title: The 300 Spartans

text: The 300 Spartans is a 1962 CinemaScope epic film depicting the Battle of Thermopylae. Made with the cooperation of the Greek government, it was shot in the village of Perachora in the Peloponnese. The working title was "Lion of Sparta". It stars Richard Egan as the Spartan king Leonidas, Ralph Richardson as Themistocles of Athens and David Farrar as Persian king Xerxes, with Diane Baker as Ellas and Barry Coe as Phylon providing the love interest in the film. Greek warriors, led by 300 Spartans, fight against a Persian army of almost limitless size. Despite the odds, the Spartans will not flee or surrender, even if it means their deaths.


title: The 300 Spartans

text: When it was released in 1962, critics saw the movie as a commentary on the Cold War, referring to the independent Greek states as "the only stronghold of freedom remaining in the then known world", holding out against the Persian "slave empire".


title: The 300 Spartans

text: King Xerxes of Persia leads a vast army of soldiers into Europe to defeat the small city-states of Greece, not only to fulfill the idea of "one world ruled by one master", but also to avenge the defeat of his father Darius at the Battle of Marathon ten years before. Accompanying him are Artemisia, the Queen of Halicarnassus, who beguiles Xerxes with her feminine charm, and Demaratus, an exiled king of Sparta, to whose warnings Xerxes pays little heed.


title: The 300 Spartans

text: In Corinth, Themistocles of Athens wins the support of the Greek allies and convinces both the delegates and the Spartan representative, warrior king Leonidas I, to grant Sparta leadership of their forces. Outside the hall, Leonidas and Themistocles agree to fortify the narrow pass at Thermopylae until the rest of the army arrives. After this, Leonidas learns of the Persian advance and travels to Sparta to spread the news and rally the rest of the troops.


title: The 300 Spartans

text: In Sparta, his fellow king Leotychidas is fighting a losing battle with the Ephors over the religious harvest festival of Carneia that is due to take place, with members of the council arguing that the army should wait until after the festival is over before it marches, while Leotychidas fears that by that time the Persians may have conquered Greece. Leonidas decides to march north immediately with his personal bodyguard of 300 men, who are exempt from the decisions of the Ephors and the Gerousia. They are subsequently reinforced by about 700 volunteer Thespians led by Demophilus and few other Greek allies.


title: The 300 Spartans

text: After several days of fighting, Xerxes grows angry as his army is repeatedly routed by the Greeks, with the Spartans in the forefront. Leonidas receives word sent by his wife that, by decision of the Ephors, the remainder of the Spartan army, rather than joining him as he had expected, will only fortify the isthmus in the Peloponnese and will advance no further. The Greeks constantly beat back the Persians, and following the defeat of most of his personal bodyguard in battle against the Spartans plus the death in battle of Xerxes' brother, Xerxes begins to consider withdrawing to Sardis until he can equip a larger force at a later date.


title: The 300 Spartans

text: He prepares to withdraw, as advised by Artemesia (who, having a Greek mother, may have her own agenda to dissuade the king from continuing the invasion). Xerxes, however, receives word from the treacherous and avaricious Ephialtes, who has been also spurned by Spartan maiden Ellas (who accompanied her Spartan soldier boyfriend Phyllon to the battlefield, where he wishes to prove his courage), of a secret old goat-track through the mountains that will enable Persian forces to attack the Greeks from the rear. Promising to richly reward the traitorous goatherd for his betrayal (as Ephialtes had expected), an emboldened Xerxes sends his army onward.


title: The 300 Spartans

text: Once Leonidas realizes he will be surrounded, he sends away the Greek allies to alert the cities to the south. Being too few to hold the pass, the Spartans instead attack the Persian front, where Xerxes is nearby. Leonidas is killed in the melée. Meanwhile, the Thespians, who had refused to leave, are overwhelmed (offscreen) while defending the rear. Surrounded, the surviving Spartans refuse Xerxes's demand to give up Leonidas' body in exchange for safe passage. They are then all annihilated as the remaining Immortals rain down a barrage of arrows.


