title: Chivalric romance

text: During the early 13th century, romances were increasingly written as prose, and extensively amplified through cycles of continuation. These were collated in the vast, polymorphous manuscript witnesses comprising what is now known as the Vulgate Cycle, with the romance of La Mort le Roi Artu c. 1230, perhaps its final installment. These texts, together with a wide range of further Arthurian material, such as that found in the anonymous cycle of English Brut Chronicles, comprised the bases of Malory's Morte d'Arthur. Prose literature thus increasingly dominated the expression of romance narrative in the later Middle Ages, at least until the resurgence of verse during the high Renaissance in the oeuvres of Ludovico Ariosto, Torquato Tasso, and Edmund Spenser.


title: Chivalric romance

text: In Old Norse, they are the prose "riddarasögur" or chivalric sagas. The genre began in thirteenth-century Norway with translations of French "chansons de geste"; it soon expanded to similar indigenous creations. The early fourteenth century saw the emergence of Scandinavian verse romance in Sweden under the patronage of Queen Euphemia of Rügen, who commissioned the "Eufemiavisorna".


title: Chivalric romance

text: Another trend of the high Middle Ages was the allegorical romance, inspired by the wildly popular Roman de la Rose.


title: Chivalric romance

text: In late medieval and Renaissance high culture, the important European literary trend was to fantastic fictions in the mode of Romance. Exemplary work, such as the English "Le Morte d'Arthur" by Sir Thomas Malory (c. 1408–1471), the Catalan "Tirant lo Blanch", and the Castilian or Portuguese "Amadís de Gaula" (1508), spawned many imitators, and the genre was popularly well-received, producing such masterpiece of Renaissance poetry as Ludovico Ariosto's "Orlando furioso" and Torquato Tasso's "Gerusalemme Liberata" and other 16th-century literary works in the romance genre. The romances were freely drawn upon for royal pageantry. Queen Elizabeth I's Accession Day tilts, for instance, drew freely on the multiplicity of incident from romances for the knights' disguises. Knights even assumed the names of romantic figures, such as the Swan Knight, or the coat-of-arms of such figures as Lancelot or Tristan.


title: Chivalric romance

text: From the high Middle Ages, in works of piety, clerical critics often deemed romances to be harmful worldly distractions from more substantive or moral works, and by 1600 many secular readers would agree; in the judgement of many learned readers in the shifting intellectual atmosphere of the 17th century, the romance was trite and childish literature, inspiring only broken-down ageing and provincial persons such as Don Quixote, knight of the culturally isolated province of La Mancha. ("Don Quixote" [1605, 1615], by Miguel de Cervantes [1547–1616], is a satirical story of an elderly country gentleman, living in La Mancha province, who is so obsessed by chivalric romances that he seeks to emulate their various heroes.) "Hudibras" also lampoons the faded conventions of chivalrous romance, from an ironic, consciously realistic viewpoint. Some of the magical and exotic atmosphere of Romance informed tragedies for the stage, such as John Dryden's collaborative "The Indian Queen" (1664) as well as Restoration spectaculars and "opera seria", such as Handel's "Rinaldo" (1711), based on a magical interlude in Tasso's "Gerusalemme liberata".


title: Chivalric romance

text: In the Renaissance, also, the romance genre was bitterly attacked as barbarous and silly by the humanists, who exalted Greek and Latin classics and classical forms, an attack that was not in that century very effective among the common readers. In England, romances continued; heavily rhetorical, they often had complex plots and high sentiment, such as in Robert Greene's "Pandosto" (the source for William Shakespeare's "The Winter's Tale") and Thomas Lodge's "Rosalynde" (based on the medieval romance "Gamelyn" and the source for "As You Like It"), "Robert Duke of Normandy" (based on Robert the Devil) and "A Margarite of America".


title: Chivalric romance

text: The Acritic songs (dealing with Digenis Acritas and his fellow frontiersmen) resemble much the "chanson de geste", though they developed simultaneously but separately. These songs dealt with the hardships and adventures of the border guards of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) – including their love affairs – and where a predominantly oral tradition which survived in the Balkans and Anatolia until modern times. This genre may have intermingled with its Western counterparts during the long occupation of Byzantine territories by French and Italian knights after the 4th crusade. This is suggested by later works in the Greek language which show influences from both traditions.


title: Chivalric romance

text: In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love, such as faithfulness in adversity. From c. 1760 – usually cited as 1764 at the publication of Horace Walpole's "The Castle of Otranto" – the connotations of "romance" moved from fantastic and eerie, somewhat Gothic adventure narratives of novelists like Ann Radcliffe's "A Sicilian Romance" (1790) or "The Romance of the Forest" (1791) with erotic content to novels centered on the episodic development of a courtship that ends in marriage. With a female protagonist, during the rise of Romanticism the depiction of the course of such a courtship within contemporary conventions of realism, the female equivalent of the "novel of education", informs much Romantic fiction. In gothic novels such as Bram Stoker's "Dracula", the elements of romantic seduction and desire were mingled with fear and dread. Nathaniel Hawthorne used the term to distinguish his works as romances rather than novels, and literary criticism of the 19th century often accepted the contrast between the romance and the novel, in such works as H. G. Wells's "scientific romances" in the beginning of science fiction.


title: Chivalric romance

text: In 1825, the fantasy genre developed when the Swedish literary work "Frithjof's saga", which was based on the "Friðþjófs saga ins frœkna", became successful in England and Germany. It was translated twenty-two times into English, 20 times into German, and into many other European languages, including modern Icelandic in 1866. Their influence on authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien, William Morris and Poul Anderson and on the subsequent modern fantasy genre is considerable.


title: Chivalric romance

text: Modern usage of term "romance" usually refer to the romance novel, which is a subgenre that focuses on the relationship and romantic love between two people; these novels must have an "emotionally satisfying and optimistic ending."


title: Chivalric romance

text: Despite the popularity of this popular meaning of Romance, other works are still referred to as romances because of their uses of other elements descended from the medieval romance, or from the Romantic movement: larger-than-life heroes and heroines, drama and adventure, marvels that may become fantastic, themes of honor and loyalty, or fairy-tale-like stories and story settings. Shakespeare's later comedies, such as "The Tempest" or "The Winter's Tale" are sometimes called his romances. Modern works may differentiate from love-story as romance into different genres, such as planetary romance or Ruritanian romance. Science fiction was, for a time, termed scientific romance, and gaslamp fantasy is sometimes termed gaslight romance. Flannery O'Conner, writing of the use of grotesque in fiction, talked of its use in "the modern romance tradition."


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: "I.F.T." is the third episode of the third season of the American television crime drama series "Breaking Bad", and the 23rd overall episode of the series. Written by George Mastras and directed by Michelle MacLaren, it aired on AMC in the United States and Canada on April 4, 2010.


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: In a flashback, Tortuga is visited by Juan Bolsa at a bar. Led to the back by Juan, he is attacked by Leonel and Marco Salamanca for being a DEA informant and decapitated with a machete.


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: Walter White moves back into the house against Skyler White's will. Walter Jr. is thrilled, but Skyler calls the police in an attempt to have Walt thrown out. The police tell her that they cannot do anything without a court order; when one policeman asks Skyler about any possible illegal activity Walt has been involved in, in an attempt to get a legal basis for throwing him out, Skyler declines to mention his drug manufacturing. Later, Skyler meets with her attorney. After she is assured that everything she says is confidential under attorney-client privilege, she admits that Walt is a meth distributor; her attorney advises her to sue him for divorce, and tell the police, but Skyler tearfully declines, saying that she does not want Walter Jr. to find out that his father is a criminal, especially given the likelihood that Walt's lung cancer will kill him in the near future. Later on, at work, Skyler begins an affair with Ted Beneke.


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: Jesse Pinkman is still having trouble coming to terms with Jane Margolis's death but has moved back into his house. Saul Goodman comes by, asking Jesse to try to convince Walt to get back into drug manufacturing; Jesse dismissively says he will handle it. However, later on, he chooses to cook a batch himself.


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: Leonel and Marco steal a minivan, bringing Hector Salamanca with them to a meeting with Gus Fring and Juan Bolsa. Gus says that they cannot kill Walter now, as he is doing business with him; once Gus's business with him is done, however, he will let them kill Walter.


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: Hank Schrader is still stressed and provokes a fight at a bar. He uses his status as a DEA agent to prevent the others at the bar from attacking him.


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: Walt shows the money he has earned to Skyler, in an attempt to get her to accept it, as he says it will help with the mortgage and Walter Jr.'s college tuition. He asks her to at least think about it; however, when she gets home from work later, in an attempt to get Walt to distance himself, she says "I fucked Ted".


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: The episode was written by George Mastras, and directed by Michelle MacLaren; it aired on AMC in the United States and Canada on April 4, 2010. The episode's title stands for "I fucked Ted", said by Skyler to Walt at the end. It marks the first appearance of Juan Bolsa.


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: The episode is dedicated to Shari Rhodes, who passed away from breast cancer during the filming of the third season.


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: Donna Bowman of "The A.V. Club" gave the episode an A, writing: "Its genius lies in its penetrating gaze inside each character, some at their most vulnerable, others staring out from behind a carefully-constructed protective shell." Seth Amitin of "IGN" wrote that although it was weaker compared to other episodes of the series, one of its strengths was that "Elements that don't deserve an entire episode were amalgamated into this one. It was succinct and still very interesting"


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: In "The Bible in Crime Fiction and Drama: Murderous Texts," Caroline Blyth and Alison Jack compare Skyler's cuckolding of Walt to Delilah's emasculation of Samson in the Book of Judges.


