title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Chozen was raised by his Uncle Sato, as his father died when he was young. In 1972, Sato is holding a Karate training session in Okinawa Prefecture for a group of men and Chozen (as a small child). The exercise demands that the students repeatedly bang their fingertips into a bucket of sand. However Sato realizes that Chozen is cheating as he has placed a small pillow in the sand to soften the blow. Sato throws the pillow out and calls Chozen a coward telling him that "a man without honor is no man", and asking him whether he is a coward or a man. As he turns away, Chozen sneaks the pillow back into the sand and continues the drill.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Over a decade later in 1985, Daniel LaRusso and Mr. Miyagi arrive at Tomi Village (Okinawa) as Mr. Miyagi's father is dying. He tells Daniel that when he was young, he fell in love with a woman named Yukie, who was arranged to marry Sato (his childhood best friend, the son of the richest man in the village, and fellow karate student of his father). Upon announcing his intentions to marry Yukie, Sato challenged him to a fight to the death to save his honor. Rather than fight, however, Mr. Miyagi left the country, though Sato is still holding a grudge.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: In Okinawa, Mr. Miyagi and Daniel are greeted by Sato's nephew Chozen, who takes them to meet Sato rather than to the village. Sato then threatens Mr. Miyagi, who dismisses it. Sato then allows them to go so that Mr. Miyagi can see his father, but after that he will return. Arriving at the village, Miyagi and Daniel are welcomed by Yukie and her niece Kumiko, and discover that Sato owns and runs the village. Mr. Miyagi also discovers that Yukie never married Sato because she still loves him.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: After Miyagi's father dies, Sato gives him three days to mourn out of respect before their fight. Mr. Miyagi shows Daniel the secret to his family's karate - a handheld drum that illustrates the "drum technique", a block-and-defense karate move that Daniel begins to practice. Some time later, Daniel accidentally exposes corruption in Chozen's grocery business. Chozen accuses Daniel of insulting his honor and begins to harass him. After several encounters, their feud comes to a head when Chozen vandalizes the Miyagi family property and attacks Daniel. Daniel and Mr. Miyagi decide to leave and return to the U.S., but Sato threatens to destroy the village if Mr. Miyagi doesn't fight him, so a date is set. However, a typhoon cancels the fight, and Daniel and Mr. Miyagi rescue Sato, effectively ending the feud. When Sato sees a young girl trapped in the bell tower, he tells Chozen to help Daniel rescue her. As Chozen is too reluctant to do so due to his resentment towards Daniel, Sato helps Daniel rescue her instead and disowns Chozen who runs out into the storm.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: The next day, Daniel and Kumiko approach Sato about hosting the upcoming O-bon festival in a ceremonial castle, to which he agrees and invites Daniel to join in the celebration. While Kumiko is performing a dance at the festival, Chozen ziplines into the presentation, takes Kumiko hostage, and demands to fight Daniel. Mr. Miyagi reminds Daniel that this isn't a tournament, this is for real and to the death. Daniel still agrees to go.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: After an intense fight, Chozen overwhelms Daniel. Miyagi, Sato and the crowd respond by using handheld drums they brought to the celebration, inspiring Daniel. Seemingly confused, Chozen closes in for the kill, but Daniel is able to deflect Chozen's attacks and land counter-attacks using the drum technique. Daniel grabs the vanquished Chozen and threatens to end his life by saying, "Live or die, man?!" Chozen chooses death, but, remembering the way Miyagi handled Kreese earlier, Daniel honks Chozen's nose and drops him to the ground.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: In 2018, after Daniel learns that his business rival Tom Cole has convinced Doyona Industries to cut their business ties with LaRusso Auto Group due to Daniel's reputation being tarnished by Robby’s affiliation with Miyagi-Do and actions against Miguel during the school brawl, he travels to Tokyo, Japan to try to persuade them not to. His attempt fails, however, prompting Daniel to travel to Okinawa and revisit old memories of Mr. Miyagi. He returns to Tomi Village to find that it has been turned into a mall and sees Kumiko dancing. They meet for tea and catch up on the past few decades. Daniel confides in Kumiko and tells her of his troubles with Doyona, as well as his loss of confidence in general.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: The next day Kumiko meets Daniel. While talking in a bar, his old rival Chozen appears in the doorway.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Chozen approaches Daniel and Kumiko, and bows. The three then sit together in awkward silence, as Chozen says that he never married and has no children. When he leaves to get a drink for Daniel, Kumiko confesses that she invited him to meet Daniel, saying that he has changed since they last met. She then leaves them to spend the day together.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Chozen takes Daniel to a mountain top, and Daniel recognizes it as the place where Karate was born through Miyagi Shimpo sensei. Daniel then tells the story that Mr. Miyagi told him, of Miyagi Shimpo sensei traveling to China and returning 10 years later with the "secret" of Miyagi-Do Karate. While Daniel is confident that Mr. Miyagi taught him everything, Chozen is skeptical and asks Daniel to follow him.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: They arrive at the Miyagi-Do Dojo where Daniel finds original scrolls containing the family techniques. Chozen explains that Mr. Miyagi's father taught Sato, who then taught him. After Sato died, Chozen inherited all of the Miyagi family artifacts. However, Chozen suddenly takes the scroll from Daniel's hand, saying that Daniel is a foreigner who cannot take their secrets. When Daniel says that Mr. Miyagi treated him like a son, Chozen challenges him to a fight to see how much Daniel really knows. Daniel is then surprised to find himself beaten when Chozen uses unknown techniques, and Chozen tells him that Mr. Miyagi did not teach him everything.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Chozen then tells Daniel the real story behind Miyagi-Do Karate. Centuries ago, the Miyagi ancestors were at war with Japanese invaders, so they designed their own techiniques designed to kill their enemies. Chozen suspects that Mr. Miyagi thought that Daniel was "not ready or able" to learn the more deadlier aspects that seemed to defy Mr. Miyagi's "self-defense" approach.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: As they continue to fight, Chozen uses techniques that disable Daniel's arms and legs, leaving Daniel at his mercy. He tells Daniel that he has waited a long time for getting payback on Daniel, but instead comically honks his nose (a reference to when Daniel honked Chozen's in "The Karate Kid Part II"). Chozen then drops all pretense of anger and Daniel realizes that it was all a facade, as Chozen adopts a normal demeanor. He then explains to Daniel that the move he used was a pressure point technique and agrees to teach him these techniques. He tells Daniel: "If an enemy insists on war, then you take away their ability to wage it".


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: As they say goodbye, Daniel is utterly amazed at his new perspective of Miyagi-Do Karate, and says he understands why Mr. Miyagi never taught it to him. Chozen praises Mr. Miyagi, says he hopes he will be like him, and becomes overcome with guilt when he recalls his actions and how he treated Daniel three decades ago. He says that after their fight, he was suicidal, only rescued by the encouragement of Sato to prove himself, and that is what he has been doing ever since, becoming a sensei in Okinawa and passing on the teaching of Miyagi Do to his students. Daniel then says that he forgives him for the events of the past, and Chozen is grateful for it. He then offers Daniel the scroll, telling him "You keep for your collection" (a reference to a similar statement that he made to Kumiko in the "Karate Kid II", but in an aggressive context).


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: At the end of Season 3, Daniel saves his own life by using these techniques against a surprise and murderous attack from Kreese.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: After Miyagi-Do and Eagle Fang Karate lose to Cobra Kai in the 2019 All-Valley Karate Tournament, Daniel decides to go back on his previous deal to shut down Miyagi-Do and decides to go on the offensive to get the dojo shut down. While visiting Miyagi's grave, it is revealed that Chozen has willingly teamed up with Daniel and they bow to Mr. Miyagi's grave.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Daniel has Chozen live in his house as they figure out a way to prevent Terry Silver's Cobra Kai from taking over the Valley. After being introducted to Terry Silver, Chozen asks Daniel to take him to the new Cobra Kai dojo. While Chozen did not personally experience what Daniel did back in 1985, he realizes that Silver is a student of Kim Sun-Yung, a master of Tang Soo Do while watching him spar against an opponent. However, he knows that Kim Sun-Yung taught a different method, one which he explains to Daniel is based on deception, without honor or mercy, a style considered controversial by other martial artists including Sato, who hated him. When Daniel is surprised that Mr. Miyagi never told him about any of this, Chozen tells him that because Miyagi left during World War II, he would not have known about Kim-Sun Yung, who only came to public notice during the Korean War. Thus, Chozen knows that Silver is very dangerous. The two then concoct a plan to expose Silver, which involves him posing as a local sensei that Silver is looking to hire.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Chozen introduces himself to Silver using the name Jokichi Tatsuya, a local sensei originating from Kyoto. He works with Tory, but senses that her heart is not in it. She then asks him why he is a sensei, to which Chozen replies, "honor". Tory is surprised and asks if "that's it", to which Chozen replies: "That is everything. I thought I had lost my honor. Eventually I understood. No one can take honor from you. Only you can take honor from yourself". He then tells Silver that he is training Tory and that as a teacher his task is to "first train mind, then train body". He also tells Tory that if she wants to break free of troubles she must face them directly. Chozen then does a demonstration which leads Silver to ask if he knows Tang Soo Do. Chozen says that he does and receives an invitation to dinner at Silver's mansion.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Daniel helps him prepare for the dinner, but is nervous. He says that Silver is a man without honor. Chozen understands and says that when he was young, Sato tried to teach him about honor, but at the time he wasn't ready as he was a coward who had no honor himself.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: During dinner, Silver confirms Chozen's suspicion that his karate master was Kim Sun-Yung. Chozen tells him that he was raised by his uncle as his father died when he was young, implied to have been by suicide. Silver slowly seduces Chozen into letting his guard down, inadvertently blowing his cover when Silver suggests a toast; Chozen says "Karii", the Okinawan term for cheers instead of "Kanpai", the Japanese word for cheers.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: The next day in the dojo, Silver reveals that he knows Chozen's true identity due to this mistake, and has the remaining senseis attack him. But, Chozen easily defeats all of them within minutes. He then turns to Silver and threatens him to leave Miyagi-Do and the LaRusso family alone or he will fight back.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Daniel takes Chozen, Louie, and Anoush for a game of golf at the country club which Chozen easily wins. Terry suddenly appears at the club and warns Daniel to stop interfering with Cobra Kai. Terry then tells him that if he continues, he is playing with fire. Chozen looks directly at Terry and says, "and I am gasoline".