title: The 300 Spartans

text: After this, narration states that the Battle of Salamis and the Battle of Plataea end the Persian invasion, but that the Greeks could not have been organized and victorious without the time bought by the 300 Spartans who defied the tyranny of Xerxes at Thermopylae. One of the final images of the film is the stone memorial bearing the epigram of Simonides of Ceos, which the narrator recites in honor of the slain 300 Spartan men's bravery :


title: The 300 Spartans

text: Then ends with "...But it was more than a victory for Greece, it was a stirring example to free people throughout the world of what a few brave men can accomplish once they refuse to submit to tyranny!"


title: The 300 Spartans

text: The battle scenes were shot around Vouliagmenis Lagoon (north of Loutraki and the Corinth Canal and west of the village of Perachora; northwest of Athens)--not to be confused with the much smaller Lake Vouliagmeni, due south of Athens. The northern Corinthian site doubled as Thermopylae and the surrounding areas as it had become impossible to shoot at the actual location in Thermopylae. The passage of 2,500 years of the receding coastline turned the strait where the actual battle was fought in 480 BCE into a broad coastal plain facing the Malian Gulf adding about 3.5 kilometers of dry land to the coastline by mid-20th century.


title: The 300 Spartans

text: The Greek Defense Ministry agreed to make available to the producers up to 5,000 members of the Hellenic Army for a pre-negotiated fee. However, the film's budgetary constraints reduced the numbers drawn to only two battalions (approximately 1,100 men). The largest establishing scenes, of the Persian Army entering Greece, utilized many of these soldiers, together with a combined total of several hundred civilian extras, horses, cattle, ox carts, and chariots. For the wider establishing scenes of the battle, one battalion was retained to play both Greeks (about 450 soldier-extras) and Persians (some 650 soldiers). For closer compositions of the fighting and encampments, military extras were called (call-sheeted) by company-size or smaller units, in meeting the specific needs of the day's shooting schedule. Director of Photography Geoffrey Unsworth made good use of the tree groves, which lined the coastal plain aside the "Limni Vouliagmeni" lagoon, to cover for the obvious deficiency in the number of troops that would have been amassed on the Persian-side of the battle line.


title: The 300 Spartans

text: Originally developed as an Italian sword-and-sandal project, the cooperation and blessing of the Greek government allowed the producers to both finance and complete the production on a budget of 500,000 GBP () or approximately US$1,350,000 (), roughly twice for what most Italian peplum films were being made at the time. "The 300 Spartans" was the last film of Richard Egan's seven-year contract with 20th Century Fox. It was also the last film appearance of David Farrar, who then chose to retire from acting.


title: The 300 Spartans

text: In 1970, despite the attributed Cold War connotations, the film was dubbed in Russian and shown in the USSR. The film proved to be very popular, with 27.1 million total viewers.