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: In "The Methods of Breaking Bad: Essays on Narrative, Character and Ethics", edited by Jacob Blevins and Dafydd Wood, the authors argue that this episode is the most important in Skyler's character arc.


title: I.F.T. (Breaking Bad)

text: The episode's original broadcast was viewed by 1.33 million people, which was a decrease from the 1.55 million of the previous episode, "Caballo sin Nombre".


title: Suso (footballer)

text: Jesús Joaquín Fernández Sáenz de la Torre (; born 19 November 1993), known as Suso (), is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a right winger for Spanish club Sevilla and the Spain national team.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: Scouted by English club Liverpool as a teenager, he made his professional debut there in 2012, playing sparingly and spending a season on loan at Almería before joining AC Milan in January 2015. He was loaned to fellow Serie A club Genoa in January 2016. In January 2020, Suso was loaned to La Liga club Sevilla, before joining the club permanently in July of that year.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: Suso represented Spain at various youth levels up to under-21, winning the 2012 UEFA European Under-19 Championship.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: Suso initially joined the Liverpool Academy on loan until he was old enough to obtain a permit to play for them professionally. On 19 November 2010, he marked his 17th birthday by signing his first professional contract with the Reds. Suso made his first appearance for the first team in a pre-season friendly against Borussia Mönchengladbach on 1 August 2010, also playing in Jamie Carragher's testimonial match on 4 September. For competitive fixtures, however, he was immediately placed in the reserves, foregoing the Academy. In the 2010–11 season, he made the joint-highest number of appearances for the side with 17, and netted three goals as he adapted well to life on Merseyside. He followed this up with five goals in 17 games during the 2011–12 season, and he also made seven appearances in the NextGen Series.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 20 September 2012, Suso made his senior Liverpool debut in a Europa League match against Young Boys, completing the full 90 minutes and earning a rave review from Brendan Rodgers. He made his Premier League debut three days later against Manchester United in a 2-1 defeat at Anfield, replacing the injured Fabio Borini at half-time. He performed impressively, completing all his passes despite Liverpool being a man down. He then played in the next game against West Bromwich Albion six days later in the League Cup, coming on with ten minutes to play and making an immediate impact by helping set up Nuri Şahin's second goal in a 2–1 win. He went on to make his first Premier League start on 29 September in a 5-2 win at Norwich City, where he assisted Luis Suárez's third goal.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 19 October 2012, Suso signed a new long-term contract with Liverpool, receiving praise from manager Brendan Rodgers for his "maturity and commitment."


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 18 December 2012, Suso was fined £10,000 for a remark he made to Liverpool teammate and compatriot José Enrique on Twitter, which The Football Association (FA) deemed homophobic. José Enrique replied to these charges, saying the remark was "banter" and "just a joke."


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 25 February 2013, after being shut-out of the first team due to the signings of Daniel Sturridge and Philippe Coutinho, Suso put in a poor performance for the under-21 team against Manchester United, which he acknowledged on his Twitter account, tweeting "Sorry about tonight.. I was having some stomach problems during all game but i ["sic"] didn't want to come off of the game... Again sorry!" The game finished 1–0 to United against a very strong Liverpool side that included Raheem Sterling, Andre Wisdom and Jonjo Shelvey.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 12 July 2013, Suso joined La Liga side Almería on a season-long loan deal. He made his debut for the Andalusians on 19 August, assisting Rodri's goal in an eventual 2–3 home loss against Villarreal. In the following matchday, he also assisted Rodri in a 2–2 away draw against Getafe.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 21 September, Suso scored his first top flight goal in a 2–2 home draw against Levante. On 30 October, he helped his side end a wretched run of five successive defeats, assisting Marco Torsiglieri in a 1–2 away success over Valencia.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 2 November, Suso assisted Rodri by putting a cross into the six-yard box that was converted by the forward, who slid to meet the ball. It was the match's only goal (although highly-controversial) in a home win over Real Valladolid. Late in the month, Suso scored his second goal for the Andalusians, his team's only marker in a 3–1 away loss against Celta de Vigo, but was also fined for missing training due to oversleeping.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: Suso was then dropped to the bench in the following matches against Real Betis, Granada, Athletic Bilbao and Villarreal, only returning to the starting lineup on 26 January of the following year, assisting Jonathan Zongo in the game's only goal against Getafe.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: Suso was first recalled to a Liverpool matchday squad as they began their Champions League campaign on 16 September 2014 with a 2–1 win over Bulgarian club Ludogorets Razgrad, though he went unused. A week later, in a League Cup third round match against Middlesbrough at Anfield, he replaced Lazar Marković in the 98th minute and scored his first goal for the club 11 minutes later in a 2–2 draw after extra time. He also scored twice in the subsequent penalty shoot-out, including the winner, as Liverpool won 14–13.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 12 January 2015, Suso signed a four-year deal with Italian club AC Milan, effective upon the expiration of his contract with Liverpool, which ended in July 2015. It was later agreed, however, that he would join the "Rossoneri" immediately after Riccardo Saponara joined Empoli on loan until the end of the season. Due to the early cancellation of Suso's Liverpool contract, Milan paid a €1.3 million compensatory fee to Liverpool.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: Suso made his debut on 27 January in the quarter-finals of the Coppa Italia, replacing Michelangelo Albertazzi for the last ten minutes of a 0–1 home defeat against Lazio. Suso's Serie A debut came on 4 April, coming on alongside Giampaolo Pazzini in place of Alessio Cerci and Mattia Destro in the 77th minute of a 1–2 win away at Palermo. On 15 May, he assisted Alex's goal in a 3–2 defeat against Sassuolo. Later on in that match, he received a red card after a foul on Francesco Magnanelli. He ended his first season with 1 assist in 6 appearances in all competition.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: After Siniša Mihajlović replaced Filippo Inzaghi as Milan's coach for 2015–16 season, Suso couldn't establish himself in Milan's starting line-up and after making only 2 appearances, he was loaned to Genoa during the January transfer season.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 4 January 2016, Suso joined Genoa on loan until the end of the season after only appearing once in the campaign for Milan. Upon his arrival he was given the number 17 jersey. On 3 April, after only one goal in his previous 12 games, he scored his first hat-trick in a 4–0 win over Frosinone at the Stadio Luigi Ferraris. He became only the second Spaniard to score three goals in a game in Italy's top flight, after Luis Suárez for Inter Milan against Genoa in 1963.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: After being loaned out due to lack of confidence in him by Milan coach Siniša Mihajlović, Suso started getting playing time under new manager Vincenzo Montella. After impressing in the pre-season and in the first matches of 2016–17 Serie A, Suso was considered to play a pivotal role in the season. Suso scored his first league goal for Milan in the second matchday of Serie A against Napoli, an equalizer in the eventual 2-4 defeat. On 16 September 2016, he assisted Carlos Bacca's goal in a 1–0 win against Sampdoria. He also assisted Manuel Locatelli goal against Juventus on 22 October. He score Milan's first goal and assisted the second goal in the 2–1 win against Palermo on 6 November. The following week, scored his first brace in a 2–2 draw against Inter Milan at San Siro. He scored a goal and assisted another two as Milan beat Empoli 4–1 in the next match.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 23 December 2016, Suso assisted Giacomo Bonaventura's equalising goal in the Supercoppa Italiana against Juventus; he later converted his penalty in the resulting shoot-out, leading Milan to a 4–3 victory.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: Suso concluded the 2016-17 season scoring 7 goals along with 9 assists finishing as Milan's highest assist maker.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: Suso began the 2017–18 season where he left off the season before, in the 2017–18 season opener against Crotone, Suso assisted Patrick Cutrone before scoring himself in a 3–0 away win. On 14 September, he scored a long-range goal against FK Austria Wien, his first European goal for Milan.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 25 September 2017, Suso signed a contract extension that will keep him at the club until 2022. His last goal with AC Milan was scored in a home match against Spal, from a direct freekick.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: On 29 January 2020, Suso joined Sevilla on a 18-month loan deal, which includes an obligatory purchase clause. On 2 February 2020, he made his debut for the club, coming on as a substitute in a home La Liga draw against Alavés. On 16 February 2020, he assisted his former AC Milan teammate Lucas Ocampos' goal and later, assisted by Ocampos, scored his debut goal for the club in a home 2–2 league draw against Espanyol. On 20 July 2020, Sevilla announced the club had signed Suso on a permanent deal for €24 million, with him signing a five-year contract. On 16 August 2020, Suso scored in a 2–1 victory over Manchester United in the semi-final of the Europa League. He then played in the final of the competition, which Sevilla won against Inter Milan.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: Suso has represented Spain at U-17, U-18, U-19, U-20 and U-21 level. In 2012, Suso started every game during the U-19 European Championships, where he won his first international honour. On 9 October 2012, Suso received his first call up to Spain U21 for their game against Italy.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: In August 2017, Suso was called up for the first time to the Spain side for a 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Italy the following month. He was chosen by Julen Lopetegui, his former manager at under-20 and under-21 level. He finally made his debut in a friendly against Russia on 14 November 2017.


title: Suso (footballer)

text: A quickish, creative and technically gifted left-footed player, Suso is capable of playing both as a midfielder and as a forward, on either flank or in the centre of the pitch, although he usually plays as an attacking midfielder or as a winger; he has also been used as a central midfielder and in the "mezzala" role. Regarded as a promising young player, he is known for his ability to beat opponents on the ball, as well as his vision and passing accuracy, which enables him to set the tempo of his team's play, play quick exchanges with other midfielders, and provide assists for his teammates; he also possesses a good shot from outside the area and is accurate from set pieces. Former Milan midfielder Dejan Savićević compared Suso with himself saying: "He’s like me, he’s also got a great shot. He’s a player who can invent an assist, invent a shot. He can invent from one moment to the next, he’s the one who most possesses that quality."