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: The next day at Miyagi - Do, Daniel and Chozen try to figure out what to do. Since Silver said he has many people to call, Chozen suggests that they contact these people first. Daniel immediately thinks of Mike Barnes. They then go to Mike's house and as he walks down the stairs, Daniel tells Chozen that he is Karate's "Bad Boy", to which Chozen states, "he does not look so bad to me". They follow him to his place of work, a furniture store in Agoura Hills and Chozen waits in the car while Daniel goes to investigate.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Unbeknownst to Chozen, Barnes had turned his life around, is married, and turns out to be the owner of the store. He also took responsibility for what happened in 1985 and apologized to Daniel. Worried when Daniel doesn't appear, Chozen goes inside and sees what he thinks is a fight, when in reality Mike and Daniel are joking about a re-match. Chozen then attacks Barnes and his workers, until Daniel finally stops the fight and apologizes to Mike. Chozen tells Mike that the couch that they are sitting on is very comfortable and Mike offers it for $2000 even though the price is $1200 due to being attacked by him and his staff. Chozen buys the couch anyway so that he can sleep well at night.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: While Daniel and Amanda go to an auction, Chozen stays at home to keep a watch on the house. He also becomes deeply involved in the reality series, "90 Day Fiancé".


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: When Amanda leaves town over Daniel's agenda against Silver, Chozen suggest they track down Raymond "Stingray" Porter over supposedly lying about his assault based on a newspaper clipping, but Stingray is uncooperative. When Daniel decides to give up his vendetta, Chozen plans to head back to Japan, but he cancels his trip when Silver brutalizes Daniel. When Daniel decides to give up, Chozen teams up with Johnny to take on one of Silver's new Cobra Kai senseis, but flee when Kim Da-Eun shows up with the other senseis. They realize they need Daniel to help them fight, so they arrange all of the Miyagi-do and Eagle Fang students to inspire Daniel to carry on.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Daniel and Johnny go to visit Kreese in prison. Chozen teaches the students a lesson by giving each of them an egg for them to protect. Chozen is successful at breaking all of their eggs so he forces them to do the lesson again. Anthony gets the idea to put all of the eggs in a basket and work as a team to protect them, successfully fending off Chozen. He then explains that Cobra Kai's approach is "mile wide, but only inch deep" (lacks teamwork) while Miyagi-Do's is "inch wide, but mile deep".


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: While out at a club to celebrate Carmen's pregnancy, Chozen gets drunk and admits to Johnny that he has feelings for Kumiko. Johnny relays those feelings to Daniel, who learns that Kumiko was the one who helped Chozen get back on his feet. Daniel encourages Chozen to let her know. Chozen leaves a drunken voicemail confessing his feelings and saying that he should have brought her with him to the United States.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: While in a party limo en route to another bar with Daniel and Johnny, Chozen finds the car doors to be locked when they seem to be going in the wrong direction and deduces that Silver has kidnapped them. However, it is revealed that Barnes is the hijacker, who wants revenge over his life being ruined after his furniture store was burned, even accusing him, Johnny and Daniel if they're at fault even though they didn't. When they explain that Silver was responsible, Barnes suggests they get payback on him, which Chozen and Johnny agree to, while Daniel refuses to, and leave him behind in the middle of the freeway. At Silver's house, with Barnes knocked out and Johnny fighting the other Cobra Kai senseis, Chozen faces off against Silver in hand-to-hand combat and later weapons, Chozen a pair of sais and Silver a katana. Chozen is able to knock Silver down and is about to kill him when he is distracted by Johnny's screams, allowing Silver to slice Chozen's back and seemingly leave him for dead. However, he is later rescued by Barnes and Johnny, who defeat the other senseis. Chozen ultimately survives and is put into an ambulance, being helped out by Barnes and Johnny just as they arrive at the Cobra Kai Encino dojo where Terry Silver had recently been defeated by Daniel and arrested for his crimes.


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Yuji Okumoto had appeared in the films "Real Genius" and "Better Off Dead" before appearing in "The Karate Kid Part II" as Chozen Toguchi. The experience stayed with him, as he noted that "when you play such an iconic bad guy in a successful film, you kind of keep that memory always with you. You always wonder what happened to this character, where did he go after this all went down, where he lost his honor and all that stuff…I never forgot about Chozen, because he was a big part of my life".


title: Chozen Toguchi

text: Okumoto received a call in September 2019 asking if he was interested in joining "Cobra Kai". While he had hoped that Chozen would be written into the narrative, he was concerned with "how Chozen would be portrayed". He wanted to make certain that "the character is well-written, well-developed…that they paid deference to the character and his development. So they sent me the script and initially I thought it needed a little work. But I gave a little bit of input and the writers and also the producers, they really did a great job in capturing the essence of Chozen and how he would probably be after 30-odd years". Okumoto was pleased by the investment of the writers in his perspective on the character, noting that "they actually took the notes and incorporated into developing the character. And they really had a great grasp on the direction, which made my job lot easier". He also thinks that "Chozen has gone through a lot of soul searching after losing his fight with Daniel. I think that he saw the light, and — this is just my take — I think through the dedication that he put into getting back into martial arts for the right reasons, I think he started to understand what the true meaning of martial arts is, and what the true meaning of honor is". Okumoto also enjoyed working with Ralph Macchio again, saying that "it's like reuniting with an old friend… I can't say enough about how fortunate I was to be brought onto the show and to be reunited with him". He further stated that "it felt like we're back on the set of "Karate Kid II". Working with Ralph especially, he's just so professional. No ego, you conversate and have a good time, and reminisce about a lot of this stuff. And we talked about, you know, our kids, family stuff. And so it was really a wonderful experience". Regarding Chozen, Okumoto says that he "wanted him to evolve as a character… [and] didn't want him just to be there as a person to push the story along. I wanted him to go through a journey, to go through a soul-searching".


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: Daneliya Tuleshova (, born 18 July 2006) is a Kazakh singer. She represented in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2018 in Minsk, Belarus with her song "Ózińe sen", finishing sixth.


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: Before Junior Eurovision, she won the fourth season of "The Voice Kids Ukraine" and was a finalist in Children's New Wave 2015. In 2019, she took part in "The World's Best", representing her country alongside Dimash Kudaibergen. She was a finalist on season 15 of "America's Got Talent".


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: Daneliya Tuleshova was born 18 July 2006 in the capital of Kazakhstan, Astana to Elena Tuleshova and Alexander Tuleshov, both originating from mixed Kazakh and Tatar families living in Kazakhstan for years. She has two younger siblings.


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: After recovering from a gymnastics injury at the age of four, she began practicing ballroom dancing. She also took contemporary dance classes in Almaty and simultaneously attended acting and singing classes. In late 2018, she was a sixth grader at the school Lyceum 56 where she focused on mathematics. Although Tuleshova was born in Astana, she said (in an interview with Kazakh video producer Rauana Kokumbaeva that was put on YouTube in February 2019) that her hometown is the city of Almaty.


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: At the age of eight, she was spotted by the organizers of the Kazakh singing competition "Ayaglagan Astana", the selection round for the famous Children's New Wave, an international contest for young performers held annually in Russia. In 2015, Daneliya won the competition and reached the finals of Children's New Wave, where she won the Audience Award.


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: In January 2017, Tuleshova took part in the international singing competition, "Hopes of Europe", where she won the grand prize. Later that same year, she auditioned for season 4 of "The Voice Kids Ukraine". During the Blind Auditions, she performed Demi Lovato's song "Stone Cold". All three coaches; Monatik, Natalia Mohylevska and Vremya i Steklo, "turned their chairs" for her; she chose Monatik. After passing all the stages, she made it to the grand final. There, she performed the song "Ne tvoya viyna" and was ultimately announced as the winner of the competition at 10 years old. At the time, she was the first non-Ukrainian to win, but in 2019, Georgian singer Oleksandr Zazarashvyli won the fifth season.


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: In March 2018, Tuleshova won the "Glimpse into the Future" Award at the first "International Professional Music Premium Bravo" Awards in Moscow. After receiving her award, alongside French singer Zaz, she performed "Je veux".


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: On 22 September 2018, she was selected to represent Kazakhstan in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2018 in Minsk, Belarus with the song "Ózińe sen", written by Tuleshova, Artyom Kuz'menkov and Kamila Dairova and composed by Ivan Lopukhov. In the final, she performed third, following 's Rita Laranjeira and preceding 's Efi Gjika. At the end of the voting she had received 171 points, 68 points from the international juries and 103 points from the public vote, and finished in sixth place. An English version of "Ózińe sen", titled "Seize the Time", was released on 21 October 2018.


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: In 2019, Tuleshova auditioned for the American TV talent show "The World's Best", performing the song "Rise Up", originally performed by Andra Day. In the battle rounds, she beat Japan's Manami Ito to qualify to the champion rounds. There, she performed "What About Us" but was ultimately eliminated from the competition, placing in the top 8.


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: In 2020, Daneliya was scheduled to have a concert in Texas, United States. However, this was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: In February 2020, during an interview with Kazakh TV channel Gakku TV, Daneliya announced that she would launch a new music project under the stage name "Da NeL". Her first single as "Da NeL", "хзчздз" ("Nobody freakin' knows what the homework is"), was premiered on YouTube on 4 February 2020. Her second single, "Мой день" ("My Day"), was premiered in April 2020. Succeeding singles are "OMG" and "FIRE", respectively premiered in May and June 2020.