title: The 300 Spartans

text: Frank Miller's 1998 graphic novel "300" depicts the same Battle of Thermopylae. The comic artist saw "The 300 Spartans" as a boy and said "it changed the course of my creative life". In 2006, his book was adapted into a successful film of the same name directed by Zack Snyder.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Joseph William Kittinger II (July 27, 1928 – December 9, 2022) served as a United States Air Force (USAF) officer from 1950 to 1978. He was a fighter pilot who earned Command Pilot status and retired as a colonel. He held the world record for the highest skydive—102,800 feet (31.3 km)—from 1960 until 2012.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: He participated in the Project Manhigh and Project Excelsior high-altitude balloon flight projects from 1956 to 1960 and was the first man to fully witness the curvature of the Earth.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: A fighter pilot during the Vietnam War, Kittinger shot down a North Vietnamese MiG-21 jet fighter. He was later shot down as well, subsequently spending 11 months as a prisoner of war in a North Vietnamese prison before he was repatriated in 1973.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: In 2012, Kittinger participated in the Red Bull Stratos project as capsule communicator at age 84, directing Felix Baumgartner on his freefall from Earth's stratosphere, which broke Kittinger's own 53-year-old record. Baumgartner's record would be broken two years later by Alan Eustace.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Born in Tampa, Florida, and raised in Orlando, Florida, Kittinger was educated at The Bolles School in Jacksonville, Florida, and the University of Florida. He became fascinated with planes at a young age and soloed in a Piper Cub by the time he was 17. After racing speedboats as a teenager, he entered the U.S. Air Force as an aviation cadet in March 1949. On completion of aviation cadet training in March 1950, he received his pilot wings and a commission as a second lieutenant. He was subsequently assigned to the 86th Fighter-Bomber Wing based at Ramstein Air Base in West Germany, flying the F-84 Thunderjet and F-86 Sabre.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: In 1954, Kittinger was transferred to the Air Force Missile Development Center (AFMDC) at Holloman AFB, New Mexico. It was during this assignment that he flew the observation/chase plane that monitored flight surgeon Colonel John Stapp's rocket sled run of in 1955. Kittinger was impressed by Stapp's dedication and leadership as a pioneer in aerospace medicine. Stapp, in turn, was impressed with Kittinger's skillful jet piloting, later recommending him for space-related aviation research work. Stapp was to foster the high-altitude balloon tests that would later lead to Kittinger's record-setting leap from over . In 1957, as part of "Project Manhigh", Kittinger set an interim balloon altitude record of in "Manhigh I", for which he was awarded his first Distinguished Flying Cross.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Captain Kittinger was next assigned to the Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio. For "Project Excelsior" (meaning "ever upward"), a name given to the project by Colonel Stapp as part of research into high-altitude bailouts, he made a series of three extreme altitude parachute jumps from an open gondola carried aloft by large helium balloons. These jumps were made in a "rocking-chair" position, descending on his back, rather than in the usual face-down position familiar to skydivers. This was because he was wearing a "kit" on his behind, and his pressure suit naturally formed a sitting shape when it was inflated, a shape appropriate for sitting in an airplane cockpit.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: "Excelsior I": Kittinger's first high-altitude jump, from about on November 16, 1959, was a near-disaster when an equipment malfunction caused him to lose consciousness. The automatic parachute opener in his equipment saved his life. He went into a flat spin at a rotational velocity of about 120 rpm, the g-forces at his extremities having been calculated to be over 22 times the force of gravity, setting another record.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: "Excelsior II": On December 11, 1959, Kittinger jumped again from about . For this leap, he was awarded the A. Leo Stevens Parachute Medal.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: "Excelsior III": On August 16, 1960, Kittinger made the final high-altitude jump at . Towing a small drogue parachute for initial stabilization, he fell for 4 minutes and 36 seconds, reaching a maximum speed of before opening his parachute at . Incurring yet another equipment malfunction, the pressurization for his right glove malfunctioned during the ascent and his right hand swelled to twice its normal size, but he rode the balloon up to 102,800 feet before stepping off.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: There's no way you can visualize the speed. There's nothing you can see to see how fast you're going. You have no depth perception. If you're in a car driving down the road and you close your eyes, you have no idea what your speed is. It's the same thing if you're free falling from space. There are no signposts. You know you are going very fast, but you don't feel it. You don't have a 614-mph wind blowing on you. I could only hear myself breathing in the helmet.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Kittinger set historical numbers for highest balloon ascent, highest parachute jump, longest-duration drogue-fall (four minutes), and fastest speed by a human being through the atmosphere. These were the USAF records, but were not submitted for aerospace world records to the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Kittinger's record for the highest ascent was broken in 1961 by Malcolm Ross and Victor Prather. His records for highest parachute jump and fastest velocity stood for 52 years, until they were broken in 2012 by Felix Baumgartner.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: For this series of jumps, Kittinger was profiled in "Life" magazine and the "National Geographic Magazine", decorated with a second Distinguished Flying Cross, and awarded the Harmon Trophy by President Dwight D. Eisenhower.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Kittinger appeared as himself on the January 7, 1963 episode of the game show "To Tell the Truth". He received two votes.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Back at Holloman Air Force Base, Kittinger took part in "Project Stargazer" on December 13–14, 1962. He and the astronomer William C. White took an open-gondola helium balloon packed with scientific equipment to an altitude of about , where they spent over 18 hours performing astronomical observations.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: In 1965, after returning to the operational air force, Kittinger was approached by civilian amateur parachutist Nick Piantanida for assistance on Piantanida's "Strato Jump" project, an effort to break the previous freefall records of both Kittinger and Soviet Air Force officer Yevgeni Andreyev. Kittinger refused to participate in the effort, believing Piantanida's approach to the project was too reckless. Piantanida died in 1966 as the result of a mishap suffered during his "Strato Jump III" attempt.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Kittinger later served three combat tours of duty during the Vietnam War, flying a total of 483 combat missions. During his first two tours he flew as an aircraft commander in Douglas A-26 Invaders and modified On Mark Engineering B-26K Counter-Invaders as part of Operations Farm Gate and Big Eagle.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Following his first two Vietnam tours, he returned to the United States and soon transitioned to the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. During a voluntary third tour of duty to Vietnam in 1971–72, he commanded the 555th Tactical Fighter Squadron (555 TFS), the noted "Triple Nickel" squadron, flying the F-4D Phantom II. During this period he was credited with shooting down a North Vietnamese MiG-21 while flying an F-4D, USAF Serial No. 66-7463, with his WSO, 1st Lieutenant Leigh Hodgdon.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Kittinger was shot down on May 11, 1972, just before the end of his third tour of duty. While flying an F-4D, USAF Serial No. 66-0230, with his weapons systems officer, 1st Lieutenant William J. Reich, Kittinger was leading a flight of Phantoms approximately northwest of Thai Nguyen, North Vietnam, when they were engaged by a flight of MiG-21 fighters. Kittinger and his wingman were chasing a MiG-21 when Kittinger's F-4 was hit by an air-to-air missile from another MiG-21 that damaged the plane's starboard wing and set the aircraft on fire. Kittinger and Reich ejected a few miles from Thai Nguyen and were soon captured and taken to the city of Hanoi. During the same engagement, Kittinger's wingman, Captain S. E. Nichols, shot down the MiG-21 they had been chasing.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Kittinger and Reich spent 11 months as prisoners of war (POWs) in the Hỏa Lò Prison, the so-called "Hanoi Hilton". Kittinger was put through rope torture soon after his arrival at the POW compound and this made a lasting impression on him. Kittinger was the senior ranking officer (SRO) among the newer prisoners of war, "i.e.", those captured after 1969. In Kittinger's autobiography ""Come Up and Get Me"" (by Kittinger and Craig Ryan), Kittinger emphasized being very serious about maintaining the military structure he considered essential to survival. Kittinger and Reich were returned to American hands during Operation Homecoming on March 28, 1973, and they continued their Air Force careers, with Kittinger having been promoted to full colonel while in captivity. Following his return, Colonel Kittinger attended the Air War College at Maxwell AFB, Alabama.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Following completion of the Air War College, Kittinger became the vice commander of the 48th Tactical Fighter Wing at RAF Lakenheath, United Kingdom, where he again flew the F-4 Phantom II. In 1977, he transferred to Headquarters, 12th Air Force, at Bergstrom AFB, Texas, retiring from the U.S. Air Force in 1978.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Kittinger accumulated 7,679 flying hours in the U.S. Air Force, including 948 combat flying hours during three tours during the Vietnam War. In addition, he has flown over 9,100 hours in various civilian aircraft.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Kittinger retired from the air force as a colonel in 1978 and initially went to work for Martin Marietta (now Lockheed Martin) Corporation in Orlando, Florida. He later became vice president of flight operations for Rosie O'Grady's Flying Circus, part of the Rosie O'Grady's/Church Street Station entertainment complex in Orlando, prior to the parent company's dissolution.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Still interested in ballooning, Kittinger set a world distance record for the AA-06 size class of gas balloons of in 1983. The record has since been broken. In 1984, he completed the first solo balloon crossing of the Atlantic in the "Balloon of Peace", launched from Caribou, Maine, on September 14 and landing on September 18. The flight was organized by the Canadian promoter Gaetan Croteau. An official FAI world aerospace record, the flight is the longest gas balloon flight in the AA-10 size category. For the second time in his life, he was the subject of a story in National Geographic Magazine.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Kittinger participated in the Gordon Bennett Cup in ballooning in 1989 (ranked third) and 1994 (ranked 12th).