title: Suso (footballer)

text: Suso is a classic example of an inverted winger. During his time at AC Milan, he developed his signature move of cutting into the opponent's penalty box from the right flank to shoot with his stronger left foot. Scoring a number of goals this way led to several comparisons of Suso with the Dutch forward Arjen Robben, who is credited with popularizing this exact technique among many younger wingers of the 2010s.


title: Callistemon

text: Callistemon is a genus of shrubs in the family Myrtaceae, first described as a genus in 1814. The entire genus is endemic to Australia but widely cultivated in many other regions and naturalised in scattered locations. Their status as a separate taxon is in doubt, some authorities accepting that the difference between callistemons and melaleucas is not sufficient for them to be grouped in a separate genus.


title: Callistemon

text: "Callistemon" species have commonly been referred to as bottlebrushes because of their cylindrical, brush like flowers resembling a traditional bottle brush. They are mostly found in the more temperate regions of Australia, especially along the east coast and typically favour moist conditions so when planted in gardens thrive on regular watering. However, two species are found in Tasmania and several others in the south-west of Western Australia. At least some species are drought-resistant and some are used in ornamental landscaping elsewhere in the world.


title: Callistemon

text: The Latin name "Callistemon" comes from the combination of 2 Greek words of 'callis' meaning beauty and 'stemon' meaning stamen, referring to the flowers of the plant.


title: Callistemon

text: The genus "Callistemon" was first formally described in 1814 by Robert Brown. In his description he noted that the genus includes “those species of "Metrosideros" that have inflorescence similar to that of "Melaleuca", and distinct elongated filaments.” Carl Linnaeus had described the genus "Melaleuca" in 1767 and in 1867, George Bentham brought all the "Metrosideros" species into "Melaleuca". Bentham described melaleucas as having stamens united in bundles opposite the (five) petals.


title: Callistemon

text: In his 1864 description of "Callistemon salignus" in "Fragmenta phytographiae Australiae", Ferdinand von Mueller noted that the difference between the genera was “entirely artificial” (“omnino artificiale"). George Bentham also noted in "Flora Australiensis" that "Callistemon" “passes gradually into "Melaleuca", with which F. Mueller proposes to unite it.” In 1876, Henri Ernest Baillon proposed in "Histoire des Plantes" that "Callistemon", as well as "Calothamnus" and "Lamarchea" be merged into "Melaleuca".


title: Callistemon

text: Nevertheless, most authors had preserved the distinction between the two genera "Callistemon" and "Melaleuca" until 1998. In that year, in recognition of the fact that the callistemons and melaleucas on New Caledonia were clearly related, Lyndley Craven and J.W. Dawson transferred the callistemons on that island to "Melaleuca", even though some (e.g. "Melaleuca pancheri") do not have stamens fused in 5 groups.


title: Callistemon

text: On the basis of DNA evidence, in 2006 and 2009 Craven moved all but four callistemons to melaleuca. Those four were "Callistemon forresterae", "Callistemon genofluvialis", "Callistemon kenmorrisonii" and "Callistemon nyallingensis" which were regarded as being hybrids.


title: Callistemon

text: The new description of "Melaleuca" has been accepted by some herbaria but not all. For example, the Queensland Herbarium accepts "Melaleuca flammea" (synonym "Callistemon acuminatus") but the New South Wales Herbarium accepts "Callistemon acuminatus". In 2012, Frank Udovicic and Roger Spencer transferred the newly described species of melaleuca with separate stamens (e.g. "Melaleuca megalongensis" and "Melaleuca wimmerensis") to "Callistemon" (hence "Callistemon megalongensis" and "Callistemon wimmerensis"). Their argument is that using the DNA evidence is premature. They further argue that if all the genera "Beaufortia", "Callistemon", "Calothamnus", "Conothamnus", "Eremaea", "Melaleuca", "Phymatocarpus" were combined (as Craven has suggested), then there would be no characteristics that would define the group.


title: Callistemon

text: Many commercial nurseries continue to use the name ‘’Callistemon’’. These species can be propagated either by cuttings (some species more easily than others), or from the seeds. Flowering is normally in spring and early summer (October–December), but conditions may cause flowering at other times of the year. The obvious parts of the flower masses are stamens, with the pollen at the tip of the filament; the petals are inconspicuous (see picture). Flower heads vary in colour with species; most are red, but some are yellow, green, orange or white. Each flower head produces a profusion of triple-celled seed capsules around a stem (see picture) which remain on the plant with the seeds enclosed until stimulated to open when the plant dies or fire causes the release of the seeds. A few species release the seeds annually.


title: Callistemon

text: They have been grown in Europe since a specimen of "Callistemon citrinus" was introduced to Kew Gardens in London by Joseph Banks in 1789.


title: Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas

text: The indigenous peoples of the Americas comprise numerous different cultures. Each has its own mythologies. Some are quite distinct, but certain themes are shared across the cultural boundaries.


text: There is no single mythology of the Indigenous North American peoples, but numerous different canons of traditional narratives associated with religion, ethics and beliefs. Such stories are deeply based in Nature and are rich with the symbolism of seasons, weather, plants, animals, earth, water, fire, sky, and the heavenly bodies. Common elements are the principle of an all-embracing, universal and omniscient Great Spirit, a connection to the Earth and its landscapes, a belief in a parallel world in the sky (sometimes also underground and/or below the water), diverse creation narratives, visits to the 'land of the dead', and collective memories of ancient sacred ancestors.


text: A characteristic of many of the myths is the close relationship between human beings and animals (including birds and reptiles). They often feature shape-shifting between animal and the human form. Marriage between people and different species (particularly bears) is a common theme. In some stories, animals foster human children.


text: Although most Native North American myths are profound and serious, some use light-hearted humor – often in the form of tricksters – to entertain, as they subtly convey important spiritual and moral messages. The use of allegory is common, exploring issues ranging from love and friendship to domestic violence and mental illness.


text: Some myths are connected to traditional religious rituals involving dance, music, songs, and trance (e.g. the sun dance).


text: Most of the myths from this region were first transcribed by ethnologists during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These sources were collected from Native American elders who still had strong connections to the traditions of their ancestors. They may be considered the most authentic surviving records of the ancient stories, and thus form the basis of the descriptions below.


text: Myths from this region feature female deities, such as the creator, Big Turtle; and First Mother, from whose body grew the first corn and tobacco. The two great divine culture heroes are Glooskap and Manabus.


text: Other stories explore the complex relationships between animals and human beings. Some myths were originally recited as verse narratives.


text: Stories unique to the Great Plains feature buffalo, which provided the Plains peoples with food, clothing, housing and utensils. In some myths they are benign, in others fearsome and malevolent. The Sun is an important deity; other supernatural characters include Morning Star and the Thunderbirds.


text: A common theme is the making of a journey, often to a supernatural place across the landscape or up to the parallel world in the sky.


text: One of the most dominant trickster stories of the Plains is Old Man, about whom numerous humorous stories are told. The Old Man, known as Waziya, lived beneath the earth with his wife, and they had a daughter. Their daughter married the wind and had four sons: North, East, South, and West. The sun, moon and winds then ruled the universe together.


text: Important myths of this region deal with the origin of hunting and farming, and the origin of sickness and medicine.


text: An important practice of this region was animism, the belief that all objects, places, and creatures have a soul. Most death, disease, or misfortune would be associated with the failure to put the soul of a slain animal to rest. When this happens, the animal could get vengeance through their "species chief". Large amounts of rare materials found with this regions dead suggest strong evidence that they believed in a sort of afterlife. It is thought that when a member of a tribe died, their soul would hover over their communities, trying to get their friends and relatives to join them, so their funeral ceremonies were not just to commemorate the dead, but to protect the living.


text: The Green Corn ceremony, also known as Busk, was an annual celebration of a successful corn crop. Their fires were put out and rekindled, grudges are forgiven, and materials are thrown out or broken to then be replaced. It was essentially a renewing of life and community for these tribes.


text: There was a time when there was no earth, and all creatures lived in a place above the sky called Galvlo’i. Everything below was only water, but when Galvlo’i got too crowded, the creatures decided to send down Water Beetle to see if he could find them a new place to live. He obliged and dove down into the water, all the way to the bottom of the sea, where he picked up a bit of mud and brought it to the surface. Once above the water, the mud spread out in all directions and became an island. The Great Spirit secured the island by attaching cords to it and tying it to the vault in the sky.


text: Though the land was now stable, the ground was too soft for any of the animals to stand on, so they sent down Buzzard to scope it out. He flew around for some time until he could find a dry enough spot to land, and when he did the flapping of his wings caused the mud to shift. It went down in some places and up in others, creating the peaks, valleys, hills, and mountains of the earth. The rest of the creatures were now able to come down, but they soon realized it was very dark, so they invited the sun to come with them. Everyone was happy except Crawfish, who said his shell turned a bright red because the sun was too close, so they raised the sun seven different times until Crawfish was satisfied.


text: The Great Spirit then created plants for this new land, after which he told the animals to stay awake for seven days. Only Owl was able to do so, and as a reward, the Great Spirit gave him the gift of sight in the dark. The plants tried as well, but only the pines, furs, holly, and a select few others were able to stay awake, so he gave them the gift of keeping their leaves year-round. Great Spirit then decided he wanted to have people live on this island, so he created one man and one woman. The pair did not yet know how to make children, so the man took a fish and pressed it against the woman's stomach, after which she gave birth. They did this for seven days until Great Spirit felt there was enough humans for the time being, and made it so a woman could only give birth once a year.


text: Myths of this region are dominated by the sacred creator/trickster Coyote. Other significant characters include the Sun People, the Star Women and Darkness.


