title: University of Strathclyde

text: The institution was named University of the Year 2012 by Times Higher Education and again in 2019, becoming the first university to receive this award twice. The annual income of the institution for 2019–20 was £334.8 million of which £81.2 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £298.8 million..


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The university was founded in 1796 through the will of John Anderson, professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Glasgow, who left instructions and the majority of his estate to create a second university in Glasgow which would focus on "Useful Learning" – specialising in practical subjects – "for the good of mankind and the improvement of science, a place of useful learning". The university later named its city centre campus after him.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: In 1828, the institution was renamed Anderson's University, partially fulfilling Anderson's vision of two universities in the city of Glasgow. The name was changed in 1887, to reflect the fact that there was no legal authority for the use of the title of 'university'. As a result, the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College was formed, becoming the Royal Technical College in 1912, and the Royal College of Science and Technology in 1956 concentrating on science and engineering teaching and research. Undergraduate students could qualify for degrees of the University of Glasgow or the equivalent Associate of the Royal College of Science and Technology (ARCST).


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Under Principal Samuel Curran, internationally respected nuclear physicist (and inventor of the scintillation counter), the Royal College gained University Status, receiving its Royal Charter to become The University of Strathclyde in 1964, merging with the Scottish College of Commerce at the same time. Contrary to popular belief, The University of Strathclyde was not created as a result of the Robbins Report – the decision to grant the Royal College university status had been made earlier in the 1960s but delayed as a result of Robbins Report. The University of Strathclyde was the UK's first technological university reflecting its history, teaching and research in technological education. In 1993, the university incorporated Jordanhill College of Education.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The university has grown from approximately 4,000 full-time students in 1964 to over 20,000 students in 2003, when it celebrated the 100th anniversary of the laying of the foundation stone of the original Royal College building.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: In July 2015, Her Majesty The Queen opened the University of Strathclyde Technology and Innovation Centre (TIC).


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The John Anderson Campus is located mostly within the Townhead district, on the north-eastern side of Glasgow city centre, with some buildings located slightly south of this in the Merchant City area. The campus grew initially from the massive Royal College Building on George Street - which was originally the location of the former Anderson's Institution. Work started in 1903 and completed in 1912, it was partially opened in 1910 and at the time was the largest educational building in Europe for technical education. Originally built as the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College Building, it now houses Bioscience, Chemistry, and Electronic and Electrical Engineering. In the late 1950s, campus expansion began with the construction of the James Weir, Thomas Graham and Student's Union buildings. Following the granting of the Royal Charter and the Royal College gaining university status in 1964, the campus grew quickly in size, expanding eastwards towards High Street on an area that had been rezoned for educational use and its slum housing cleared as part of the Townhead "comprehensive development area" (CDA).


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The James Weir Building, built in two stages in 1957 and 1962, was reconstructed and reopened in 2014 after a serious fire resulted in many rooms being unusable.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: University of Strathclyde Students' Association was founded in 1964 out of the merger of the respective student unions of both the Royal College and the Scottish College of Commerce and was located at 90 John Street, which was constructed by the Royal College in 1959. It remained the home of the Association until August 2021, when it moved into new accommodation within the former Colville Building on Richmond Street.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The Graham Hills Building was originally an office block known as 'Marland House', built by the General Post Office and completed in 1959 for the GPO's Telephones division and other governmental organisations but was acquired by the University in 1987 from British Telecom and converted for academic use in the early 1990s. It is now the location of the "Strathclyde Wonderwall" - one of the biggest wall murals in the United Kingdom.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The early 1960s also saw the fruition of a collaborative deal between the then Royal College and the Corporation of Glasgow to regenerate the Richmond Street site opposite the main buildings. This led to the construction of the McCance Building and the Livingstone Tower between 1962 and 1964, the latter having originally been designed as a commercial office block, but was instead leased to the University in 1965, and has been used as an academic building ever since.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The Architecture Building, completed in 1967, was designed by Frank Fielden and Associates, Frank Fielden being the Professor of Architecture in the Architecture School at the time. In 2012, Historic Scotland granted Listed Building Status (grade B) to it, along with the Wolfson Building designed by Morris and Steedman Architects. 2012 also saw the 20th Century Society select the Architecture Building as their 'Building of the Month' for September due to its cultural significance and enduring appeal.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Meanwhile, a new biomedical sciences building was opened in early 2010. It was designed by Shepparrd Robson, and aims to bring the multi-faceted disciplines of the Institute together under one roof. Sited on Cathedral Street in Glasgow, the 8,000 m building is the gateway to the university campus and city centre from the motorway.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The University of Strathclyde Centre for Sports, Health and Wellbeing is a leisure facility undergoing construction situated adjacent to 100 Cathedral Street. Construction began in November 2016 and completed in 2019.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Since taking over Jordanhill College in 1993, the university operated two campuses - The John Anderson Campus and the Jordanhill campus until 2012 when the Jordanhill campus was closed and everything was moved to the John Anderson Campus.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The Andersonian Library is the principal library of the University of Strathclyde. Established in 1796, it is one of the largest of its type in Scotland. It is situated in the Curran building. Situated over 5 floors at present, the Andersonian Library has more than 2,000 reader places, 450 computer places and extensive wi-fi zones for laptop use. It has around one million print volumes as well as access to over 540,000 electronic books, 239 databases and over 38,000 e-journals that can be used 24/7 from any suitably enabled computer.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The official records of the University of Strathclyde from 1796 to the present day. Includes the records of the university's predecessor institutions as well as the papers of many former staff and students and associated organisations.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: A diverse range of archives which have been acquired by gift or deposit to support the university's teaching and research.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Rare or significant printed material and books, including the Anderson Collection (the personal library of John Anderson, 1726–1796, natural philosopher), plus over 30 other collections spanning the 16th to the 21st centuries.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The University of Strathclyde Technology and Innovation Centre is a centre for technological research. The construction of this centre began in March 2012 and was completed in March 2015. The nine-storey, steel-framed building can accommodate around 1200 workers from numerous fields, including engineering, researching and project management. It includes open plan space for offices, three lecture theatres and areas for specialist laboratory equipment.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The project secured a £6.7 million funding from the European Regional Development Fund and another £26 million from the Scottish Government. The university itself supplied the other £57 million needed to reach its £89 million budget needed to create the centre.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: In addition to the Technology and Innovation Centre, a 5000m Industry Engagement Building is located adjacent to the TIC building.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Research carried out in the Technology and Innovation Centre is in the fields of: Advanced Engineering and Manufacturing, Advanced Science and Technology, Bionanotechnology, Business Engagement, Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation (CMAC), Energy, Health Technologies at Strathclyde, Human and Social Aspects of Technology, Photonics and Sensors, and Asset Management.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The TIC hosts the UK's first Fraunhofer research centre, the Fraunhofer Centre for Applied Photonics and TIC also plays a major role in Scotland's International Technology and Renewable Energy Zone (ITREZ).


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The university currently consists of four main faculties categorised based on subjects and academic fields that they deal with and each faculty is sub divided into several departments which deal with specific academic and research areas. They are:


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The university delivered teaching to full-time and part-time students in : undergraduates and postgraduates. Another 34,000 people take part in continuing education and professional development programmes. The university's main campus, John Anderson Campus, is located in the centre of Glasgow, near George Square. Till 2012, the university operated an education campus in the suburb of Jordanhill, at the site of the previous Jordanhill Teacher Training College which it disposed of and relocated to a new building in the John Anderson Campus. In January 2012, The university's Court also endorsed the recommendation of the Estates Steering Group that Strathclyde moves to a single campus by disposing of the entire Jordanhill site and constructing a new building for the Faculty of Education on the John Anderson campus.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Strathclyde is the only Scottish university that offers the IET Power Academy engineering scholarships to its engineering students.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Strathclyde is particularly renowned for engineering (having various engineering departments under the Faculty of Engineering), business management, political science, finance and accounting, law and architecture.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The university is highly ranked among the top 10 in the UK in various subjects according to the Complete University Guide 2019, namely being 1st for Accounting & Finance; 1st for Social Policy; 1st for Aural & Oral Sciences; 1st for Communication & Media Studies; 1st for Pharmacology and Pharmacy; 1st for Medical Technology; 1st for Hospitality, Leisure, Recreation & Tourism; 2nd for Marketing; 2nd for Forensic Science; 5th for Architecture; 5th for English; 6th for Business & Management Studies; 6th for Electrical & Electronic Engineering; 7th for Chemical Engineering; 8th for Civil Engineering; 8th for General Engineering and 9th for Mechanical Engineering. The university is ranked in the top ten universities in Britain in the subject Politics according to the Complete University Guide 2022. The university also ranked second in 2019 on social policy and administration in the national ranking according to The Guardian. Times Higher Education (THE) placed History at Strathclyde 9th for research intensity in a field of 83 UK universities after the last REF.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Strathclyde Business School is recognized the best in Scotland and is included in the British top 10, as well as in 1% of the global business schools that have triple accreditation: AACSBInternational, EQUIS and AMBA (the only one in Scotland). Strathclyde is placed in the top 20 of European business schools in the Financial Times Global MBA Rankings


