title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: ... wealthy people, yachtsmen, fishermen such as President Hoover and President Roosevelt, do not come to the Florida Keys in hurricane months ... There is a known danger to property. But veterans, especially the bonus-marching variety of veterans, are not property. They are only human beings; unsuccessful human beings, and all they have to lose is their lives. They are doing coolie labor for a top wage of $45 a month and they have been put down on the Florida Keys where they can't make trouble. It is hurricane months, sure, but if anything comes up, you can always evacuate them, can't you? ... It is not necessary to go into the deaths of the civilians and their families since they were on the Keys of their own free will; they made their living there, had property and knew the hazards involved. But the veterans had been sent there; they had no opportunity to leave, nor any protection against hurricanes; and they never had a chance for their lives. Who sent nearly a thousand war veterans, many of them husky, hard-working and simply out of luck, but many of them close to the border of pathological cases, to live in frame shacks on the Florida Keys in hurricane months?


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: In the same issue of "The New Masses" appeared an editorial charging criminal negligence and a cartoon by Russell T. Limbach, captioned "An Act of God", depicting burning corpses.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: A "The Washington Post" editorial on Sept. 5, titled "Ruin in the Veterans' Camps", stated the widely held opinion that the


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: camps were havens of rest designed to keep Bonus Marchers away from Washington ... Most of these veterans are drifters, psychopathic cases or habitual troublemakers ... Those who are nor physically or mentally handicapped have no claim whatsoever to special rewards in return for bonus agitation.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: Meanwhile, Williams rushed to complete the investigation. He finished on Sunday, September 8, the day an elaborate memorial service and mass burial of hurricane victims (both coordinated by Ijams) were held in Miami. Ijams, who had been too busy to participate in the investigation and had not questioned any of the 12 witnesses interrogated by Williams, nonetheless signed the 15-page report to the President. That night Williams released it to the Miami press in a radio broadcast immediately following the memorial ceremony. Ijams considered the timing unfortunate after receiving several critical telephone messages. The report exonerated everyone involved and concluded: "To our mind the catastrophe must be characterized as an act of God and was by its very nature beyond the power of man or instruments at his disposal to foresee sufficiently far enough in advance to permit the taking of adequate precautions capable of preventing the death and desolation which occurred." Early also found the publicity around the report "unfortunate". In a telegram to his colleague, assistant Presidential secretary Marvin H. McIntyre, Early wrote that he had authorized Hines to proceed with a "complete and exhaustive" joint investigation with Hopkins. Significantly Hines was to "instruct his investigator that under no circumstances will any statement be made to the Press until final report has been submitted to the President." Hopkins gave similar instructions to his investigator. McIntyre also was involved in damage control. On Sept. 10, 1935, the Greater Miami Ministerial Association wrote the President an angry letter labeling the report a "whitewash". McIntyre forwarded it to FERA for a response. Williams returned a draft for the President's signature on Sept. 25th insisting the report was only preliminary and that the "final and detailed report ... will be both thorough and searching".


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: Williams assigned John Abt, assistant general counsel for FERA, to complete the investigation. On Sept. 11, 1935, Hines directed the skeptical and meticulous David W. Kennamer to investigate the disaster. There was immediate friction between them; Kennamer believed Abt did not have an open mind and Abt felt further investigation was unnecessary. Working with Harry W. Farmer, another VA investigator, Kennamer completed his 2 volume report on October 30, 1935. Farmer added a third volume concerning the identification of the veterans. Kennamer's report included 2,168 pages of exhibits, 118 pages of findings, and a 19-page general comment. His findings differed substantially from those of Williams, citing three officials of the Florida Emergency Relief Administration as negligent (Administrator Conrad Van Hyning, Asst. Administrator Fred Ghent and Camp Superintendent Ray Sheldon). In a response to Abt's draft report to the President, Ijams sided with Kennamer. Hines and Hopkins never agreed on a final report, and Kennamer's findings were suppressed. They remained so for decades.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: One might speculate that Hines wished to avoid a public quarrel with Hopkins, who had enjoyed Roosevelt's patronage since his term as New York Governor. Hines was a holdover from the Hoover administration. Such an internal dispute would embarrass the Roosevelt administration at the time a vote on the Adjusted Compensation Payment Act ("Bonus Bill") was upcoming (it passed on Jan. 27, 1936, over the President's veto). Also, 1936 was a presidential election year. Kennamer did appear at the House hearings in April 1936, along with Hines, Ijams, Williams and the 3 officials he pilloried in his report. He was not questioned about his controversial findings nor did he volunteer his opinions.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: On November 1, 1935, the American Legion completed its own report on the hurricane. The Legion's National Commander, Ray Murphy, mailed a copy to President Roosevelt. It concluded that:


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: Williams prepared a response for the President stating: "A final report, based upon the facts obtained in this investigation [by the VA and FERA], will be submitted to me shortly. At that time I shall transmit a copy of the report to you for your information and consideration."


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: Standing just east of U.S. 1 at mile marker 82 in Islamorada, near where Islamorada's post office stood, is a monument designed by the Florida Division of the Federal Art Project and constructed using Keys limestone ("keystone") by the Works Progress Administration. It was unveiled on November 14, 1937, with several hundred people attending. President Roosevelt sent a telegram to the dedication in which he expressed "heartfelt sympathy" and said, "the disaster which made desolate the hearts of so many of our people brought a personal sorrow to me because some years ago I knew many residents of the keys." The welcoming committee included Key West Mayor Willard M. Albury, and other local officials. Hines had been invited to speak but he declined. His attitude to the project was unenthusiastic. In a letter to Williams on June 24, 1937, regarding what to do with the many skeletons of veterans recently discovered in the Keys, he wrote: ″It occurs to me that if a large memorial is erected adjacent to this highway at the place of the disaster it will be observed by all persons using the highway and will serve as a constant reminder of the unfortunate catastrophe which occurred.″ Hines recommended the remains be buried at Woodlawn. A frieze depicts palm trees amid curling waves, fronds bent in the wind. In front of the sculpture a ceramic-tile mural of the Keys covers a stone crypt, which holds victims' ashes from the makeshift funeral pyres, commingled with the skeletons.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: Although this is a gravesite, not a single name appears anywhere on the monument. This is not a requirement for the estimated 228 civilian dead, 55 of whom were buried where found or in various cemeteries. A memorial with identifying information is a statutory entitlement for the veterans. 170 were cremated or never identified. The VA has chosen not to memorialize them, despite current Federal law and President Roosevelt's order that Hines provides a burial with full military honors for every veteran not claimed by his family.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: The memorial was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on March 16, 1995. A Heritage Monument Trail plaque mounted on a coral boulder before the memorial reads:


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: The Florida Keys Memorial, known locally as the "Hurricane Monument," was built to honor hundreds of American veterans and local citizens who perished in the "Great Hurricane" on Labor Day, September 2, 1935. Islamorada sustained winds of 200 miles per hour and a barometer reading of 26.35 inches for many hours on that fateful holiday; most local buildings and the Florida East Coast Railway were destroyed by what remains the most savage hurricane on record. Hundreds of World War I veterans who had been camped in the Matecumbe area while working on the construction of U.S. Highway One for the Works Progress Administration (WPA) were killed. In 1937 the cremated remains of approximately 300 people were placed within the tiled crypt in front of the monument. The monument is composed of native keystone, and its striking frieze depicts coconut palm trees bending before the force of hurricane winds while the waters from an angry sea lap at the bottom of their trunks. Monument construction was funded by the WPA and regional veterans' associations. Over the years the Hurricane Monument has been cared for by local veterans, hurricane survivors, and descendants of the victims.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: Local residents hold ceremonies at the monument every year on Labor Day (on the Monday holiday) and on Memorial Day to honor the veterans and the civilians who died in the hurricane.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: On January 31, 1936, Harvey W. Seeds Post No. 29, American Legion, Miami, Florida, petitioned FERA for the deed to the Woodlawn plot. The Legion would use the empty grave sites for the burial of indigent veterans and accept responsibility for care of the plot. After some initial confusion as to the actual owner, the State of Florida approved the title transfer. A monument was placed on the plot, inscribed: "Erected by Harvey W. Seeds Post No. 29, The American Legion, in Memory of Our Comrades Who Lost Their Lives on the Florida Keys during the 1935 Hurricane, Lest We Forget".


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: As with the Islamorada memorial, no names are listed, nor are the individual grave sites marked. The VA again chose not to obey the President's order, this time to rebury the unclaimed bodies at Arlington. Two bodies were, however, exhumed from Woodlawn cemetery by the families: Brady C. Lewis (on November 12, 1936), and Thomas K. Moore (on January 20, 1937), the latter of whom was reburied at Arlington. Five more received grave markers at Woodlawn, leaving 74 unmarked graves of identified veterans. Efforts are ongoing to mark all these graves.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: One other veteran killed in the storm rests at Arlington, Daniel C. Main. His was a special case, the only veteran who died in the camps who was neither cremated in the Keys nor buried at Woodlawn. Main was the camp medical director and was killed in the collapse of the small hospital at Camp #1. His body was quickly recovered by survivors and shipped to his family before the embargo.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: On February 27, 2006, the U.S. Board on Geographic Names approved a proposal by Jerry Wilkinson, President, Historical Preservation Society of the Upper Keys, to name a small island off the southern tip of Lower Matecumbe Key for the veterans who died in the hurricane. It is near where Camp #3 was located. "Veterans Key" and several concrete pilings are all that remain of the 1935 bridge construction project.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: Government furnished grave markers are provided for eligible veterans buried in National Cemeteries, State veterans cemeteries and private cemeteries. Under VA regulations the applicant for a marker may only be the veteran's next of kin; so, too, for memorials when the body is not available for burial. Prior to a 2009 revision, not enforced until 2012, any person with knowledge of the veteran could apply. The revision prompted objections from groups and volunteers working to mark the many unmarked veterans' graves, mostly from the Civil War era. They argued that the next-of-kin (if any) was often impossible to locate and that the very existence of an unmarked grave was evidence of the family's indifference. Two bills were introduced in Congress, H. R. 2018 and S. 2700 which would have again allowed unrelated applicants. Both bills died in committee. On October 1, 2014, the VA proposed a rule change which would include in the categories of applicants unrelated individuals.


title: 1935 Labor Day hurricane

text: Marjory Stoneman Douglas wrote the short story "September-Remember" soon after the hurricane. It appeared in the Saturday Evening Post; 12/7/1935, Vol. 208, Issue 23, p 12. It was anthologized in 1990:


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: Yevgeny Maksimovich Primakov (29 October 1929 – 26 June 2015) was a Russian politician and diplomat who served as Prime Minister of Russia from 1998 to 1999. During his long career, he also served as Foreign Minister, Speaker of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, and chief of the intelligence service. Primakov was an academician (Arabist) and a member of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: His father was Jewish and his family name was originally "Finkelstein", but was later changed to "Primakov". His father had been imprisoned in the Gulag during the Stalinist purges. His mother was Anna Yakovlevna Primakova, who worked as an obstetrician and was a cousin of the famous physiologist .