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: In the early 1990s, Kittinger helped NASA plan Charles "Nish" Bruce's project to break Kittinger's highest parachute jump record. The project was suspended in 1994.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Joining the Red Bull Stratos project, Kittinger advised Felix Baumgartner on Baumgartner's October 14, 2012, free-fall from . The project collected leading experts in the fields of aeronautics, medicine, and engineering to ensure its success. Kittinger served as CAPCOM (capsule communicator) for Baumgartner's jump, which broke Kittinger's altitude record set during Project Excelsior.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: In 2013, Kittinger helped balloonist Jonathan Trappe as he attempted to be the first to cross the Atlantic by cluster balloon.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: On January 23, 2007, the Civil Air Patrol honored Kittinger by renaming the Texas CAP wing's TX-352 Squadron after him. Texas Governor Rick Perry cited Kittinger's work, as did the Texas state senate with a special resolution presented during the dedication ceremony attended by Kittinger and his wife, Sherry. The Colonel Joseph W. Kittinger Phantom Senior Squadron of CAP's Texas Wing is based at the former Bergstrom AFB, the site of Kittinger's last active duty assignment in the Air Force and which is now the Austin-Bergstrom International Airport.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: In Season Two, Episode 10 of British teen drama "Skins", Kittinger is mentioned by Jal in her speech at Chris' funeral, saying "Captain Joe ascended 32 kilometres into the stratosphere. And then, armed only with a parachute, he jumped out. [...] It had never been done before, and it's never been done since. He did it just because he could. And that's why Chris loved him."