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: In June, she auditioned for "America's Got Talent" singing "Tears of Gold" by Faouzia and passed with a yes from judges Simon Cowell, Sofia Vergara, Heidi Klum, and Howie Mandel. Her performance was praised by Faouzia, who described her voice and stage presence as "amazing".


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: She advanced to the live shows, performing "Sign of the Times" by Harry Styles on the 18 August Quarterfinals. She advanced to the Semifinals via online public vote. She performed to "Who You Are" by Jessie J, and advanced to the Finals.


title: Daneliya Tuleshova

text: For her final performance, she sang Sia's "Alive". She did not advance to the top 5 and ultimately placed 6th.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: The Bell Telephone Company, a common law joint stock company, was organized in Boston, Massachusetts, on July 9, 1877, by Alexander Graham Bell's father-in-law Gardiner Greene Hubbard, who also helped organize a sister company – the New England Telephone and Telegraph Company. The Bell Telephone Company was started on the basis of holding "potentially valuable patents", principally Bell's master telephone patent #174465. Upon its inception, the Bell Telephone Company was organized with Hubbard as "trustee", although he was additionally its "de facto" president, since he also controlled his daughter's shares by power of attorney, and with Thomas Sanders, its principal financial backer, as treasurer.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: The two companies merged on February 17, 1879, to form two new entities, the National Bell Telephone Company of Boston, and the International Bell Telephone Company, soon after established by Hubbard and which became headquartered in Brussels, Belgium. Theodore Vail then took over its operations at that point, becoming a central figure in its rapid growth and commercial success.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: The National Bell Telephone Company merged with American Speaking Telephone Company on March 20, 1880, to form the American Bell Telephone Company, also of Boston, Massachusetts. The American Bell Telephone Company evolved into the American Telephone & Telegraph Corporation (AT&T Corporation), at times the world's largest telephone company.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: The Bell Patent Association (February 27, 1875 – July 9, 1877, a name later assigned by historians), was not a corporate entity but a trusteeship and a partnership. It was established verbally in 1874 to be the holders of the patents produced by Alexander Graham Bell and his assistant Thomas Watson.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Approximately one-third of these interests were at first held by Gardiner Greene Hubbard, a lawyer and Bell's future father-in-law; Thomas Sanders, the well-to-do leather merchant father of one of Bell's deaf students (and who was the first to enter into an agreement with Bell); and finally by Alexander Graham Bell. Hubbard later registered some of his shares with two other family members. An approximate 10% interest of the patent association was later assigned by its principals to Bell's technical assistant Thomas Watson, in lieu of salary and for his earlier financial support to Bell while they worked together creating their first functional telephones.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: The verbal patent association agreement was formalized in a memorandum of agreement on February 27, 1875. The patent association's assets became the foundational assets of the Bell Telephone Company.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: At the time of the organization of the Bell Telephone Company as an association (also known as the Bell Company), on July 9, 1877, as a joint stock company in 1877 by Hubbard, who soon became its trustee and "de facto" president, 5,000 shares in total were issued to:


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: The Bell Telephone Company was incorporated in Massachusetts on July 30, 1878, with 4,500 shares of stock. It then merged with the New England Telephone and Telegraph Company (incorporated on February 12, 1878) to form the National Bell Telephone Company (incorporated on March 13, 1879, with 7,280 shares, later increased to 8,500 shares in May 1880). A little over a year later it was reorganized to become the American Bell Telephone Company (incorporated on April 17, 1880, with 73,500 shares, which included 14,000 trustee shares held by National Bell Telephone). American Bell's outstanding stock rose to 258,863 shares by May 1900.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Two days after the company's formation, on July 11, 1877, Bell married Hubbard's daughter Mabel Gardiner Hubbard, and made a wedding gift of 1,487 shares of his allotment to his new wife, keeping only 10 shares for himself. Bell and his wife left not long after for a tour of Europe that lasted over a year, during which time Mabel left her shares with her father under a power of attorney, allowing him to become the new company's "de facto" president.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Both Hubbard's and Sanders' roles in the newly born company were pivotal to its early survival and its eventual growth to become a corporate giant. Hubbard's very early structuring of its telephone service by leasing, instead of selling telephones, was critical to its success. He based his decision on the previous legal work he performed for the Gordon McKay Shoe Machinery Company, where its shoe sewing machines were leased, not sold, and royalties also had to be paid to the Gordon McKay Company based on the numbers of shoes produced. Hubbard insisted that leasing was the better option, even if it significantly raised the need for initial capital expenses. Sanders for his part, a wealthy leather merchant, provided most of the financing for both Bell's research and the young company, eventually amounting to expenditures of some $110,000 "before he received any reimbursement" by the sale of his shares.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Not long after the National Bell Telephone Company was established, it required substantial new capital in order to maintain its majority share ownership of its affiliate telephone companies and to provide further funds for expansion of its overall telephone infrastructure. On April 17, 1880, National Bell was split into the American Bell Telephone Company, led by Theodore Vail as general manager, and with the International Bell Telephone Company (IBTC) as a holding company for its international subsidiaries. IBTC's first non-North American subsidiary was the Bell Telephone Manufacturing Company (BTM), established by Hubbard at Antwerp, Belgium, in 1882. The Bell System's Bell Telephone Company of Canada subsidiary, wholly owned by the National Bell, had been established two years earlier.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Alexander Graham Bell's ten shares of Bell Telephone Company stock were later converted into a "single" share of the American Bell Telephone Company, and still later into "two" shares of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. AT&T President Frederick Fish later returned Bell's single American Bell Telephone Company share to him as a memento after it had been converted and canceled.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Of the Bell Company's original shareholders, Thomas Watson resigned his position in 1881 with his shares making him a millionaire, thereafter living a colorful life as a Shakespearean actor and later as a shipyard owner and ship builder—always retaining his friendship with Bell. Thomas Sanders, whose entire personal fortune was virtually depleted during the Bell Telephone's first formative years (until a historic settlement was reached with Bell's fierce competitor Western Union on November 10, 1879), quickly sold his Bell shares for almost $1,000,000 but then lost most of his wealth with an investment in a Colorado gold mine. He also remained a confidant of Bell, who later helped ensure the welfare of Sanders' deaf son in his adulthood.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Hubbard was satisfied to leave the head of the Bell Company to another major investor, William Forbes, who was brought into the company as its president and as a member of its board of directors in late 1878. Under Forbes' leadership, a new executive committee was created at its corporate level to reorganize and run the overall company with professional management. The company was also recapitalized, with Vail continuing as its head of operations. After leaving the offices of what became the American Bell Telephone Company, Hubbard created the National Geographic Society as its president, with Bell succeeding him the next year.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Ownership of American Bell was transferred to its own subsidiary, American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T Company) on the second to last day of 1899. AT&T had been incorporated on April 17, 1880, as American Bell's "long lines" division to handle its long-distance telecommunications. On January 1, 1900, AT&T, a publicly traded corporation, owned the major assets of American Bell and thus became the head of the Bell System. By December 31, 1900, it had 569,901 shares of stock outstanding, which rose to 18,662,275 shares at the close of 1935.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Alexander Graham Bell's fiancée Mabel Hubbard was the indirect source of the Bell Telephone Company's early commercial success after his creation of the telephone. The U.S. Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876 brought Bell's newly invented telephone international attention. Exhibition judges Emperor Dom Pedro II of the Empire of Brazil and the eminent British physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) recommended his device to the Committee of Electrical Awards, which voted Bell the gold medal for Electrical Equipment, helping to propel him to international fame. Bell also won a second gold medal for his additional display at the exposition, Visible Speech —developed earlier by his equally famous father Alexander Melville Bell.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Pivotally, late in the evening moments after the main group of tired judges and newspaper reporters had quickly looked over and derided Bell's telephone display, Emperor Dom Pedro, who was straggling, entered the fair's Education Building where Bell's two displays were located. As the main group started moving on to the next exhibit to be reviewed, Dom Pedro came upon the displays and called out to Bell in his booming voice: "What are you doing here?" The emperor had met Bell before in Boston while visiting schools for the deaf in the United States. "...it was around seven o'clock when the 50-person delegation of judges, scientists, reporters and other officials arrived at the Department of Education. Tired and hungry, they hardly looked at the telephone, made some jokes at Bell's expense, and wanted to leave the exhibition quickly when suddenly, Dom Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil from 1840 to 1889, with his wife Empress Theresa and a bevy of courtiers, entered the room. Dom Pedro recognized Bell and exclaimed "Professor Bell, I am delighted to see you again!" The judges at once forgot their tiredness and wondered who this young inventor was who was a friend of an emperor. Dom Pedro had once visited Bell's class of deaf-mutes at Boston University and initiated the first Brazilian school for deaf-mutes in Rio de Janeiro."... ...The judges stayed the next three hours with Bell. Bell's telephone became the star of the centennial..." "On a hot Sunday afternoon, June 25th, Sir William Thompson (later Lord Kelvin) and many other distinguished guests inspected the exhibits. Few paid much attention to Bell, tinkering with his crude instruments. At last the party approached his booth. Among them was Dom Pedro de Alcantara, the Emperor of Brazil. He had met Bell a few weeks previously in Boston and spoke to him as an old friend." "Dom Pedro had met Alec at a school for the deaf in Boston. When the emperor greeted Alec, the judges took note. They wanted to see what the emperor's friend had invented." "The centerpiece of the emperor's trip was the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. There, Dom Pedro II sought out a young, relatively obscure teacher at the School of the Deaf named Alexander Graham Bell, with whom he had exchanged letters."