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: He was educated at the Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies, graduating in 1953, and did postgraduate work at Moscow State University.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: From 1956 to 1970, he worked as a journalist for Soviet radio and a Middle Eastern correspondent for "Pravda" newspaper. During this time, he was sent frequently on intelligence missions to the Middle East and the United States as a KGB co-optee under codename MAKSIM.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: As the Senior Researcher of the Institute of World Economy and International Relations, Primakov entered in 1962 the scientific society. From 30 December 1970 to 1977, he served as Deputy Director of Institute of World Economy and International Relations of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In this role he participated in the Dartmouth Conferences. From 1977 to 1985 he was Director of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences. During this time he was also First Deputy Chairman of the Soviet Peace Committee. In 1985 he returned to the Institute of World Economy and International Relations, serving as Director until 1989.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: Primakov became involved in national politics in 1989, as the Chairman of the Soviet of the Union, one of two houses of the Soviet parliament. From 1990 until 1991 he was a member of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's Presidential Council of the Soviet Union. He served as Gorbachev's special envoy to Iraq in the run-up to the Persian Gulf War, in which capacity he held talks with President Saddam Hussein to try to convince him to withdraw Iraqi forces from Kuwait.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: After the failed August 1991 putsch, Primakov was appointed First Deputy Chairman of the KGB and Director of the KGB First Chief Directorate responsible for foreign intelligence.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: After the formation of the Russian Federation, Primakov shepherded the transition of the KGB First Chief Directorate to the control of the Russian Federation government, under the new name Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR). Primakov preserved the old KGB foreign intelligence apparatus under the new SVR label, and led no personnel purges or structural reforms. He served as SVR director from 1991 until 1996.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: Primakov served as Minister of Foreign Affairs from January 1996 until September 1998. As foreign minister, he gained respect at home and abroad, with a reputation as a tough but pragmatic supporter of Russia's interests and as an opponent of NATO's expansion into the former Eastern bloc, though on 27 May 1997, after five months of negotiation with NATO Secretary General Javier Solana, Russia signed the Foundation Act, which is seen as marking the end of Cold War hostilities. He supported Slobodan Milošević during the Yugoslav Wars.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: He was also famously an advocate of multilateralism as an alternative to American global hegemony following the collapse of the USSR and the end of the Cold War. Primakov called for a Russian foreign policy based on low-cost mediation while expanding influence towards the Middle East and the former Soviet republics. Called the "Primakov Doctrine", beginning in 1999, he promoted Russia, China, and India as a "strategic triangle" to counterbalance the United States. The move was interpreted by some observers as an agreement to fight together against 'color revolutions' in Central Asia.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: After Yeltsin's bid to reinstate Viktor Chernomyrdin as Prime Minister of Russia was blocked by the State Duma in September 1998, the President turned to Primakov as a compromise figure whom he rightly judged would be accepted by the parliament's majority. As Prime Minister, Primakov was given credit for forcing some very difficult reforms in Russia; most of them, such as the tax reform, became major successes. Following the 1998 harvest, which was the worst in 45 years, coupled with a plummeting ruble, one of Primakov's first actions as Prime Minister, in October 1998, was to appeal to the United States and Canada for food aid, while also appealing to the European Union for economic relief.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: While Primakov's opposition to perceived US unilateralism was popular among some Russians, it also led to a breach with the West during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, and isolated Russia during subsequent developments in the former Yugoslavia.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: On 24 March 1999, Primakov was heading to Washington, D.C. for an official visit. Flying over the Atlantic Ocean, he learned that NATO had started to bomb Yugoslavia. Primakov decided to cancel the visit, ordered the plane to turn around over the ocean and returned to Moscow in a manoeuvre popularly dubbed "Primakov's Loop".


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: Yeltsin fired Primakov on 12 May 1999, ostensibly over the sluggish pace of the Russian economy. Many analysts believed the firing of Primakov reflected Yeltsin's fear of losing power to a more successful and popular person, although sources close to Yeltsin said at the time that the president viewed Primakov as being too close to the Communist Party. Primakov himself would have had good chances as a candidate for the presidency. Yevgeny Primakov had refused to dismiss Communist ministers while the Communist Party was leading the process of preparing unsuccessful impeachment proceedings against the president. Ultimately, Yeltsin resigned at the end of the year and was succeeded by his last prime minister, Vladimir Putin. Primakov's dismissal was extremely unpopular with the Russian population: according to a poll, 81% of the population did not approve of the decision, and even among the liberal pro-Western party Yabloko supporters, 84% did not approve of the dismissal.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: Since 1988, Primakov was the Academician Secretary of the World Economy and International Relations Division, director of the Institute of World Economy and International Relations and the member of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: Before Yeltsin’s resignation, Primakov supported the Fatherland – All Russia electoral faction, which at that time was the major opponent of the pro-Putin Unity, and launched his presidential bid. Initially considered the man to beat, Primakov was rapidly overtaken by the factions loyal to Prime Minister Vladimir Putin in the December 1999 Duma elections. Primakov officially abandoned the presidential race in his TV address on 4 February 2000 less than two months before the 26 March presidential elections. Soon he became an adviser to Putin and a political ally. On 14 December 2001, Primakov became President of the Russian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, a position he held until 2011.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: In February and March 2003, he visited Iraq and talked with Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, as a special representative of President Putin. He brought a message to Baghdad from Putin to call for Hussein to resign voluntarily. He tried to prevent the 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, a move which received some support from several nations opposed to the war. Primakov suggested that Hussein must hand over all Iraq's weapons of mass destruction to the United Nations, among other things. However, Hussein told Primakov that he was confident that no would befall him personally—a belief that was later proven incorrect. Primakov later claimed Hussein's execution in 2006 was rushed to prevent him from revealing information on Iraq–United States relations that could embarrass the U.S. government.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: On 26 May 2008, Primakov was elected as a member of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In 2009, the University of Niš, Serbia awarded Primakov an honorary doctorate.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: In November 2004, Primakov testified in defense of the former Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević, on trial for war crimes. He had earlier led a Russian delegation that met with Milošević during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in March 1999.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: Primakov died in Moscow on June 26, 2015, at the age of 85, after prolonged illness (liver cancer). He was buried with military honours at Novodevichy Cemetery.


title: Yevgeny Primakov

text: In honor of Primakov, Primakov Readings was established in October 2015 - an annual international summit aimed at promoting dialogue on current global trends in the world economy, international politics and security among high-ranking experts, diplomats and decision-makers from around the Globe, organized by the Institute of World Economy and International Relations and held in Moscow.


title: Finnish profanity

text: Profanity in Finnish is used in the form of intensifiers, adjectives, adverbs and particles. There is also an aggressive mood that involves omission of the negative verb "" while implying its meaning with a swear word.


title: Finnish profanity

text: Contemporary Finnish profanity often has old origins; several such words have Pagan roots that after Christian influence were turned from names of deities and spirits to profanity and used as such. In general, the etymology of Finnish swears can be traced either from these formerly religious words or from ancient Finnish words involving excretion or sexual organs or functions. Nowadays, few Finns know of the origins and intended original use of the words, though such definitions have since been compiled in ' ("the great dictionary of profanities").


title: Finnish profanity

text: People of countries neighboring Finland often consider Finnish swear words harsher than their own, and even use heavily mispronounced versions of them, most notably perkele. Native Finns tend to consider the harshness exaggerated, while others use it to their advantage.


title: Finnish profanity

text: Finns swear more than their Nordic neighbors or Central Europeans, reaching the same level as Scots or Russians.


title: Finnish profanity

text: Euphemistically, virtually any word can be used in place of profanity by, for example, preceding it with ' (an interjection meaning "oh!"), for example ' (oh shit!) or adding "vieköön" (third person singular imperative of the verb ' "to take"), for example ' (may the goblin take it). These were more prominent in older Finnish, e.g. ' is closest to (corpse) or like ' (the beast). There are also other similar non-offensive constructs like "" (tallow candles of heaven). There is also an inventory of non-offensive curse words.


title: D20 System

text: The d20 System is a role-playing game system published in 2000 by Wizards of the Coast, originally developed for the 3rd edition of "Dungeons & Dragons". The system is named after the 20-sided dice which are central to the core mechanics of many actions in the game.


title: D20 System

text: Much of the d20 System was released as the System Reference Document (SRD) under the Open Game License (OGL) as Open Game Content (OGC), which allows commercial and non-commercial publishers to release modifications or supplements to the system without paying for the use of the system's associated intellectual property, which is owned by Wizards of the Coast.