title: University of Strathclyde

text: . In this regard, QS World University Ranking placed Strathclyde among 51-100 best universities in business management. Strathclyde Master's programs take 36th place globally in marketing, 51st place globally in business analysis and 55th globally in management, according to QS World University Ranking in 2020.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The University School of Government and Public Policy has a long tradition of interacting with national and global media organizations, governments, parliaments and international organizations such as the EU and OECD. Political science therefore takes 1st place in Scotland in the terms of research intensity. According to URAP Center Ranking, which has been publishing annual rankings since 2010 for each subject, the University of Strathclyde is constantly included in the top 120 global universities in politics. In 2013, QS World University Ranking placed Strathclyde among 101-150 best global universities in politics and international relations. In 2020, ARWU ranked Strathclyde in the 101-150 best Political Science universities. Ever since ARWU began to publish a separate subject ranking on Public Administration, Strathclyde has consistently ranked internationally among 76-100 best universities in 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: According to The Complete University Guide, Strathclyde Law School is in the UK's top 10 (2020). According to Times Higher Education, the University of Strathclyde was placed 76th best in law globally among universities in 2018.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: QS World University Rankings 2018 placed the university among the top 25 internationally for Hospitality & Leisure Management, 51-100 for Pharmacy, 51-100 for Business & Management, 101-150 for Electrical & Electronic Engineering, 101-150 for Architecture, 101-150 for Education, 151-200 for Accounting & Finance, 151-200 for Law, 151-200 for Civil & Structural Engineering, 151-200 for Mechanical Engineering, 201-250 for Chemical Engineering, 201-250 for Physics and Astronomy, 251-300 for Sociology, 251-300 for Economics, 251-300 for Materials Sciences, 301-350 for Mathematics and 301-350 for Computer Science & Information Systems.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The university is one of the 39 old universities in the UK comprising the distinctive Cluster Two of elite universities after Oxbridge. A detailed study published in 2015 by Vikki Boliver has shown among the Old universities, Oxford and Cambridge emerge as an elite tier, whereas the remaining 22 Russell Group universities are undifferentiated from 17 other prestigious Old universities (including the University of Strathclyde) which form the second cluster.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: In 2011 the university's Advanced Forming Research Centre was announced as a leading partner in the first UK-wide Technology Strategy Board Catapult Centre. The Government also announced that the university is to lead the UK-wide EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The university has become the base for the first Fraunhofer Centre to be established in the UK. Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, Europe's largest organisation for contract research, is creating the new Fraunhofer Centre for Applied Photonics in collaboration with Strathclyde, for research in sectors including healthcare, security, energy and transport.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Strathclyde was chosen in 2012 as the exclusive European partner university for South Korea's global research and commercialisation programme – the Global Industry-Academia Cooperation Programme, funded by South Korea's Ministry of Knowledge and Economics.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: In 2012 the university became a key partner in its second UK Catapult Centre. Plans for the Catapult Centre for Offshore Renewable Energy were announced at Strathclyde by Business Secretary Vince Cable. The university has also become a partner in the Industrial Doctorate Centre for Offshore Renewable Energy, which is one of 11 doctoral centres at Strathclyde.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Engineers at the university are leading the €4 million, Europe-wide Stardust project, a research-based training network investigating the removal of space debris and the deflection of asteroids.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Strathclyde has become part of the new ESRC Enterprise Research Centre, a £2.9 million venture generating world-class research to help stimulate growth for small and medium-sized enterprises.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Since 2016 the Wellcome Trust has invested over £3 million of funding awards in the university's Centre for the Social History of Health and Healthcare, for research projects, teaching and training programmes, and to build Medical Humanities partnerships in Africa and Asia.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: The university has centres in pharmacy, drug delivery and development, micro and ultrasonic engineering, biophotonics and photonics, biomedical engineering, medical devices, new therapies, prosthetics and orthotics, the history of health and healthcare, law, crime and justice and social work. The university is involved in 11 partnerships with other universities through the Scottish Funding Councils' Research Pooling Programme, covering areas such as engineering, life sciences, energy, marine science and technology, physics, chemistry, computer sciences and economics.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Several Strathclyde staff have been elected to Fellowships in the Royal Societies of Edinburgh and London.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: There are around 15,000 undergraduate students out of which almost 4,000 are mature students who start their studies after gaining experience in the workplace, and almost 16% are overseas students from more than 100 countries around the world. Around 7,000 students are undertaking postgraduate studies at Strathclyde. There are approximately 45,000 students studying part-time in the university each year, either in the evenings and weekends or through distance learning. The university also has an alumni population of over 100,000 and growing.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Alumni of Strathclyde and its predecessors (the Andersonian Institute and the Royal College of Science and Technology) include the scientists; William Ramsay, Nobel Prize Winner in Chemistry (1904); John Logie Baird, inventor of the first working television; Henry Faulds, physician, missionary and scientist who developed of fingerprinting; James Young, chemist best known for his method of distilling paraffin from coal and oil shales; Professor John Curtice, a renowned political commentator, Fellow of the British Academy, the Royal Society of Arts and the Royal Society of Edinburgh.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: In politics: Annabel Goldie, Baroness Goldie, Leader of the Scottish Conservative Party, member of the House of Lords, Minister of State for Defense; Helen Liddell, Baroness Liddell of Coatdyke, minister in Blair government, a House of Lords member, former British High Commissioner to Australia, former Minister for Trade and Industry, former Minister for Transport, former Economic Secretary of the Treasury, the first female General Secretary of the Scottish Labour Party at the age of 26 from 1977 to 1978; John McFall, Baron McFall of Alcluith, Senior Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords; Alex Ifeanyichukwu Ekwueme, the first elected Vice-President of Nigeria; Fahri Hamzah, an Indonesian politician and currently a deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council; Omar Abdullah, Indian politician, Chief Minister of J & K state, former Minister of State for External Affairs; Nikos Pappas, Greek Minister of Digital Policy, Telecommunications and Media in Alexis Tsipras' cabinet; David Gordon Mundell, Secretary of the State for Scotland in Cameron and May governments, Conservative MP; Eduardo Doryan, Costa Rican Minister of Education; Ann McKechin, Member of Parliament, former Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland; Jim Murphy, Labour Member of Parliament and former Secretary of State for Scotland; Malcolm Gray Bruce, Baron Bruce of Bennachie, Deputy Leader of Liberal Democrats, Chair of the International Development Committee, Leader of the Liberal Democrats in Scotland, member of House of Lords; Elish Angiolini, Lord Advocate; Jim Murphy leader of Labour Party in Scotland in 2014–2015; Lord Bracadale, Senator of the College of Justice, Lord Commissioner of Justiciary; Sir Simon Stevens (healthcare manager) is a Chief Executive of the National Health Service; John Charles Walsham Reith, 1st Baron Reith, the Director-General of the BBC; Michael Peter Evans-Freke, 12th Baron Carbery, an Irish peer; John Ruaridh Grant Mackenzie, 5th Earl of Cromartie, a Scottish peer, the current chief of Clan Mackenzie; Alexander Macmillan, 2nd Earl of Stockton, Conservative MP, member of the House of Lords, grandson of prime minister Harold Macmillan; Nazir Karamagi, Tanzanian Minister of Energy and Minerals, Minister of Industry, Trade and Marketing; Francis Nhema, Zimbabwean Minister of Youth Development, Minister of Environment; Lord Clive Soley, Baron Soley, Labour MP, member of the House of Lords; Khandaker Mosharraf Hossain, Bangladeshi Minister of Local Government and Engineering Department; Ken Kandodo, Malawi's Minister of Finance; Iain Peebles, Lord Bannatyne, Senator of the College of Justice; Ian McAllister, Distinguished Professor of Political Science at the Australian National University; Mark Blyth, Scottish-American political scientist and a professor of international political economy at Brown University; K M Baharul Islam - Professor and Chair of Public Policy and Government Center at Indian Institute of Management Kashipur; Fellow, Indian Institute of Advanced Study; Sandra Currie Osborne, Labour MP, a member of the Foreign Affairs Select Committee; Zulkieflimansyah, Indonesian Governor of West Nusa Tenggara;Muhammad Khan Achakzai, Pakistani Governor of Balochistan; Tommy Sheridan, Scottish politician;


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Tasmina Ahmed-Sheikh, former MP for Ochil and South Perthshire; Willie Coffey, MSP for Kilmarnock and Irvine Valley.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: In business: John Barton, Chairman of Next plc and EasyJet; Sir Thomas Hunter, Entrepreneur and Philanthropist; Jim McColl, Scotland's richest man;John Giannandrea, Vice President at Google, head of Google Search; Brian Souter, co-founder of the Stagecoach Group; Sanjay Jha, chief executive officer of Motorola; chief executive officer of Motorola Mobile Devices; Alastair Storey, chief executive officer of Global Foundries, chairman and chief executive officer of Westbury Street Holdings; and Andrew Wyllie, civil engineer, chief executive officer of the Costain Group and president of the Institution of Civil Engineers.


