fire engines, and civil defence control units. The largest fleet of SB buses in the world belonged to New Zealand Railways Road Services, with 1,280 SB buses built between 1954 and 1981.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The Bedford TK range replaced the S type in 1959, but the RL continued in production until 1969, when it was replaced by the M type, which used the basic cab of the TK and the mechanicals of the RL with minimal changes.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The pre-war K, M and O types continued in production alongside the heavier S types until 1953. Vauxhall had already gone for a transatlantic styling with its E Model Wyvern and Velox saloons, and Bedford followed suit with its mid-range of trucks in 1953. Designated as the TA series, the new range were mechanically very similar to their predecessors, but featured a new Chevrolet-inspired cab. The 'T' designation meant "truck", so the range is generally referred to as the A series. Numbers 2, 3, 4 and 5; as in A2, etc., identified the weight rating. A factory-fitted Perkins diesel engine was an option. The TA (A) series was updated in 1957, and became the TJ, or J series.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The Bedford TJ normal control light truck was introduced in 1958, available with either petrol or diesel engines. Although never a big seller in the home market (with the exception of Post Office Telephones), it was a big export earner in developing countries, due to its basic layout and specification, and remained in production (for export markets only) until production of Bedford vehicles ceased.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The Bedford TK range was produced in large numbers since 1959, and served as the basis for a variety of derivatives including fire engines, military vehicles, horse-boxes, tippers, flat-bed trucks, and other specialist utility vehicles. A Post Office Telephones version used for installing telegraph poles was known as the Pole Erection Unit. The British Armed Forces still use four-wheel drive Bedford MKs – a variant of the TK.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Available with four and six-cylinder petrol and diesel engines, the TK was the quintessential light truck in the UK through most of the 1960s and 1970s, competing with the similar Ford D series. It was available in rigid form, and also as a light tractor unit, normally using the Scammell coupling form of trailer attachment.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The Bedford KM was a similar vehicle, using the same cab, but with a slightly restyled front end, and was marketed for heavier-duty applications than the TK, i.e. 16 tons and over. Many developing countries still use ageing Bedfords every day, their robust nature and simple engineering endearing them as highly useful vehicles in demanding terrain.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: From 1961 to 1968, General Motors Argentina manufactured Bedford trucks and buses (based on a truck) in a plant at San Martin.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: In 1967, a Bedford SB3 chassis with Plaxton's Panorama cab was used in the construction of seven custom mobile cinema units that toured British factories for the Ministry of Technology to "raise standards". The body was custom fabricated from extruded aluminium by Coventry Steel Caravans. One of these restored units is used as a vintage mobile cinema. The vehicle dubbed "The Reel History Bus" was used in the BBC Two television series, "Reel History of Britain" showing little known or totally unseen archive film of historical events, to the surviving participants and their families on board. They showed their reaction and interviewed audience members about their often newly jogged memories of events. The Vintage Mobile Cinema has appeared on "The One Show" and George Clarke's "Small Spaces", and continues to appear around the UK.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The smaller Bedford CF was less successful, competing directly with the market-dominating Ford Transit, although used by many of Britain's major utility companies, including British Telecom and British Gas plc. However, the CF was much less popular with fleet operators than the Transit, which was more popular with its drivers and seen as cheaper to operate and maintain. Part of the reason for the CF's relative unpopularity was the use of the slant 4 SOHC petrol engine from the FD and FE Vauxhall Victor – which was notoriously rough running, had high fuel consumption, and was susceptible to cam belt breakage. However, the CF became very popular as a base of special-bodied ice cream vans and mobile shops. The later CF2 used the more reliable Opel Ascona engine.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: In Australia, the GM subsidiary of Holden began assembling the CF series with in-line six-cylinder engines borrowed from their passenger car range, in competition against Ford Australia's version of the Transit van which had been re-engineered to accommodate in-line six-cylinder engines from the local Ford Falcon.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Bedford's smallest products, car-derived vans, were the Bedford HA van, which substantially outlived the Vauxhall Viva HA on which it was based, and the Bedford Chevanne, a short-lived variant of the Vauxhall Chevette. An estate conversion of the HA van by Martin Walter was marketed as the Bedford Beagle. This was further developed into a camper van, the Roma, again by Martin Walter.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The company also made a number of bus chassis, its low price catering for the cheaper end of the coach market.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The TK/KM/MK range remained the mainstay of production throughout the 1960s and 1970s, but with little serious product investment the range became increasingly outdated. In 1982, the TL range was introduced almost completely replacing the TK, although its military equivalents continued in production for the UK Ministry of Defence. In reality a long overdue update of the TK, the TL was never as popular as the model range it succeeded. This was largely due to more modern products offered by other companies (increasingly from the likes of Volvo, MAN and Mercedes-Benz).