title: D20 System

text: The original impetus for the open licensing of the d20 System involved the economics of producing role-playing games (RPGs). Game supplements suffered far more diminished sales over time than the core books required to play the game. Ryan Dancey, "Dungeons & Dragons"' brand manager at the time, directed the effort of licensing the new edition of "Dungeons & Dragons" through the d20 System Trademark, allowing other companies to support the d20 System under a common brand identity. This is distinct from the Open Game License, which simply allows any party to produce works composed of or derivative of designated Open Game Content.


title: D20 System

text: The d20 System is a derivative of the third edition "Dungeons & Dragons" game system. The three primary designers behind the d20 System were Jonathan Tweet, Monte Cook, and Skip Williams; many others contributed, most notably Richard Baker and Wizards of the Coast then-president Peter Adkison. Many give Tweet the bulk of the credit for the basic resolution mechanic, citing similarities to the system behind his game "Ars Magica". Tweet, however, stated "The other designers already had a core mechanic similar to the current one when I joined the design team".


title: D20 System

text: To resolve an action in the d20 System, a player rolls a 20-sided die and adds modifiers based on the natural aptitude of the character (defined by six attributes: Strength, Dexterity, Constitution, Intelligence, Wisdom, and Charisma) and how skilled the character is in various fields (such as in combat), as well as other, situational modifiers. If the result is greater than or equal to a target number (called a Difficulty Class or DC) then the action succeeds. This is called the Core Mechanic. This system is consistently used for all action resolution in the d20 System. In prior games in the "D&D" family, the rules for different actions, such as the first-edition hit tables or the second-edition "Advanced Dungeons & Dragons" ("AD&D") "THAC0" and saving throw mechanics, varied considerably in which dice were used and even whether high numbers or low numbers were preferable.


title: D20 System

text: The d20 System is not presented as a universal system in any of its publications or free distributions, unlike game systems like "GURPS". Rather, the core system has been presented in a variety of formats that have been adapted by various publishers (both Wizards of the Coast and third-party) to specific settings and genres, much like the "Basic Role-Playing" system common to early games by veteran role-playing game publisher Chaosium.


title: D20 System

text: The rules for the d20 System are defined in the System Reference Document or SRD (two separate SRDs were released, one for "D&D" 3rd edition and one for edition 3.5), which may be copied freely or even sold. Designed for fantasy-genre games in (usually) a pseudo-medieval setting, the SRD is drawn from the following "D&D" books: "Player's Handbook" v3.5, "Expanded Psionics Handbook", "Dungeon Master's Guide" v3.5, "Monster Manual" v3.5, "Deities and Demigods" v3.0, "Unearthed Arcana", and "Epic Level Handbook". Information from these books not in the SRD include detailed descriptions, flavor text, and material Wizards of the Coast considers more specific product identity (such as references to the Greyhawk campaign setting and information on mind flayers).


title: D20 System

text: d20 Modern has its own SRD, called the Modern System Reference Document (MSRD). The MSRD includes material from the "d20 Modern Roleplaying Game", "Urban Arcana Campaign Setting", "d20 Menace Manual", and "d20 Future". The MSRD can cover a wide variety of genres, but is intended for a modern-day, or in the case of the last of these, a futuristic setting.


title: D20 System

text: Ryan Dancey believed that the strength of "Dungeons & Dragons" was in its gaming community instead of its game system, which supported his belief in Skaff Elias's axiom known as the "Skaff Effect" which suggested that other companies only enhanced the success of the RPG market leader, which was now Wizards of the Coast. Dancey also theorized that the proliferation of game systems weakened the RPG industry, and these beliefs led to the idea to let other publishers create supplements for "D&D". This led to a pair of licenses released by Wizards in 2000, prior to the release of third edition "D&D": the Open Gaming License (OGL) made the "D&D" third-edition mechanics permanently open and available for use as a set of system reference documents, while the d20 Trademark License built on this by letting publishers use Wizards' official "d20" mark to show that their products were compatible. Unlike the OGL, the d20 License was written so that it could be cancelled at some point in the future.


title: D20 System

text: Initially there was a boom in the RPG industry caused by the d20 license, with numerous companies producing their own d20 supplements. Some companies used the d20 system to try to boost the sales of their own proprietary systems, including Atlas Games and Chaosium, while many more publishers exclusively produced d20 content, including older companies such as Alderac Entertainment, Fantasy Flight Games, and White Wolf, as well as new companies like Goodman Games, Green Ronin, Mongoose Publishing, and Troll Lord Games. The success of the d20 license helped to launch the RPG PDF industry; there was a demand for d20 products, and electronic delivery offered players a very quick and cheap way to distribute content.


title: D20 System

text: Wizards also began using their new d20 system for more than just fantasy games, including the "Star Wars Roleplaying Game" (2000) and the "d20 Modern Roleplaying Game" (2002). Wizards developed one of "d20 Modern"'s settings into a full sourcebook: the "Urban Arcana Campaign Setting" (2003), and extended d20 even further with the science-fiction "d20 Future" (2004) and the historical "d20 Past" (2005), then closed out the "d20 Modern" line in 2006 with another campaign setting, "Dark•Matter". Third-party publishers used these d20 genre books as the basis of their own campaign settings; too. For example, White Wolf used the "d20 Modern" rules to publish a licensed version of "Gamma World" (2006) as well as a few supplements.


title: D20 System

text: In response to the sexually explicit "Book of Erotic Fantasy" (2003) announced by Valar Project for "Dungeons & Dragons", Wizards of the Coast changed the d20 license to require that publications meet "community standards of decency", prompting Valar to simply remove direct references to "Dungeons & Dragons" and publish the book under the OGL. This event, by highlighting that Wizards of the Coast still held wide discretionary power over what counted as legitimate d20 material, made third-party game writers leery of publishing under the d20 license.


title: D20 System

text: At Gen Con 36, in August 2003, Wizards published an updated version of "Dungeons & Dragons", edition 3.5. Third-party publishers had very little warning of the update and so many companies were stuck with books that were out-of-date before even reaching their audience. Wizards did not offer any update for the d20 trademark. Exacerbating the problem, the market was suffering a severe glut of low-quality material published under the d20 label, as many publishers, both petty and established, rushed poorly-written adventures and expansions to print to try to take advantage of d20's popularity, ultimately devaluing the brand's value among consumers. Between these two crises, many d20 publishers went out of business or left the field, but most of those who remained abandoned the d20 trademark entirely, publishing instead under the OGL. Publishers realized that they could publish d20 games that did not depend upon Wizards of the Coast's core books, and publishers even began to create direct competitors to "D&D" using the OGL.


title: D20 System

text: Because "Dungeons & Dragons" is the most popular role-playing game in the world, many third-party publishers of the 2000s produced products designed to be compatible with that game and its cousin, d20 Modern. Wizards of the Coast provided a separate license allowing publishers to use some of its trademarked terms and a distinctive logo to help consumers identify these products. This was known as the d20 System Trademark License (d20STL).


title: D20 System

text: The d20STL required publishers to exclude character-creation and advancement rules, apply certain notices, and adhere to an acceptable content policy. D20STL products were also required to clearly state that they require the core books from Wizards of the Coast for use. All d20STL products also had to use the OGL to make use of d20 System open content. However, products that only use the OGL are not bound by these restrictions; thus publishers were able to use the OGL without using the d20STL, and by including their own character-creation and advancement rules allow them to function as complete standalone games.


title: D20 System

text: With the release of the 4th edition of "Dungeons & Dragons" in 2008, Wizards of the Coast revoked the original d20STL, replacing it with a new license specifically for D&D, known as the Game System License. The terms of this license are similar to the d20STL, but there is no associated OGL or Open Content, and the 4th-edition SRD merely lists the items and terms which may be used in licensed products. This did not affect the legal standing of the OGL, and products based on the SRD may still be released under the OGL alone.


title: D20 System

text: Unlike the OGL, the d20STL is revocable and is controlled by Wizards of the Coast. Wizards of the Coast has the ability to alter the d20 System Trademark License at will, and gives a short, 30-day "cure period" to rectify any issues with the license before termination. These changes apply retroactively to all material published under the d20 System Trademark License.


title: D20 System

text: When gaming company Valar Project, under former Wizards of the Coast brand manager Anthony Valtera, attempted to publish the d20 "Book of Erotic Fantasy" ("BoEF"), which focused on sexual content, Wizards of the Coast altered the d20 System Trademark License in advance of publication of "BoEF" by adding a "quality standards" provision that required publishers to comply with "community standards of decency." This subsequently prevented the book's publication under the d20STL. Wizards of the Coast said this was done to protect its d20 System trademark. The "Book of Erotic Fantasy" was subsequently published without the d20 System trademark under the OGL. Other books subsequently published under similar circumstances include Skirmisher Publishing's "Nuisances", which includes on its cover the disclaimer "Warning: intended for mature readers only."


title: D20 System

text: The same round of changes to the license also limited the size at which the text "Requires the use of the "Dungeons & Dragons Player's Handbook", Third Edition, published by Wizards of the Coast" (which is required to appear on the front or back cover of most fantasy d20 System products) could be printed, and prohibited making part of it larger than the rest. This was perceived as being aimed at the same Valar book; early mockups of the cover had the words "Dungeons & Dragons" in the above text printed much larger and in a different font from the rest, right at the top of the front cover. This could have made the book appear to be an official "D&D" publication to a casual or uninformed observer. The published version does not have that text on the cover.