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Other alumni include: David Livingstone, explorer in Africa and medical missionary; Tom Devine, historian; Dame Elish Angiolini, the first female Solicitor General and Lord Advocate of Scotland; Lauren Mayberry, lead singer of synthpop band Chvrches; Aileen McGlynn, Scottish paralympic gold medal-winning tandem cyclist and world record holder; Chris Sawyer, creator of "RollerCoaster Tycoon" and "Transport Tycoon" video game series


title: University of Strathclyde

text: Academics associated with the university include; James Blyth, generated electrical power from wind; Sir Samuel Curran, inventor of the Scintillation counter; Thomas Graham, chemist who formulated the law of diffusion of gases; Andrew Ure, physician and founder of Andersonian Institution; Matthew Charteris, taught medicine at Anderson's from 1876 to 1880.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The history of Scandinavia is the history of the geographical region of Scandinavia and its peoples. The region is located in Northern Europe, and consists of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Finland and Iceland are at times, especially in English-speaking contexts, considered part of Scandinavia.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Little evidence remains in Scandinavia of the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, or the Iron Age except limited numbers of tools created from stone, bronze, and iron, some jewelry and ornaments, and stone burial cairns. One important collection that exists, however, is a widespread and rich collection of stone drawings known as petroglyphs.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: During the Weichselian glaciation, almost all of Scandinavia was buried beneath a thick permanent sheet of ice and the Stone Age was delayed in this region. Some valleys close to the watershed were indeed ice-free around 30 000 years B.P. Coastal areas were ice-free several times between 75 000 and 30 000 years B.P. and the final expansion towards the late Weichselian maximum took place after 28 000 years B.P.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: As the climate slowly warmed up at the end of the ice age and deglaciation took place, nomadic hunters from central Europe sporadically visited the region, but it was not until around 12,000 BCE before permanent, but nomadic, habitation took root.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: As the ice receded, reindeer grazed on the flat lands of Denmark and southernmost Sweden. This was the land of the Ahrensburg culture, tribes who hunted over vast territories and lived in lavvus on the tundra. There was little forest in this region except for arctic white birch and rowan, but the taiga slowly appeared.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: From c. 9,000 to 6,000 B.P. (Middle to Late Mesolithic), Scandinavia was populated by mobile or semi-sedentary groups about whom little is known. They subsisted by hunting, fishing and gathering. Approximately 200 burial sites have been investigated in the region from this period of 3,000 years.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: In the 7th millennium BC, when the reindeer and their hunters had moved for northern Scandinavia, forests had been established in the land. The Maglemosian culture lived in Denmark and southern Sweden. To the north, in Norway and most of southern Sweden, lived the Fosna-Hensbacka culture, who lived mostly along the edge of the forest. The northern hunter/gatherers followed the herds and the salmon runs, moving south during the winters, moving north again during the summers. These early peoples followed cultural traditions similar to those practised throughout other regions in the far north – areas including modern Finland, Russia, and across the Bering Strait into the northernmost strip of North America.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: During the 6th millennium BC, southern Scandinavia was covered in temperate broadleaf and mixed forests. Fauna included aurochs, wisent, moose and red deer. The Kongemose culture was dominant in this time period. They hunted seals and fished in the rich waters. North of the Kongemose people lived other hunter-gatherers in most of southern Norway and Sweden called the Nøstvet and Lihult cultures, descendants of the Fosna and Hensbacka cultures. Near the end of the 6th millennium BC, the Kongemose culture was replaced by the Ertebølle culture in the south.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: During the 5th millennium BC, the Ertebølle people learned pottery from neighbouring tribes in the south, who had begun to cultivate the land and keep animals. They too started to cultivate the land, and by 3000 BC they became part of the megalithic Funnelbeaker culture. During the 4th millennium BC, these Funnelbeaker tribes expanded into Sweden up to Uppland. The Nøstvet and Lihult tribes learnt new technology from the advancing farmers (but not agriculture) and became the Pitted Ware cultures towards the end of the 4th millennium BC. These Pitted Ware tribes halted the advance of the farmers and pushed them south into southwestern Sweden, but some say that the farmers were not killed or chased away, but that they voluntarily joined the Pitted Ware culture and became part of them. At least one settlement appears to be mixed, the Alvastra pile-dwelling.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: It is not known what language these early Scandinavians spoke, but towards the end of the 3rd millennium BC, they were overrun by new tribes who many scholars think spoke Proto-Indo-European, the Battle-Axe culture. This new people advanced up to Uppland and the Oslofjord, and they probably provided the language that was the ancestor of the modern Scandinavian languages. They were cattle herders, and with them most of southern Scandinavia entered the Neolithic. The transmission of metallurgy to southern Scandinavia coincided with the introduction of long barrows, causewayed enclosures, two-aisled houses, and certain types of artefacts, and seems to have enabled the establishment of a fully Neolithic society.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Even though Scandinavians joined the European Bronze Age cultures fairly late through trade, Scandinavian sites present rich and well-preserved objects made of wool, wood and imported Central European bronze and gold. During this period Scandinavia gave rise to the first known advanced civilization in this area following the Nordic Stone Age. The Scandinavians adopted many central European and Mediterranean symbols at the same time that they created new styles and objects. Mycenaean Greece, the Villanovan Culture, Phoenicia and Ancient Egypt have all been identified as possible sources of influence in Scandinavian artwork from this period. The foreign influence is believed to originate with amber trade, and amber found in Mycenaean graves from this period originates from the Baltic Sea. Several petroglyphs depict ships, and the large stone formations known as stone ships indicate that shipping played an important role in the culture. Several petroglyphs depict ships which could possibly be Mediterranean.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: From this period there are many mounds and fields of petroglyphs, but their signification is long since lost. There are also numerous artifacts of bronze and gold. The rather crude appearance of the petroglyphs compared to the bronze works have given rise to the theory that they were produced by different cultures or different social groups. No written language existed in the Nordic countries during the Bronze Age.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Nordic Bronze Age was characterized by a warm climate (which is compared to that of the Mediterranean), which permitted a relatively dense population, but it ended with a climate change consisting of deteriorating, wetter and colder climate (sometimes believed to have given rise to the legend of the Fimbulwinter) and it seems very likely that the climate pushed the Germanic tribes southwards into continental Europe. During this time there was Scandinavian influence in Eastern Europe. A thousand years later, the numerous East Germanic tribes that claimed Scandinavian origins (Burgundians, Goths and Heruls), as did the Lombards, rendered Scandinavia (Scandza) the name "womb of nations" in Jordanes' "Getica".


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Nordic Bronze Age ended with a deteriorating, colder and wetter climate. This period is known for being poor in archaeological finds.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: This is also the period when the Germanic tribes became known to the Mediterranean world and the Romans. In 113–101 BC two Germanic tribes originating from Jutland, in modern-day Denmark, attacked the Roman Republic in what is today known as the Cimbrian War. These two tribes, the Cimbri and the Teutons, initially inflicted the heaviest losses that Rome had suffered since the Second Punic War. The Cimbri and the Teutons were eventually defeated by the Roman legions.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Initially iron was valuable and was used for decoration. The oldest objects were needles, but swords and sickles are found as well. Bronze continued to be used during the whole period but was mostly used for decoration. The traditions were a continuity from the Nordic Bronze Age, but there were strong influences from the Hallstatt culture in Central Europe. They continued with the Urnfield culture tradition of burning corpses and placing the remains in urns. During the last centuries, influences from the Central European La Tène culture spread to Scandinavia from northwestern Germany, and there are finds from this period from all the provinces of southern Scandinavia. From this time archaeologists have found swords, shieldbosses, spearheads, scissors, sickles, pincers, knives, needles, buckles, kettles, etc. Bronze continued to be used for torques and kettles, the style of which were a continuity from the Bronze Age. One of the most prominent finds is the Dejbjerg wagon from Jutland, a four-wheeled wagon of wood with bronze parts.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: While many Germanic tribes sustained continued contact with the culture and military presence of the Roman Empire, much of Scandinavia existed on the most extreme periphery of the Latin world. With the exception of the passing references to the Swedes (Suiones) and the Geats (Gautoi), much of Scandinavia remained unrecorded by Roman authors.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: In Scandinavia, there was a great import of goods, such as coins (more than 7,000), vessels, bronze images, glass beakers, enameled buckles, weapons, etc. Moreover, the style of metal objects and clay vessels was markedly Roman. Some objects appeared for the first time, such as shears and pawns.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: There are also many bog bodies from this time in Denmark, Schleswig and southern Sweden. Together with the bodies, there are weapons, household wares and clothes of wool. Great ships made for rowing have been found from the 4th century in Nydam mosse in Schleswig. Many were buried without burning, but the burning tradition later regained its popularity.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Through the 5th century and 6th century, gold and silver became more common. Much of this can be attributed to the ransacking of the Roman Empire by Germanic tribes, from which many Scandinavians returned with gold and silver.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The period succeeding the fall of the Roman Empire is known as the Germanic Iron Age, and it is divided into the early Germanic Iron and the late Germanic Iron Age, which in Sweden is known as the Vendel Age, with rich burials in the basin of Lake Mälaren. The early Germanic Iron Age is the period when the Danes appear in history, and according to Jordanes, they were of the same stock as the Swedes ("suehans", "suetidi") and had replaced the Heruls.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: During the fall of the Roman empire, there was an abundance of gold that flowed into Scandinavia, and there are excellent works in gold from this period. Gold was used to make scabbard mountings and bracteates; notable examples are the Golden horns of Gallehus.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: After the Roman Empire had disappeared, gold became scarce and Scandinavians began to make objects of gilded bronze, with decorations of interlacing animals in Scandinavian style. The early Germanic Iron Age decorations show animals that are rather faithful anatomically, but in the late Germanic Iron Age they evolve into intricate shapes with interlacing and interwoven limbs that are well known from the Viking Age.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: In February 2020, Secrets of the Ice Program researchers discovered a 1,500-year-old Viking arrowhead  dating back to the Germanic Iron Age and locked in a glacier in southern Norway caused by the climate change in the Jotunheimen Mountains. The arrowhead made of iron was revealed with its cracked wooden shaft and a feather, is 17 cm long and weighs just 28 grams.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Since prehistoric times, the Sami people of Arctic Europe have lived and worked in an area that stretches over the northern parts of the regions now known as Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the Russian Kola Peninsula. They have inhabited the northern arctic and sub-arctic regions of Fenno-Scandinavia and Russia for at least 5,000 years. The Sami are counted among the Arctic peoples and are members of circumpolar groups such as the Arctic Council Indigenous Peoples' Secretariat.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Petroglyphs and archeological findings such as settlements dating from about 10,000 B.C. can be found in the traditional lands of the Sami. These hunters and gatherers of the late Paleolithic and early Mesolithic were named Komsa by the researchers as what they identified themselves as is unknown.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Sami have been recognized as an indigenous people in Norway since 1990 according to ILO convention 169, and hence, according to international law, the Sami people in Norway are entitled special protection and rights.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: During the Viking Age, the Vikings (Scandinavian warriors and traders) raided, colonized and explored large parts of Europe, the Middle East, northern Africa, as far west as Newfoundland.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The beginning of the Viking Age is commonly given as 793, when Vikings pillaged the important British island monastery of Lindisfarne, and its end is marked by the unsuccessful invasion of England attempted by Harald Hårdråde in 1066 and the Norman conquest.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The age of settlement began around 800 AD . The Vikings invaded and eventually settled in Scotland , England, Greenland , the Faroe Islands , Iceland , Ireland , Livonia , Normandy , the Shetland Islands, Sicily, Rus' and Vinland, on what is now known as the Island of Newfoundland . Swedish settlers were mostly present in Rus, Livonia, and other eastern regions while the Norwegians and the Danish were primarily concentrated in western and northern Europe . These eastern-traveling Scandinavian migrants were eventually known as Varangians ("væringjar", meaning "sworn men"),and according to the oldest Slavic sources , these varangians founded Kievan Rus, the major East European state prior to the Mongol invasions. The western-led warriors, eventually known as Vikings, left great cultural marks on regions such as French Normandy, England, and Ireland, where the city of Dublin was founded by Viking invaders. Iceland first became colonized in the late 9th century .