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The Bedford TM was the largest of all the modern Bedfords, with payloads available up to 42 tonnes GTW permissible. The TM was available with either GM or Detroit Diesel engines and enjoyed a small but loyal customer base, but could never compete with the volume producers, primarily Volvo and Scania. Turkey's Genoto assembled Bedfords under license.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: A major blow came when Bedford failed to win a UK Ministry of Defence contract to produce the standard 4–ton 4x4 GS (general service) truck for the British forces, although in extensive tests the Bedford candidate had been the equal of the Leyland (later Leyland DAF) candidate, and the British Army expressed a preference to continue the trusted relationship with Bedford trucks.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The reasons for this decision were seen by many as political, as the Army 4–tonner contract was seen by the Thatcher government as essential for the long-term survival of Leyland, and the formation of Leyland DAF. The implications of the decision were also noted by GM in Detroit, who had already been refused permission to buy the Land Rover division of British Leyland, which they had intended to operate in tandem with the Bedford Truck division as a major force in the military and civilian 4x4 market.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: In addition to this setback, by the middle of the decade, the more technologically advanced competition from other truck manufacturers was eating heavily into sales. In reality, the Bedford truck range, still largely based on the 1960 TK range, had become increasingly outdated when compared with the opposition, leading to a deep decline in non-military sales. It was therefore announced by GM that Bedford would stop production of all commercial vehicles, and the Dunstable plant would close in 1986.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: From there on in, the Bedford name continued as badge engineering on smaller light commercials only. The HA compact van finally ceased production in 1983, having been kept in production largely due to continuing large orders from British utility companies such as British Rail and the GPO. It was replaced by the Vauxhall Astra-based "Astravan" and the later high-roof "Astramax" variant which were later rebranded as Vauxhalls. The CF van was facelifted in 1982 and was given Opel engines and continued until 1986. In 1985, the IBC Vehicles venture was founded which spawned the Suzuki Carry based Bedford Rascal microvan and Isuzu Fargo based Bedford Midi van range – later to be called the Vauxhall Midi.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Bedford's first partnership with Isuzu came in 1976 when it marketed a rebadged version of the Isuzu Faster pickup truck as the Bedford KB. The vehicle was never a strong seller in Britain, (subsequent generations were badged as the Bedford/Vauxhall Brava), but it did pave the way for further collaboration – culminating in the IBC venture.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: In 1986, the Bedford van factory in Luton was reorganised as a joint venture with Isuzu. The resulting company, IBC Vehicles, produced a locally built version of the Isuzu Fargo in 1985 (badged as the Bedford Midi).


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: In 1991, this was followed by a European version of the Isuzu MU Wizard called the Frontera, and a rebadged Renault Trafic van called the Arena, sold under the Vauxhall and Opel brand names. The Bedford name was dropped completely, as were all of its preceding range apart from the Midi, which was sold for a few years as the Bedford Seta.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: In 1998, GM bought Isuzu out of the IBC partnership. The plant now operates as GMM Luton, and at first built the Renault Trafic which was badge engineered as a Vivaro under the Vauxhall and Opel marques, currently it builds a licensed version of the Citroën Jumpy.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: The Bedford trucks site in Dunstable and business was sold in 1987 to AWD Trucks, a company owned by David John Bowes Brown. The AWD name was used as GM would only allow the use of the Bedford name for military trucks. David John Bowes Brown was the designer in 1973 of the then DJB D250 Articulated Dump Truck, built in Peterlee, England, by DJB Engineering. DJB was renamed Artix in 1985 when the trucks were rebadged as Caterpillar. Artix itself was sold to Caterpillar in 1996.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: AWD continued with the TL and TM range, and was still producing the TJ series for export. The AWD Bedford TK (a rebadged and modernised version of the Bedford TK / MK range) was also produced and supplied to the British military. Due to cheaper competition and the virtual collapse of the UK market in which AWD competed in 1989/90, the company went into receivership in 1992 and was bought by dealer network Marshall of Cambridge. The name was finally retired in 1998, becoming Marshall Special Vehicles, producer of various military vehicles.