title: D20 System

text: Criticism is also levied at the conditions for termination of the d20 System Trademark License through a breach of its terms. The license requires that, upon breach of the terms of the d20STL which includes any subsequent modifications of the license after publication of a work using the d20 System trademark, all inventory and marketing material must be destroyed. Adhering to the breach conditions is an onerous task for smaller game companies. The mere threat of this condition being imposed was a huge blow to the now defunct d20 System publisher Fast Forward Entertainment, which had released several books that used non-open Wizards of the Coast content due to company president Jim Ward's misunderstanding of the license.


title: D20 System

text: Other criticism is concerned with the part of the d20 System Trademark License which defines "Open Game Content" to include game mechanics, and purports to license it. It is generally held that game mechanics cannot be copyrighted in the United States. According to a circular on the US Copyright Office's website: "Once a game has been made public, nothing in the copyright law prevents others from developing another game based on similar principles."


title: D20 System

text: One result of this has been the abandonment of the d20 System License by some publishers in favor of a simple "OGL" designation. Mongoose Publishing's licensed games based on the Conan the Barbarian property ("") and the Robert A. Heinlein novel "Starship Troopers", for example, use systems that function nearly identically to d20 but do not carry the d20 logo.


title: Agonal respiration

text: Agonal respiration, gasping respiration or agonal breathing is a distinct abnormal pattern of breathing and brainstem reflex characterized by gasping, labored breathing, accompanied by strange vocalizations and myoclonus. Possible causes include cerebral ischemia, extreme hypoxia (inadequate oxygen supply to tissue), or even anoxia (total depletion of oxygen). Agonal breathing is an extremely serious medical sign requiring immediate medical attention, as the condition generally progresses to complete apnea and heralds death. The duration of agonal respiration can be as brief as two breaths or last up to several hours.


title: Agonal respiration

text: The term is sometimes (inaccurately) used to refer to labored, gasping breathing patterns accompanying organ failure (e.g. liver failure and kidney failure), SIRS, septic shock, and metabolic acidosis (see Kussmaul breathing, or in general any labored breathing, including Biot's respirations and ataxic respirations). Correct usage would restrict the term to the last breaths before death.


title: Agonal respiration

text: Agonal respirations are also commonly seen in cases of cardiogenic shock or cardiac arrest, where agonal respirations may persist for several minutes after cessation of heartbeat. The presence of agonal respirations in these cases indicates a more favorable prognosis than in cases of cardiac arrest without agonal respirations. In an unresponsive, pulseless patient in cardiac arrest, agonal gasps are not effective breaths. Agonal respiration occurs in 40% of cardiac arrests experienced outside a hospital environment.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Dustin Brown (born 8 December 1984) is a German-Jamaican professional tennis player. He rose to fame after beating Rafael Nadal in the 2014 Halle Open and Wimbledon 2015, and is known for his technique, speed, and entertaining playing style, often entertaining the crowd with trick shots. He is also known as "Dreddy" due to his distinctive long dreadlocked hair.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown competes mainly on the ATP Challenger Tour, in singles and doubles, having won 31 overall titles. His highest career singles world rank at No. 64 was in October 2016, and doubles world rank at No. 43 in May 2012. Brown is also notable for being one of the only two players to remain undefeated against Rafael Nadal after playing more than one match with him, holding a 2–0 head-to-head record.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown has yet to make an ATP tour singles final but has made two semifinals at the 2016 Open Sud de France and the 2016 Swiss Open Gstaad. In doubles, he won two titles on the ATP Tour.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown was born on 8 December 1984 in Celle, West Germany, a town situated near the city of Hanover. His father Leroy met his German born mother Inge in Jamaica and would settle in Celle for a time. This unusual dual nationality has earned him the nickname "Shabba" based on a line from Jamie Foxx in the 1997 comedy "Booty Call" where he claimed to be a "Germaican". He also has two half-brothers named Steve and Dean. He played several sports such as football, judo, and handball throughout his childhood. He started playing tennis at the age of 5 but didn't really focus on the sport until the age of eight: "When I made the decision to pursue tennis instead of football, of course I wanted to be successful. I didn't want just to end up playing for a club somewhere." His reported idol growing up was Russian tennis player and former world number 1 Marat Safin. His junior tennis career went well enough to draw the attention of Kim Michael Wittenberg, an American who ran a tennis academy near Hanover. Wittenberg regularly gave Brown lessons, and according to his pupil, he "taught me to play tennis."


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: At 11 years old, in 1996, the family returned to Jamaica, particularly Montego Bay. The move was motivated in part by the high cost of training in Germany as well as his need to develop discipline on the court: "I was pretty mentally soft when I was young. Anything could happen when I played—I could lose my temper, I got disqualified." In Jamaica, track and field, soccer, and cricket were the sports that commanded the best resources, tennis was played on poorly maintained public courts and with low-quality balls. Nevertheless, he continued to play junior tennis.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: In 2004, 20-year-old Brown became unhappy with tennis in Jamaica, his family thought his potential warranted returning to Germany and a Volkswagen campervan that could sleep up to three people set him up. The mobile lodgings enabled him to play in the various European tournaments: "It was a brilliant idea by my parents, otherwise I wouldn't have been able to go on playing. It was a means of competing week in, week out." He also brought in income with his racquet stringing machine, giving other players lower cost service, and letting out his spare mobile accommodations for a night.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown played his first junior match in August 1999 at the age of 14 at a grade 4 tournament in Jamaica. As a junior, Brown only competed in 2 junior grand slams in 2002 where he made the second round of Junior Wimbledon in singles and the quarterfinals of Junior US Open in doubles. Brown ended his junior career with a high ranking of 61 (attained on March 18, 2002) and a 34–26 record in singles and a high ranking of 116 (attained on November 11, 2002) and a 15–24 record in doubles.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown officially turned pro in April 2002 at the age of 17 and represented Jamaica early in his career. Between 2002 and 2009, Brown made it to 11 ITF singles finals and 32 ITF doubles finals (winning 3 singles and 16 doubles). These results gradually boosted his ranking overtime.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown made his ATP debut at the 2003 Hall of Fame Open after qualifying for the main draw. He lost in the first round to Bob Bryan in three sets.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown made his first challenger final at the 2009 Baden Open where he lost to Florian Mayer in straight sets. Three months later, he won his first challenger title at the 2009 Samarkand Challenger defeating Jonathan Dasnières de Veigy in the final. For the rest of 2009, he made four more challenger finals including one doubles final. The results would help push his ranking from 494 at the start of the year to 144 at the end.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: 2010 is considered to be Brown's breakout year. In his second main circuit appearance after a first-round loss at the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships in 2003, He defeated fourth seed Marco Chiudinelli and No. 139 Laurent Recouderc to reach the quarterfinals of the 2010 SA Tennis Open in Johannesburg, South Africa, where he lost to eventual runner-up Stéphane Robert. He became the second Jamaican after Doug Burke at the 1989 BP National Championships in Wellington, New Zealand, to reach the quarterfinals of a main ATP Tour event.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown played his third ATP tour event at the 2010 Aegon Championships (Queen's Club), defeating first-round opponent Frank Dancevic, in three sets; his loss came in the second round to Denis Istomin of Uzbekistan.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: By June 2010, a lack of funding and support from the Jamaican Tennis Association tempted him to switch national association to Great Britain, his paternal grandparents being British. In October 2010 he decided to compete for Germany and his debut event playing under the German flag was Eckental. His first title success playing under the German flag came at 2010 Lambertz Open.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown made his Grand Slam debut at 2010 Wimbledon after receiving direct entry into the main draw. He lost in the first round to 16th seed Jürgen Melzer in four sets. After another ATP quarterfinal at the 2010 Hall of Fame Open, Brown received direct entry into the 2010 US Open and won his opening match against Rubén Ramírez Hidalgo to record his first Grand Slam win. He lost in the second round to world No. 4 Andy Murray in straight sets.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: In September 2010, Brown won his first ATP doubles title at the 2010 Open de Moselle partnering Rogier Wassen.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown partnered Jonathan Marray at the 2012 French Open; they lost in the first round. Brown/Marray also reached four Challenger tour finals in 2012, winning two in Bosnia and Italy.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: At 2013 Wimbledon, Brown qualified for the main draw and went all the way to the third round defeating Guillermo García López and former champion Lleyton Hewitt before falling to Adrian Mannarino in straight sets.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: At the 2014 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, Brown upset first seed and world number 9 John Isner in the second round to claim his first ever win over a top 10 player. He would lose to Sam Querrey in the next round.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: In 2014 he achieved his most significant career win by defeating world No. 1 tennis player Rafael Nadal at the Halle Open as a wildcard.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: At Wimbledon in 2015 Brown came through qualifying without dropping a set. After beating Yen-hsun Lu in the first round, Brown then upset, for the second time in his career, 10th seed and 2-time champion Rafael Nadal in four sets in the second round, before losing to Victor Troicki in four sets in the next round.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: In January 2016, Brown played world number 1 Novak Djokovic at the Qatar Open. He lost in straight sets.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown reached his first singles semifinal on the ATP World Tour at the 2016 Open Sud de France after having lost eight consecutive quarterfinal matches. There, he lost against top seed and eventual champion Richard Gasquet in three sets.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: After winning the 2016 Aegon Manchester Trophy, Brown received a wild card for the 2016 Wimbledon Championships. There, he beat Dušan Lajović in the first round before losing to Nick Kyrgios in the second. Both matches were decided in five sets.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown made his second ATP singles semifinal at the 2016 Swiss Open Gstaad but lost to top seed and eventual champion Feliciano López in three sets.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown competed in the first round of the 2016 Summer Olympics against Thomaz Bellucci of Brazil. Brown was leading 6–4, 4–4 when he went down with an ankle injury. Medical staff taped him, he returned to the match playing two points. Bellucci increased the score to 4–5 in the second set. Brown could not return play and retired in tears.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: On October 10, 2016, Brown achieved a career-high Singles ranking of 64 and would end 2016 with a year end ranking of 72.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown upset world number 7 Marin Čilić at the 2017 Open Sud de France. He would retire after just one game of play against Benoît Paire in the next round due to a back injury.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown qualified for the 2018 Australian Open in what would be his last grand slam to date. He lost to João Sousa in the first round in five sets.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: At the 2018 Open Sud de France, Brown was one game away from defeating Nicolas Mahut in the first round, but he sustained a back injury and could not continue to play giving Mahut the victory. He left the court in tears.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: In April 2019, Brown reclaimed an ATP Challenger singles title from three years previous at the Mouratoglou Open in Sophia Antipolis, winning the final over Filip Krajinović in straight sets.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: On 13 June 2019, Brown upset compatriot and world No. 5 Alexander Zverev at the 2019 Stuttgart Open in the second round. Following this victory, he lost in a third-set tiebreaker to Félix Auger-Aliassime in the quarterfinal.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown reached the qualifying competition of the 2020 French Open Qualifying and the 2021 Australian Open Qualifying before being eliminated both times.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Throughout 2021, Brown seemed to focus less on singles and more on doubles as he was competing in more doubles events than singles and was finding more success as he was reaching a handful of quarterfinals and semifinals in challenger events and ATP events.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown received a wildcard into the 2021 Stuttgart Open due to his performance in the previous edition. He lost in the first round to Nikoloz Basilashvili in straight sets. This was his last professional singles match.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown made his Davis Cup debut for Jamaica in 2003 which would be the only time he played for Jamaica at the Davis Cup. He won 4 of 5 singles matches played and all 3 doubles matches played.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown only played one match for Germany in 2015 in the singles where he lost to Dominican Víctor Estrella Burgos in four sets.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown's combined record for Jamaica and Germany is 4–2 in singles and 3–0 in doubles giving him an overall record of 7–2.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown is considered as a serve-and-volleyer as he is known for his big serves and lightly volleying the ball in once it is returned to him. His serve speed averages at around 190–205 km/h but has reached up to 220 km/h.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown's shotmaking style is very unorthodox as he mixes his shots up with hard-hitting groundstrokes to light drop shots which makes his opponents have to be ready for anything on every point. He is also known for his impressive trick shots where he hits very difficult shots from difficult positions. These shots include tweeners, behind-the-back shots, diving shots, down-the-line shots, jump shots, drop shots, etc. This causes his playing style to be highly entertaining to the crowd as most tennis fans call him one of the most entertaining players on the tour.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown is also known for his very fast returns and winners on both his forehand and his backhand and his net and volleying skills.