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Before and during this age, the Norsemen significantly intermixed with the Slavs. The Slavic and Viking cultures influenced each other: Slavic and Viking tribes were "closely linked, fighting one another, intermixing and trading". In the Middle Ages, a significant amount of ware was transferred from Slavic areas to Scandinavia, and Denmark was "a melting pot of Slavic and Scandinavian elements". The presence of Slavs in Scandinavia is "more significant than previously thought" although "the Slavs and their interaction with Scandinavia have not been adequately investigated". A grave of a warrior-woman dating to the 10th century in Denmark was long thought to belong to a Viking. However, new analyses revealed that the woman was a Slav from present-day Poland. The first king of the Swedes, Eric, was married to Gunhild, of the Polish House of Piast. Likewise, his son, Olof, fell in love with Edla, a Slavic woman, and took her as his "" (concubine). She bore him a son and a daughter: Emund the Old, King of Sweden, and Astrid, Queen of Norway. Cnut the Great, King of Denmark, England and Norway, was the son of a daughter of Mieszko I of Poland, possibly the former Polish queen of Sweden, wife of Eric.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Viking religious beliefs were heavily connected to Norse mythology. Vikings placed heavy emphasis on battle, honor and focused on the idea of Valhalla, a mythical home with the gods for fallen warriors. Another Norse tradition was that of blood feuds, which particularly had devastated Iceland.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Christianity in Scandinavia came later than most parts of Europe. In Denmark Harald Bluetooth Christianized the country around 980. The process of Christianization began in Norway during the reigns of Olaf Tryggvason (reigned 995 AD–c.1000 AD) and Olaf II Haraldsson (reigned 1015 AD–1030 AD). Olaf and Olaf II had been baptized voluntarily outside of Norway. Olaf II managed to bring English clergy to his country. Norway's conversion from the Norse religion to Christianity was mostly the result of English missionaries. As a result of the adoption of Christianity by the monarchy and eventually the entirety of the country, traditional shamanistic practices were marginalized and eventually persecuted. Völvas, practitioners of seid, a Scandinavian pre-Christian tradition, were executed or exiled under newly Christianized governments in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Icelandic Commonwealth adopted Christianity in 1000 AD, after pressure from Norway. The "Goði"-chieftain Þorgeirr Ljósvetningagoði was instrumental in bringing this about. By formulating a law that made Christianity the official religion, but also that religious practice in the private sphere was outside of the law, he managed to stave off the threat from Norway, limiting the feuds and avoiding an religiously motivated civil war.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Sweden required a little more time to transition to Christianity, with indigenous religious practices commonly held in localized communities well until the end of the eleventh century. A brief Swedish civil war ensued in 1066 primarily reflecting the divisions between practitioners of indigenous religions and advocates of Christianity; by the mid-twelfth century, the Christian faction appeared to have triumphed; the once resistant center of Uppsala became the seat of the Swedish Archbishop in 1164. The Christianization of Scandinavia occurred nearly simultaneously with the end of the Viking era. The adoption of Christianity is believed to have aided in the absorption of Viking communities into the greater religious and cultural framework of the European continent.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Kalmar Union (Danish/Norwegian/Swedish: "Kalmarunionen") was a series of personal unions (1397–1520) that united the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden under a single monarch. The countries had given up their sovereignty but not their independence, and diverging interests (especially Swedish dissatisfaction over the Danish and Holsteinish dominance) gave rise to a conflict that would hamper it from the 1430s until its final dissolution in 1523.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Kalmar War in 1611–1613 was the last serious (although possibly unrealistic) attempt by a Danish King (Christian IV) to re-create the Kalmar Union by force. However, The Kalmar War ended with a minor Danish victory and not the total defeat of the Swedes. No more Danish attempts would be made to re-create the Kalmar Union following this war.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Protestant Reformation came to Scandinavia in the 1530s, and Scandinavia soon became one of the heartlands of Lutheranism. Catholicism almost completely vanished in Scandinavia, except for a small population in Denmark.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Thirty Years' War was a conflict fought between the years 1618 and 1648, principally in the Central European territory of the Holy Roman Empire but also involving most of the major continental powers. Although it was from its outset a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics, the self-preservation of the Habsburg dynasty was also a central motive. The Danes and then Swedes intervened at various points to protect their interests.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Danish intervention began when Christian IV (1577–1648) the King of Denmark-Norway, himself a Lutheran, helped the German Protestants by leading an army against the Holy Roman Empire, fearing that Denmark's sovereignty as a Protestant nation was being threatened. The period began in 1625 and lasted until 1629. Christian IV had profited greatly from his policies in northern Germany (Hamburg had been forced to accept Danish sovereignty in 1621, and in 1623 the Danish heir apparent was made Administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Verden. In 1635 he became Administrator of the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen too.) As an administrator, Christian IV had done remarkably well, obtaining for his kingdom a level of stability and wealth that was virtually unmatched elsewhere in Europe, paid for by the Øresund toll and extensive war reparations from Sweden. It also helped that the French regent Cardinal Richelieu was willing to pay for a Danish incursion into Germany. Christian IV invaded at the head of a mercenary army of 20,000 men, but the Danish forces were severely beaten, and Christian IV had to sign an ignominious defeat, the first in a series of military setbacks to weaken his kingdom.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Swedish intervention began in 1630 and lasted until 1635. Some within Ferdinand II's court believed that Wallenstein wanted to take control of the German princes and thus gain influence over the emperor. Ferdinand II dismissed Wallenstein in 1630. He later recalled him after Gustavus Adolphus attacked the empire and prevailed in a number of significant battles.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Gustavus Adolphus, like Christian IV before him, came to aid the German Lutherans to forestall Catholic aggression against their homeland and to obtain economic influence in the German states around the Baltic Sea. Also like Christian IV, Gustavus Adolphus was subsidized by Richelieu, the Chief Minister of King Louis XIII of France, and by the Dutch. From 1630 to 1634, they drove the Catholic forces back and regained much of the occupied Protestant lands.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Swedish rise to power began under the rule of Charles IX. During the Ingrian War Sweden expanded its territories eastward. Several other wars with Poland, Denmark-Norway, and German countries enabled further Swedish expansion, although there were some setbacks such as the Kalmar War. Sweden began consolidating its empire. Several other wars followed soon after including the Northern Wars and the Scanian War. Denmark suffered many defeats during this period. Finally under the rule of Charles XI the empire was consolidated under a semi-absolute monarchy.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Great Northern War was fought between a coalition of Russia, Denmark-Norway and Saxony-Poland (from 1715 also Prussia and Hanover) on one side and Sweden on the other side from 1700 to 1721. It started by a coordinated attack on Sweden by the coalition in 1700 and ended 1721 with the conclusion of the Treaty of Nystad and the Stockholm treaties. As a result of the war, Russia supplanted Sweden as the dominant power on the Baltic Sea and became a major player in European politics.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Both Sweden and Denmark-Norway maintained a number of colonies outside Scandinavia starting in the 17th century lasting until the 20th century. Greenland, Iceland and The Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic were Norwegian dependencies that were incorporated into the united kingdom of Denmark-Norway. In the Caribbean, Denmark started a colony on St Thomas in 1671, St John in 1718, and purchased Saint Croix from France in 1733. Denmark also maintained colonies in India, Tranquebar and Frederiksnagore. The Danish East India Company operated out of Tranquebar. Sweden also chartered a Swedish East India Company. During its heyday, the Danish and Swedish East India Companies imported more tea than the British East India Company – and smuggled 90% of it into Britain where it could be sold at a huge profit. Both East India Companies folded over the course of the Napoleonic Wars. Sweden had the short lived colony New Sweden in Delaware in North America during the 1630s and later acquired the islands of Saint-Barthélemy (1785–1878) and Guadeloupe in the Caribbean.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Scandinavia was divided during the Napoleonic Wars. Denmark-Norway tried to remain neutral but became involved in the conflict after British demands to turn over the navy. Britain thereafter attacked the Danish fleet at the battle of Copenhagen (1801) and bombarded the city during the second battle of Copenhagen (1807). Most of the Danish fleet was captured following the Second Battle of Copenhagen in 1807. The bombardment of Copenhagen led to an alliance with France and outright war with Britain, whose navy blockaded Denmark-Norway and severely impeded communication between the two kingdoms and caused a famine in Norway. Sweden, allied with Britain at the time, seized the opportunity to invade Norway in 1807 but was beaten back. The war with Britain was fought at sea in a series of battles, Battle of Zealand Point, Battle of Lyngør, and Battle of Anholt, by the remnants of the Danish fleet in the ensuing years, as the Danes tried to break the British blockade, in what became known as the Gunboat War. After the war, Denmark was forced to cede Heligoland to Britain.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Sweden joined the Third Coalition against Napoleon in 1805, but the coalition fell apart after the peace at Tilsit in 1807, forcing Russia to become the ally of France. Russia invaded Finland in 1808 and forced Sweden to cede that province at the peace of Fredrikshamn in 1809. The inept government of King Gustav IV Adolf led to his deposition and banishment. A new constitution was introduced, and his uncle Charles XIII was enthroned. Since he was childless, Sweden chose as his successor the commander in chief of the Norwegian army, Prince Christian August of Augustenborg. However, his sudden death in 1810 forced the Swedes to look for another candidate, and once more they chose an enemy officer. Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, Marshal of France, would be named the next king. Baron Karl Otto Mörner, an obscure member of the Diet, was the one who initially extended the offer of the Swedish crown to the young soldier. Bernadotte was originally one of Napoleon's eighteen Marshals.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Sweden decided to join the alliance against France in 1813 and was promised Norway as a reward. After the battle of Leipzig in October 1813, Bernadotte abandoned the pursuit of Napoleon and marched against Denmark, where he forced the king of Denmark-Norway to conclude the Treaty of Kiel on 14 January 1814. Norway was ceded to the king of Sweden, but Denmark retained the Norwegian Atlantic possessions of the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland. However, the treaty of Kiel never came into force. Norway declared its independence, adopted a liberal constitution, and elected Prince Christian Frederik as king. After a short war with Sweden, Norway had to concede to a personal union with Sweden at the Convention of Moss. King Christian Frederik abdicated and left for Denmark in October, and the Norwegian Storting (parliament) elected the Swedish king as King of Norway, after having enacted such amendments to the constitution as were necessary to allow for the union with Sweden.