text: A few of the most distinctive ceremonies of this region were their funeral customs and their commemoration of the dead. When a death occurred, the house in which it happened would be burnt down, and there would sometimes be bans on speaking the name of the dead. Widows would be smeared with pitch and their hair would be cut until the annual mourning releases them. This mourning came to be known as the "burning", the "cry", or the "dance of the dead". During these ceremonies, multiple properties are burned while the tribe dances, chants, and wails, in order to appease the ghosts.


text: Another common ceremony is one that takes place when adolescents hit puberty. Girls go through a series of grueling tabus when her first period starts but is followed by a celebratory dance when it ends. Boys will undergo an official initiation into the tribe by participating in ceremonies that recount the tribes' mysteries and myths.


text: Myths of the Navajo, Apache, and Pueblo peoples tell how the first human beings emerged from an underworld to the Earth. According to the Hopi Pueblo people, the first beings were the Sun, two goddesses known as Hard Being Woman "(Huruing Wuhti)" and Spider Woman. It was the goddesses who created living creatures and human beings. Other themes include the origin of tobacco and corn, and horses; and a battle between summer and winter. Some stories describe parallel worlds in the sky and underwater. these peoples went on to kill each other due to Zuni tales.


text: Multi-sensory experiences also are prominent in Ancestral Pueblo ceremonial rituals; for example, to evoke a paradisiacal realm, Chacoan people would perform sensorial ceremonies by use of exotic artifacts such as turquoise, shell, cacao, copper bells, and macaws.


text: Myths of the Plateau region express the people's intense spiritual feeling for their landscapes and emphasize the importance of treating with respect the animals that they depend upon for food. Sacred tricksters here include Coyote and Fox.


text: The myths of this region are strongly set in the landscape of tundra, snow, and ice. Memorable stories feature the winds, the moon, and the giants. Some accounts say that Anguta is the supreme being, who created the Earth, sea and heavenly bodies. His daughter, Sedna created all living things – animals and plants. She is regarded also as the protecting divinity of the Inuit.


text: Here some myths reflect the extreme climate and the people's dependence on salmon as a major food resource. In imagination, the landscape is populated by both benign and malevolent giants.


text: In this region, the dominant sacred trickster is Raven, who brought daylight to the world and appears in many other stories. Myths explore the people's relationship with the coast and the rivers along which they traditionally built their towns. There are stories of visits to parallel worlds beneath the sea. and up in the sky


text: The Aztecs, who predominantly inhabited modern-day central Mexico, had a complex system of beliefs based on deities who directly affected the lives of humans, including those who controlled rain, the rising Sun, and fertility. Voluntary human sacrifice was a central piece to the order of the universe and human survival.


text: The Aztecs viewed people as servants and warriors of the gods, whom were not merciful or generous, but all-powerful beings that needed to be fed and appeased in order to avoid disaster and punishment. Thus, the concept of human sacrifice emerged. This practice was not new and had been used in other cultures such as the Mayans, but the Aztecs made this their main event, so to speak, in their ceremonies. These sacrifices were mainly to appease the sun god.


text: According to the Aztecs, the creation of the earth started with a god called Ometeotl, otherwise known as the dual god, as they were made from the union of Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl, whom the Aztecs believed were the lord and lady of their sustenance. Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl had four children: Xipe Totec, which translates to "the flayed god" in Nahuatl, is associated with the color red. He is the god of the seasons and all things that grow on the earth. Tezcatlipoca, which translates to "smoking mirror", is associated with the color black. He is the god of the earth and the most powerful of the four children. Quetzalcoatl, which translates to "plumed serpent", is associated with the color white. He is the god of air. Finally, Huitzilopochtli, which translates to "hummingbird of the south", is associated with the color blue. He is the god of war.


text: The four children decided they wanted to create a world with people to live in it. Quetzalcoatl and Huitzilopochtli made the first attempt, starting by making fire. This fire became the sun, but only half a sun, because it was not big or bright enough to light their entire world. They then made the first man and woman, which they called Cipactonal and Oxomoco respectively. Their many children were called macehuales, and were to be the farmers of the land. From there they created time, and then the underworld known as


text: There are many stories of how the age of the fifth and final sun came to be. One story tells of how Tezcatlipoca took flint and used it to make fires to light the world again, before discussing with his brothers what should be done. They decided to make a new sun that feeds on the hearts and blood of humans. To feed it, they made four hundred men and five women. This is where the story goes into different directions. Some say that both Quetzalcoatl and Tlaloc wanted their sons to become the new sun, so they each threw their sons into one of the fires created by Tezcatlipoca. Tlaloc waited for the fire to burn out before throwing his son into the embers, so his son became the moon. Quetzalcoatl elected to throw his son directly into the fiery blaze, so he became the fifth and final sun that we see in the sky today. Another story tells of the gathering of the gods at the ancient city of Teotihuacan, to discuss how to make a new sun. A god by the name of Nanahuatzin, god of disease, offered to throw himself into the fire and become the new sun. Being a weak and sickly god, the others thought he should not be the one to do it, and that a stronger and more powerful god should be the sun.


text: Tecuciztecatl, a very wealthy god, stepped forward and said he would do it, but was not able to find the courage to jump into the flames. Nanahuatzin, with little hesitation, then threw himself into the fire. Seeing his bravery, Tecuciztecatl decided to jump in too. They were both transformed into suns, but the light was now too bright to see anything, so one of the other gods threw a rabbit at Tecuciztecatl, dimming his light and turning him into the moon. Nanahuatzin, now the new sun, was essentially reborn as Ollin Tonatiuh. The problem they now had was that he would not move from his position in the sky unless the other gods sacrificed their blood for him. So a god by the name of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, lord of dawn, threw a dart at Tonatiuh, but missed. Tonatiuh then threw one back at Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, hitting him in the head and turning him into Itzlacoliuhqui, god of coldness, frost, and obsidian. Realizing that they could not refuse, the other gods offered their bare chests to him, and Quetzalcoatl cut out their hearts with a sacrificial knife. With the blood of the gods, Tonatiuh began to move across the sky in the same pattern that we see to this day. Quetzalcoatl took the clothing and ornaments of the sacrificed gods and wrapped them in bundles, which the people then worshipped.


title: Journey (Journey album)

text: Journey is the self-titled debut studio album by American rock band Journey. It was released on April 1, 1975 by Columbia Records. Unlike their later recordings, this is a jazzy progressive rock album which focuses mainly on the band's instrumental talents. It is the only album to include rhythm guitarist George Tickner among their lineup.


title: Journey (Journey album)

text: Journey recorded a demo album prior to the release of "Journey", with the same songs in different order and with Prairie Prince as the drummer. There were additional tracks, including instrumental pieces, that did not make it to the final product, including the original title track of the demo album, "Charge of the Light Brigade".


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: "Rehab" is a song written and recorded by English singer and songwriter Amy Winehouse, from her second and final studio album "Back to Black" (2006). Produced by Mark Ronson, the lyrics are autobiographical and address Winehouse's refusal to enter a rehabilitation clinic. "Rehab" was released as the lead single from "Back to Black" in 2006, and it peaked at number 7 in the United Kingdom on its Singles Chart and number 9 in the United States on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Winehouse's only top 10 hit in the US.


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: "Rehab" became an international critical and commercial success, and has been referred to as Winehouse's signature song. It won three Grammy Awards at the 50th ceremony, including Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. It also won an Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song. Winehouse's public battle with drug and alcohol addiction, and subsequent death, have contributed to the song's continuing popularity and appearance in the media.


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: The song has been covered by a list of artists, such as Hot Chip, Lea Salonga, Seether, and the Jamaican mento band The Jolly Boys.


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: "Rehab" was produced by Mark Ronson and released as the album's lead single in 2006 in the UK. The song addresses Winehouse's refusal to attend an alcohol rehabilitation centre after her management team encouraged her to go. Ronson expanded on the songwriting process when interviewed by DJ Zane Lowe for the BBC Radio's "Radio 1's Stories", in an episode broadcast on BBC Radio 1 on Monday 18 July 2011, 5 days before her death:


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: Mitch Winehouse, Amy's father, confirms Ronson's story about the origins of the song in his biography, "Amy, My Daughter" (2012). He writes that Ronson and Winehouse inspired each other musically, adding that Amy had written that line in one of her notebooks years before and told him that she was planning to write a song about that day. After Ronson heard the line during his and Amy's conversation in New York, he suggested they turn it into a song. The book says that was the moment when the song "came to life".


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: In the film "Amy", director Asif Kapadia showed an interview with Mitch in which he explained that "he didn't believe [Winehouse] needed treatment [for her drug and alcohol addiction]". In an appearance on the British talk show "Loose Women", Mitch clarified the comments he made in the film, saying that Kapadia misinterpreted what he actually said to Winehouse: "[...] I say that Amy didn't need to go to rehab, right? What I actually said was – referring to 2005 – Amy didn't need to go to rehab at that point. Later on was a different story altogether, which gives a totally, completely different meaning to what I said."


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: "Rehab" is a soul and R&B song. In the lyrics Winehouse mentions "Ray" and "Mr. Hathaway", in reference to Ray Charles and Donny Hathaway.


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: "Rehab" received universal acclaim from music critics. "Rolling Stone" characterised it as a "Motown-style winner with a banging beat and a lovesick bad girl testifying like Etta James." "People" magazine called the track "instantly memorable." "Billboard" remarked that Winehouse's vocals on the song were "Shirley Bassey-meets-Ella Fitzgerald" and called the track "a better buzz than a double-gin martini." British trade paper "Music Week" called the song a "classy treat", praising Ronson's production and noting that the track's "overall effect is one of adroit skill with great hooks".