title: Dustin Brown (tennis)

text: Brown's match record against players who have been ranked in the top 10,with those who are active in boldface. <br>


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Maurice Edward Clarett (born October 29, 1983) is a former American football running back who played for the Ohio State Buckeyes football team. He also played professionally for the Omaha Nighthawks of the United Football League. During his freshman year at Ohio State University in 2002, he helped lead the Buckeyes to a national championship. In a widely unexpected move, Clarett was drafted on the first day of the 2005 NFL Draft with the final pick of the 3rd round (#101 overall) by the Denver Broncos.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: He is well known for unsuccessfully challenging the NFL's draft eligibility rules requiring a player to be three years removed from high school and for his tumultuous life outside of football, including his dismissal from Ohio State, several arrests, and imprisonment. In the years after his release from prison, Clarett became a public speaker talking candidly about his previous struggles and recovery. Later, Clarett founded a behavioral health agency in Youngstown, Ohio. In recent years, Clarett has become a entrepreneur and was appointed to the Youngstown/Warren Regional Chamber of Commerce Board in February 2022.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: After displaying his abilities as a freshman tailback on the Austintown-Fitch High School varsity team, Clarett transferred to Warren G. Harding High School and garnered national attention. When he graduated from Harding, national publications ranked him among the top 100 players nationally. He was a 2002 U.S. Army All-American. Clarett received an offer from Ohio State University and verbally committed to Ohio State over offers from Notre Dame, Fresno State, and the University of Miami. He formally committed to the Buckeyes in February 2002. Ohio State's coach, Jim Tressel, had previously been coach of Clarett's hometown Youngstown State Penguins. Later, Clarett received the "USA Today" Offensive High School Player of the Year and "Parade" All-American distinctions.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Clarett started at Ohio State for one season, rushing for 1,237 yards (then a school record for a freshman) and scoring 18 touchdowns, which helped the Buckeyes to a 14–0 record and the 2002 BCS National Championship. He scored the winning touchdown against Miami with a five-yard run in the second overtime in the 2003 Fiesta Bowl. He also made a key defensive play in that game, stealing the ball on the Miami 28 from Hurricanes' safety Sean Taylor, who was returning an interception from the end zone of a pass thrown by Craig Krenzel. After that play, Ohio State kicked a field goal, giving them a 10-point lead at the time. Clarett was the first freshman to be the leading rusher on a national championship team since Ahman Green of the University of Nebraska–Lincoln in 1995.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Clarett's time at Ohio State University was marked by several troubling incidents. He was seen yelling at his position coach during the Northwestern–Ohio State game in the 2002 season. In December 2002, he publicly maligned OSU officials for not paying for him to fly home for the funeral of a friend and accused administrators of lying when they said he had not filed the necessary paperwork. In July 2003, Clarett became the center of an academic scandal when a teaching assistant told the "New York Times" that Clarett had received preferential treatment from professors, claiming he had not attended any classes during his only year at Ohio State. However, the investigation did not find sufficient evidence of academic misconduct. He was suspended for the 2003 season on September 10, 2003.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Clarett moved to Los Angeles after his dismissal from Ohio State, and, while living there, sued to be included in the 2004 NFL Draft. He won his case at trial. However, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision. Subsequently, Clarett worked with trainers in preparation for the 2005 NFL Combine, hoping to impress for the upcoming draft. It was also in Los Angeles that Clarett's problems with drugs began. Clarett has battled depression and alcoholism since as early as 2002.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In his attempt to enter the 2004 NFL Draft, Clarett challenged the NFL's rule that a player must wait three years after graduating from high school to declare for the draft. Federal Judge Shira Scheindlin initially ruled based on anti-trust grounds that the NFL could not bar Clarett from participating in the 2004 draft. This decision was later overturned by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in an opinion by Judge Sonia Sotomayor, and Clarett's petition for certiorari was refused by the Supreme Court. Clarett and USC wide receiver Mike Williams, who were both hoping to enter the draft early, were then barred from the draft by the NFL. Later, because they both signed agents before being denied the opportunity to join the NFL Draft, the NCAA refused to reinstate the college eligibility of Clarett or Williams.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In February 2005, he participated in the NFL Combine in Indianapolis. During a press conference, he uttered the phrase: "It's a humbling thing being humble." After running a disappointing 4.72 and 4.82 seconds in the 40-yard dash, he refused to participate further, and was referred to as "Slow-Mo" by the sports media, who were largely critical of his combine performance.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Ohio State declined to allow him to take part in a private workout for pro scouts in Columbus because it wanted to avoid a "circus" situation.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In an unexpected move, Clarett was drafted in the 2005 NFL Draft with the final pick of the 3rd round (#101 overall) by the Denver Broncos. Many experts felt that he would fall to the 6th or 7th round, if he was drafted at all; the Pittsburgh Steelers, a team that was in possible need of a running back due to the uncertain future of Jerome Bettis, publicly said that they wouldn't draft Clarett. (Bettis ended up returning for what would be his final NFL season.) However, Clarett turned out to be unimpressive in the Denver Broncos' preseason training camp. In part due to having not played a game in two years or practiced in over a year, he entered training camp weighing 248 pounds, more than 20 pounds overweight. He was also slow to recover from an injury.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Despite his unimpressive training camp, Clarett signed a four-year contract on July 28, 2005 with the Broncos in which he gave up $413,000 of guaranteed money in order to secure an incentive-laden deal. Clarett signed this deal against the advice of his former agents, Steve Feldman and Josh Luchs. Clarett's motivation was to replace the proposed deal with a package that would pay him first-round money if he rushed for 1,000 yards in multiple seasons.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: However, after further disappointments and incidents with his coaches and never playing a preseason game, Clarett was released on waivers on August 28, 2005, only a month after signing a contract and before playing a down in the NFL. As is standard procedure in the NFL, for a 24-hour period after his release, other teams could have claimed him and taken on his contract. After that 24-hour period, he was freed from his contract and able to negotiate with any team, but no team expressed interest.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: As his college and NFL careers tanked, "The Miami Herald" reported in September that Clarett was already $1 million in debt from legal fees for his fight with the NFL and other costs. They also reported that Clarett turned down the traditional signing bonus in the originally proposed contract from Denver because his attorney, David Kenner (known for also representing rap icons Suge Knight, Snoop Dogg and Tupac Shakur), wanted incentives that would pay Clarett if he became a star.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In December 2005, Clarett was in talks to play for the Steubenville Stampede, a squad in the North Division of the American Indoor Football League. According to Jim Terry, Manager of the Stampede, "I have been in contact with [Clarett's] agent and he's expressed interest with us. ... Clarett is hungry and has something to prove. He has a chip on his shoulder and wants to show he can still play." However, Clarett never signed with the Stampede. In an interview with the "Columbus Dispatch" published on August 10, 2006, Terry claimed that Clarett attempted to call him just minutes before the events on the morning of August 9 that led to Clarett's arrest.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Clarett also expressed interest in playing for NFL Europe. Josh Luchs, Clarett's agent, reported that Clarett was going to sign with the NFL on January 2, 2006, and was expected to be allocated to NFL Europe. There were also discussions about Clarett playing for the semi-pro Eastern Indoor Football League team the Mahoning Valley Hitmen, coached by the same Jim Terry.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: On August 23, 2010, Clarett was released from a halfway house and requested permission from Franklin County Common Pleas Court Judge David Fais to attend a tryout for the Omaha Nighthawks of the United Football League. The motion was approved on August 25. As part of his sentence, Clarett requires court permission in order to leave the state of Ohio.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: On August 30, 2010, the Omaha Nighthawks of the United Football League signed Clarett. On October 1, 2010, he played his first meaningful game of any sort in eight years, rushing for 12 yards on 5 attempts against the Sacramento Mountain Lions. As the Nighthawks' #2 running back, Clarett finished the season with 154 yards on the ground on 37 attempts and a touchdown. He also caught 12 passes for 98 yards, and returned one kickoff for 13 yards. The UFL suspended operations in 2012.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: On May 17, 2013, it was announced that Clarett would make his rugby debut for the Columbus affiliate of Tiger Rugby at The Ohio Rugby Sevens Invitational on May 25, 2013 in Mechanicsburg, Ohio. It was subsequently reported that Clarett would not play with the team as their practices did not fit with his schedule.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: On January 1, 2006, police announced that they were searching for Clarett in relation to two incidents of armed robbery that took place at 1:46 a.m. outside the Opium Lounge danceclub in Columbus. Allegedly armed with a .45 caliber handgun, Clarett robbed two people and then escaped in a white SUV with two unidentified persons. Clarett reportedly made off with only a cell phone valued at $150 belonging to one of the victims.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Said Jim Tressel, his former coach at Ohio State, "I hope it's not true, but beyond that, I don't know much, but my reaction is, I was sad."