title: Bedford Vehicles

text: Bedford used the Griffin logo of Vauxhall Motors, derived from the heraldic crest of Falkes de Breauté, who was granted the Manor of Luton by King John. By marriage, he acquired property in London, known as Fulk's Hall, which over time, came to be the locality of Vauxhall, the original home of Vauxhall Motors. The griffin returned to Luton in 1903 when Vauxhall Motors moved there. The Bedford version of the logo differed from the Vauxhall version in that the Griffin did not hold a flag – although later versions of the logo showed the Griffin holding a flag carrying a letter "B" (for Bedford) instead of a "V".


title: Vincent Rodriguez III

text: Vincent Rodriguez III (born August 10, 1982) is an American stage and television actor. Rodriguez is known for playing the male lead role of Josh Chan in The CW comedy-drama series "Crazy Ex-Girlfriend."


title: Vincent Rodriguez III

text: Rodriguez was born in San Francisco to Filipino parents and grew up in nearby Daly City. He is of Filipino, Latino, and Chinese background. He has three older sisters, all born in Manila. In 2003, he graduated from the Pacific Conservatory of the Performing Arts. He is also trained in martial arts. He moved to New York City in 2005 and appeared often as an ensemble cast member regional theatre productions. He also teaches annually at drama schools. On television he had bit roles on "The Onion News Network" and "Hostages" before landing his breakthrough role in 2015, when he was cast as Josh Chan, the romantic lead in "Crazy Ex-Girlfriend".


title: Vincent Rodriguez III

text: Since 2015 Rodriguez has been married to Gregory Wright. As a gay actor, his performance as the straight lead in "Crazy Ex-Girlfriend" has received praise.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: F.I.S.T. (stylized on-screen as F•I•S•T) is a 1978 American neo-noir crime drama film directed by Norman Jewison and starring Sylvester Stallone. Stallone plays a Cleveland warehouse worker who becomes involved in the labor union leadership of the fictional "Federation of Inter-State Truckers" (F.I.S.T.). The film is loosely based on the Teamsters Union and their former President Jimmy Hoffa.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: At a loading dock in Cleveland in 1937, supervisor Mr. Gant hires a new worker, Polish American Lincoln Dombrowsky. Gant tells Dombrowsky that he will be paid for his regular shift only even if he must work overtime, and that any merchandise he damages will come directly out of his pay. When Dombrowsky drops a few carts of tomatoes, his pay is docked and another worker is fired for helping him collect the fallen merchandise. Resentful of these unfair labor practices, Hungarian-American worker Johnny Kovak leads a riot. The laborers go to the office of Boss Andrews, where Kovak believes he negotiates a deal for the workers, only to find out the next day that he and his friend Abe Belkin have been fired.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: Kovak and Belkin are approached by Mike Monahan, who was impressed by their leadership. He offers them positions in the Federation of Inter State Truckers (F.I.S.T.), where they will be paid according to how many members they can recruit. Kovak is given a car to use while recruiting, which also allows him to meet and soon start dating Lithuanian-American worker Anna Zarinkas. Kovak is successfully recruiting new F.I.S.T. members, which attracts attention from business owners. When Kovak turns down their offer to recruit new workers to their non-union trucking firms, the shady owners have him physically attacked. Kovak rises into a leadership role through his union recruiting, causing competition with hothead F.I.S.T. leader Max Graham.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: Soon Monahan, Kovak and Belkin begin working to get the F.I.S.T. members at Consolidated Trucking covered by a labor agreement. When management refuses to deal with them, the F.I.S.T. workers strike. They set up camp outside Consolidated Trucking's gates, but are pushed out by strikebreakers and hired security. Monahan tries to ram the gates in a truck, but is shot and killed. At his funeral, Kovak decides to "get some muscle" and accepts help from Vince Doyle, a local gangster. Doyle's men attack trucks trying to make deliveries. Local mobsters and the members of F.I.S.T. join forces to storm the gates of Consolidated Trucking. The president of Consolidated Trucking finally signs a labor agreement.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: Building on this success, Kovak and Belkin travel the Midwest to recruit more workers. Kovak becomes wealthier and marries Anna. A new crime figure, Babe Milano, comes on the scene and wants a piece of the action. Kovak meets Milano with Doyle and, although reluctant to involve him in his business, decides it will be best for now.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: By 1957, F.I.S.T. has become a large and important union, with about two million members. When Kovak visits Max Graham at F.I.S.T. headquarters, he is displeased to see how luxurious the building and Graham's offices are. Kovak visits with Belkin, now leading F.I.S.T. business on the West Coast, who explains that Graham has made money unethically off the union. In his investigation, Kovak finds that Graham used his influence to steer union businesses and funds to shell companies owned by him or his wife, and has used violence against the wife of a trucking company owner who resisted the union.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: Graham is a strong favorite to be elected F.I.S.T. president. Belkin suggests to Kovak that they turn Graham in to the authorities, but Kovak is too worried about the damage to the union from the scandal. Kovak confronts Graham with what he knows, convincing him to support Kovak's run for union president.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: Now the newly elected president of F.I.S.T., Kovak is investigated by Senator Madison, who suspects Kovak of ties with the Mafia through his work with gangsters Doyle and Milano. Belkin urges Kovak to cut off Milano and make the union "clean again", but Kovak ignores his request. When Doyle later tells Kovak that Belkin plans to testify against them, Kovak insists that Belkin not be harmed.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: Subpoenaed to testify before Senator Madison's committee, Kovak is told that Belkin has been killed and the senator believes Kovak is responsible. Shocked, Kovak has an emotional outburst and storms out of the hearing. He returns home to find Anna and the children are missing. He gets his pistol but is shot and killed by Milano's men. The movie ends with a shot of a bumper sticker on a truck which reads, "Where's Johnny?"