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: "Rehab" ranked number 7 on "Rolling Stone"s list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007 and number 194 on the same magazine's updated list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. This song also placed at number 92 on MTV Asias list of Top 100 Hits of 2007. "Time" magazine named "Rehab" at number one on their 10 Best Songs of 2007. Writer Josh Tyrangiel praised Winehouse for her confidence, opining, "What she is is mouthy, funny, sultry, and quite possibly crazy" and, "It's impossible not to be seduced by her originality. Combine it with production by Mark Ronson that references four decades worth of soul music without once ripping it off, and you've got the best song of 2007." "Entertainment Weekly" put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Soon she'd be making headlines for all the wrong reasons. But back in 2007, we were all saying yes, yes, yes to the British belter's one-of-a-kind voice." In 2011, "NME" placed it at number 8 on its list "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years."


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: The song won the Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song for songwriting on 24 May 2007. In July 2007, the track won the Popjustice £20 Music Prize, which recognises the best British pop singles over the past year. In doing so, Winehouse became the third act to win the award, after Girls Aloud and Rachel Stevens. The single was voted as the best song of 2007 at "The Village Voice"s annual Pazz & Jop. On 10 February 2008, "Rehab" won three Grammy Awards: Record of the Year, Song of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance.


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: Based solely on download sales, "Rehab" entered the UK Singles Chart at number nineteen and when the physical single was released the following week, it climbed to number seven, Winehouse's highest chart position at the time by more than 50 places. By 25 October, the album was approaching five-time platinum in the UK, making it the best-selling record of 2007.


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: The song entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 91 on the 31 March 2007 chart without an official single release. Winehouse's current single at the time, "You Know I'm No Good", entered one spot above, at number 90, the same week. After lingering in the bottom portions of the Hot 100 for several months, the song suddenly jumped 38 spots to number ten on the 23 June chart, due to digital sales following Winehouse's live performance of the song on the MTV Movie Awards on 3 June 2007; sales of the official remix featuring rapper Jay-Z also had a small effect, helping it to peak in the 70s on the iTunes Top 100 in the US. After a change of rules in the UK allowing all digital downloads to be counted for the singles chart, "Rehab" re-entered the chart at number 20 for the week ending 13 January 2007, whilst "You Know I'm No Good" occupied the number 40 spot as a new entry on downloads alone.


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: The Ronson-produced song also topped at the top ten in more than 10 countries including Canada, Spain, Denmark, and Israel, peaking at number one in Norway and Hungary. It reached the top 20 in France, the Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland and Finland, attaining a peak position of number 23 on the European Hot 100 Singles.


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: Between October 2006 and June 2007, the single spent 34 consecutive weeks in the official UK top 75 and has re-entered it again several times since, most recently at number 29 on 31 July 2011 in the wake of the singer's death, giving it a current total of 59 weeks in the top 75, making it the joint 10th longest runner of all time, and 76 in the top 100.


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: It also became her first top ten hit on the "Billboard" Hot 100, peaking at number nine. The Recording Industry Association of America certified "Rehab" platinum on 11 February 2010 for sales of over 1 million copies. The song was an enduring hit throughout 2007; with UK sales of 131,415 in 2007 alone, it finished the year as the UK's fifth-sixth biggest-selling single. It is Winehouse's longest-running UK chart hit, but her Ronson collaboration "Valerie" has proven to be her biggest seller to date.


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: The music video was directed by Phil Griffin and released in September 2006. It features Winehouse's band playing their instruments while she sings to the camera. The band members are wearing dressing gowns/bath robes throughout the video, with one member dressed similarly to Donny Hathaway. It begins with Winehouse rising from bed and then moving to the bathroom. For the second verse, Winehouse is on a chair in a psychiatrist's office, presumably explaining herself to an unseen therapist. In contrast to the lyrics, the video ends with Winehouse in rehab, sitting on a bed in a white-tiled clinical ward room with her band around her. The video was shot by director of photography Adam Frisch. On 31 May 2007, "Rehab" debuted on MTV's "Total Request Live" and later peaked at number one on 7 June. The music video was also nominated for Video of the Year at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards, but lost out to Rihanna's "Umbrella."


title: Rehab (Amy Winehouse song)

text: On 12 March 2007, Winehouse performed the song live for her US television debut on the "Late Show with David Letterman". For a while, she replaced "Ray" with "Blake", referring to her ex-husband, Blake Fielder-Civil, in live performances. She also replaced several times the lyrics, "I'm gonna lose my baby", with, "I'll never lose my baby".


title: Charles F. Adams-class destroyer

text: The "Charles F. Adams" class is a ship class of 29 guided-missile destroyers (DDG) built between 1958 and 1967. Twenty-three were built for the United States Navy, three for the Royal Australian Navy, and three for the West German "Bundesmarine". The design of these ships (known as project SCB 155) was based on that of s, but the "Charles F. Adams" class were the first class designed to serve as guided-missile destroyers. of length was added to the center of the design of the "Forrest Sherman" class to carry the ASROC launcher. The "Charles F. Adams"-class were the last steam turbine-powered destroyers built for the U.S. Navy. Starting with the succeeding "Spruance-class", all U.S. Navy destroyers have been powered by gas turbines. Some of the U.S. "Charles F. Adams" class served during the blockade of Cuba in 1962 and during the Vietnam War; those of the Royal Australian Navy served during the Vietnam War and Gulf War.


title: Charles F. Adams-class destroyer

text: Although designed with cutting-edge technology for the 1950s, by the mid-1970s it was clear to the Navy that the "Charles F. Adams"-class destroyers were not prepared to deal with modern air attacks and guided missiles. To reduce this vulnerability, the U.S. Navy began the New Threat Upgrade (NTU) program. This consisted of a number of sensor, weapons and communications upgrades that were intended to extend the service lives of the ships. Under the NTU, these destroyers received improved electronic warfare capability through the installation of the AN/SLQ-32(V)2 EW Suite.


title: Charles F. Adams-class destroyer

text: The upgraded combat system would include the MK86 Gun Fire Control System with AN/SPQ-9 radar, the Hughes AN/SPS-52C 3D radar, the AN/SPG-51C (Digital) Fire Control Radars, and the Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS). These ships were also planned to have the ability to launch several "Harpoon" anti-ship missiles, which were to be installed in their MK-11 or MK-13 Tartar missile launcher.


title: Charles F. Adams-class destroyer

text: During the 1980s, the Reagan Administration chose to accelerate production of the guided-missile cruisers and build the guided-missile destroyers, both classes with the Aegis Combat System that was considered more effective than NTU-upgraded ships, to gradually replace all existing destroyer and cruiser classes (especially the expensive nuclear-powered cruisers). The result of this was that only three of "Charles F. Adams"-class destroyers, , , and received the full upgrade. Other ships, of the class, such as "Charles F. Adams", received only partial upgrades, which included the AN/SLQ-32 and Harpoon Missile upgrades, that were intended to extend their service lives until the "Arleigh Burke" class could reach operational capability.


title: Charles F. Adams-class destroyer

text: The United States Navy decommissioned its last "Charles F. Adams" destroyer, "Goldsborough", on 29 April 1993. The Australian and German navies decommissioned their last ships of this class by 2003. Four ships of this class were transferred to the Hellenic Navy in 1992, but those have also been decommissioned.


title: Charles F. Adams-class destroyer

text: The was a modification of the "Charles F. Adams" class for the "Bundesmarine" (the Navy of West Germany). It differed from the "Charles F. Adams" class in the layout of the crew accommodations, the location of the bow sonar, a second large aerial mast and different funnels.


title: Charles F. Adams-class destroyer

text: The Royal Australian Navy had three "Charles F. Adams"-class units constructed to their own specifications (these ships were designated the ). Although broadly similar to the US Navy's vessels, the Australian ships were fitted with the Ikara system instead of the ASROC that was fitted to the American units. The three ships were:


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: The evolutionary origin of religions and religious behavior is a field of study related to evolutionary psychology, the origin of language and mythology, and cross-cultural comparison of the anthropology of religion. Some subjects of interest include Neolithic religion, evidence for spirituality or cultic behavior in the Upper Paleolithic, and similarities in great ape behavior.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Humanity's closest living relatives are common chimpanzees and bonobos. These primates share a common ancestor with humans who lived between six and eight million years ago. It is for this reason that chimpanzees and bonobos are viewed as the best available surrogate for this common ancestor. Barbara King argues that while non-human primates are not religious, they do exhibit some traits that would have been necessary for the evolution of religion. These traits include high intelligence, a capacity for symbolic communication, a sense of social norms. and realization of "self" continuity. There is inconclusive evidence that "Homo neanderthalensis" may have buried their dead, which would be evidence of mortuary ritual. The use of burial rituals is thought to be evidence of religious activity, but there is no other evidence that religion existed in human culture before humans reached behavioral modernity. Other lines of evidence have revealed that "Homo neanderthalensis" made cave art, which would require a high level of symbolic thinking paralleling religious thought.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Elephants perform rituals for their dead. They demonstrate long periods of silence and mourning at the point of death; later, elephants return to grave sites and caress the remains. Some evidence suggests that many species grieve death and loss.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: In this set of theories, the religious mind is one consequence of a brain that is large enough to formulate religious and philosophical ideas. During human evolution, the hominid brain tripled in size, peaking 500,000 years ago. Much of the brain's expansion took place in the neocortex. The cerebral neocortex is presumed to be responsible for the neural computations underlying complex phenomena such as perception, thought, language, attention, episodic memory and voluntary movement. According to Dunbar's theory, the relative neocortex size of any species correlates with the level of social complexity of the particular species. The neocortex size correlates with a number of social variables that include social group size and complexity of mating behaviors. In chimpanzees the neocortex occupies 50% of the brain, whereas in modern humans it occupies 80% of the brain.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Robin Dunbar argues that the critical event in the evolution of the neocortex took place at the speciation of archaic "Homo sapiens" about 500,000 years ago. His study indicates that only after the speciation event is the neocortex large enough to process complex social phenomena such as language and religion. The study is based on a regression analysis of neocortex size plotted against a number of social behaviors of living and extinct hominids.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Stephen Jay Gould suggests that religion may have grown out of evolutionary changes which favored larger brains as a means of cementing group coherence among savanna hunters, after that larger brain enabled reflection on the inevitability of personal mortality.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Lewis Wolpert argues that causal beliefs that emerged from tool use played a major role in the evolution of belief. The manufacture of complex tools requires creating a mental image of an object which does not exist naturally before actually making the artifact. Furthermore, one must understand how the tool would be used, that requires an understanding of causality. Accordingly, the level of sophistication of stone tools is a useful indicator of causal beliefs. Wolpert contends use of tools composed of more than one component, such as hand axes, represents an ability to understand cause and effect. However, recent studies of other primates indicate that causality may not be a uniquely human trait. For example, chimpanzees have been known to escape from pens closed with multiple latches, which was previously thought could only have been figured out by humans who understood causality. Chimpanzees are also known to mourn the dead, and notice things that have only aesthetic value, like sunsets, both of which may be considered to be components of religion or spirituality.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: The difference between the comprehension of causality by humans and chimpanzees is one of degree. The degree of comprehension in an animal depends upon the size of the prefrontal cortex: the greater the size of the prefrontal cortex the deeper the comprehension.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Religion requires a system of symbolic communication, such as language, to be transmitted from one individual to another. Philip Lieberman states "human religious thought and moral sense clearly rest on a cognitive-linguistic base". From this premise science writer Nicholas Wade states:


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Another view distinguishes individual religious belief from collective religious belief. While the former does not require prior development of language, the latter does. The individual human brain has to explain a phenomenon in order to comprehend and relate to it. This activity predates by far the emergence of language and may have caused it. The theory is, belief in the supernatural emerges from hypotheses arbitrarily assumed by individuals to explain natural phenomena that cannot be explained otherwise. The resulting need to share individual hypotheses with others leads eventually to collective religious belief. A socially accepted hypothesis becomes dogmatic backed by social sanction.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Language consists of digital contrasts whose cost is essentially zero. As pure social conventions, signals of this kind cannot evolve in a Darwinian social world—they are a theoretical impossibility. Being intrinsically unreliable, language works only if one can build up a reputation for trustworthiness within a certain kind of society—namely, one where symbolic cultural facts (sometimes called 'institutional facts') can be established and maintained through collective social endorsement. In any hunter-gatherer society, the basic mechanism for establishing trust in symbolic cultural facts is collective "ritual".


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Transcending the continuity-versus-discontinuity divide, some scholars view the emergence of language as the consequence of some kind of social transformation that, by generating unprecedented levels of public trust, liberated a genetic potential for linguistic creativity that had previously lain dormant. "Ritual/speech coevolution theory" exemplifies this approach. Scholars in this intellectual camp point to the fact that even chimpanzees and bonobos have latent symbolic capacities that they rarely—if ever—use in the wild. Objecting to the sudden mutation idea, these authors argue that even if a chance mutation were to install a language organ in an evolving bipedal primate, it would be adaptively useless under all known primate social conditions. A very specific social structure—one capable of upholding unusually high levels of public accountability and trust—must have evolved before or concurrently with language to make reliance on "cheap signals" (words) an evolutionarily stable strategy. The animistic nature of early human language could serve as the handicap-like cost that helped to ensure the reliability of communication. The attribution of spiritual essence to everything surrounding early humans served as a built-in mechanism that provided instant verification and ensured


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Animal vocal signals are, for the most part, intrinsically reliable. When a cat purrs, the signal constitutes direct evidence of the animal's contented state. The signal is trusted, not because the cat is inclined to be honest, but because it just cannot fake that sound. Primate vocal calls may be slightly more manipulable, but they remain reliable for the same reason—because they are hard to fake. Primate social intelligence is "Machiavellian"—self-serving and unconstrained by moral scruples. Monkeys and apes often attempt to deceive each other, while at the same time remaining constantly on guard against falling victim to deception themselves. Paradoxically, it is theorized that primates' resistance to deception is what blocks the evolution of their signalling systems along language-like lines. Language is ruled out because the best way to guard against being deceived is to ignore all signals except those that are instantly verifiable. Words automatically fail this test.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Frans de Waal and Barbara King both view human morality as having grown out of primate sociality. Although morality awareness may be a unique human trait, many social animals, such as primates, dolphins and whales, have been known to exhibit pre-moral sentiments. According to Michael Shermer, the following characteristics are shared by humans and other social animals, particularly the great apes:


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: De Waal contends that all social animals have had to restrain or alter their behavior for group living to be worthwhile. Pre-moral sentiments evolved in primate societies as a method of restraining individual selfishness and building more cooperative groups. For any social species, the benefits of being part of an altruistic group should outweigh the benefits of individualism. For example, a lack of group cohesion could make individuals more vulnerable to attack from outsiders. Being part of a group may also improve the chances of finding food. This is evident among animals that hunt in packs to take down large or dangerous prey.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: All social animals have hierarchical societies in which each member knows its own place. Social order is maintained by certain rules of expected behavior and dominant group members enforce order through punishment. However, higher order primates also have a sense of fairness.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Chimpanzees live in fission-fusion groups that average 50 individuals. It is likely that early ancestors of humans lived in groups of similar size. Based on the size of extant hunter-gatherer societies, recent Paleolithic hominids lived in bands of a few hundred individuals. As community size increased over the course of human evolution, greater enforcement to achieve group cohesion would have been required. Morality may have evolved in these bands of 100 to 200 people as a means of social control, conflict resolution and group solidarity. According to Dr. de Waal, human morality has two extra levels of sophistication that are not found in primate societies.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Psychologist Matt J. Rossano argues that religion emerged after morality and built upon morality by expanding the social scrutiny of individual behavior to include supernatural agents. By including ever-watchful ancestors, spirits and gods in the social realm, humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups. The adaptive value of religion would have enhanced group survival.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Rossano is referring here to collective religious belief and the social sanction that institutionalized morality. According to Rossano's teaching, individual religious belief is thus initially epistemological, not ethical, in nature.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Cognitive scientists underlined that religions may be explained as a result of the brain architecture that developed early in the genus "Homo" in the course of the evolutionary history of life. However, there is disagreement on the exact mechanisms that drove the evolution of the religious mind. The two main schools of thought hold:


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Stephen Jay Gould, for example, saw religion as an exaptation or a spandrel, in other words: religion evolved as byproduct of psychological mechanisms that evolved for other reasons.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Such mechanisms may include the ability to infer the presence of organisms that might do harm (agent detection), the ability to come up with causal narratives for natural events (etiology), and the ability to recognize that other people have minds of their own with their own beliefs, desires and intentions (theory of mind). These three adaptations (among others) allow human beings to imagine purposeful agents behind many observations that could not readily be explained otherwise, e.g. thunder, lightning, movement of planets, complexity of life. The emergence of collective religious belief identified such agents as deities that standardized the explanation.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Some scholars have suggested that religion is genetically "hardwired" into the human condition. One controversial proposal, the God gene hypothesis, states that some variants of a specific gene, the VMAT2 gene, predispose to spirituality.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Another view builds on the concept of the triune brain: the reptilian brain, the limbic system, and the neocortex, proposed by Paul D. MacLean. Collective religious belief draws upon the emotions of love, fear, and gregariousness and is deeply embedded in the limbic system through socio-biological conditioning and social sanction. Individual religious belief utilizes reason based in the neocortex and often varies from collective religion. The limbic system is much older in evolutionary terms than the neocortex and is, therefore, stronger than it – much in the same way as the reptilian is stronger than both the limbic system and the neocortex.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Yet another view is that the behavior of people who participate in a religion makes them feel better and this improves their biological fitness, so that there is a genetic selection in favor of people who are willing to believe in a religion. Specifically, rituals, beliefs, and the social contact typical of religious groups may serve to calm the mind (for example by reducing ambiguity and the uncertainty due to complexity) and allow it to function better when under stress. This would allow religion to be used as a powerful survival mechanism, particularly in facilitating the evolution of hierarchies of warriors, which if true, may be why many modern religions tend to promote fertility and kinship.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Still another view, proposed by Fred H. Previc, sees human religion as a product of an increase in dopaminergic functions in the human brain and of a general intellectual expansion beginning around 80 thousand years ago (kya). Dopamine promotes an emphasis on distant space and time, which can correlate with religious experience.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: While the earliest extant shamanic cave-paintings date to around 40 kya, the use of ocher for rock art predates this and there is clear evidence for abstract thinking along the coast of South Africa 80 kya.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Paul Bloom suggests that "certain early emergent cognitive biases ... make it natural to believe in Gods and spirits".


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: The exact time when humans first became religious remains unknown, however research in evolutionary archaeology shows credible evidence of religious-cum-ritualistic behavior from around the Middle Paleolithic era (45–200 thousand years ago).


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: The earliest evidence of religious thought is based on the ritual treatment of the dead. Most animals display only a casual interest in the dead of their own species. Ritual burial thus represents a significant change in human behavior. Ritual burials represent an awareness of life and death and a possible belief in the afterlife. Philip Lieberman states "burials with grave goods clearly signify religious practices and concern for the dead that transcends daily life."