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Clarett turned himself in to police shortly after 9 p.m., EST, on January 2, just as the Buckeyes were defeating Notre Dame in the Fiesta Bowl in Tempe, Arizona, the very bowl game in which Clarett last played college football. He faced two counts of aggravated robbery. He was later released on $50,000 bond.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: On February 10, 2006, Clarett was indicted by a Franklin County grand jury on two counts of aggravated robbery with gun specifications and five other counts. If convicted, he would be sentenced to up to 25 years in prison. His attorneys said that he denied every allegation, saying Clarett "intends to fight this indictment with the same vigor and resolve he displayed in taking OSU to a national championship."


title: Maurice Clarett

text: On February 22, 2006, Clarett pleaded not guilty to aggravated-robbery charges. He was released on $20,000 bail until his trial began.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: On July 26, 2006, Clarett fired his lawyers, William Settina and Robert Krapenc, two weeks before his trial date. The privately retained attorneys had filed a motion two days earlier saying they wanted to withdraw their counsel, claiming that Clarett was not paying their fees or cooperating in his defense.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: At a status hearing held on August 9, 2006 pertaining to the January charges, Franklin County Common Pleas Judge David Fais increased Clarett's bond to $1.1 million. This was due to Clarett's arrest earlier that morning (see below). On August 10, 2006, Fais ordered an additional status hearing which was held on August 11, 2006. This hearing had not been requested by either the prosecution or Clarett's defense team but was requested by Fais himself. At the hearing, Fais delayed the trial until September 18, 2006, revoked the $1.1 million bond in the case and ordered Clarett to undergo a mental health evaluation.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In the early morning hours of August 9, 2006, Clarett was arrested in Columbus after he made an illegal U-turn and led the police on a chase in a sports utility vehicle reportedly belonging to his uncle. After Clarett drove over a police spike strip, the chase ended in a nearby restaurant parking lot.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Police said they were forced to secure a cloth around Clarett's mouth after he allegedly spat at the officers. According to Columbus Police Sgt. Mike Woods, the officers discovered a katana, a zanbatō, a loaded AK-47 variant and two loaded handguns in his vehicle along with an open bottle of Grey Goose vodka. The police requested that the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives perform a trace on the firearms to determine if Clarett violated federal gun laws.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: The officers used mace to subdue Clarett after attempts to subdue him with a Taser proved ineffective because he was wearing Kevlar body armor.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Clarett was arraigned on the latest charges on August 10, 2006 in Franklin County Municipal Court in Columbus. During the arraignment, Judge Andrea C. Peeples set his bond, on the charges of carrying a concealed weapon without a permit and failure to maintain current lane, at $5 million. In setting the bond, Peeples agreed with prosecutors that Clarett was now a flight risk or could attempt to intimidate witnesses in his upcoming robbery trial. Clarett remained lodged in the Franklin County Corrections Center, however, as the $1.1 million bond for the robbery charge was revoked by trial judge David Fais. According to a "Columbus Dispatch" report, Clarett, who was due to be tried for his January arrest, was in the neighborhood of one of the principal witnesses against him at the time the events of August 9 occurred.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: On September 18, Clarett filed a guilty plea to the charges in a plea bargain that involved these events as well as the earlier robbery charges. He was sentenced by Judge David Fais to seven and a half years in prison, with the possibility of applying for early release after three and a half years. As part of the plea agreement, the prosecution agreed not to object to early release if and when Clarett applied for it.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: On December 14, it was announced that Clarett would be changing prisons to a close-security prison in a single-person cell at Toledo Correctional Institution, where he was able to eat with and exercise with other inmates.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Clarett enrolled in a distance-learning program at Ohio University while serving his sentence at the Toledo Correctional Institution, working towards earning a bachelor's degree in Geriatrics and Gerontology.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: On April 7, 2010, Judge Fais granted early release to Clarett. Clarett was ordered to enter Maryhaven, a halfway house in Columbus, for up to 6 months.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: While in prison, Clarett blogged about his life there on "The Mind of Maurice Clarett". Because he did not have Internet access in the prison, he sent his entries to his girlfriend, who posted them for him.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In one post, Clarett summed up his attitude towards prison by saying "Understand my struggle so you can respect my hustle. I am never coming back here, believe that. Never, I am cool on this. It is first-class living from the day I get out. I WILL NEVER SETTLE FOR LESS, EVER AGAIN. That goes for communication, personal relationships, housing, education, friendships, and travel arrangements. Everything. I have the fire in my eyes"


title: Maurice Clarett

text: During his three and a half years in prison, Clarett shifted his attention to develop his mind by reading psychology books and as much business-related literature as he could, and managed to turn his life around. By sharing his life story, he has become a much sought-after motivational speaker.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In November 2012, Clarett was invited back to Ohio State to celebrate the 10-year anniversary of the undefeated championship season of 2002.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Having suffered from depression, Clarett joined other mental health advocates in August 2013 in promoting expansion of Medicaid in Ohio. He has spoken at prisons, juvenile detention facilities and worked with youth football camps to share his story so others do not repeat it. Clarett has also reconnected with Ohio State by taking courses and working out with current football players.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In December 2013, he was featured in "Youngstown Boys", an ESPN "30 for 30" documentary which included extensive interviews with family, friends and associates.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In February 2014, he was invited back to Ohio State University as part of a ceremony recognizing the National Championship team he played on. While there, he also spoke to an audience of about 500 at the Archie Griffin Grand Ballroom in the Ohio Union, discussing past troubles and his ongoing rehabilitation and the restoration of his reputation.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In 2016, Clarett founded The Red Zone, a behavioral health agency in Youngstown, Ohio. The agency provides mental health services, addiction and recovery services, school-based social work, and many other services. In 2018, Youngstown City Schools released a report showing that 283 students who received services from The Red Zone saw their GPA increase by an average of 16.5%.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In 2018, Clarett was part of a business podcast called "Business and Biceps" with Cory Gregory and John Fosco. "Business and Biceps" has consistently ranked near the top of the business podcast rankings and in the top 100 overall podcasts in the Apple iTunes store.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In 2021, Clarett worked as a consultant to collegiate athletic departments like the University of Connecticut helping mentor players and encourage them to focus on their mental wellbeing.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: In recent years, Clarett has spoken in public forums several times about his experiences in the criminal justice system and the need for criminal justice reform. He also wrote an op-ed in "The Columbus Dispatch" on the same topic.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: During the 2018 Ohio Gubernatorial election, Clarett headlined a political fundraiser for Democratic candidate and fellow Youngstown native Joe Schiavoni during Schiavoni's failed bid for the Democratic nomination.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: Also during the 2018 Ohio gubernatorial election, Clarett participated in a campaign event and panel discussion with eventual winner and 70th Governor of Ohio Mike DeWine about ways to improve education, workforce training, and recovery from addiction.


title: Maurice Clarett

text: On February 9, 2022, Clarett was appointed to the board of directors of the Youngstown/Warren Regional Chamber of Commerce.


title: Oye Como Va

text: "Oye Cómo Va" is a 1962 cha-cha-chá by Tito Puente, originally released on "El Rey Bravo" (Tico Records). The song achieved worldwide popularity in 1970, when it was recorded by American rock group Santana for their album "Abraxas". This version was released as a single in 1971, reaching number 13 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, number 11 on the "Billboard" Easy Listening survey, and number 32 on the R&B chart. The block chord ostinato pattern that repeats throughout the song was most likely borrowed by Puente from Cachao's 1957 mambo "Chanchullo", which was recorded by Puente in 1959.


title: Oye Como Va

text: The song has been praised by critics and inducted into the Latin Grammy Hall of Fame in 2001 and the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2002. Due to its multinational origins—Cuban, Puerto Rican and American—and its many versions by artists from all over the world, "Oye cómo va" has come to represent "the interconnectedness, hybridity and transnationality" of Latin music in the United States.