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Startled by the emperor's enthusiastic response to Bell's telephone demonstration—during which the emperor exclaimed "My God! It talks!", the crowd of judges and press members became energized and vied to take turns communicating with Bell over his invention.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Bell, who was then a full-time teacher, had not planned to exhibit at the fair because of his heavy teaching schedule and preparation for his student's examinations. He went to Philadelphia only at the stern insistence of Mabel Hubbard, his then-fiancée and future wife and who was an expert multilingual lip reader, deaf since age five.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Mabel had understood Bell's reluctance to go to the exhibition and display his works, so she secretly bought his train ticket to Philadelphia, packed his bag, and then took the unknowing Bell to Boston's train station, where she told her shocked fiancé that he was going on a trip. When Bell started arguing, Mabel turned her sight away from him and became literally deaf to his protests.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: In 1879 Gardiner Hubbard founded the International Bell Telephone Company in order to promote sales of its telephone equipment throughout Europe. During his tour of the continent, the Belgian government offered him the greatest financial incentives to establish his European subsidiary's headquarters in their country.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: The International Bell Telephone Company (IBTC) shortly evolved into a holding company for its various telephone service and production divisions, with its major manufacturing arm being the Bell Telephone Manufacturing Company (BTMC), which was founded in Antwerp, Belgium, on 26 April 1882. BTMC was created as a joint venture by the International Bell Telephone Company of New York and the Western Electric Company of Chicago, Illinois. BTMC then established la "Compagnie Belge du Téléphone Bell" ("Bell Telephone Company of Belgium") in the same year as its Belgian operating subsidiary for telephone service, one of several companies that provided such service in the country, the others having evolved principally from telegraph carriers.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: BTMC eventually came under complete ownership by Western Electric, and also established other divisions as national companies across Continental Europe and Russia. Western Electric was itself later majority owned by the American Bell Telephone Company, returning indirect control of BTMC back to the Bell organization.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: At the close of 1899, the American Bell Telephone Company was acquired, for business purposes, by its own subsidiary, the American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T), which then became the head of the monolithic and monopolistic Bell System.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Significant criticism of AT&T (a monopoly) had emerged in the United States that domestic telephone system rates were higher than they needed to be, and that AT&T was using those revenues to subsidize its European operations. Due to that reason and others, and also due to the U.S. Government's regulatory intervention, AT&T president Walter Gifford divested almost all of its international interests in 1925, with the exceptions of the Bell Telephone Company of Canada (now called Bell Canada), and Northern Electric (now called Nortel).


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: In 1925, the European division and its subsidiaries were sold to the International Telephone & Telegraph Company (IT&T, unaffiliated with AT&T) of Cuba, at the start of that company's meteoric rise in the international telecommunications industry.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: By 1881, American Bell had acquired a controlling interest in the Western Electric Company from Western Union. Only three years earlier, Western Union had turned down Gardiner Hubbard's offer to sell it all rights to the telephone for US$100,000 (approximately $ in current dollars). In only a few years, Western Union's president would acknowledge that it was a serious business error, one that nearly led to his company later almost being swallowed up by the newly emerging telecommunications giant into which Bell Telephone would shortly evolve. Western Union was saved from demise only by the U.S. Government's anti-monopoly interventions.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: A year earlier in 1880 the management of American Bell had created what would become AT&T Long Lines. The project was the first of its kind to create a nationwide long-distance network with a commercially viable cost-structure. The project was incorporated in New York State as a separate company named American Telephone and Telegraph Company on March 3, 1885. Starting from New York City, its long-distance telephone network reached Chicago, Illinois, in 1892, with its multitudes of local exchanges continuing to stretch further and further yearly, eventually creating a continent-wide telephone system.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: On December 30, 1899, the assets of American Bell were transferred into its subsidiary American Telephone and Telegraph Company (formerly only the long lines company); this was because Massachusetts corporate laws were very restrictive, and limited capitalization to $10 million, forestalling American Bell's further growth. With this assets transfer on December 30, 1899, AT&T became the parent of both American Bell and the Bell System.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: John Elbridge Hudson joined Bell Telephone as counsel in 1880 and served as president from 1889 to 1900.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: In 1947, there was a large strike across the US against the company's long hours and low pay by its workers.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: In 2005, AT&T would later be acquired by one of its former local phone companies SBC Communications which became the new AT&T.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: In 1906 the citizens of the City of Brantford, Ontario, Canada and its surrounding area formed the Bell Memorial Association to commemorate the invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell in July 1874 at his parents’ home, Melville House, near Brantford. Walter Allward's design was the unanimous choice from among 10 submitted models, winning the competition. The memorial was planned to be completed by 1912 but Allward did not finish it until five years later. The Governor General of Canada, Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire, ceremoniously unveiled the memorial on 24 October 1917.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: Allward designed the monument to symbolize the telephone's ability to overcome distances. A series of steps lead to the main section where the allegorical figures of "Inspiration" appears over a reclining male figure representing "Man, the inventor", and also pointing to the floating figures of "Knowledge", "Joy", and "Sorrow", positioned at the other end of the tableau. At each end of the memorial there are two female figures mounted on granite pedestals representing "Humanity", one sending and the other receiving a message.


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: The Bell Telephone Memorial's grandeur has been described as the finest example of Allward's early work, propelling the sculptor to fame. The memorial itself has been used as a central fixture for many civic events and remains an important part of Brantford's history, helping the city of Brantford to style itself as" 'The Telephone City'."


title: Bell Telephone Company

text: The Bell Memorial Association also purchased the Bell family's former farmhouse, Melville House, and its orchard at Tutela Heights, opening it as a museum to the family and to the invention of the telephone. In 1996, it was declared a historic landmark, and is now known as the Bell Homestead National Historic Site.


title: Russell Carpenter

text: Russell Paul Carpenter, (born December 9, 1950) is an American cinematographer and photographer, known for collaborating with directors James Cameron, Robert Luketic and McG. He won the Academy Award for Best Cinematography for the 1997 Best Picture-winning film "Titanic". Much of his work has been in blockbuster films, including "Hard Target" (1993), "True Lies" (1994), "Charlie's Angels" (2000) and its sequel "" (2003), "Ant-Man" (2015) and "" (2017). His documentary cinematography includes , directed by Martin Scorsese. It earned six nominations at the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Cinematography for Nonfiction Programming for the cinematography team.


title: Russell Carpenter

text: The grandson of a film sound engineer, Carpenter was born in Van Nuys, California in 1950 to a family of six. After his parents divorced in 1960, he moved with his mother and three siblings to Orange County, where he took up Super 8 films as a hobby. He enrolled in San Diego State University to study television directing, but later changed his major to English. To pay for school, he worked at a local public broadcasting channel, where he learned the ropes of documentary filmmaking. After graduating, he moved back to Orange County, where he shot educational films and documentaries.


title: Russell Carpenter

text: Carpenter is most widely known for his early work in horror and genre cinema and for his collaborations with directors James Cameron, McG, and Robert Luketic. His first major project as Director of Photography was the critically acclaimed 1988 ghost story, "Lady in White", written, produced and directed by Frank LaLoggia. It was followed by "", written and directed by Mick Garris. The Los Angeles Times criticized the film but praised Carpenter's cinematography.


title: Russell Carpenter

text: Carpenter had earlier worked as a Director of Photography (DP) on numerous low-budget horror films like "Sole Survivor" and "Cameron's Closet". In 1983, he shot "The Wizard of Speed and Time", a special effects-laden experimental film directed by animator Mike Jittlov. His first major studio film was "". Two years later, he shot his first science fiction film, "Solar Crisis", and his first action film with "Death Warrant" starring Jean-Claude Van Damme. After shooting several episodes of the television series "The Wonder Years", he worked on "The Lawnmower Man".


title: Russell Carpenter

text: During the production of the John Woo-directed action film "Hard Target", Russell Carpenter and James Cameron met at the home of Edward Furlong, during his 15th birthday party. Russell was the DP for Furlong's movie Pet Semetary 2. Carpenter and Cameron collaborated on the 1994 Arnold Schwarzenegger and Jamie Lee Curtis action comedy "True Lies," Carpenter told LaLoggia (the Director of "Lady in White"), that when Cameron expressed an interest in working with him and Carpenter asked why, Cameron replied "Lady in White". Their next collaboration, "Titanic", which carried away eleven Oscars in 1997, including Best Picture. Carpenter's work on "Titanic" earned him nine industry awards and a nomination for a BAFTA Award.


title: Russell Carpenter

text: Carpenter is an alumnus of Van Nuys High School and San Diego State University. He is a member of the American Society of Cinematographers (ASC).


title: Russell Carpenter

text: Carpenter is married to Donna Ellen Conrad and has one son, Graham (from a previous marriage), a stepson Zak Selbert, daughter-in-law Gaudia Correia, and two granddaughters.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: Mary Margaret O'Hara is a Canadian singer-songwriter, actress and composer. She is best known for the album "Miss America", released in 1988. She released two albums and an EP under her own name, and remains active as a live performer, as a contributor to compilation albums and as a guest collaborator on other artists' albums.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: O'Hara was born in the late 1950s in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, to a family of Irish Catholic descent. She is the sister of comedic actress Catherine O'Hara. Her early musical tastes included Van Morrison, Dinah Washington, and her father's jazz records. She was a student at the Ontario College of Art and Design in the 1970s and was involved in the music scene as a member of Toronto bands Dollars, Songship and Go Deo Chorus.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: In 1983, O'Hara left Go Deo and was signed by Virgin Records. Her contract with Virgin continued and eventually led to the 1988 release of "Miss America". O'Hara later reflected on the production experience, noting "I loved the Celtic crosses and the sheep rolling around the hills by the studio in Wales. But for Virgin to go from, 'You can do whatever you want', to 'What have you done?'—that was tough."


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: In addition, she did some work as a graphic artist, including lettering for the cover of Dalbello's album "whomanfoursays".