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: Kittinger was honored at a 2009 ceremony in Caribou, Maine, the launch point for his 1984 solo trans-Atlantic balloon flight. He also served as the guest of honor at the community's sesquicentennial celebration.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: On February 20, 2013, Kittinger visited his "alma mater", the University of Florida, and spoke to over 400 students and faculty about his role in the Red Bull Stratos and "Excelsior III". The event took place during the UF Engineers Week, and it was made possible due to the efforts of the UF American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, UF's Air Force ROTC Detachment 150, and the UF College of Engineering.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: In September 1992, Colonel Joe Kittinger Park in Orlando, Florida, was completed by the Greater Orlando Aviation Authority (GOAA) for the City of Orlando. Located on the southwest corner of the Orlando Executive Airport, at the corner of Crystal Lake Drive and South Street, the park was named in Kittinger's honor, but was temporarily closed and partially demolished circa 2008–2011 in order to create a stormwater runoff retention area to permit a highway expansion project of the State Road 408 East-West Expressway. In March 2011, the park was reopened at its previous location.


title: Joseph Kittinger

text: In spring 2014, the mayor of Orange County, the mayor of Orlando, the GOAA Board, and other City of Orlando and GOAA officials approved the installation in the park of a restored USAF F-4 Phantom II aircraft. The National Museum of the U.S. Air Force picked an F-4D previously on display in Corsicana, Texas (Air Force serial no. 65-0747) to be moved to Orlando for display. It was subsequently determined that Kittinger had flown this particular F-4D on several occasions when it was assigned to his fighter wing in Thailand during the Vietnam War, and later when it was assigned to his fighter wing in Great Britain. Disassembled in Texas and transported in two semi-trailers over several days, the aircraft arrived in Orlando on July 22, 2014. It was restored by a team of volunteers at Orlando Executive Airport and , painted with the colors and markings of the squadron that Kittinger commanded during the Vietnam War. The restored aircraft was mounted on its pylon and formally dedicated on December 14, 2014.