title: Oye Como Va

text: "Oye cómo va" was written and recorded by Tito Puente and his orchestra in 1962 for Tico Records. The name of the song is taken from its refrain: ""Oye cómo va, mi ritmo..."" (Listen how it goes, my rhythm). The song was arranged as a cha-cha-chá with a repeated piano "tumbao" consisting of block chords and a vocal refrain sung by a chorus, typical of cha-cha-chá. The song's introduction and piano vamp are highly similar to the 1957 mambo "Chanchullo" by Israel "Cachao" López. According to Max Salazar, it is likely that Puente was inspired by Cachao's tune when composing "Oye cómo va", given the clear similarities. In fact, Puente recorded the song in 1959 for his album "Mucho cha cha" (RCA Victor).


title: Oye Como Va

text: Puente himself recorded "Oye cómo va" live on many occasions, including his 1980 Montreux Jazz Festival appearance with the Latin Percussion Jazz Ensemble.


title: Oye Como Va

text: Santana's arrangement is a "driving, cranked-up version" in a new style of Latin rock, adding electric guitar, Hammond B-3 organ, and a rock drum kit to the instrumentation and dropping Puente's brass section. The electric guitar part takes on Puente's flute melody, and the organ provides accompaniment (with organist Gregg Rolie's discreet use of the Leslie effect). There are several guitar solos and an organ solo, all of which are rooted in rock and the blues but also contain licks similar to those of the original arrangement.


title: Oye Como Va

text: Tito Puente, speaking in the intro to his recording of "Oye cómo va" on the album "Mambo Birdland", said "Everybody's heard of Santana. Santana! Beautiful Santana! He put our music, Latin rock, around the world, man! And I'd like to thank him publicly 'cause he recorded a tune and he gave me credit as the composer of the tune. So, since that day... all we play... is Santana music!" The version of the song on "Mambo Birdland" is a Santana-sized version. When interviewed, Puente explained how he was initially outraged by his song being covered by a rock band, until he received his first royalty check.


title: Oye Como Va

text: Santana's version was inducted into the Latin Grammy Hall of Fame in 2001 and the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2002. It was also included in the NPR 100 list, "the most important American musical works of the 20th century". In 2021, it was ranked No. 479 on "Rolling Stone"'s "500 Greatest Songs of All Time".


title: Oye Como Va

text: Santana's recording was sampled by 2 Live Crew on the song "Mamolapenga" from their 1990 album "Banned in the U.S.A.".


title: Oye Como Va

text: The song has been covered by various Latin music artists, such as Joe Cuba (1963 and 1970, in a medley with "Aprieta el pollo"), Azúcar Moreno (1990), Gerardo Mejía (1991), Julio Iglesias (1994), Banda M-1 (1994), Fruko y sus Tesos (1995), Celia Cruz (2000), The Conga Kings (2001), Kinky (2004). Japanese singer Chisato Moritaka covered the song on her 1990 album "Kokon Tozai". Natalie Cole recorded the song in 2013 on her #1 and Latin Grammy-nominated album "Natalie Cole en Español". Jazz versions have been recorded by Bobby Hutcherson ("Montara", 1975), Michel Camilo ("Thru My Eyes", 1997), New Orleans Nightcrawlers ("Live at the Old Point", 2000) and Eliane Elias ("Around the City", 2006). The Ventures included it on their "New Testament" album in 1971.


title: Oye Como Va

text: The song has been remixed by DJs as well. Two remixes charted in the United Kingdom. A remix of Tito Puente Jr & The Latin Rhythm's 1996 version of the song reached #36 in the UK charts. A second remix, released in 1997, peaked at #56.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: The Phaedrus (; ), written by Plato, is a dialogue between Plato's protagonist, Socrates, and Phaedrus, an interlocutor in several dialogues. The "Phaedrus" was presumably composed around 370 BCE, about the same time as Plato's "Republic" and "Symposium". Although ostensibly about the topic of love, the discussion in the dialogue revolves around the art of rhetoric and how it should be practiced, and dwells on subjects as diverse as metempsychosis (the Greek tradition of reincarnation) and erotic love.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: One of the dialogue's central passages is the famous Chariot Allegory, which presents the human soul as composed of a charioteer, a good horse tending upward to the divine, and a bad horse tending downward to material embodiment.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Socrates runs into Phaedrus on the outskirts of Athens. Phaedrus has just come from the home of Epicrates of Athens, where Lysias, son of Cephalus, has given a speech on love. Socrates, stating that he is "sick with passion for hearing speeches", walks into the countryside with Phaedrus hoping that Phaedrus will repeat the speech. They sit by a stream under a plane tree and a chaste tree, and the rest of the dialogue consists of oration and discussion.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: The dialogue, somewhat unusually, does not set itself as a re-telling of the day's events. The dialogue is given unmediated, in the direct words of Socrates and Phaedrus, without other interlocutors to introduce the story or give it to us; it comes first hand, as if we are witnessing the events themselves. This is in contrast to such dialogues as the "Symposium", in which Plato sets up multiple layers between the day's events and our hearing of it, explicitly giving us an incomplete, fifth-hand account.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Lysias was one of the three sons of Cephalus, the patriarch whose home is the setting for Plato's "Republic". Lysias was perhaps the most famous "logographos" (λογογράφος, lit. "argument writer") in Athens during the time of Plato. Lysias was a rhetorician and a sophist whose best-known extant work is a defense speech, "On the Murder of Eratosthenes." The speech is a masterpiece in which a man who murdered his wife's lover claims that the laws of Athens required him to do it. The outcome of this speech is unknown.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: The dialogue consists of a series of three speeches on the topic of love that serves as the subject to construct a discussion on the proper use of rhetoric. They encompass discussions of the soul, madness, divine inspiration, and the practice and mastery of an art.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: As they walk out into the countryside, Socrates tries to convince Phaedrus to repeat the speech of Lysias which he has just heard. Phaedrus makes several excuses, but Socrates suspects strongly that Phaedrus has a copy of the speech with him. Saying that while Lysias is present, he would never allow himself to be used as a training partner for Phaedrus to practice his own speech-making on, he asks Phaedrus to expose what he is holding under his cloak. Phaedrus gives in and agrees to perform Lysias' speech.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Phaedrus and Socrates walk through a stream and find a seat in the shade. Phaedrus and Socrates both note how anyone would consider Socrates a foreigner in the countryside, and Socrates attributes this fault to his love of learning which "trees and open country won't teach," while "men in the town" will. Socrates then proceeds to give Phaedrus credit for leading him out of his native land: "Yet you seem to have discovered a drug for getting me out ("dokei moi tes emes exodou to pharmakon heurekenai"). A hungry animal can be driven by dangling a carrot or a bit of greenstuff in front of it; similarly if you proffer me speeches bound in books ("en bibliois") I don't doubt you can cart me all around Attica, and anywhere else you please."


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Phaedrus then commences to repeat Lysias' speech. Beginning with "You understand, then, my situation: I've told you how good it would be for us in my opinion, if this worked out", the speech proceeds to explain all the reasons why it is better to give your favor to a non-lover rather than a true lover. Friendship with a non-lover, he says, demonstrates objectivity and prudence; it doesn't create gossip when you are seen together; it doesn't involve jealousy; and it allows for a much larger pool of possible partners. You will not be giving your favor to someone who is "more sick than sound in the head" and is not thinking straight, overcome by love. He explains that it is best to give your favor to one who can best return it, rather than one who needs it most. He concludes by stating that he thinks the speech is long enough, and the listener is welcome to ask any questions if something has been left out.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Socrates, attempting to flatter Phaedrus, responds that he is in ecstasy and that it is all Phaedrus' doing. Socrates comments that as the speech seemed to make Phaedrus radiant, he is sure that Phaedrus understands these things better than he does himself, and that he cannot help follow Phaedrus' lead into his Bacchic frenzy. Phaedrus picks up on Socrates' subtle sarcasm and asks Socrates not to joke.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Socrates retorts that he is still in awe, and claims to be able to make an even better speech than Lysias on the same subject.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: When Phaedrus begs to hear it however, Socrates refuses to give the speech. Phaedrus warns him that he is younger and stronger, and Socrates should "take his meaning" and "stop playing hard to get". Finally, after Phaedrus swears on the plane tree that he will never recite another speech for Socrates if Socrates refuses, Socrates, covering his head, consents.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Socrates, rather than simply listing reasons as Lysias had done, begins by explaining that while all men desire beauty, some are in love and some are not. We are all ruled, he says, by two principles: one is our inborn desire for pleasure, and the other is our acquired judgment that pursues what is best (237d). Following your judgment is "being in your right mind", while following desire towards pleasure without reason is "outrage" ("hubris").


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Following different desires leads to different things; one who follows his desire for food is a glutton, and so on. The desire to take pleasure in beauty, reinforced by the kindred beauty in human bodies, is called "Eros".


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Remarking that he is in the grip of something divine, and may soon be overtaken by the madness of the nymphs in this place, he goes on.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: The problem, he explains, is that one overcome with this desire will want to turn his boy into whatever is most pleasing to himself, rather than what is best for the boy. The boy's intellectual progress will be stifled, his physical condition will suffer, the lover will not wish the boy to mature and take a family, all because the lover is shaping him out of desire for pleasure rather than what is best. At some point, "right-minded reason" will take the place of "the madness of love", and the lover's oaths and promises to his boy will be broken.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Phaedrus believes that one of the greatest goods given is the relationship between lover and boy. This relationship brings guidance and love into the boy’s life. Because the boy has a lover as such a valuable role model, he is on his best behavior to not get caught in something shameful. To get caught in something shameful would be like letting down his lover, therefore the boy is consistently acting his best. The absence of shame makes room for a sense of pride to come in; pride from the wealthy feeling of impressing one's own lover. Impressing one's own lover brings more learning and guidance into the boy's life.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: The non-lover, he concludes, will do none of this, always ruled by judgment rather than desire for pleasure. Socrates, fearing that the nymphs will take complete control of him if he continues, states that he is going to leave before Phaedrus makes him "do something even worse".