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: In 1987, Michael Brook saw O'Hara in performance and soon took on the job of producing O'Hara's attempts at an album. He ultimately added new vocals to and remixed material that was originally recorded by Joe Boyd in 1984. At least one of the songs, "To Cry About", had been written as early as 1980. According to the liner notes of a later reissue, six of the tracks were recorded in 1984, four in 1988, and one in 1983 and mixed later.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: On their 1990 album "The Caution Horses", the Cowboy Junkies recorded a sparse, haunting version of O'Hara's song "You Will Be Loved Again". In 1991, O'Hara followed up with a four-song EP of Christmas material. Following the "Christmas EP", O'Hara took on several acting roles and appeared as a vocalist on recordings by a variety of other artists, including Morrissey ("November Spawned a Monster"), John & Mary, Bruce Cockburn, Holly Cole, Bob Wiseman, Meryn Cadell, The Henrys and Neko Case. She performed "Dark, Dear Heart" at John Candy's funeral in March 1994. She also contributed songs to a number of compilation albums, including tributes to Vic Chesnutt and Kurt Weill, and participated in a 1994 Christmas concert with Holly Cole, Rebecca Jenkins, Jane Siberry and Victoria Williams, which was released as the album "Count Your Blessings". As well, she has occasionally performed in musical theatre, most notably productions of Tom Waits' experimental rock opera "The Black Rider", stealing the show according to Pitchfork.com.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: During an R.E.M. concert in Toronto in 1999, Michael Stipe brought O'Hara on stage and declared her a "national treasure". Other artists who are said to be fans include Kristin Hersh, Radiohead, Dave Matthews and Rickie Lee Jones. However, she did not release a new recording under her own name until 2001, when she and longtime guitarist Rusty McCarthy contributed to the soundtrack for the Canadian film "Apartment Hunting" (in which she also acted).


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: On October 4 and 5, 2006, O'Hara performed Leonard Cohen's "Hallelujah" (with Gavin Friday) and "The Window" at "Came So Far For Beauty", the Leonard Cohen Tribute organised by Hal Willner at The Point Theatre in Dublin, Ireland. She performed at the All Tomorrow's Parties festival in Minehead, England, over the weekend of April 27 to 29, 2007, and with Howe Gelb and friends at the Barbican Centre in London on May 2, 2007.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: O'Hara also performed at Toronto's Canwest Cabaret Festival in both 2008 and 2009. In 2008, she performed at tribute shows to Cohen, Weill and Duke Ellington, and in 2009, she participated in a musical improvisation show with Michael Snow and Aidan Closs. She also gave a rare radio interview to promote the 2009 show, appearing on CBC Radio One's "Q" on October 28 — and performing an impromptu duet of "Baby, It's Cold Outside" with host Jian Ghomeshi.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: O'Hara sings the theme song for "Someone Knows Something", a true-crime podcast from the CBC. The song was written by Bob Wiseman.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: On Sunday, November 12, 2017, O'Hara performed a rare live show at Le Guess Who? Festival in Utrecht, The Netherlands. O'Hara was invited by artist Perfume Genius who curated a program for the festival.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: She appeared in the 1985 film "The Last Polka" as Gerta Lemon, one half of the Lemon Sisters singing duo alongside Catherine as Sylvie Lemon.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: In December 1989 she was featured in The Razorbacks' CBC Television Christmas special "It's a Razorbacks Christmas Barbeque", for which she received a Gemini Award nomination for Best Performance in a Variety or Performing Arts Program or Series at the 5th Gemini Awards in 1990.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: O'Hara sang backup vocals for Morrissey on his song "November Spawned a Monster". She contributed to four albums by Bob Wiseman: "In Her Dream", "Accidentally Acquired Beliefs", "Theme and Variations", and "Giulietta Masina At The Oscars Crying". She also contributed to Justin Rutledge's album "No Never Alone". She recorded a duet with Tindersticks called "Peanuts", which appeared on their 2010 album "Falling Down A Mountain". On May 15, 2009 in Toronto, Will Oldham brought her on stage to perform a cover of John Prine's "In Spite of Ourselves".


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: O'Hara has made several film appearances. She acts alongside Tom Waits in "Candy Mountain" (1986), directed by Robert Frank and Rudy Wurlitzer. O'Hara has a leading role in "Museum Hours" (2012), set in and around the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, directed by Jem Cohen.


title: Mary Margaret O'Hara

text: “Something To Cry About” in the short story collection "Radium Girl" by Sofi Papamarko was inspired by the song “To Cry About” and built around three prompts given to the author by the singer on request.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell, KB ( – 4 July 1551) was an English nobleman. He was the only son of the Tudor statesman Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex ( – 1540) and Elizabeth Wyckes (d. 1529).


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory's father Thomas Cromwell rose from obscurity to become the chief minister of Henry VIII, who attempted to modernize government at the expense of the privileges of the nobility and church. He used his office to promote religious reform and was one of the strongest advocates of the English Reformation.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: In 1537, Gregory married Elizabeth, Lady Ughtred, widow of Sir Anthony Ughtred, sister to Jane Seymour and therefore became brother-in-law to Henry VIII and uncle to Edward VI. Gregory survived the dramatic fall from royal favour and subsequent execution of his father in 1540, as well as the ousting of his brother-in-law and patron, Edward Seymour in 1549. He became a wealthy landowner, owning land and property in several counties in England, mainly in Rutland and Leicestershire. Gregory's family connections had provided him with wealth, property and privileges; however, it was through his own intelligence and ability, combined with the remarkable education and training provided by his father, that he was able to benefit from them, leaving his wife and family well provided for at his death. Gregory was succeeded by his eldest son, and heir, Henry.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory Cromwell died in July 1551, the same month as Henry Brandon, the young Duke of Suffolk and his brother Charles. He may be the subject of two portrait miniatures by Hans Holbein the Younger.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory Cromwell was born in London around 1520. Surviving letters suggest that the home where he lived with his father, mother and grandmother, Mercy Pryor, was a happy one. Gregory's father, Thomas Cromwell, had "The habit of not taking himself too seriously; the friendly and familiar atmosphere out of which this comes was evidently the atmosphere of Cromwell's house. And he seems to have early displayed that ready gratitude for kindness, that fidelity to those who had helped him, for which he became noted at home and abroad. People liked to go to his home and remembered their visit with pleasure."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: A successful merchant and lawyer, Thomas Cromwell was a self-made man of relatively humble beginnings whose intelligence and abilities enabled him to rise to become the most powerful man in England next to the king. His own father, Walter Cromwell, had been a jack of all trades – a blacksmith, fuller and brewer who had, from time to time, come to the attention of the authorities. Thomas Cromwell was sent to school as a boy, where he learned to read and write and was taught a little Latin. Thomas Cromwell provided a more extensive education for his own son, Gregory.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Thomas and Elizabeth had three surviving children – a son, Gregory, and two daughters, Anne and Grace. Thomas Cromwell's wife died early in 1529, and his daughters, Anne and Grace, are believed to have died not long after their mother. Provisions made for Anne and Grace in Thomas Cromwell's will, written on 12 July 1529, have been crossed out at a later date.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Thomas Cromwell had another daughter, Jane ( – 1580) whose early life is a complete mystery. According to Hilary Mantel, "Cromwell had an illegitimate daughter, and beyond the fact that she existed, we know very little about her. She comes briefly into the records, in an incredibly obscure way – she's in the archives of the county of Chester." Jane married William Hough ( – 1585), of Leighton in Wirrall, Cheshire, around 1550. William Hough was the son of Richard Hough (1505 – 1573/4) who was employed by Thomas Cromwell from 1534 to 1540 as his agent in Chester. It is unknown what role Thomas and Gregory Cromwell played in her life. Jane and her husband William Hough, together with their daughter, Alice, her husband, William Whitmore and their children, came to the attention of the authorities as recusant Catholics in the reign of Elizabeth I.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory Cromwell came to share his father's interests and religious beliefs and was closely following the religious developments taking place in England while his father was in office. Gregory's close friends, William Cecil and Ralph Sadler, were known adherents of the reformed faith. A letter written to Gregory by Henry Dowes in March 1540 reveals that he was deeply concerned about the recantation of the vicar of Stepney, William Jerome. In his report to his former pupil, Dowes noted that "your comaundemente hath fully persuaded me you to be nott a litle desyrous to receyve knowledge after what sorte he behaved himselfe, aswell concernyng his Recantation, as also the reste of thinges conteyned in his saide Sermon."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: After the deaths of his wife and daughters, Thomas Cromwell was devoted to his son, Gregory, and his sister Catherine's son, Richard Williams and they were a close family. One of Richard's letters to his uncle bemoaned their separation from one another. He wrote that "I never more desired anything, than since your departure, to see you, nor thought time longer in your absence." Gregory was equally effusive in a letter where he asked only for his father's blessing, which he described as "more treasure unto me then all the abundance of worldly goods." Gregory remained close to his father and looked up to his older cousin, Richard Cromwell, who had distinguished himself by his military skill and gallantry. By the autumn of 1529, he had adopted the name Cromwell. Richard must have been fond of his cousin, Gregory, leaving him "a great horse" in his will.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: It has been incorrectly asserted by early historians such as J. S. Brewer and R. B. Merriman and assumed by later historians like B.W. Beckingsale and David Loades that Gregory Cromwell was fourteen or fifteen when he was being educated at Cambridge in 1528 and therefore born around 1514. This has led to negative speculation about the boy's character and abilities which can be disproved. Gregory was, in fact, beginning his education and not undertaking a degree at the end of his education. He did not obtain a degree at Cambridge. That would have been unusual for a gentleman's son at that time, unless he had been destined for a career in the church.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Sir Henry Ellis stated that "The date of Gregory Cromwell's birth is not recorded, but it could hardly have been earlier than 1520." It appears that Henry Ellis was right and that Gregory Cromwell was a small boy in 1528, no more than eight years old. Letters from Gregory's supervisors, tutors and mentors during his education point to a year of birth of around 1520. As evidence that Gregory was very young in 1528, there are two letters written by John Chekyng, his tutor, to Thomas Cromwell, describing a "little" boy who "plays" and who is learning to read and write. The first letter, written in July 1528, states that his son Gregory "is not now at Cambridge, but in the country, where he works and "plays" alternately ... He is now studying the things most conducive to the reading of authors, and spends the rest of the day in forming letters." A second letter from Chekyng, written in November 1528, notes that ""Little" Gregory is becoming great in letters."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Another letter to Thomas Cromwell, which can be dated to between September 1529 and Whitsuntide 1530, written by Margaret Vernon provides further proof of Gregory's young age. Vernon wrote ""You promised that I should have the governance of the child till he was 12 years old". By that time he shall speak for himself if any wrong be offered him, for as yet he cannot, except by my maintenance."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: After the death of his mother, Gregory was placed in the care of his father's friend, Margaret Vernon, Prioress of Little Marlow, in Buckinghamshire. At that time it was not unusual for gentlemen to place their young children in the care of nuns. As a rule the boys in nunneries were very young as it was not considered appropriate for them to stay with the nuns later than their ninth or tenth year. The nuns were permitted to educate only the girls. It was acceptable for young boys, up to the age of nine or ten, to be supervised by nuns, but not taught by them, and so they were usually accompanied by a male tutor.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Margaret Vernon wrote to Cromwell in 1528 stating that "Your son and his master are in good health, and now prosper in learning more in one day than before in a week, by reason of Nich. Saddelar, who is of very good conditions. Mr. Copland every morning gives each of them a laten, the which Nicholas doth bear away, as well Gregory's lesson as his own, and maketh the same Gregory perfect against his time of rendering. The master takes such comfort that he is with them three times a day." Gregory's older companion, Nicholas Sadler, may have been a younger brother or perhaps a cousin of Sir Ralph Sadler, Thomas Cromwell's personal secretary and close friend. Nicholas Sadler also had with him a "little gentlewoman", who Margaret wished permission to educate herself, to fill up her leisure intervals.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory Cromwell received dedications to three humanist works: Voluzenus's version of Cicero's "Dream of Scipio"; David Clapham's translation of Agrippa's "Commendation of Matrimony" and Sir Richard Morrison's translation of Vives' "Introduction to Wisdom".