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: Anthony Kiedis, who became the founding lead singer of the band Red Hot Chili Peppers five years later, appeared in a small role using his stage name Cole Dammett, a tribute to the stage name Blackie Dammett used by his actor father.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: United Artists hired Joe Eszterhas to write a screenplay about the labor movement in 1974 after studio executive Gene Corman read his articles on the subject in "Rolling Stone". Eszterhas, who had never written a screenplay before, wrote a 40-page-essay on the history of labor unions in the American Midwest. Arthur B. Krim hired Norman Jewison in the position of director and offered him a $4 million budget if Jewison could match it with another $4 million. He eventually failed to find another studio to co-finance the film and received a full $8.1 million budget regardless. Eszterhas originally envisioned the role of Kovak with Jack Nicholson, but Sylvester Stallone was cast instead. Sylvester Stallone rewrote Joe Eszterhas' script, saying "Joe Eszterhas wrote a script that was nearly 400 pages and was more of a novel than a shootable screenplay. A great deal of work was done by myself, along with Norman Jewison, to hammer it into shape, but Joe had conceived a great concept."


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: Eszterhas was reportedly paid $85,000 for the script. Stallone received $350,000 for acting and $150,000 for writing.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: Most of the filming was done in Dubuque, Iowa. Dubuque was chosen firstly because the older sections of the town looked more like Cleveland of the 1930s than Cleveland did at the time, and secondly because of the absence of roof-mounted television antennas due to most of the homes having cable television. Because of the large bluffs, over-the-air television signals had problems reaching homes in the low-lying areas, so a cable system was developed in the mid-1950s, which was considerably earlier than many other municipalities.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: Some locations used in filming included St. Raphael's Cathedral, Sacred Heart Church, the Fourth Street Elevator, E.J. Voggenthaler Co. and Dubuque Star Brewery. Filming was also done at the former Caradco manufacturing company in Dubuque. Portions of the Caradco building were fitted with new windows which were then purposely smashed for filming. The windows were replaced by the end of filming. Other Dubuque locations that were also visible in the finished film were the Dubuque County Courthouse and Saint Mary's Catholic Church.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: Some filming was also done in the English city of Sheffield, Washington D.C., and Culver City Studios.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: The film premiered as the Gala Opening Night film at Filmex on April 13, 1978, at the Plitt Theatre in Century City and was released in 100 theaters in the United States and Canada on April 26, 1978, before expanding to 350 on June 21.