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: However, just before Socrates is about to leave, he is stopped by the "familiar divine sign", his daemon, which always occurs and only just before Socrates is about to do something he should not. A voice "from this very spot" forbids Socrates to leave before he makes atonement for some offense to the gods. Socrates then admits that he thought both of the preceding speeches were terrible, saying Lysias' repeated itself numerous times, seemed uninterested in its subject, and seemed to be showing off. Socrates states that he is a "seer". While he is not very good at it, he is good enough for his purposes, and he recognizes what his offense has been: if love is a god or something divine, as he and Phaedrus both agree he is, he cannot be bad, as the previous speeches have portrayed him. Socrates, baring his head, vows to undergo a rite of purification as a follower of the Muses, and proceeds to give a speech praising the lover.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Socrates begins by discussing madness. If madness is all bad, then the preceding speeches would have been correct, but in actuality, madness given as a gift of the gods provides us with some of the best things we have. There are, in fact, several kinds of divine madness ("theia mania"), of which he cites four examples:


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: As they must show that the madness of love is, indeed, sent by a god to benefit the lover and beloved in order to disprove the preceding speeches, Socrates embarks on a proof of the divine origin of this fourth sort of madness. It is a proof, he says, that will convince "the wise if not the clever".


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: He begins by briefly proving the immortality of the soul. A soul is always in motion and as a self-mover has no beginning. A self-mover is itself the source of everything else that moves. So, by the same token, it cannot be destroyed. Bodily objects moved from the outside have no soul, while those that move from within have a soul. Moving from within, all souls are self-movers, and hence their immortality is necessary.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Then begins the famous chariot allegory. A soul, says Socrates, is like the "natural union of a team of winged horses and their charioteer". While the gods have two good horses, everyone else has a mixture: one is beautiful and good, while the other is neither.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: As souls are immortal, those lacking bodies patrol all of heaven so long as their wings are in perfect condition. When a soul sheds its wings, it comes to earth and takes on an earthly body that then seems to move itself. These wings lift up heavy things to where the gods dwell and are nourished and grow in the presence of the wisdom, goodness, and beauty of the divine. However, foulness and ugliness make the wings shrink and disappear.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: In heaven, he explains, there is a procession led by Zeus, who looks after everything and puts things in order. All the gods, except for Hestia, follow Zeus in this procession. While the chariots of the gods are balanced and easier to control, other charioteers must struggle with their bad horse, which will drag them down to earth if it has not been properly trained. As the procession works its way upward, it eventually makes it up to the high ridge of heaven where the gods take their stands and are taken in a circular motion to gaze at all that is beyond heaven.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: What is outside of heaven, says Socrates, is quite difficult to describe, lacking color, shape, or solidity, as it is the subject of all true knowledge, visible only to intelligence. The gods delight in these things and are nourished. Feeling wonderful, they are taken around until they make a complete circle. On the way they are able to see Justice, Self-control, Knowledge, and other things as they are in themselves, unchanging. When they have seen all things and feasted on them, coming all the way around, they sink back down inside heaven.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: The immortal souls that follow the gods most closely are able to just barely raise their chariots up to the rim and look out on reality. They see some things and miss others, having to deal with their horses; they rise and fall at varying times. Other souls, while straining to keep up, are unable to rise, and in noisy, sweaty discord they leave uninitiated, not having seen reality. Where they go after is then dependent on their own opinions, rather than the truth. Any soul that catches sight of any true thing is granted another circuit where it can see more; eventually, all souls fall back to earth. Those that have been initiated are put into varying human incarnations, depending on how much they have seen; those made into philosophers have seen the most, while kings, statesmen, doctors, prophets, poets, manual laborers, sophists, and tyrants follow respectively.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Souls then begin cycles of reincarnation. It generally takes 10,000 years for a soul to grow its wings and return to where it came, but philosophers, after having chosen such a life three times in a row, grow their wings and return after only 3,000 years. This is because they have seen the most and always keep its memory as close as possible, and philosophers maintain the highest level of initiation. They ignore human concerns and are drawn towards the divine. While ordinary people rebuke them for this, they are unaware that the lover of wisdom is possessed by a god. This is the fourth sort of madness, that of love.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: One comes to manifest this sort of love after seeing beauty here on earth and being reminded of true beauty as it was seen beyond heaven. When reminded, the wings begin to grow back, but as they are not yet able to rise, the afflicted gaze aloft and pay no attention to what goes on below, bringing on the charge of madness. This is the best form that possession by a god can take, for all those connected to it.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: When one is reminded of true beauty by the sight of a beautiful boy, he is called a lover. While all have seen reality, as they must have to be human, not all are so easily reminded of it. Those that can remember are startled when they see a reminder, and are overcome with the memory of beauty.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Beauty, he states, was among the most radiant things to see beyond heaven, and on earth it sparkles through vision, the clearest of our senses. Some have not been recently initiated, and mistake this reminder for beauty itself and only pursue desires of the flesh. This pursuit of pleasure, then, even when manifested in the love of beautiful bodies, is not "divine" madness, but rather just having lost one's head. The recent initiates, on the other hand, are overcome when they see a bodily form that has captured true beauty well, and their wings begin to grow. When this soul looks upon the beautiful boy it experiences the utmost joy; when separated from the boy, intense pain and longing occur, and the wings begin to harden. Caught between these two feelings, the lover is in utmost anguish, with the boy the only doctor for the pain.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Socrates then returns to the myth of the chariot. The charioteer is filled with warmth and desire as he gazes into the eyes of the one he loves. The good horse is controlled by its sense of shame, but the bad horse, overcome with desire, does everything it can to go up to the boy and suggest to it the pleasures of sex. The bad horse eventually wears out its charioteer and partner, and drags them towards the boy; yet when the charioteer looks into the boy's face, his memory is carried back to the sight of the forms of beauty and self-control he had with the gods, and pulls back violently on the reins. As this occurs over and over, the bad horse eventually becomes obedient and finally dies of fright when seeing the boy's face, allowing the lover's soul to follow the boy in reverence and awe.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: The lover now pursues the boy. As he gets closer to his quarry, and the love is reciprocated, the opportunity for sexual contact again presents itself. If the lover and beloved surpass this desire they have won the "true Olympic Contests"; it is the perfect combination of human self-control and divine madness, and after death, their souls return to heaven. Those who give in do not become weightless, but they are spared any punishment after their death, and will eventually grow wings together when the time comes.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: A lover's friendship is divine, Socrates concludes, while that of a non-lover offers only cheap, human dividends, and tosses the soul about on earth for 9,000 years. He apologizes to the gods for the previous speeches, and Phaedrus joins him in the prayer.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: After Phaedrus concedes that this speech was certainly better than any Lysias could compose, they begin a discussion of the nature and uses of rhetoric itself. After showing that speech making itself isn't something reproachful, and that what is truly shameful is to engage in speaking or writing shamefully or badly, Socrates asks what distinguishes good from bad writing, and they take this up.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Phaedrus claims that to be a good speechmaker, one does not need to know the truth of what he is speaking on, but rather how to properly persuade, persuasion being the purpose of speechmaking and oration. Socrates first objects that an orator who does not know bad from good will, in Phaedrus's words, harvest "a crop of really poor quality". Yet Socrates does not dismiss the art of speechmaking. Rather, he says, it may be that even one who knew the truth could not produce conviction without knowing the art of persuasion; on the other hand, "As the Spartan said, there is no genuine art of speaking without a grasp of the truth, and there never will be".


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: To acquire the art of rhetoric, then, one must make systematic divisions between two different kinds of things: one sort, like "iron" and "silver", suggests the same to all listeners; the other sort, such as "good" or "justice", lead people in different directions. Lysias failed to make this distinction, and accordingly, failed to even define what "love" itself is in the beginning; the rest of his speech appears thrown together at random, and is, on the whole, very poorly constructed. Socrates then goes on to say,


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: Socrates's speech, on the other hand, starts with a thesis and proceeds to make divisions accordingly, finding divine love, and setting it out as the greatest of goods. And yet, they agree, the art of making these divisions is dialectic, not rhetoric, and it must be seen what part of rhetoric may have been left out.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: When Socrates and Phaedrus proceed to recount the various tools of speechmaking as written down by the great orators of the past, starting with the "Preamble" and the "Statement Facts" and concluding with the "Recapitulation", Socrates states that the fabric seems a little threadbare. He goes on to compare one with only knowledge of these tools to a doctor who knows how to raise and lower a body's temperature but does not know when it is good or bad to do so, stating that one who has simply read a book or came across some potions knows nothing of the art. One who knows how to compose the longest passages on trivial topics or the briefest passages on topics of great importance is similar, when he claims that to teach this is to impart the knowledge of composing tragedies; if one were to claim to have mastered harmony after learning the lowest and highest notes on the lyre, a musician would say that this knowledge is what one must learn before one masters harmony, but it is not the knowledge of harmony itself. This, then, is what must be said to those who attempt to teach the art of rhetoric through "Preambles" and "Recapitulations"; they are ignorant of dialectic, and teach only what is necessary to learn as preliminaries.


title: Phaedrus (dialogue)

text: They go on to discuss what is good or bad in writing. Socrates tells a brief legend, critically commenting on the gift of writing from the Egyptian god Theuth to King Thamus, who was to disperse Theuth's gifts to the people of Egypt. After Theuth remarks on his discovery of writing as a remedy for the memory, Thamus responds that its true effects are likely to be the opposite; it is a remedy for reminding, not remembering, he says, with the appearance but not the reality of wisdom. Future generations will hear much without being properly taught, and will appear wise but not be so, making them difficult to get along with.