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: In 1540, Sir Richard Morrison ( – 1556), an English humanist scholar and diplomat who was a protégé of Thomas Cromwell, propagandist for Henry VIII, and then ambassador to the German court of Charles V for Edward VI, dedicated his translation of "Introductio ad sapientiam" by Juan Luis Vives to Gregory Cromwell.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Vives' devotional work, "The Introduction to Wisdom," a companion piece to the Instruction, was translated into English by Sir Richard Morison in 1540 and dedicated to the son of Thomas Cromwell. The translator is lavish in his praise of Vives: "This boke was gathered by Ludovicus Vives, a man greatly conversant in all good authours and excellentlye wel sene in all kindes of lerning." Vives' manual was extremely popular in the English schools, used as a textbook in the Tudor schools together with Lily's Grammar."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Juan Luis Vives (1493–1540) was a Spanish humanist and educational theorist, who strongly opposed scholasticism and made his mark as one of the most influential advocates of humanistic learning in the early sixteenth century. His works are not limited to education but deal with a wide range of subjects including philosophy, psychology, politics, social reform and religion.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Thomas Cromwell, influenced by the humanist view of preparation for the active life, took great pains with his son's education, although the boy's studies were not always conducted along humanist lines. Cromwell approved a curriculum including the study of the works of Erasmus, English and ancient history, music, and exercise with arms for Gregory. He provided for his son, the sort of education which Sir Thomas Elyot was advocating for the ruling class.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: In a letter to Thomas Cromwell, Henry Dowes, Gregory's preceptor, details how his son studied French, Latin, English, accounting, music and Roman and Greek history. He practised the longbow, played the lute and virginals and shared his father's love of hunting, hawking and riding. Gregory and his cousin, Christopher Wellyfed were permitted to indulge their love of hunting during breaks in their studies. Gregory promised his father that he would do his best at all times ... although he needed a little encouragement!


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: On the whole, Gregory's tutors seemed to be happy with his progress. In November 1528, John Chekyng advised his father that "Little Gregory is becoming great in letters." Margaret Vernon noted in 1529, that Gregory "is in good health, and is a very good scholar, and can construe his paternoster and creed. When you next come to me I doubt not that you shall like him very well." At that time, young children practised reading from religious texts, the primer, containing the Paternoster, Ave Maria, Creed and other common prayers and liturgical works like the antiphonal and the psalter. In the case of boys, the learning of Latin grammar also involved religious material. An elementary exercise might take the form of studying and analysing the basic prayers in their Latin forms, as Gregory is mentioned by Vernon, learning to translate the Paternoster and the Creed from Latin.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: The lure of the countryside could prove a distraction to an active boy, who needed to be pulled back into line. Henry Dowes wrote to Cromwell in September 1534 explaining that he had used every effort to advance Gregory in his studies, but "forcause summer was spent in the service of the wild gods, it is so much to be regarded after what fashion youth is brought up". However, by April 1535, Dowes was able to report to his father that "his improvement is greater than at any time here before, partly because he is brought into some awe and dread, and is ready to give himself to learning when required, partly because those things which formerly alienated his mind from study are now withdrawn."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory excelled in athletic pursuits. Dowes reported to Cromwell in September 1535, that his son "for his recreation he useth to hawke and hunte, and shote in his long bowe, which frameth and succedeth so well with hime that he semeth to be therunto given by nature."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Towards the end of Gregory's education, the boy was to become an asset to his father and a help to his mentor, Rowland Lee, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, in Ludlow. The bishop had written to Cromwell on 19 January 1536 to ask for assistance, now that he had to "learn a new school, to play with pen and counters, for the King's grace's money." Believing that it would be difficult for him without some help, he asked Cromwell to "please send me my lover Mr. Gregory, for though the thieves have hanged me in imagination, I trust to be even with them shortly." During his time in Wales, Rowland Lee came to be known as the "hanging bishop" for the harsh measures taken in an attempt to curb widespread lawlessness.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: One man, in particular, was impressed by the young man. Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, reported to Cromwell in August 1536 that his son was in good health and, "sparing no horseflesh to run after the deer and hounds. I trust you will not be discontent that I now cause him to forbear his book. Be sure you shall have in him a wise quick piece."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: It would appear that Gregory Cromwell, and John More, the son of Thomas More, have been wrongly assumed to have been unintelligent, simply because they happened to be overshadowed by their extraordinary fathers. It is evident that Cromwell's son was a capable scholar, who besides mastering Latin, French and accounting, had learned to play the lute and virginals and excelled in the outdoor pursuits of riding, hunting with the longbow and hawking. He was athletic and therefore had much in common with his older cousin, the courtier Richard Cromwell. It is apparent that Gregory Cromwell was an intelligent, well-educated and accomplished young man who must have been a source of pride to his father.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory had received an extensive education to prepare him for adult life. Now that his education was complete, he was ready to marry and begin a career in his father's service.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: In March 1537 Elizabeth, Lady Ughtred had written to Thomas Cromwell from York to seek his favour in acquiring one of the soon-to-be dissolved monasteries. Aged about 19, she was the widow of Sir Anthony Ughtred, who had died in 1534: a younger daughter of Sir John Seymour, sister of Queen Jane Seymour and the future Protector Somerset. The opportunity was not lost on Cromwell and he proposed instead that she marry his son and heir, Gregory. By June it appears that Cromwell's offer had been accepted, although Gregory had not been her only suitor. Sir Arthur Darcy had written to her on 15 June, regretting his loss: "If I do tarry here in the country, I would have been glad to have had you likewise, but sure it is, as I said, that some southern lord shall make you forget the North." The couple were married on 3 August 1537 at Mortlake.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Historian Derek Wilson has observed that in marrying his son Gregory to the then queen's younger sister, Thomas Cromwell became "related by marriage to the king, an event well worth recording for posterity by a portrait of his daughter-in-law." A portrait by Hans Holbein dated circa 1535–1540 exhibited at the Toledo Museum of Art as (1926.57), once thought to be Queen Catherine Howard, may instead depict the wife of Gregory Cromwell. The lady is wearing a French hood, her sleeves are said to follow a style set by Anne of Cleves and she has wonderful blackwork decorating her cuffs. Born in around 1518, Elizabeth was probably in her 21st year in 1539 or 1540 and about the right age to be the sitter. The portrait may have been commissioned by Thomas Cromwell between January 1540 and early June 1540 when Anne of Cleves was queen consort and before his arrest. It is also possible that a portrait of Gregory was painted at the same time and has not survived.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: It appears that Elizabeth had two children from her marriage to Ughtred. Sir Richard Southwell wrote to Thomas Cromwell in August 1537 that he had seen "a child of my lady your daughter's at Wylberffosse nunnery, Yorksh., who was in good health at the writing of this." As the writer refers to "my lady" your daughter, he could only be referring to Cromwell's new daughter-in-law, Lady Ughtred, and the child was in Yorkshire, where she had been living in the years since her marriage. This child may have been Henry Ughtred, born around 1533, in Jersey, or Margery Ughtred of Kexby, Yorkshire, who married William Hungate of Burnby, Yorkshire.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Elizabeth assured her new father-in-law that "which doth comfort me most in the world, that I find your lordship is contented with me, and that you will be my good lord and father the which, I trust, never to deserve other, but rather to give cause for the continuance of the same".