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: The film was a success, grossing $20,388,920 on an $8 million budget, though it was not as successful as Stallone's previous film "Rocky" (1976).


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: "F.I.S.T." received generally positive reviews from film critics. Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of five, stating ""F.I.S.T." is a big movie that benefits from the accumulating of small, ordinary detail than from any particular wit or inspiration of vision." Another positive review came from "TV Guide", which gave the film three stars out of four. They praised Stallone's script and acting, saying that "Stallone likes to depart himself from his muscles, it usually doesn't work. But, with "F.I.S.T." it works well as he cares more about the character than anything else, something we'd like to see more of."


title: F.I.S.T. (film)

text: A negative review came from Richard Schickel of "Time" magazine, who said that the film "stands for nearly hours of almost unmitigated boredom—a misfired would-be proletarian epic with Sylvester Stallone misplaying the Jimmy Hoffa part with a self-confidence that borders on the sublime."


"The 100 Girlfriends Who Really, Really, Really, Really, Really Love You" focuses on high school student Rentarō Aijō, who in his lifetime fell in love and confessed to exactly 100 girls, only to be rejected by all of them. While praying in a shrine, Rentarō is approached by the God of Love, who reveals that he, due to an error, is destined to have 100 soulmates. However, he also tells Rentarō that if he does not return the feelings of any of his soulmates, they will suffer an accident and die. Not wanting this to happen, Rentarō is determined not to let any of his soulmates die as he meets and dates them all at the same time.


title: The 100 Girlfriends Who Really, Really, Really, Really, Really Love You

text: Rentarō Aijō has confessed to (and been rejected by) 100 girls in his lifetime. On the last day of middle school, he visits a shrine and prays that he get a girlfriend during his time at high school. Suddenly, the God of Love appears and tells Rentarō that the reason for his non-existent love life is because everyone is only supposed to have one soulmate in their life, but due to an error on the God of Love's part, Rentarō is destined to have 100.


text: Sure enough, on the first day of high school, Rentarō meets the wealthy Hakari Hanazono and "tsundere" Karane Inda. Both girls instantly fall in love with him, and Rentarō is attracted to both of them, but unable to decide between them. That evening, he visits the God of Love again and is informed that if he does not return the feelings of one of his soulmates, they will die in an accident. Not wanting such a fate to befall Hakari and Karane, Rentarō decides to date both of them at the same time, with their blessing. As the story continues, more girls are introduced and become Rentarō's girlfriends, establishing a polyamorous relationship.


text: "The 100 Girlfriends Who Really, Really, Really, Really, Really Love You" is written by Rikito Nakamura and illustrated by Yukiko Nozawa. It has been serialized in Shueisha's "seinen" manga magazine "Weekly Young Jump" since December 26, 2019. Its chapters are collected and published by Shueisha into individual "tankōbon" volumes. The first volume was released on April 17, 2020. As of December 19, 2022, twelve volumes have been released.


text: On July 2, 2021, Seven Seas Entertainment announced they licensed the series for English publication in North America in print and on digital platforms in single volume editions. The first volume was released on February 22, 2022.


text: As of June 2021, the manga had over 650,000 copies in circulation. As of July 2021, the manga had over 800,000 copies in circulation.


text: In August 2020, "The 100 Girlfriends Who Really, Really, Really, Really, Really Love You" ranked #2 out of the 50 nominees on the 6th Next Manga Award, with 19,902 votes. The series ranked #19 on the 2021 Shinkan Manga Taishō by Tokyo Manga Reviewers. The series ranked #8 on AnimeJapan's 5th "Most Wanted Anime Adaptation" poll in 2022.


title: Film speed

text: Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to describe the relationship between exposure and output image lightness in digital cameras.


title: Film speed

text: Relatively insensitive film, with a correspondingly lower speed index, requires more exposure to light to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film, and is thus commonly termed a "slow film". Highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed "fast films". In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor.