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: The earliest evidence for treatment of the dead comes from Atapuerca in Spain. At this location the bones of 30 individuals believed to be "Homo heidelbergensis" have been found in a pit.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Neanderthals are also contenders for the first hominids to intentionally bury the dead. They may have placed corpses into shallow graves along with stone tools and animal bones. The presence of these grave goods may indicate an emotional connection with the deceased and possibly a belief in the afterlife. Neanderthal burial sites include Shanidar in Iraq and Krapina in Croatia and Kebara Cave in Israel.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: The earliest known burial of modern humans is from a cave in Israel located at Qafzeh. Human remains have been dated to 100,000 years ago. Human skeletons were found stained with red ocher. A variety of grave goods were found at the burial site. The mandible of a wild boar was found placed in the arms of one of the skeletons. Philip Lieberman states:


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Matt Rossano suggests that the period between 80,000 and 60,000 years before present, following the retreat of humans from the Levant to Africa, was a crucial period in the evolution of religion.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: The use of symbolism in religion is a universal established phenomenon. Archeologist Steven Mithen contends that it is common for religious practices to involve the creation of images and symbols to represent supernatural beings and ideas. Because supernatural beings violate the principles of the natural world, there will always be difficulty in communicating and sharing supernatural concepts with others. This problem can be overcome by anchoring these supernatural beings in material form through representational art. When translated into material form, supernatural concepts become easier to communicate and understand. Due to the association of art and religion, evidence of symbolism in the fossil record is indicative of a mind capable of religious thoughts. Art and symbolism demonstrates a capacity for abstract thought and imagination necessary to construct religious ideas. Wentzel van Huyssteen states that the translation of the non-visible through symbolism enabled early human ancestors to hold beliefs in abstract terms.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Some of the earliest evidence of symbolic behavior is associated with Middle Stone Age sites in Africa. From at least 100,000 years ago, there is evidence of the use of pigments such as red ocher. Pigments are of little practical use to hunter gatherers, thus evidence of their use is interpreted as symbolic or for ritual purposes. Among extant hunter gatherer populations around the world, red ocher is still used extensively for ritual purposes. It has been argued that it is universal among human cultures for the color red to represent blood, sex, life and death.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: The use of red ocher as a proxy for symbolism is often criticized as being too indirect. Some scientists, such as Richard Klein and Steven Mithen, only recognize unambiguous forms of art as representative of abstract ideas. Upper paleolithic cave art provides some of the most unambiguous evidence of religious thought from the paleolithic. Cave paintings at Chauvet depict creatures that are half human and half animal.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Organized religion traces its roots to the neolithic revolution that began 11,000 years ago in the Near East but may have occurred independently in several other locations around the world. The invention of agriculture transformed many human societies from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a sedentary lifestyle. The consequences of the neolithic revolution included a population explosion and an acceleration in the pace of technological development. The transition from foraging bands to states and empires precipitated more specialized and developed forms of religion that reflected the new social and political environment. While bands and small tribes possess supernatural beliefs, these beliefs do not serve to justify a central authority, justify transfer of wealth or maintain peace between unrelated individuals.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Organized religion emerged as a means of providing social and economic stability through the following ways:


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: The states born out of the Neolithic revolution, such as those of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, were theocracies with chiefs, kings and emperors playing dual roles of political and spiritual leaders. Anthropologists have found that virtually all state societies and chiefdoms from around the world have been found to justify political power through divine authority. This suggests that political authority co-opts collective religious belief to bolster itself.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Following the neolithic revolution, the pace of technological development (cultural evolution) intensified due to the invention of writing 5,000 years ago. Symbols that became words later on made effective communication of ideas possible. Printing invented only over a thousand years ago increased the speed of communication exponentially and became the main spring of cultural evolution.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Writing is thought to have been first invented in either Sumeria or Ancient Egypt and was initially used for accounting. Soon after, writing was used to record myth. The first religious texts mark the beginning of religious history. The Pyramid Texts from ancient Egypt are one of the oldest known religious texts in the world, dating to between 2400 and 2300 BCE. Writing played a major role in sustaining and spreading organized religion. In pre-literate societies, religious ideas were based on an oral tradition, the contents of which were articulated by shamans and remained limited to the collective memories of the society's inhabitants. With the advent of writing, information that was not easy to remember could easily be stored in sacred texts that were maintained by a select group (clergy). Humans could store and process large amounts of information with writing that otherwise would have been forgotten. Writing therefore enabled religions to develop coherent and comprehensive doctrinal systems that remained independent of time and place.


title: Evolutionary origin of religions

text: Writing also brought a measure of objectivity to human knowledge. Formulation of thoughts in words and the requirement for validation made mutual exchange of ideas and the sifting of generally acceptable from not acceptable ideas possible. The generally acceptable ideas became objective knowledge reflecting the continuously evolving framework of human awareness of reality that Karl Popper calls 'verisimilitude' – a stage on the human journey to truth.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: Oaktree Capital Management is an American global asset management firm specializing in alternative investment strategies. As of March 31, 2022, the company managed $164 billion for its clientele.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: The firm was co-founded in 1995 by a group that had formerly worked together at the TCW Group starting in the 1980s. On April 12, 2012, Oaktree Capital Group LLC became listed on the . On March 13, 2019, Canada's Brookfield Asset Management announced that it had agreed to buy 62% of Oaktree Capital Management for approximately $4.7 billion.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: The firm is based in Los Angeles, and has over 1,000 employees in offices in 19 cities worldwide (Los Angeles; London; New York City; Hong Kong; Stamford, Connecticut, Tokyo, Luxembourg, Paris, Frankfurt, Singapore, Seoul, Beijing; Amsterdam; Dubai; Houston, Helsinki, Dublin, Shanghai and Sydney). The company's co-chairman, Howard Marks, is known in the investment community for his letters to investors.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: Since its formation in 1995, Oaktree has become the largest distressed-debt investor in the world. In 2008, it raised $10.9 billion for what was the largest-ever distressed debt fund, its Opportunities Fund VIIb. As reported in "The Washington Post" on June 26, 2011, Oaktree's 17 distressed-debt funds (which do not use leverage) have averaged annual gains of 19% after fees for the past 22 years.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: Oaktree's clientele includes 67 of the 100 largest U.S. pension plans, 40 state retirement plans in the United States, over 400 corporations and/or their pension funds, over 300 university, charitable and other endowments and foundations, and 15 sovereign wealth funds. According to "The Wall Street Journal", Oaktree has “long been considered a stable repository for pension-fund and endowment money.”


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: The company's distressed-debt funds are often over-subscribed, and in 2010 Oaktree turned down potential investors due to self-imposed limits on fund size.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: Oaktree was founded in 1995 by a group of principals who first joined together at the TCW Group in the mid-1980s Within three months of its founding in 1995, “more than 30 TCW clients transferred $1.5 billion in assets to Oaktree.”


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: Oaktree has formed various sub-advisory relationships since 1995. In 1996, Oaktree was selected as the sub-advisor for the Vanguard Convertible Securities Fund.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: Since 1995, Oaktree has created what it refers to as “step-out” strategies, usually coincident with the opening of new offices around the world. Its growth in strategies has largely focused on expanding into European and Asian markets. Between 1997 and 1999, Oaktree created 3 new strategies: Emerging Markets Absolute Return in 1997, European High Yield Bonds in 1999, and Power Opportunities in 1999.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: In 2001 Oaktree continued to introduce new "step-out" strategies, starting with Mezzanine Finance. Asia Principal Opportunities (2006) followed, along with European Principal Investments (2006), European Senior Loans (2006), U.S. Senior Loans and Value Opportunities (2007), Global High Yield Bonds (2010), Emerging Markets Equities (2011), and Real Estate Debt (2012).


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: In 2005 the Securities And Exchange Commission ordered Oaktree to pay a fine, interest, and disgorge profits after the SEC ruled they had "sold securities short" before the five legal business days after a public offering pricing had gone public. Oaktree was required to put in place policies and procedures to prevent violations in the future.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: In 2008, the firm raised $11 billion for their distressed debt fund. In 2009, Oaktree was selected by the U.S. Treasury, along with eight other managers (BlackRock, Invesco, AllianceBernstein and others) to participate in the government's Public-Private Investment Program (PPIP). At the time of Oaktree's inclusion in the PPIP program, "The New York Times" reported: “Howard S. Marks is the sort of financier who Washington hopes will help fix the nation’s tumbledown banks.” As of December 31, 2018, the Oaktree PPIP Fund, L.P. had a gross return of 28%.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: In 2009, Oaktree acquired a 20% stake in DoubleLine Capital, a Los Angeles-based investment firm specializing in mortgage-backed fixed income portfolios.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: The firm's relationship with Vanguard was expanded in 2011 when Oaktree was selected as one of four firms to manage Vanguard's Emerging Markets Select Stock Fund. In 2010, Oaktree was named one of three advisors to the Russell Global Opportunistic Credit Fund and was selected as a manager for the Credit Suisse (Lux) I Fund in 2011.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: Seeking investment opportunities created by the European sovereign-debt crisis, Oaktree started its European Principal Fund III in November 2011 with committed capital of some €3 billion.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: In 2017, Eaton Vance launched the Oaktree Diversified Credit NextShares exchange-traded managed fund with Oaktree as subadvisor.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: According to the company's published financial results, Oaktree raised $12 billion for Oaktree Opportunities Funds X and Xb (“Opps X and Xb”).