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: On 14 January 1814, at the Treaty of Kiel, the king of Denmark-Norway ceded Norway to the king of Sweden. The terms of the treaty provoked widespread opposition in Norway. The Norwegian vice-roy and heir to the throne of Denmark-Norway, Christian Frederik took the lead in a national uprising, assumed the title of regent, and convened a constitutional assembly at Eidsvoll. On 17 May 1814 the Constitution of Norway was signed by the assembly, and Christian Frederik was elected as king of independent Norway.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Swedish king rejected the premise of an independent Norway and launched a military campaign on 27 July 1814, with an attack on the Hvaler islands and the city of Fredrikstad. The Swedish army was superior in numbers, was better equipped and trained, and was led by one of Napoleon's foremost generals, the newly elected Swedish crown prince, Jean Baptiste Bernadotte. Battles were short and decisively won by the Swedes. Armistice negotiations concluded on 14 August 1814.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: In the peace negotiations, Christian Frederik agreed to relinquish claims to the Norwegian crown and return to Denmark if Sweden would accept the democratic Norwegian constitution and a loose personal union. On 4 November 1814, the Norwegian Parliament adopted the constitutional amendments required to enter a union with Sweden, and elected king Charles XIII as king of Norway.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Following growing dissatisfaction with the union in Norway, the parliament unanimously declared its dissolution on 7 June 1905. This unilateral action met with Swedish threats of war. A plebiscite on 13 August confirmed the parliamentary decision. Negotiations in Karlstad led to agreement with Sweden on 23 September and mutual demobilization. Both parliaments revoked the Act of Union 16 October, and the deposed king Oscar II of Sweden renounced his claim to the Norwegian throne and recognized Norway as an independent kingdom on 26 October. The Norwegian parliament offered the vacant throne to Prince Carl of Denmark, who accepted after another plebiscite had confirmed the monarchy. He arrived in Norway on 25 November 1905, taking the name Haakon VII.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Finnish War was fought between Sweden and Russia from February 1808 to September 1809. As a result of the war, Finland which formed the eastern third of Sweden proper became the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland within Imperial Russia. Finland remained as a part of Russian Empire until 1917 at which point it became independent. Another notable effect was the Swedish parliament's adoption of a new constitution and a new royal house, that of Bernadotte.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Industrialization began in the mid 19th century in Scandinavia. In Denmark industrialization began in, and was confined to, Copenhagen until the 1890s, after which smaller towns began to grow rapidly. Denmark remained primarily agricultural until well into the 20th century, but agricultural processes were modernized and processing of dairy and meats became more important than the export of raw agricultural products.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Industrialization of Sweden experienced a boom during the First World War. The construction of a railway connecting southern Sweden and the northern mines was of primary importance.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The modern use of the term Scandinavia rises from the Scandinavist political movement, which was active in the middle of the 19th century, chiefly between the First war of Schleswig (1848–1850), in which Sweden and Norway contributed with considerable military force, and the Second war of Schleswig (1864) when the Riksdag of the Estates denounced the King's promises of military support for Denmark.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Many Scandinavians emigrated to Canada, the United States, Australia, Africa, and New Zealand during the later nineteenth century. The main wave of Scandinavian emigration occurred in the 1860s lasting until the 1880s, although substantial emigration continued until the 1930s. The vast majority of emigrants left from the countryside in search of better farming and economic opportunities. Together with Finland and Iceland, almost a third of the population left in the eighty years after 1850. Part of the reason for the large exodus was the increasing population caused by falling death rates, which increased unemployment. Norway had the largest percentage of emigrants and Denmark the least.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Between 1820 and 1920 just over two million Scandinavians settled in the United States. One million came from Sweden, 300,000 from Denmark, and 730,000 from Norway. The figure for Norway represents almost 80% of the national population in 1800. The most popular destinations in North America were Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas, Wisconsin, Michigan, the Canadian prairies and Ontario.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Scandinavian Monetary Union was a monetary union formed by Sweden and Denmark on 5 May 1873, by fixing their currencies against the gold standard at par to each other. Norway, which was in union with Sweden entered the union two years later, in 1875 by pegging its currency to gold at the same level as Denmark and Sweden (.403 grams ). The monetary union was one of the few tangible results of the Scandinavian political movement of the 19th century.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The union provided fixed exchange rates and stability in monetary terms, but the member countries continued to issue their own separate currencies. Even if it was not initially foreseen, the perceived security led to a situation where the formally separate currencies were accepted on a basis of "as good as" the legal tender virtually throughout the entire area.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The outbreak of World War I in 1914 brought an end to the monetary union. Sweden abandoned the tie to gold on 2 August 1914, and without a fixed exchange rate the free circulation came to an end.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: All three Scandinavian countries remained neutral throughout the First World War. The war did have a significant impact on the economy of the area, primarily as a result of the British blockade of Germany. However, they were able to work around that with trade agreement with Britain. Norway's large merchant marine delivered vital supplies to Britain but suffered huge losses in ships and sailors because of indiscriminate attack by the German navy. Denmark called up much of its military, but Germany still violated Danish sovereignty to some extent, for example by mining the Øresund. A relatively large number of ethnic Danes from southern Jutland fought in the German army.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: All three countries developed social welfare states in the early to mid-20th century. This came about partially because of the domination of the social-democrats in Sweden and Denmark, and the Labour party in Norway.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Near the beginning of World War II in late 1939, both the Allies and the Axis Powers feared their enemies gaining power in Scandinavia. Britain believed Germany was planning to invade and made counter plans for its own invasion. At the same time, Germany feared that Britain could gain bases in the area and claimed they suspected an outright invasion. In addition, Germany highly valued the Swedish iron ore they received through Norway and could not afford to lose it. They also desired Norway for its ice-free ports. This made it a primary target, with Denmark a secondary goal mainly needed for facilitating the Norwegian invasion. After planning for months, Germany invaded both Denmark and Norway the same day, 9 April 1940, days before Britain planned to invade.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The nations reacted quite differently. Denmark surrendered two hours after invasion, having lost just sixteen men. They sought to avoid civilian casualties and receive favourable treatment from Germany. Norway however, refused to give in and fought valiantly and with the full strength of her limited and badly prepared forces. The Western allies sent military assistance, but the campaign was not effectively run. By 10 June 1940, Norway's official military had surrendered to the attackers, while King Haakon VII and his legal government fled to exile in Britain.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Denmark's strategy proved the more beneficial in the short run. It was one of the factors that led Germany to grant the Danes a high degree of autonomy. Another reason was that they had no real agenda in Denmark. After invading, they simply did not want to relinquish it, seeing it as a permanent part of their empire. Also, Danes were considered fellow Nordics and Aryans by Nazi ideologues, which further helped the country. For all these reasons, Denmark was able to retain their parliament, king, and much of their normal domestic function. However, bitterness towards Germany grew, and small sabotages directed against Germany became commonplace. Germany eventually reacted by eliminating Denmark's representative government and imposing martial law.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Norway was treated much more harshly throughout their occupation. Opposition parties were eliminated and "Nasjonal Samling" ("National Unity"), the Norwegian fascist political party, appointed all government officials. Vidkun Quisling was installed as Minister-President, a puppet to Berlin's High Command. Labor unions could only exist if they accepted Nazi control. These repressive measures ensured that the cooperation was small. About ten percent supported the Nazi party. Nevertheless, there was a hostile relationship, with an occupation force of almost one German for every ten Norwegians.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Denmark and Norway were also unlike in their cooperation with Germany's genocidal policy. Norwegian police, controlled by the Quisling government, aided in the capture of Norwegian Jews in 1942. However, brave Norwegians managed to save over half of the Jewish population from Nazi death camps and help them to escape to safety in Sweden, even though they ran the risk of being severely punished for aiding Jews. The Danish Jews avoided German persecution until 1943, and Denmark was thus better prepared when the Germans struck. Danes were notable for their devoted efforts to protect Danish Jews. More than 96% of the Jewish population was boated to safety in Sweden, while others found refuge with Christian Danish families and organizations.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: Alone out of the three Scandinavian countries, Sweden was not invaded and remained nominally neutral during the war. They successfully cultivated peace with the Germans, supplying them with needed raw materials. The Swedish government was very careful to avoid inflaming the Nazis, going so far as to persuade newspaper editors to censor articles, and letting the Nazis move supplies through Sweden and into Norway all the way up to 1943. However, they would occasionally aid the Allies. They granted the Jews that escaped from Denmark asylum and gave notable aid to Finland during the Winter War.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: After the war, all of the Scandinavian countries agreed that some form of mutual defense policy was necessary. They began to discuss a Scandinavian defence union. The three Scandinavian countries would, if they had entered into an alliance, have remained separate sovereign countries but acted as a single bloc in foreign policy and security issues. The proposed union was being discussed by a joint Scandinavian committee during the winter of 1948–1949, but the Cold War tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, and preparations for a western alliance that would result in the North Atlantic Treaty overshadowed the effort. When it became known that the western alliance would not be able to supply the Scandinavian countries with armaments before meeting their own pressing needs, this issue ultimately proved to be the turning point for Norway, which resigned from the talks. Denmark was still willing to enter into an alliance with Sweden, but the Swedes saw few advantages in this and the proposal fell. Norway and Denmark subsequently became signatory parties of the North Atlantic Treaty and members of NATO. Sweden remained neutral after a heated debate.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: The Nordic countries established the Nordic Council in 1952 and the Nordic passport union two years later.