title: Film speed

text: The first known practical sensitometer, which allowed measurements of the speed of photographic materials, was invented by the Polish engineer Leon Warnerke – pseudonym of (1837–1900) – in 1880, among the achievements for which he was awarded the Progress Medal of the Photographic Society of Great Britain in 1882. It was commercialized since 1881.


title: Film speed

text: The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a phosphorescent tablet excited before by the light of a burning magnesium ribbon. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees' Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or °W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10° and 25° Warnerke at the time.


title: Film speed

text: His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances. The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855–1932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system.


title: Film speed

text: Another early practical system for measuring the sensitivity of an emulsion was that of Hurter and Driffield (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born Ferdinand Hurter (1844–1898) and British Vero Charles Driffield (1848–1915). In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D.


title: Film speed

text: The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)—this later variant was sometimes called "H&D 10". The H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817–50.


title: Film speed

text: The "Scheinergrade" (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner (1858–1913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner's system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1° Sch. to 20° Sch., where an increment of 19° Sch. corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, which meant that an increment of 3° Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity.


title: Film speed

text: The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder (1855–1944) and Flemish-born botanist (1896–1960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their "Eder–Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer" measuring emulsion speeds in "Eder–Hecht" grades). Still, it remained difficult for manufacturers to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products, so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner's original procedures and thereby defeated the idea of comparability.


title: Film speed

text: Scheiner's system was eventually abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in widespread use in other countries for some time.


title: Film speed

text: The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by the ' (then known as the ' (DNA)), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by the ' as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the ' since 1930 and presented by (1868–1945) and Emanuel Goldberg (1881–1970) at the influential VIII. International Congress of Photography (German: "") held in Dresden from 3 to 8 August 1931.


title: Film speed

text: The DIN system was inspired by Scheiner's system, but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels. Thus an increase of 20° (and not 19° as in Scheiner's system) represented a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, and a difference of 3° was much closer to the base 10 logarithm of 2 (0.30103...):


title: Film speed

text: As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees'. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths' (for example "18/10° DIN"), where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths' were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as "18° DIN". The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5-1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as "18° DIN" would now be labeled as "21 DIN" without emulsion changes.


title: Film speed

text: Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film.


title: Film speed

text: On an international level the German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974, ISO 2240:1982, and ISO 5800:1979 where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as "ISO 100/21°" (now again with degree symbol). These ISO standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002.


title: Film speed

text: The film speed scale recommended by the British Standards Institution (BSI) was almost identical to the DIN system except that the BS number was 10 degrees greater than the DIN number.


title: Film speed

text: Before the advent of the ASA system, the system of "Weston film speed ratings" was introduced by Edward Faraday Weston (1878–1971) and his father Dr. Edward Weston (1850–1936), a British-born electrical engineer, industrialist and founder of the US-based Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation, with the Weston model 617, one of the earliest photo-electric exposure meters, in August 1932. The meter and film rating system were invented by William Nelson Goodwin, Jr., who worked for them and later received a Howard N. Potts Medal for his contributions to engineering.


title: Film speed

text: The company tested and frequently published speed ratings for most films of the time. Weston film speed ratings could since be found on most Weston exposure meters and were sometimes referred to by film manufacturers and third parties in their exposure guidelines. Since manufacturers were sometimes creative about film speeds, the company went as far as to warn users about unauthorized uses of their film ratings in their "Weston film ratings" booklets.


title: Film speed

text: The Weston Cadet (model 852 introduced in 1949), Direct Reading (model 853 introduced 1954) and Master III (models 737 and S141.3 introduced in 1956) were the first in their line of exposure meters to switch and utilize the meanwhile established ASA scale instead. Other models used the original Weston scale up until ca. 1955. The company continued to publish Weston film ratings after 1955, but while their recommended values often differed slightly from the ASA film speeds found on film boxes, these newer Weston values were based on the ASA system and had to be converted for use with older Weston meters by subtracting 1/3 exposure stop as per Weston's recommendation. Vice versa, "old" Weston film speed ratings could be converted into "new" Westons and the ASA scale by adding the same amount, that is, a film rating of 100 Weston (up to 1955) corresponded with 125 ASA (as per ASA PH2.5-1954 and before). This conversion was not necessary on Weston meters manufactured and Weston film ratings published since 1956 due to their inherent use of the ASA system; however the changes of the ASA PH2.5-1960 revision may be taken into account when comparing with newer ASA or ISO values.