title: Victor Williams

text: Victor L. Williams (born September 19, 1970) is an American actor best known as Doug Heffernan's (Kevin James) best friend Deacon Palmer on "The King of Queens." He has also appeared on several other hit TV shows, including "," "Law & Order," "ER," "New York Undercover," "Girlfriends," "Fringe" and "The Jamie Foxx Show." In 2012, Williams was seen and heard as a pitchman for Verizon Fios television commercials.


title: Victor Williams

text: Williams was born in Brooklyn, New York. He attended Midwood High School, where he used his 6 ft 5 in (197 cm) height by playing power forward on the school basketball team. He went on to attend college at Binghamton University in Upstate New York. Then he received a Masters of Fine Arts degree in acting from New York University's Graduate Acting Program at the Tisch School of the Arts.


title: Susan Blommaert

text: Susan J. Blommaert (born October 13, 1947) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Mr. Kaplan on the NBC drama series "The Blacklist", and for her recurring role as Judge Rebecca Steinman in "Law & Order", "", and "". She has portrayed judges in a number of legal dramas, including Judge Rudy Fox in "The Practice", Judge Barbara Burke in "Family Law", and Judge Hanlon in "Bull".


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: Other move orders, such as 1.c4 e6 2.Nc3 Nf6 3.d4 Bb4, are also feasible. In the "Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings", the Nimzo-Indian is classified as E20–E59.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: This hypermodern opening was developed by Aron Nimzowitsch who introduced it to master-level chess in the early 20th century. Unlike most Indian openings, the Nimzo-Indian does not involve an immediate fianchetto, although Black often follows up with ...b6 and ...Bb7. By pinning White's knight, Black prevents the threatened 4.e4 and seeks to inflict doubled pawns on White. White will attempt to create a and develop their pieces to prepare for an assault on the Black position.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: Black's delay in committing to a pawn structure makes the Nimzo-Indian (sometimes colloquially referred to as the "Nimzo") a very flexible defence to 1.d4. It can also transpose into lines of the Queen's Gambit or Queen's Indian Defence. The Nimzo-Indian is a highly respected defence to 1.d4, is played at all levels and has been played by every world champion since Capablanca. White often plays 3.g3 or 3.Nf3 to avoid the Nimzo-Indian, allowing him to meet 3.Nf3 Bb4+ (the Bogo-Indian Defence) with 4.Bd2 or 4.Nbd2, rather than 4.Nc3.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: In the Nimzo-Indian, Black is generally prepared to concede the bishop pair by playing Bxc3. As dynamic compensation, they often double White's c-pawns, which represent a static weakness, and gains play against the central light squares d5 and e4, even in those instances where White is able to recapture with a piece after ...Bxc3. Black will aim to close the position to reduce the scope of White's bishops. To this end, Black must blockade the white pawn centre from advancing and neutralise White's attacking chances on the . An example of Black's strategy carried out successfully is the game Mikhail Botvinnik–Samuel Reshevsky from the 1948 World Chess Championship, which reached the position in the diagram after White's 24th move.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: Earlier in the game, Reshevsky was able to block White's kingside attack by playing ...Nf6–e8 and ...f7–f5. Now, both White's bishops are reduced to defence, and White's queen is reduced to passivity at the a2-square to defend the pawns on a3 and c4. Without prospects for counterplay, White's game is strategically hopeless, and Black ultimately exchanged queens and won the endgame.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: The Rubinstein System (named after Akiba Rubinstein) is White's most common method of combating the Nimzo-Indian. Svetozar Gligorić and Lajos Portisch made great contributions to the theory and practice of this line at top level during their careers. White continues their development before committing to a definite plan of action. In reply, Black has three main moves to choose from: 4...0-0, 4...c5, and 4...b6.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: In addition, Black sometimes plays 4...d5 or 4...Nc6. 4...d5 can transpose to lines arising from 4...0-0, but White has the extra option of 5.a3 (known as the Botvinnik Variation). This forces Black to retreat the bishop to e7 or capture on c3, which transposes to a line of the Sämisch Variation long considered good for White because they will undouble their pawns at some point by playing cxd5, eliminating the weak pawn on c4, then prepare the e4 pawn break, backed by the bishop pair (and in some cases with f3, since they haven't committed the knight to that square yet), which will gain force in the more open type of position which will ensue. 4...Nc6 is the Taimanov Variation, named after Russian GM Mark Taimanov. Black prepares to play ...e5, which may be preceded by...d5 and ...dxc4, or ...d6. The variation was tried several times by the young Bobby Fischer, and has long been favoured by GM Nukhim Rashkovsky.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: Black's most flexible and frequently played response is 4...0-0. The main line continues 5.Bd3 d5 6.Nf3 c5 7.0-0, reaching the position in the diagram.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: White has completed their kingside development, while Black has claimed their share of the centre. At this point, the most important continuations are:


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: After 7...dxc4 8.Bxc4, Black also has two rare alternatives on their eighth move worth mentioning: 8...Qe7 intending ...Rd8 is the Smyslov Variation, invented by former world champion Vasily Smyslov, and 8...Bd7 followed by ...Bc6 is the Bronstein Variation, the brainchild of two-time world championship finalist David Bronstein.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: In general, the main line of the Rubinstein has held up very well for Black, so since the 1980s White has begun to look elsewhere for chances of obtaining an advantage. In the Rubinstein, White has often resorted to playing Ne2 rather than Nf3 at some point to be able to recapture on c3 with the knight, thus avoiding the doubled pawns. Two lines where White does this (following 4.e3 0-0) are:


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: Black puts pressure on d4 and leaves open the option of playing ...d5, or ...d6 and ...e5. The game can still transpose to the main line mentioned above after moves such as 5.Bd3 d5 6.Nf3 0-0 7.0-0, but there are two major variations particular to 4...c5:


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: Favoured by Nimzowitsch, 4...b6 is a move in accordance with the spirit of the Nimzo-Indian: Black fianchettoes their light-squared bishop to increase their control over e4. White usually continues 5.Ne2, avoiding the doubled pawns, or 5.Bd3, continuing their development (5.Nf3 usually transposes to 5.Bd3). The main variations emerging from these moves are:


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: The Classical or Capablanca Variation was popular in the early days of the Nimzo-Indian, and though eventually superseded by 4.e3 it was revived in the 1990s; it is now just as popular as the Rubinstein. White aims to acquire the two bishops without compromising their pawn structure. The drawback is that the queen will move at least twice within the opening moves and that White's kingside development is delayed. Thus, even though White possesses the bishop pair, it is usually advisable for Black to open the game quickly to exploit their lead in development. Black has four common replies to 4.Qc2. These include 4...0-0, 4...c5, 4...d5, and 4...Nc6 (4...d6 intending ...Nbd7 and ...e5 is a rarer fifth option).


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: 4.Nf3 is known as the Kasparov Variation, since Garry Kasparov used it to great effect against Anatoly Karpov in their 1985 World Championship match. Kasparov played 4.Nf3 six times, scoring three wins and three draws. Today as White, this is a favourite weapon of GM Alexei Barsov and former Women's Champion Nona Gaprindashvili.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: White develops the knight to a natural square and waits to see Black's reply. 4...d5 transposes to the Ragozin Defence of the Queen's Gambit Declined and 4...b6 5.Bg5 Bb7 transposes to the Nimzo/Queen's Indian hybrid line, so 4...c5 is the most common move that stays within Nimzo-Indian territory. Now 5.e3 transposes to the Rubinstein System, but the main move is 5.g3, which leads to a position that also arises from the Fianchetto Variation. 5.g3 cxd4 6.Nxd4 0-0 7.Bg2 d5 8.cxd5 Nxd5 can be considered the main line. Black has dissolved White's centre, but the bishop on g2 exerts pressure on the black queenside, which White may augment with 9.Qb3.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: This line can also arise from the Bogo-Indian Defence (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 Bb4+) if White blocks the check with 4.Nc3.