title: History of Scandinavia

text: After a 1972 referendum, Denmark became the first Scandinavian member of the European Economic Community, which later paved the way for the EU, in 1973. Sweden joined the EU in 1995; after the fall of the Soviet Union, Sweden felt it could do so without being provocative. Norway remains outside the European Union to this day after referendums on membership in 1972 and 1994, although it is a signatory of the Schengen treaty and a member of the European Economic Area. None of the Scandinavian countries (except Finland) have joined the Euro, membership being rejected by referendum in both Denmark and Sweden. Denmark voted no to the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, but reversed the decision after negotiating opt-outs.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Kalgoorlie is a city in the Goldfields–Esperance region of Western Australia, located east-northeast of Perth at the end of the Great Eastern Highway. It is sometimes referred to as Kalgoorlie–Boulder, as the surrounding urban area includes the historic townsite of Boulder and the local government area is the City of Kalgoorlie–Boulder.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Kalgoorlie-Boulder lies on the traditional lands of the Wangkatja group of peoples.The name "Kalgoorlie" is derived from the Wangai word "Karlkurla" or "Kulgooluh", meaning "place of the silky pears". The city was established in 1893 during the Western Australian gold rushes. It soon replaced Coolgardie as the largest settlement on the Eastern Goldfields. Kalgoorlie is the ultimate destination of the Goldfields Water Supply Scheme and the Golden Pipeline Heritage Trail. The nearby Super Pit gold mine was Australia's largest open-cut gold mine for many years.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: At August 2021, Kalgoorlie–Boulder had an estimated urban population of 29,068, a decline from the recent peak of 32,966 in 2013.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Kalgoorlie-Boulder lies on the traditional lands of the Wangkatja people. Languages including Wangkatja, part of the Wati language family, continue to be spoken there today.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: In the winter of 1893, prospectors Patrick (Paddy) Hannan, Tom Flanagan, and Dan Shea were travelling to Mount Youle, when one of their horses cast a shoe. During the halt in their journey, the men noticed signs of gold in the area around the foot of what is now the Mount Charlotte gold mine, located on a small hill north of the current city, and decided to stay and investigate. On 17 June 1893, Hannan filed a Reward Claim, leading to hundreds of men swarming to the area in search of gold, and Kalgoorlie, originally called Hannan's Find, was born.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: The mining of gold, along with other metals such as nickel, has been a major industry in Kalgoorlie ever since, and today employs about one-quarter of Kalgoorlie's workforce and generates a significant proportion of its income. The concentrated area of large gold mines surrounding the original Hannan's find is often referred to as the Golden Mile, and was sometimes referred to as the world's richest square mile of earth.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: In 1901, the population of Kalgoorlie was 4,793 (3,087 males and 1,706 females) which increased to 6,790 (3,904 males and 2,886 females) by 1903.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: The narrow-gauge Government Eastern Goldfields Railway line reached Kalgoorlie station in 1896, and the main named railway service from Perth was the overnight sleeper train "The Westland", which ran until the 1970s. In 1917, a railway line was completed, connecting Kalgoorlie to Port Augusta, South Australia, across of desert, and consequently the rest of the eastern states. The standardisation of the railway connecting Perth (which changed route from the narrow-gauge route) in 1968 completed the Sydney–Perth railway, making rail travel from Perth to Sydney possible; the "Indian Pacific" rail service commenced soon after. During the 1890s, the Goldfields area boomed as a whole, with an area population exceeding 200,000, composed mainly of prospectors. The area gained a reputation for being a "wild west", notorious for its bandits and prostitutes. This rapid increase in population and claims of neglect by the state government in Perth led to the proposition of the new state of Auralia, but with the sudden diaspora after the Gold Rush, these plans fell through.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Places, famous or infamous, for which Kalgoorlie is noted include its water pipeline, designed by C. Y. O'Connor and bringing in fresh water from Mundaring Weir near Perth, its Hay Street brothels, its two-up school, the goldfields railway loopline, the Kalgoorlie Town Hall, the Paddy Hannan statue/drinking fountain, the Super Pit, and Mount Charlotte lookout. Its main street is Hannan Street, named after the town's founder. One of the infamous brothels also serves as a museum and is a major national attraction.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Kalgoorlie and the surrounding district were served by an extensive collection of suburban railways and tramways, providing for both passenger and freight traffic.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: In 1989, the Town of Kalgoorlie and Shire of Boulder formally amalgamated to create the City of Kalgoorlie-Boulder, adjoining the two towns into what is now the fifth most populous city in Western Australia.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: On 20 April 2010, Kalgoorlie was shaken by an earthquake that reached 5.0 on the Richter scale. The epicentre was 30 km north east of the town. The quake caused damage to a number of commercial hotels and historic buildings along Burt Street in Boulder. The entire Burt St. precinct was evacuated until 23 April. Work in the Superpit and many other mines around Kalgoorlie was stopped. Two people suffered minor injuries as a result of the quake.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: According to the 2016 census, there were 29,873 people in the Kalgoorlie - Boulder Significant Urban Area:


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Kalgoorlie has a semi-arid climate (BSk) with hot summers and mild winters. The average annual rainfall is on an average of 68 days and, while the average rainfall is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, there is considerable variation from year to year.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: January is the hottest month, with an average maximum temperature of , but temperatures above occur nearly once a week when hot, dry, north to northeasterly winds arrive. Such high temperatures are usually followed by a cool change from the south, and occasionally with a thunderstorm.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: By contrast, winters are cool, with July average maximum and minimum temperatures being and , respectively. Cold, wet days with a maximum below occur about once every winter. The lowest maximum temperature recorded is , on 19 July 1961. Overnight temperatures fall below freezing about four times in a typical winter. Such events occur on clear nights following a day of cold southerly winds.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Kalgoorlie-Boulder is a regional centre and has a Chamber of Commerce and a Chamber of Minerals and Energy.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Since 1992, Kalgoorlie has been home to the Diggers & Dealers conference, held annually in August. It is Australia's premier international mining conference.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: The Fimiston Open Pit (Super Pit) is an open-cut gold mine about long, wide, and over deep. Originally consisting of a large number of underground mines, including the Paringa, Oroya, Brown Hill, Chaffers, and Hainault mines, they were consolidated into a single open pit mine in 1989. A visitor centre overlooks the mine, which operates 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The mine blasts at 1:00 pm every day, unless winds would carry dust over the town. Each of the massive trucks carries 225 tonnes of rock and the round trip takes about 35 minutes, most of that time being the slow uphill haul. Employees must live in Kalgoorlie; there's no fly-in, fly-out operation. The current life of mine plan covers operation until 2035, with investigations for mine extension ongoing.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Kalgoorlie-Boulder's location, being roughly 600 km from Perth, enjoys high levels of participation in Australian rules football (the Goldfields Football League), netball, basketball, rugby league, soccer, field hockey, and cricket. Other popular sports in Kalgoorlie include tennis, lawn bowls, roller derby, rugby union, and swimming.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: In a statewide sense, the semiprofessional Goldfields Giants basketball team competes in the State Basketball League, and were league champions in 2007 and 2008.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: The Goldfields Titans play in the Western Australia Rugby League Harvey Norman Premiership state rugby league competition. Home games are at the Oasis playing fields on Saturday afternoons.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Horse racing is also very popular in the city, and Kalgoorlie-Boulder is home to the internationally recognised annual "Race Round".