title: Film speed

text: Prior to the establishment of the ASA scale and similar to Weston film speed ratings another manufacturer of photo-electric exposure meters, General Electric, developed its own rating system of so-called "General Electric film values" (often abbreviated as "G-E" or "GE") around 1937.


title: Film speed

text: Film speed values for use with their meters were published in regularly updated "General Electric Film Values" leaflets and in the "General Electric Photo Data Book".


title: Film speed

text: General Electric switched to use the ASA scale in 1946. Meters manufactured since February 1946 are equipped with the ASA scale (labeled "Exposure Index") already. For some of the older meters with scales in "Film Speed" or "Film Value" (e.g. models DW-48, DW-49 as well as early DW-58 and GW-68 variants), replaceable hoods with ASA scales were available from the manufacturer. The company continued to publish recommended film values after that date, however, they were then aligned to the ASA scale.


title: Film speed

text: Based on earlier research work by Loyd Ancile Jones (1884–1954) of Kodak and inspired by the systems of Weston film speed ratings and General Electric film values, the American Standards Association (now named ANSI) defined a new method to determine and specify film speeds of black-and-white negative films in 1943. ASA Z38.2.1–1943 was revised in 1946 and 1947 before the standard grew into ASA PH2.5-1954. Originally, ASA values were frequently referred to as "American standard speed numbers" or "ASA exposure-index numbers". (See also: Exposure Index (EI).)


title: Film speed

text: The ASA scale is a linear scale, that is, a film denoted as having a film speed of 200 ASA is twice as fast as a film with 100 ASA.


title: Film speed

text: The ASA standard underwent a major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an Ilford HP3 that had been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to the DIN system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years.


title: Film speed

text: In addition to the established arithmetic speed scale, ASA PH2.5-1960 also introduced logarithmic ASA grades (100 ASA = 5° ASA), where a difference of 1° ASA represented a full exposure stop and therefore the doubling of a film speed. For some while, ASA grades were also printed on film boxes, and they saw life in the form of the APEX speed value "S" (without degree symbol) as well.


title: Film speed

text: ASA PH2.5-1960 was revised as ANSI PH2.5-1979, without the logarithmic speeds, and later replaced by NAPM IT2.5–1986 of the National Association of Photographic Manufacturers, which represented the US adoption of the international standard ISO 6. The latest issue of ANSI/NAPM IT2.5 was published in 1993.


title: Film speed

text: The standard for color negative film was introduced as ASA PH2.27-1965 and saw a string of revisions in 1971, 1976, 1979 and 1981, before it finally became ANSI IT2.27–1988 prior to its withdrawal.


title: Film speed

text: Color reversal film speeds were defined in ANSI PH2.21-1983, which was revised in 1989 before it became ANSI/NAPM IT2.21 in 1994, the US adoption of the ISO 2240 standard.


title: Film speed

text: On an international level, the ASA system was superseded by the ISO film speed system between 1982 and 1987, however, the arithmetic ASA speed scale continued to live on as the linear speed value of the ISO system.


title: Film speed

text: (Cyrillic: ) was an arithmetic film speed scale defined in GOST 2817-45 and GOST 2817–50. It was used in the former Soviet Union since October 1951, replacing Hurter & Driffield (H&D, Cyrillic: ХиД) numbers, which had been used since 1928.


title: Film speed

text: GOST 2817-50 was similar to the ASA standard, having been based on a speed point at a density 0.2 above base plus fog, as opposed to the ASA's 0.1. GOST markings are only found on pre-1987 photographic equipment (film, cameras, lightmeters, etc.) of Soviet Union manufacture.


title: Film speed

text: This evolved into multiple parts including GOST 10691.6–88 and GOST 10691.5–88, which both became functional on 1 January 1991.


title: Film speed

text: The current International Standard for measuring the speed of colour negative film is ISO 5800:2001 (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993 (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003 (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994 and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and colour reversal film, respectively.