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: It is unknown whether it was Thomas Cromwell or Edward Seymour who suggested the match, but the marriage appears to have been happy and Elizabeth's brother and father-in-law were certainly on friendly terms. Edward Seymour, then Viscount Beauchamp, wrote to Cromwell on 2 September 1537 to know how he has fared since the writer's departure. Wishes Cromwell were with him, when he should have had the best sport with bow, hounds, and hawks and sends commendations to his brother-in-law and sister, adding "and I pray God to send me by them shortly a nephew."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Presumably, Gregory was still in his father's service, and he and his wife were living in one of Thomas Cromwell's many houses after the marriage, however, there is no mention of Gregory and Elizabeth in the records until the death of Queen Jane on 24 October 1537, less than three months after their wedding.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: On 12 November they took part in the late queen's funeral procession. Gregory and his cousin, Richard Cromwell carried banners; their wives were among the principal mourners. Her sister's death was not only a personal tragedy for Elizabeth, but it was to have long-term repercussions for the Cromwells, particularly for Thomas Cromwell, that could never have been foreseen.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: After his marriage, Gregory continued his training in his father's service. During his career, he held several offices, including:


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: The couple's first child, Henry, was baptised 1 March 1538, probably at Hampton Court, where the Lady Mary almost certainly stood godmother. Shortly after the baptism, Gregory and his wife left for Lewes in Sussex, arriving with a large retinue at the former Cluniac Priory of St Pancras, recently acquired by Thomas Cromwell.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: While in Sussex, Gregory became a justice of the peace, which was his first official position. The site and possessions of the Priory of St Pancras, Lewes were granted to Thomas Cromwell and his heirs, on 16 February 1538. Their extent was considerable. The demolition of the monastery began without delay, however the Priory House was not demolished and was reserved as a place of residence for the new owner. In a letter to his father in April, Gregory Cromwell gives the details of his arrival, and of the warm reception and presents given to him and his wife, by the families of the neighbourhood. However, the rats of Lewes had "presents" of their own, and in May, plague had broken out in the town. The couple left Lewes and hastily retreated to another of Thomas Cromwell's houses called "The Motte" about four miles away from the town. In late June, the king was expected to come to Lewes in his Progress. Gregory Cromwell wrote to his father to inform him that the plague had not completely abated in the town. Gregory and his wife were to leave Sussex in 1539, and their household at Lewes was disbanded after Gregory was accused of a serious offence and refused his penance.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: After the appointment of Thomas Cromwell as Constable of Leeds Castle, Kent, in January 1539, his son Gregory and his wife moved into the castle. Gregory and his wife lived mainly at Leeds Castle at Thomas Cromwell's expense from their arrival until his arrest in June 1540. Living there qualified Gregory for election as one of the knights of the shire for Kent to the Parliament of that year. His partner, the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, Sir Thomas Cheyne, presumably ensuring his return at the request of his father. It is notable that Gregory Cromwell was under the age of majority of twenty-one. His election is to be seen as one move in Thomas Cromwell's campaign to ensure a "tractable" Parliament.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory was summoned to Parliament on 28 April 1539. In December 1539, during its second prorogation, he travelled to Calais to welcome Anne of Cleves. Gregory wrote several letters to his father at this time, detailing the difficulties of the crossing from Dover to Calais (a twelve-hour journey), reporting that many of the gentlemen with him were "extremely vexed with sickness" and assuring his father that he and the Lord Admiral were not among them. More than likely, this was his first time on board a ship and away from the English mainland. He describes his impressions at the first sight of Calais, how he has seen the castle and the blockhouses and other fortresses and recounts the delights of the feasting, entertainments and jousting while waiting for Henry VIII's new bride.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory also wrote to his wife from Calais, addressing her as his "loving bedfellow", describing the arrival of Anne of Cleves, and requesting news "as well of yourself as also my little boys, of whose increase and towardness be you assured I am not a little desirous to be advertised."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: The Admiral and his entourage spent about nine days in Calais before the arrival of Anne of Cleves, passing the time, in part, with tournaments and other amusements. Anne of Cleves arrived on Thursday 11 December. "She arrived within the English pale at Calais between 7 and 8 a.m., and was received by the lord Deputy, the Lieutenant of the Castle, the Knight Porter, and the Marshal of Calais, Sir George Carow, Captain of Resbanke, and the Captain of the Spears, well appointed with great horses, and with them the men of arms, in velvet coats and gold chains, and all the archers in the King's livery well appointed; "and so brought her towards Calais, a gentleman of arms of the King's and another of hers riding together."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Within a mile of Calais, she was received by the earl of Southampton, Lord Admiral, with the lord William Howard, Sir Francis Brian, the lord Grey of Wilton, the lord Hastings, lord Clifford, lord Herbert, lord Tailbush, Sir Thomas Seymour, Sir Henry Knyvett, Mr. Gregory Cromwell, with "xxiiij" gentlemen in coats of satin damask and velvet, besides the said lords, who wore three collars of cloth of gold and purple velvet and chains of gold, and 200 yeomen, &c., in the King's colours, red and blue cloth. "Then the King's ships off Newland as she came by them let 200 shots of guns", after which the town of Calais shot 300 pieces of ordnance.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: When she came to the Lantern Gate, she stayed and viewed the king's ships, the "Lion" and the "Sweepstake", decked with 100 banners of silk and gold, wherein were 200 master gunners and mariners and 31 trumpets, "and a double drum that was never seen in England before"; and so her Grace entered into Calais. At her entry, 150 pieces of ordnance let out of the said two ships made such a smoke that one of her train could not see another. "Where stood in order on both sides the streets, like a lane, with 500 soldiers in the King's livery of the retinue of Calais, and the mayor of Calais with his brethren, and the commons of Calais, and the merchants of the Staple, stood in like manner in array, and made a lane wherethrough she passed to her lodging". There the mayor and his brethren came to her and gave her 50 sovereigns of gold, and the mayor of the Staple, 60. Next morning "she had a gun shot, justing and all other royalty that could be devised in the King's garrison;" and kept open household there for the 15 days that she remained." The Admiral had been instructed by Henry VIII to "cheer my lady and her train so they think the time short". Anne knew little English, so, with the assistance of an interpreter, he taught her to play "Sent" and other card games that the king enjoyed, with Gregory Cromwell taking part.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: The journey to England was planned for Friday afternoon; however, the weather proved so rough that it was futile to think of crossing at that time. The Lord Admiral entertained Anne of Cleves on the Saturday by showing her the ship prepared for her passage, with the other ships in the harbour, gaily decorated and with men on the tops, shrouds, and yard-arms. Guns were shot off in her honour, and after a banquet there was jousting. The high winds and rough seas continued until Saturday the 27th, when the weather was favourable for the crossing and Anne of Cleves finally arrived in England, landing at Deal, in Kent.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: In 1539, in response to the potential threat of invasion by his Roman Catholic enemies, Charles V and Francis I, Henry VIII prepared for the worst by fortifying the coasts and fitting out his navy, and ordered a muster of all his male subjects, aged from sixteen to sixty. The Lord Mayor of London ordered a general muster of the citizens to be held at Mile End on Thursday, 8 May. It was a formidable display of the king's power – three divisions, each of five thousand men and their attendants marched through the city to the Palace of Westminster, where the King stood in his gatehouse, to see them as they passed by. The size of the muster was estimated, by the Lord Chancellor, Thomas Audley, to have been about 16,500 men. Thomas Cromwell played his part, sending a great number of men and weapons among the citizens of London. They were led by a forest of pike-men, bowmen and gunners in the thousands, and followed by weaponry drawn on carts, moving through the city to parade past Henry VIII at Westminster. Cromwell's son and heir, Gregory and his nephew, Richard Cromwell rode with muster, together with Christopher Morris, Master of the Ordinance, "and other of the Kinges servantes." They followed "the end of the last battell, rydinge on goodly horses and well apparayled."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: 1540 was to be a year of triumphs and tears for the Cromwell family. In January, Elizabeth was appointed to the household of the new Queen, Anne of Cleves. In March, during a virtual witch-hunt against 'heretical' preachers by Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, Gregory Cromwell requested Henry Dowes to write a letter detailing the recantation of William Jerome, Vicar of Stepney. This was significant, as Stepney was Thomas Cromwell's church, where he and his family worshipped. Gardiner was firing a warning shot in his rival's direction. Still rising in royal favour, Thomas Cromwell was created Earl of Essex on 17 April, and his son, Gregory assumed the courtesy title of Lord Cromwell (from his father's secondary title of Baron Cromwell, of Wimbledon in the County of Surrey). The arms granted to Gregory Cromwell were four coats, quarterly; 1st, quarterly, per fess indented, azure, and or, four lions passant, counterchanged; 2nd, per fess, or and gules, on a pale between two lis, azure, and two pelicans of the first, a pelican and lis, all counterchanged; 3rd, azure, on a fess, between three lions rampant, a rose, gules, between two Cornish choughs; 4th, Prior, as before, and the motto, "Faire mon devoir". On 18 April, Thomas Cromwell was made Great Chamberlain.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: The challengers included Sir John Dudley, Sir Thomas Seymour, Sir Thomas Poyninge, Sir George Carew, Anthony Kingston, and Richard Cromwell. The challengers entered the lists that day richly dressed, their horses trapped in white velvet, with knights and gentlemen riding ahead of them, dressed in white velvet and white sarcenet, and all their servants in white sarcenet doublets and hose, in the Burgundian fashion. To joust against them, forty-six defendants entered, led by the Henry, Earl of Surrey, including Lord William Hayward, Lord Edward Clinton, Lord Gregory Cromwell, and others, who were all richly dressed. After the jousting had ended the challengers rode to Durham Place, which was lavishly decorated, with great cupboards of plate on display and where they kept open household during the tournament. Delicious foods and drinks were plentiful and minstrels played continually. Elaborate feasts and suppers were provided there, which were attended by the King, the Queen and her ladies, all the court, and all other comers. The guests "were served every meal with their own servants after the manner of war, their drum warning all the officers of household against every meal." On the second day of the jousts, Anthony Kingston and Richard Cromwell were made knights. Cromwell so impressed the king with his valour, that he was given a diamond ring from the king's own finger.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: The wave of success was to be short-lived for Thomas Cromwell. Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, a traditionalist conservative, was determined to destroy his arch-enemy, Cromwell, by accusing him of supporting heretical preachers, thereby undoing his programme of religious reforms. At the same time, Cromwell's political rival and religious conservative, Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, who had pushed hard for the Act of Six Articles to be passed in Parliament, was rising in favour and fast becoming a threat. The Act of Six Articles, which reaffirmed certain Catholic principles in Henry VIII's Church of England, had been passed in May 1539. Henry VIII had now drawn a line in the sand on religious reform and Cromwell found himself in an untenable position with regards to his reformist policies. French Ambassador, Charles de Marillac noted "the division among this King's ministers, who are trying to destroy each other." Cromwell's party seemed to have the upper hand, however the situation was about to take a turn for the worse.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Cromwell was safe only as long as he retained royal favour. However, the king had found his new wife Anne of Cleves particularly unappealing and as she was no longer of any political use he wanted a divorce. Cromwell realised that a divorce would result in a massive loss of face for him as the promoter of the marriage and its associated political machinations and that it could lead not only to his ruin, but also to the end of the Reformation in England. He made the fatal mistake of hesitating when the king asked him to look to a solution to end the marriage. Taking advantage of the king's marital discontent and Thomas Cromwell's hesitation over the divorce, Gardiner and the Norfolk together came up with a plan to bring down the Earl of Essex. Norfolk used his pretty young niece, Catherine Howard, at court, to distract the king; and while Henry VIII was distracted, he and Gardiner plotted their rival's demise. Stephen Gardiner entertained the king and the girl in his episcopal palace, while their agents were searching for any damning evidence that could be used against Cromwell.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Feeling threatened, after the arrest of Bishop Sampson of Chichester, Gardiner and Norfolk decided to make a preemptive strike. "Cromwell was accused of the sacramentarian heresy, or denial of the real presence. The charge with its overtones of anabaptism and anarchy, temporarily overbalanced Henry" and with the deposition by Wriothesley that implied Cromwell was stalling over the divorce, the king was persuaded to order Cromwell's arrest. Henry was made to see his chief minister as an obstacle to Anne's removal and replacement by Catherine. Gardiner was more than happy to provide the king with the means to a speedy divorce and "false knaves", Richard Rich and Michael Throgmorton were easily procured to make further allegations to the king about the Earl of Essex."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Thomas Cromwell was arrested suddenly at a council meeting at 3.00 p.m. on the afternoon of 10 June 1540, on trumped up charges of treason and heresy, taken to the Tower and his possessions seized.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: The French Ambassador Charles de Marillac described his arrest in the Council Chamber at Westminster.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: As soon as the Captain of the Guard declared his charge to make him prisoner, Cromwell in a rage cast his bonnet on the ground, saying to the duke of Norfolk and others of the Privy Council assembled there that this was the reward of his services, and that he appealed to their consciences as to whether he was a traitor; but since he was treated thus he renounced all pardon, as he had never thought to have offended, and only asked the King not to make him languish long. Thereupon some said he was a traitor, others that he should be judged according to the laws he had made, which were so sanguinary that often words spoken inadvertently with good intention had been constituted high treason. The duke of Norfolk having reproached him with some "villennyes" done by him, snatched off the order of St George which he bore on his neck, and the Admiral, to show himself as great an enemy in adversity as he had been thought a friend in prosperity, untied the Garter. Then, by a door which opens upon the water, he was put in a boat and taken to the Tower without the people of this town suspecting it until they saw all the King's archers under Mr. Cheyney at the door of the prisoner's house, where they made an inventory of his goods.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: According to the sixteenth-century chronicler Edward Hall, those who genuinely mourned Cromwell's arrest were far outnumbered by those who rejoiced. Cromwell, who was courageous enough to implement radical changes in an inherently conservative society like England, was by no means a popular man. Marillac, reporting the news of Cromwell's arrest to Francis I, wrote that "considering that public affairs thereby entirely change their course, especially as regards the innovations in religion of which Cromwell was principal author, the news seems of such importance that it ought to be written forthwith" and in another letter to Montmorency noted "the division among this King's ministers, who are trying to destroy each other. Cromwell's party seemed the strongest lately by the taking of the dean of the Chapel, bp. of Chichester, but it seems quite overthrown by the taking of the said lord Cromwell, who was chief of his band, and there remain only on his side the abp. of Canterbury, who dare not open his mouth, and the lord Admiral, who has long learnt to bend to all winds, and they have for open enemies the duke of Norfolk and the others. The thing is the more marvellous as it was unexpected by everyone."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory would have been nearby, in the House of Commons, at Westminster, when his father was arrested and must have hastily sent word to his wife Elizabeth, who was at court attending Queen Anne. He and his wife found themselves in a very vulnerable position, and were faced with the possibility of their own arrest. Having been dependants of Thomas Cromwell, they found themselves homeless—all Cromwell's houses, lands, money, and goods were seized by the king (Leeds Castle was soon in the hands of Sir Anthony St Leger)—and, no doubt, in dire financial straits. It is highly probable that Elizabeth's brother, Edward Seymour, then Earl of Hertford, interceded with the king on the couple's behalf, gave them advice, and provided them with a place to live, and that Sir Ralph Sadler was secretly sending news to Gregory about his father.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Gregory's marriage to Elizabeth—the sister of the late Queen Jane and his connection to Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, now a favourite of the Henry VIII—may have afforded him a degree of protection from the king's wrath. There is no record of Gregory or his wife being questioned in relation to Thomas Cromwell's arrest.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: The case against Thomas Cromwell was weak; it was well known that Cromwell favoured religious reform, though he had not proceeded any further with his programme of reforms than the king would allow, and his every act had been authorised by the king. Cromwell had not broken any laws, contravened any statutes or disobeyed any royal proclamations. Therefore, he was condemned without a trial and his sentence was later confirmed by an act of attainder. There are no surviving records of Gregory and Elizabeth's movements at this time.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: From the day of Thomas Cromwell's arrest until 16 June, during which time he was formally questioned by Norfolk and Thomas Audeley, he gave written answers to questions and wrote detailed letters at the king's command, there was still a faint hope of a reprieve. However, on 17 June, the bill of attainder was heard in Parliament for the first time and Cromwell would have known his terrible fate. Ominously, on a deposition to the king, he wrote "All these articles be tr[ue by the] death I shall die, and m[ore] as more plainly app[eareth by a] letter written with my [own hand] sent by Mr. Secretary [unto] the King's Highness."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Thomas Cromwell wrote a desperate letter from the Tower to the king to plead his innocence and appeal to him to be merciful to his son and the rest of his family. "Sir, upon [my kne]es I most humbly beseech your most gracious Majesty [to be goo]d and gracious lord to my poor son, the good and virtu[ous lady his] wife, and their poor children"