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Given the wealth of its yesteryear, Kalgoorlie features many elaborate heritage buildings that have been retained. Kalgoorlie-Boulder – the largest settlement for many hundreds of kilometres, with many employees at the Super Pit – is the centre of the area's social life. Of particular interest is the Kalgoorlie-Boulder Racecourse, a horse racing venue. Also well known in the area are the Kalgoorlie Skimpies, ladies employed by each pub who walk around in their underwear or burlesque outfits to attract punters and who expect a fee in return. Two grass sports ovals and a cinema showing recent international releases are in the area.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Known as the home of the Super Pit, it is one of Kalgoorlie-Boulder's historical suburbs featuring many buildings and landmarks dating as far back as 1882. It was once the central business district for the Town of Boulder, but since amalgamation with Kalgoorlie, it is now more of a historical local centre. Boulder has its own post office, town hall and many hotels along its main thoroughfare, Burt Street. A significant refurbishment has been commenced as part of the 'Royalties for Regions' initiative.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: This area derives its name from the golf course that once occupied the area. It was released to provide affordable property to a growing population in Kalgoorlie-Boulder. Fairways features a private primary school, church, caravan park and small business.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Adeline was originally constructed around 1970 by the State Housing Commission. The suburb was built on the "Radburn concept", with houses facing away from the street and common pathways linking homes. The area has been plagued by antisocial problems. In 2003, a significant urban renewal project was commenced, including the renaming of the suburb to "Golden Grove" and re-aligning of homes. The project has seen some success but has yet to fully eliminate antisocial problems within the area.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Located in Kalgoorlie's far north. Hannans was the first suburb to have its own independent shopping centre ("Hannans Boulevard") which includes a Coles Supermarket. The area also has a primary school and an 18-hole golf course. The original course was not formally grassed but was recently refurbished. Several surrounding golf clubs joined together to form one club known as 'The Goldfields Golf Club'. A dam has been constructed to service what is now a luxury desert golf course and club. Alongside the golf course project has been the development and release of Greenview estate. It lies on the western border of Hannans. This ongoing project has been designed as an environmentally friendly estate, and will eventually consist of over 2000 homes, apartments and facilities such as parks and schools. As one of Kalgoorlie's highest growth areas there has been a proposal for a new alternative route, out of the suburb onto the Kalgoorlie Bypass, to avoid traffic problems on the already heavily used Graeme Street which is a direct route to the city centre. Other developments include 'Karkurla Rise' and 'Karkurla View' which have added an additional 400 homes to the area.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: The central business district. Hannan Street, named after Paddy Hannan, is Kalgoorlie's main street and stretches the length of the suburb. The western side of the suburb consists of housing and some light industry. The eastern side contains retail chains, banks, the police station, court house, restaurants, hotels, tourist attractions, schools, university, and a TAFE.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: One of Kalgoorlie's oldest suburbs. Much like other older suburbs, almost every street is parallel with Hannan Street in Central Kalgoorlie. Streets are noticeably wide. It houses North Kalgoorlie Primary School, small businesses, a medical practice, a hotel, tavern and a non-maintained 18-hole golf course.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Much smaller today than it originally was before the Super Pit expansion, Mullingar is located at the far east end of Lamington, between the northern Goldfields railway and Goldfields Highway.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Officially O'Connor is the south-east section of the suburb of Somerville. Much of the area is increasingly now known as O'Connor. It is home to a primary school (O'Connor Primary School), a private high school (Goldfields Baptist College), and shopping facilities. It also houses the city's only recreation centre.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: A narrow suburb following Piccadilly street between Central Kalgoorlie and Lamington. It features the city's regional hospital, small businesses, a hotel, sporting arena and two grassed ovals.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Somerville marks the end of Great Eastern Highway that stretches between Kalgoorlie-Boulder and Perth. Much of the area is now referred to locally as O'Connor. Somerville contains a residential area, schools, retail shops, light industry and some horse stables. In the past it also contained market gardens.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Stretching from Boundary Street, Kalgoorlie to Holmes Street, Golden Grove and bordering with Central Kalgoorlie, O'Connor and Golden Grove, South Kalgoorlie is mostly residential but also contains the Kalgoorlie-Boulder Racecourse, schools, some light industrial and small businesses. The suburb was expanded in the mid-1990s to include a sub-division named "Sport of Kings" on Maxwell Street, using a surplus of land from the racecourse.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Kalgoorlie's main industrial area, it is the first suburb as you approach Kalgoorlie on the Great Eastern Highway. It features the city's airport, as well as small, medium, and heavy industrial areas. Currently under expansion further west (ANZAC Drive Industrial Estate).


title: Kalgoorlie

text: The western tip of Lamington was built in the 1980s. It includes one shop, sporting facilities and an arboretum nature reserve.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: This small existing area features mostly housing with one small primary school. It is also home to the Mount Charlotte gold mine (past production of about 5,000,000 ounces of gold), the Cassidy Shaft and Nanny Goat Hill (Mt Gleddon). Kalgoorlie Consolidated Gold Mines, owner of the Super Pit to the south on the Golden Mile, from 2015 mined the "Hidden Secret" orebody, between and below the surface of Williamstown, using Mount Charlotte's Cassidy Shaft as access.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: The town is located on the main East-West rail corridor across Australia. The "Transwa Prospector" operates once to twice daily passenger train services from Kalgoorlie to Perth. The "Indian Pacific" train also stops here, operating weekly in each direction.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Town bus services are provided by TransGoldfields, there are three town routes as well as school services. Transwa also operates road coaches that service the town.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Commercial air services connect Kalgoorlie-Boulder with Melbourne and Perth, operating out of the Kalgoorlie-Boulder Airport. Airlines that provide regular flights include Alliance Airlines, Qantas, QantasLink and Virgin Australia. There is a locally owned and operated charter company with a flight school, Goldfields Air Services.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: The programming schedule is mainly the same as the Seven, Nine and Ten stations in Perth with variations for news bulletins, sport telecasts such as the Australian Football League and National Rugby League, children's and lifestyle programs and infomercials or "paid programming".


title: Kalgoorlie

text: GWN7 maintains a newsroom in the city. The GWN7 bureau provides coverage of the surrounding area for the station's nightly 30-minute news program, "GWN7 News", at 5:30pm on weeknights.


title: Kalgoorlie

text: Newspapers from Perth, including "The West Australian" and "The Sunday Times", are also available, as well as national newspapers such as "The Australian" and "The Australian Financial Review".


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: The Texas Tech Red Raiders football program is a college football team that represents Texas Tech University (variously "Texas Tech" or "TTU"). The team competes as a member of the Big 12 Conference, which is a Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (formerly Division I-A) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The program began in 1925 and has an overall winning record, including a total of 11 conference titles and one division title. On November 8, 2021, Joey McGuire was hired as the team's 17th head football coach, replacing Matt Wells, who was fired in the middle of the 2021 season. Home games are played at Cody Campbell Field at Jones AT&T Stadium in Lubbock, Texas.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Texas Tech (then known as Texas Technological College) fielded its first intercollegiate football team during the 1925 season. The team was known as the "Matadors" from 1925 to 1936, a name suggested by the wife of E. Y. Freeland, the first football coach, to reflect the influence of the Spanish Renaissance architecture on campus. In 1932, Texas Tech joined the Border Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, also known as the Border Conference. The school's short-lived Matadors moniker was replaced officially in 1937 with "Red Raiders", a nickname bestowed upon them by a sportswriter impressed by their bright scarlet uniforms that remains to this day. That same year, the team won its first conference championship and was invited to the Sun Bowl. The game was played on January 1, 1938, and resulted in a 7–6 loss to the West Virginia Mountaineers. Texas Tech suffered four more bowl losses before their first postseason win in the 1952 Sun Bowl. Before withdrawing from the Border Conference in 1956, the Red Raiders won eight conference championships and one co-championship, the most held by a Border Conference member.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: In 1956, Texas Tech was admitted to the Southwest Conference (SWC), but was ineligible for any title during a four-year probationary period. It gained full SWC membership and began official conference play in 1960. The Red Raiders won conference co-championships in 1976 and 1994. The team remained in the SWC until the conference dissolved in 1996. The university was invited and became a charter member in the South Division of the Big 12 Conference. Texas Tech was the only member of the Big 12 to boast a winning record every year from the conference's formation in 1996 through end 2010. In 2003, Texas Tech was the only team to ever have 5 or more players with at least 60 receptions in a single season. In 2008, the Red Raiders were one of three football teams involved in the first three way conference division tie.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: The Red Raiders were previously members of the Big 12 between its inception in 1996 and the dissolution of conference divisions within the Big 12 in 2011. They won one division championship during that span, sharing it with Oklahoma and Texas in 2008.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Texas Tech has had 17 head coaches, and three-interim head coaches. Five coaches have won conference championships with the Red Raiders: Pete Cawthon, Dell Morgan, DeWitt Weaver, Steve Sloan, and Spike Dykes. Mike Leach is the only head Texas Tech football coach to win a division title. Dykes is the all-time leader in games and years coached, while Leach is the all-time leader in overall wins. Higginbotham is, in terms of winning percentage, the worst coach the Red Raiders have had; winning only one game while losing seven, and tying two, giving him a .200 winning percentage. Cawthon's .693 winning percent ranks as the highest among the coaches.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Morgan, Weaver, Dykes, and Leach have each received Coach of the Year honors from at least one organization. Morgan was named Border Conference Coach of the Year in 1949. Twice—in 1951 and 1953—Weaver was named the Border Conference's Coach of the Year. Dykes was named Southwest Conference Coach of the Year in 1989 and two other years. Dykes was also named the first Big 12 Conference Coach of the Year in 1996. In 2008, Leach was the second Texas Tech head coach to be named Big 12 Conference Coach of the Year. The same season, Leach was also named the FieldTurf/Howie Long Coach of the Year and was awarded the Woody Hayes Trophy and George Munger Award; all three awards recognize the top collegiate coach of the season. Kliff Kingsbury became the first Big 12 Conference coach to begin his career with 7 wins in 2013.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Texas Tech has played in 39 postseason bowl games with an all-time record of 15 wins, 23 losses, and 1 tie. The Red Raiders rank third among current Big 12 Conference programs in bowl game appearances, and also boasted the distinction of being the only program in the conference to be bowl eligible every season from its formation in 1996 through the 2010 season. The 39 bowl game appearances by the Red Raiders tie the program at 20th in all-time in bowl games played and 31st in all-time bowl wins. Only 4 head coaches, E. Y. Freeland, Grady Higginbotham, Rex Dockery, and Jerry Moore, did not lead Texas Tech to a postseason bowl game. Although both Pete Cawthon and Dell Morgan had led the program to previous bowl games, neither posted wins in their five combined appearances.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: The Red Raiders' fans have set attendance records at 10 bowl games, including the team's first bowl game appearance in the 1938 Sun Bowl. Although eight of the 10 attendance records were eventually broken, attendance records from 2 bowl game appearances, the 2004 Pacific Life Holiday Bowl and 2009 AT&T Cotton Bowl Classic, remain unbroken. The 2009 AT&T Cotton Bowl Classic's attendance record of 88,175 was the second-most attended bowl game of the 2008–09 bowl game season.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Texas Tech's first bowl game was at the conclusion of the 1937 season, only 13 years after the program was established. The Red Raiders played in the 1938 Sun Bowl in El Paso, Texas, against the West Virginia Mountaineers on New Year's Day. Nine of Texas Tech's 39 bowl game bids have been to the Sun Bowl, the most appearances by any team to the second-oldest college football bowl game. In the 1952 Sun Bowl, DeWitt Weaver coached the Red Raiders to their first bowl victory, defeating the Pacific Tigers 25-14 .