title: Film speed

text: The determination of ISO speeds with digital still-cameras is described in ISO 12232:2019 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, corrected in October 2006 and again revised in February 2019).


title: Film speed

text: The ISO system defines both an arithmetic and a logarithmic scale. The arithmetic ISO scale corresponds to the arithmetic ASA system, where a doubling of film sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the numerical film speed value. In the logarithmic ISO scale, which corresponds to the DIN scale, adding 3° to the numerical value constitutes a doubling of sensitivity. For example, a film rated ISO 200/24° is twice as sensitive as one rated ISO 100/21°.


title: Film speed

text: Commonly, the logarithmic speed is omitted; for example, "ISO 100" denotes "ISO 100/21°", while logarithmic ISO speeds are written as "ISO 21°" as per the standard.


title: Film speed

text: and rounding to the nearest integer; the log is base 10. Conversion from logarithmic speed to arithmetic speed is given by


title: Film speed

text: As discussed in the ASA and DIN sections, the definition of the ASA and DIN scales changed several times in the 1950s up into the early 1960s making it necessary to convert between the different scales. Since the ISO system combines the newer ASA and DIN definitions, this conversion is also necessary when comparing older ASA and DIN scales with the ISO scale.


title: Film speed

text: The picture shows an ASA/DIN conversion in a 1952 photography book in which 21/10° DIN was converted to ASA 80 instead of ASA 100.


title: Film speed

text: Some classic camera's exposure guides show the old conversion as they were valid at the time of production, for example the exposure guide of the classic camera Tessina (since 1957), where 21/10° DIN is related to ASA 80, 18° DIN to ASA 40, etc. Users of classic cameras, who do not know the historic background, may be confused.


title: Film speed

text: Film speed is found from a plot of optical density vs. log of exposure for the film, known as the "D"–log "H" curve or Hurter–Driffield curve. There typically are five regions in the curve: the base + fog, the toe, the linear region, the shoulder, and the overexposed region. For black-and-white negative film, the "speed point" m is the point on the curve where density exceeds the base + fog density by 0.1 when the negative is developed so that a point n where the log of exposure is 1.3 units greater than the exposure at point m has a density 0.8 greater than the density at point m. The exposure "H", in lux-s, is that for point m when the specified contrast condition is satisfied. The ISO arithmetic speed is determined from:


title: Film speed

text: Determining speed for color negative film is similar in concept but more complex because it involves separate curves for blue, green, and red. The film is processed according to the film manufacturer's recommendations rather than to a specified contrast. ISO speed for color reversal film is determined from the middle rather than the threshold of the curve; it again involves separate curves for blue, green, and red, and the film is processed according to the film manufacturer's recommendations.


title: Film speed

text: Film speed is used in the exposure equations to find the appropriate exposure parameters. Four variables are available to the photographer to obtain the desired effect: lighting, film speed, f-number (aperture size), and shutter speed (exposure time). The equation may be expressed as ratios, or, by taking the logarithm (base 2) of both sides, by addition, using the APEX system, in which every increment of 1 is a doubling of exposure; this increment is commonly known as a "stop". The effective f-number is proportional to the ratio between the lens focal length and aperture diameter, the diameter itself being proportional to the square root of the aperture area. Thus, a lens set to allows twice as much light to strike the focal plane as a lens set to 2. Therefore, each f-number factor of the square root of two (approximately 1.4) is also a stop, so lenses are typically marked in that progression: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, etc.


title: Film speed

text: The ISO arithmetic speed has a useful property for photographers without the equipment for taking a metered light reading. Correct exposure will usually be achieved for a frontlighted scene in bright sun if the aperture of the lens is set to f/16 and the shutter speed is the reciprocal of the ISO film speed (e.g. 1/100 second for 100 ISO film). This known as the sunny 16 rule.


title: Film speed

text: Exposure index, or EI, refers to speed rating assigned to a particular film and shooting situation in variance to the film's actual speed. It is used to compensate for equipment calibration inaccuracies or process variables, or to achieve certain effects. The exposure index may simply be called the "speed setting", as compared to the speed "rating".


title: Film speed

text: For example, a photographer may rate an ISO 400 film at EI 800 and then use push processing to obtain printable negatives in low-light conditions. The film has been exposed at EI 800.