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: From this Letter we learn that Henry VIII sent Cromwell money while in the Tower and it appears to have given him more than a hope of life. Moreover, Thomas Cromwell was granted the extraordinary 'privilege' of being told of the charges against him and who his accusers were. When Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk was himself arrested in 1546, he "prayed the lords to intercede with the king, that his accusers might be brought face to face, to say what they had against him ; and he did not doubt but it should appear he was falsely accused. He desired to have no more favour than Cromwell had, he himself being present when Cromwell was examined." He added that Cromwell "desired, if he might not see his accusers, that he might at least know what the matters were ; and if he did not answer truly to every point, he desired not to live an hour longer. He had always been pursued by great enemies about the king ; so that his fidelity was tried like gold."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: On 29 June, the act of attainder was passed in both houses of parliament and Thomas Cromwell's fate was sealed. It is not known whether Gregory Cromwell was present in the House of Commons during the proceedings against his father.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: In July 1540, fearing for her family's future security, Elizabeth wrote the following letter of submission to Henry VIII:


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: "After the bounden duty of my most humble submission unto your excellent majesty, whereas it hath pleased the same, of your mere mercy and infinite goodness, notwithstanding the heinous trespasses and most grievous offences of my father-in-law, yet so graciously to extend your benign pity towards my poor husband and me, as the extreme indigence and poverty wherewith my said father-in-law's most detestable offences hath oppressed us, is thereby right much holpen and relieved, like as I have of long time been right desirous presently as well to render most humble thanks, as also to desire continuance of the same your highness' most benign goodness. So, considering your grace's most high and weighty affairs at this present, fear of molesting or being troublesome unto your highness hath disuaded me as yet otherwise to sue unto your grace than alonely by these my most humble letters, until your grace's said affairs shall be partly overpast. Most humbly beseeching your majesty in the mean season mercifully to accept this my most obedient suit, and to extend your accustomed pity and gracious goodness towards my said poor husband and me, who never hath, nor, God willing, never shall offend your majesty, but continually pray for the prosperous estate of the same long time to remain and continue."


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: This undated letter is placed at the end of July 1540 in Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII. It is possible that it was written while Thomas Cromwell was imprisoned in the Tower, as Elizabeth refers to her father-in-law, and not her "late" father-in-law. Moreover, it was customary at that time to write "may his soul God pardon" or something similar when referring to someone who had recently died, which she did not do. The letter may have been written on the advice of her brother or at the king's command. The king was inclined to be generous and Elizabeth was to be included in the future Queen Catherine Howard's household as one of her attendant ladies.


title: Gregory Cromwell, 1st Baron Cromwell

text: Richard Hilles, a merchant, wrote in a letter dated 28 February 1541, "some think it was a like artifice in the King to confer his title and many of his domains while he was yet in prison upon his son Gregory, who was almost a fool, in order that he might the more readily confess his offences at execution."