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: The 2011 TicketCity Bowl occurred on January 1, 2011, when the Red Raiders won, 45–38, against the Northwestern Wildcats. The game was the team's 11th consecutive bowl appearance that began with the 2000 Galleryfurniture.com Bowl, in former head coach Mike Leach's first season. In 10 seasons, Mike Leach's 9 bowl game appearances and five wins are the most of any of the program's head coaches.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: The 2012 Meineke Car Care Bowl of Texas occurred on December 28, 2012, when the Red Raiders won, 34–31, against the Minnesota Golden Gophers. The last time the two teams had met was during the 2006 Insight Bowl, in which Texas Tech completed the biggest comeback in bowl history. After falling behind 38-7 with 7:47 remaining in the third quarter, rallied to score 31 unanswered points to send the game to overtime. In the 2006 game, the Gophers scored a field goal in overtime, but the Red Raiders responded with a touchdown to win.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: The 2013 National University Holiday Bowl occurred on December 30, 2013. This was Kliff Kingsbury's first season as head coach at Texas Tech. The Red Raiders won, 37–23, against the Arizona State Sun Devils. The last, and only other, time these two teams met was in 1999, in both teams' preseason opener despite both teams having been members of the Border Conference. In this Holiday Bowl meeting, the Red Raiders led the entire game, with the smallest lead of 7 points only lasting 11 seconds on the game clock, as Reginald Davis III returned a 90-yard kickoff for a touchdown, to answer the Sun Devils' Taylor Kelly's 44-yard touchdown run, early in the third quarter.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Texas Tech's most recent bowl victory is the 2021 Autozone Liberty Bowl. On December, 28, 2021, the Red Raiders, led by interim head coach Sonny Cumbie, won 34-7 versus the Mississippi State Bulldogs and former Texas Tech head coach Mike Leach.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: In 2012, Texas Tech introduced the creation of a ring of Honor to honor former Tech players. The names are etched onto the west stadium building that faces the surface of the stadium, screen by a selection committee that makes formal recommendation to the athletic director of suitable candidates. Seven members are listed, three of whom already had their numbers retired.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Many of Texas Tech's players have been recognized for their accomplishments while with the program. Seven Red Raider players, Donny Anderson, Hub Bechtol, Byron Hanspard, E. J. Holub, Dave Parks, Gabriel Rivera, and Zach Thomas, have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. Anderson, Holub, and Parks are the only three players at Texas Tech to have had their numbers retired.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Two Red Raiders, Anderson in 1965 and Graham Harrell in 2008, have been named "Sporting News" College Football Player of the Year, which is bestowed upon the most outstanding college football player of that season by "Sporting News". While no Texas Tech player has ever received the Heisman Trophy, seven Red Raiders have received votes by the award's selection committee. Donny Anderson and Graham Harrell both finished fourth in the voting in 1965 and 2008, respectively, the highest ranking a Red Raider has received from voters. Additionally, Michael Crabtree, Byron Hanspard, E. J. Holub, Kliff Kingsbury, and B. J. Symons were Heisman candidates, receiving enough votes to finish in the top 10.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Texas Tech football players have won several individual awards based on their positions. At the end of the 1993 season, Bam Morris received the Doak Walker Award, and in 1996, Byron Hanspard became the second Red Raider to receive the award. Michael Crabtree became the first two-time winner of both the Fred Biletnikoff Award and Paul Warfield Trophy in back-to-back seasons. Four Texas Tech quarterbacks, Kliff Kingsbury, B.J. Symons, Graham Harrell, and Patrick Mahomes have been awarded the Sammy Baugh Trophy. Harrell received the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award. In 2003, Wes Welker won the Mosi Tatupu Award, given annually to the best special teams player.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: In 1935, Herschel Ramsey was the first football player from Texas Tech to be named an All-American. Since then, a total of 49 players have been named to an All-American team, 30 were selected as first-team All-Americans. Twelve Red Raiders have been named consensus All-Americans, players who were awarded a majority of votes at their positions by the selectors, with the most recent selection being tight end Jace Amaro in 2013. Michael Crabtree was named as a consensus All-Americans in 2007 and 2008, and is the only Red Raider to receive the honor twice. Ten Red Raiders have been named academic All-Americans.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: The Red Raiders play their home games on campus at Jones AT&T Stadium. The stadium opened in 1947 as Clifford B. and Audrey Jones Stadium. In 2000, Jones Stadium was renamed, Jones SBC Stadium, in recognition of a $30 million donation from SBC Communications. Reflecting SBC Communications' rebranding as AT&T, Inc., the stadium's name was renamed in 2005 as Jones AT&T Stadium. Then known as the Matadors, Texas Tech's first home field was a makeshift stadium at the South Plains Fairgrounds in Lubbock, for the 1925 season and first game of the 1926 season. In 1926, Tech Stadium, a wooden horseshoe shaped 12,000 seat stadium, was built on campus. Twenty-years later, Jones Stadium as was completed for the 1947 season. Two years prior to the stadium's opening, Clifford B. Jones, former Texas Tech University president, established a $100,000 trust toward construction for a new football stadium. The Texas Tech Board of Directors voted to name the new facility in honor of the former president and his wife's contribution.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Since opening with a seating capacity of 18,000, the stadium has been continuously expanded and renovated. In 1960, the addition of a lower bowl doubled the seating capacity to 41,500, an expansion in 1972 added over 10,000 seats, during the 1990s, 2,000 seats were added, and additions in the 2000s brought a seating capacity to 60,454. In 2003, a seven-story building including 47 suites, a club seat level and new press box replaced the former press box constructed in 1959. In 2010, expansion to the east side of the stadium included a five-story addition that includes 1,000 general-admission seats, 542 club seats, 30 suites, a dining club, and pro shop. Also, ticket and athletic offices relocated to the East Side Building. In 2013, the stadium was once again renovated with 368 seats being added, an upgraded video board and sound system installed, a colonnade and connecting concourse in the north endzone, and a 40-person observation deck.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: When Jones AT&T Stadium opened in 1947, the playing surface was originally natural grass. However, at the beginning of the 1972 season, the stadium's natural grass was replaced with AstroTurf. Jones AT&T Stadium has had a FieldTurf playing surface since 2006. Jones AT&T Stadium set an attendance record of 61,836 spectators November 2, 2013, when the Red Raiders hosted the 2013 Oklahoma State Cowboys football team, and the student attendance record was set during the same season. The student section has been named as the best in the Big 12 by ESPN. The stadium has played host to 14 seasons in which the Red Raiders went undefeated at home. In July 2014, the athletic department announced that all season tickets had sold out for the first time in school history with a record 38,502 tickets sold.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: In 2014, Texas Tech announced a substantially sized stadium renovation to Jones AT&T Stadium. The total cost of the renovations totals to roughly around $185 million, and will add new things to the Jones like club seating, more suites, and a hall of fame for the heroes and champions of Texas Tech Football. The south-end zone is also getting a renovation, creating more student-section seating and a press box.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Texas Tech's football team was originally known as the "Matadors" from 1925 to 1936, a name suggested by the wife of E. Y. Freeland, the first football coach, to reflect the Spanish Renaissance architecture on campus. The students followed the suggestion, and later chose scarlet and black as the school colors inspired by a matador's traditional red cape and black outfit. In 1934, head coach Pete Cawthon ordered scarlet satin uniforms for the football team. He said that if the team did not attract attention by their playing, they would at least be noticed because of the flashy uniforms. The football team, wearing its new outfit, defeated heavily favored Loyola Marymount in Los Angeles on October 26, 1934. A Los Angeles sports writer called the Matadors a "red raiding team", coining the moniker Texas Tech's athletics teams use today.


title: Texas Tech Red Raiders football

text: Texas Tech's uniform consists of any combination of scarlet, black, and white. Since 2006, Under Armour has been the team's outfitter. In 2013, head coach Kliff Kingsbury was given creative control over the team's uniforms and equipment design via a contract clause.