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: On April 12, 2012, Oaktree became a publicly traded partnership with shares listed on the NYSE. The company was previously listed on GSTrUE, a private over-the-counter exchange run by Goldman Sachs which officially ceased operations in 2012 after Oaktree, along with Apollo Global Management (in 2011), de-listed and moved to the NYSE.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: On March 13, 2019, Brookfield Asset Management announced that it had agreed to buy 62% of Oaktree Capital Management for about $4.7 billion, creating one of the world’s largest alternative money managers. On September 30, 2019, completion of the acquisition of a majority stake by Brookfield Asset Management was announced.


title: Oaktree Capital Management

text: Oaktree's current investment activities are divided across four asset classes: credit, private equity, real assets and listed equities.


title: Kim Tae-yong

text: Kim Tae-yong (born December 9, 1969) is a South Korean film director and screenwriter. After his feature directorial debut "Memento Mori" (1999), he helmed the critically acclaimed "Family Ties" (2006), and the English-language remake "Late Autumn" (2010).


title: Kim Tae-yong

text: Although he initially wanted to pursue writing, Kim Tae-yong eventually graduated from Yonsei University in 1994 with a major in Politics and Diplomacy. He first became involved in Korean cinema through a friend, who was an assistant director of an independent production. Inspired by the vibrant atmosphere that came with working on a set, Kim then enrolled at the Korean Academy of Film Arts (KAFA) in 1996. He met and became friends with fellow director Min Kyu-dong while at KAFA, where he and his classmates would work on short films as a part of the crew and doing lighting. In 1999, Kim and Min received the offer to direct "Memento Mori" as a sequel to the horror film "Whispering Corridors" (1998), and so began Kim’s foray into commercial cinema.


title: Kim Tae-yong

text: In some ways, "Memento Mori" might be considered the most influential Korean horror film of the 2000s. Although it was not a box-office hit, the film is frequently cited by young filmmakers and cinema fans as a modern-day classic. At the time of its release and in the intervening years, most critics tended to focus their attention on the other of "Memento Mori"'s co-directors, Min Kyu-dong, however the release of "Family Ties" in spring 2006 established Kim as a highly regarded filmmaker in his own right. His intimate portrayal of a totally unconventional but non-dysfunctional family garnered multiple domestic and international awards.


title: Kim Tae-yong

text: Kim's third feature film "Late Autumn" was a remake of Lee Man-hee's 1966 classic "Manchu" set in Seattle. It was also critically acclaimed and became the highest-grossing Korean film in China.


title: Kim Tae-yong

text: Kim then joined the restoration project and re-directed "Crossroads of Youth" (1934) by "performing" Korea’s oldest known silent film with live narration (by the "byeonsa") and musical accompaniment.


title: Kim Tae-yong

text: Apart from his feature films, Kim has been active in a variety of creative endeavors, from hosting a cinema-themed TV show on EBS to directing plays, shooting documentaries and making cameo appearances (both times as a film director) in the films "All for Love" (2005) by Min Kyu-dong and "Family Matters" (2006) by Nam Seon-ho.


title: Kim Tae-yong

text: Kim married Chinese actress Tang Wei on July 12, 2014, in the front yard of the home of film legend Ingmar Bergman on the remote Swedish island of Fårö. A formal wedding ceremony was later held in Hong Kong, with only immediate family members as guests. The couple first met in 2009 when he directed her in the film "Late Autumn", and began dating in October 2013 after Tang shot a commercial in Korea.


title: Corm

text: A corm, bulbo-tuber, or bulbotuber is a short, vertical, swollen underground plant stem that serves as a storage organ that some plants use to survive winter or other adverse conditions such as summer drought and heat (perennation).


title: Corm

text: The word "cormous" usually means plants that grow from corms, parallel to the terms "tuberous" and "bulbous" to describe plants growing from tubers and bulbs.


title: Corm

text: A corm consists of one or more internodes with at least one growing point, generally with protective leaves modified into skins or tunics. The tunic of a corm forms from dead petiole sheaths—remnants of leaves produced in previous years. They act as a covering, protecting the corm from insects, digging animals, flooding, and water loss. The tunics of some species are thin, dry, and papery, at least in young plants, however, in some families, such as "Iridaceae", the tunic of a mature corm can be formidable protection. For example, some of the larger species of "Watsonia" accumulate thick, rot-resistant tunics over a period of years, producing a structure of tough, reticulated fibre. Other species, such as many in the genus "Lapeirousia", have tunics of hard, woody layers.


title: Corm

text: Internally, a typical corm mostly consists of parenchyma cells, rich in starch, above a circular basal node from which roots grow.


title: Corm

text: Long-lived cormous plants vary in their long-term development. Some regularly replace their older corms with a stack of younger corms, increased more or less seasonally. By splitting such a stack before the older corm generations wither too badly, the horticulturist can exploit the individual corms for propagation. Other species seldom do anything of that kind; their corms simply grow larger in most seasons. Yet others split when multiple buds or stolons on a large corm sprout independently, forming a tussock.


title: Corm

text: Corms can be dug up and used to propagate or redistribute the plant (see, for example, taro). Plants with corms generally can be propagated by cutting the corms into sections and replanting. Suitably treated, each section with at least one bud usually can generate a new corm.


title: Corm

text: Corms are sometimes confused with true bulbs; they are often similar in appearance to bulbs externally, and thus erroneously called bulbs. Corms are stems that are internally structured with solid tissues, which distinguishes them from bulbs, which are mostly made up of layered fleshy scales that are modified leaves. As a result, a corm cut in half appears solid inside, but a true bulb cut in half reveals that it is made up of layers. Corms are structurally plant stems, with nodes and internodes with buds and produce adventitious roots. On the top of the corm, one or a few buds grow into shoots that produce normal leaves and flowers.


title: Corm

text: Corms can form many small cormlets called cormels, from the basal areas of the new growing corms, especially when the main growing point is damaged. These propagate corm-forming plants. A number of species replace corms every year by growing a new corm. This process starts after the shoot develops fully expanded leaves. The new corm forms at the shoot base just above the old corm. As the new corm grows, short stolons appear that end with the newly growing small cormels. As the plants grow and flower, they use up the old corm, which shrivels away. The new corm that replaces the old corm grows in size, especially after flowering ends.


title: Corm

text: The old corm produces the greatest number of cormels when close to the soil surface. Small cormels normally take one or two more years of growth before they are large enough to flower.


title: Corm

text: Cormels do have a reproductive function, but in the wild they also are important as a survival strategy. In most places where geophytes are common, so are animals that feed on them, whether from above like pigs, or from below like bulb weevils, mole rats, or pocket gophers. Such animals eat through protective tunics, but they generally miss several cormels that remain in the soil to replace the consumed plant. Plants such as "Homeria", "Watsonia" and "Gladiolus", genera that are vulnerable to such animals, are probably the ones that produce cormels in the greatest numbers and most widely distributed over the plant. "Homeria" species produce bunches of cormels on underground stem nodes, and "Watsonia meriana" for example actually produces cormels profusely from under


title: Corm

text: Those growing from the bottom of the corm are normal fibrous roots formed as the shoots grow, and are produced from the basal area at the bottom of the corm. The second type are thicker layered roots called contractile roots that form as the new corms are growing. They pull the corm deeper into the soil. In some species contractile roots are produced in response to fluctuating soil temperatures and light levels. In such species, once the corm is deep enough within the soil where the temperature is more uniform and there is no light, the contractile roots no longer grow and the corm is no longer pulled deeper into the soil. In some other species, contractile roots seem to be a defence against digging animals and can bury the corm surprisingly deeply over the years. "Wurmbea marginata" is one example of a small plant that can be challenging to dig unharmed out of a hard, clayey hillside.


title: Indeterminate form

text: In calculus and other branches of mathematical analysis, limits involving an algebraic combination of functions in an independent variable may often be evaluated by replacing these functions by their limits; if the expression obtained after this substitution does not provide sufficient information to determine the original limit, then the expression is called an indeterminate form. More specifically, an indeterminate form is a mathematical expression involving at most two of formula_1, formula_2 or formula_3, obtained by applying the algebraic limit theorem in the process of attempting to determine a limit, which fails to restrict that limit to one specific value or infinity, and thus does not determine the limit being sought. A limit confirmed to be infinity is not indeterminate since it has been determined to have a specific value (infinity). The term was originally introduced by Cauchy's student Moigno in the middle of the 19th century.


title: Indeterminate form

text: The most common example of an indeterminate form occurs when determining the limit of the ratio of two functions, in which both of these functions tend to zero in the limit, and is referred to as "the indeterminate form formula_5". For example, as formula_6 approaches formula_1, the ratios formula_8, formula_9, and formula_10 go to formula_3, formula_2, and formula_1 respectively. In each case, if the limits of the numerator and denominator are substituted, the resulting expression is formula_5, which is undefined. In a loose manner of speaking, formula_5 can take on the values formula_1, formula_2, or formula_3, and it is easy to construct similar examples for which the limit is any particular value.


title: Indeterminate form

text: So, given that two functions formula_19 and formula_20 both approaching formula_1 as formula_6 approaches some limit point formula_23, that fact alone does not give enough information for evaluating the limit


title: Indeterminate form

text: Not every undefined algebraic expression corresponds to an indeterminate form. For example, the expression formula_24 is undefined as a real number but does not correspond to an indeterminate form; any defined limit that gives rise to this form will diverge to infinity.


title: Indeterminate form

text: An expression that arises by ways other than applying the algebraic limit theorem may have the same form of an indeterminate form. However it is not appropriate to call an expression "indeterminate form" if the expression is made outside the context of determining limits.


title: Indeterminate form

text: For example, formula_5 which arises from substituting formula_1 for formula_6 in the equation formula_28 is not an indeterminate form since this expression is not made in the determination of a limit (it is in fact undefined as division by zero).


title: Indeterminate form

text: Another example is the expression formula_29. Whether this expression is left undefined, or is defined to equal formula_2, depends on the field of application and may vary between authors. For more, see the article Zero to the power of zero. Note that formula_31 and other expressions involving infinity are not indeterminate forms.


title: Indeterminate form

text: The indeterminate form formula_5 is particularly common in calculus, because it often arises in the evaluation of derivatives using their definition in terms of limit.