title: Nimzo-Indian Defence

text: In the "Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings", the Nimzo-Indian Defence has codes E20 to E59. All codes begin with 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4, excluding E20, which also includes alternatives to 3...Bb4 apart from 3...d5 (which would be the Queen's Gambit Declined).


title: Álvaro de Bazán-class frigate

text: The "Álvaro de Bazán" class, also known as the F100 class, is a class of Aegis combat system-equipped air defence frigates in service with the Spanish Navy. The vessels were built by Spanish shipbuilder Navantia in Ferrol, with the lead ship of the class named for Admiral Álvaro de Bazán.


title: Álvaro de Bazán-class frigate

text: The ships are fitted with the United States Aegis weapons system allowing them to track hundreds of airborne targets simultaneously as part of its air defence network. The "Álvaro de Bazán"-class multi-role frigates are one of the few non-US warships to carry the Aegis system and its associated SPY-1D radar. The American , Japanese , Korean , Australian , and the Norwegian also use the Aegis system.


title: Álvaro de Bazán-class frigate

text: The "Álvaro de Bazán"-class frigates are the first modern vessels of the Spanish Navy to incorporate ballistic resistant steel in the hull, along with the power plants being mounted on anti-vibration mounts to reduce noise and make them less detectable by submarines. The original contract for four ships was worth €1.683 billion but they ended up costing €1.81 billion. it was estimated that the final vessel, F-105 would cost €834m (~US$1.1bn).


title: Álvaro de Bazán-class frigate

text: Six ships were originally planned, including "Roger de Lauria" (F105) and "Juan de Austria" (F106). These were cancelled but a fifth ship was later added as the F105 "Cristóbal Colón" (It has some improvements compared to the rest of the frigates of its class).


title: Álvaro de Bazán-class frigate

text: The class is the basis of the Australian "Hobart"-class destroyers, previously known as the Air Warfare Destroyer. The Australian government announced in June 2007 that, in partnership with Navantia, three F100 vessels will be built for the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) with the first due for delivery in 2014, however this was delayed until 2017 when lead ship was commissioned.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: The Aqueduct of Segovia () is a Roman aqueduct in Segovia, Spain. It was built around the first century AD to channel water from springs in the mountains away to the city's fountains, public baths and private houses, and was in use until 1973. Its elevated section, with its complete arcade of 167 arches, is one of the best-preserved Roman aqueduct bridges and the foremost symbol of Segovia, as evidenced by its presence on the city's coat of arms. The Old Town of Segovia and the aqueduct, were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: As the aqueduct lacks a legible inscription (one was apparently located in the structure's "attic", or top portion), the date of construction cannot be definitively determined. The general date of the Aqueduct's construction was long a mystery, although it was thought to have been during the 1st century AD, during the reigns of the Emperors Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan. At the end of the 20th century, Géza Alföldy deciphered the text on the dedication plaque by studying the anchors that held the now missing bronze letters in place. He determined that Emperor Domitian (AD 81–96) ordered its construction and the year 98 AD was proposed as the most likely date of completion. However, in 2016 archeological evidence was published which points to a slightly later date, after 112 AD, during the government of Trajan or in the beginning of the government of emperor Hadrian, from 117 AD.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: The beginnings of Segovia are also not definitively known. The Arevaci people are known to have populated the area before it was conquered by the Romans. Roman troops sent to control the area stayed behind to settle there. The area fell within the jurisdiction of the Roman provincial court (Latin "conventus iuridici", Spanish "convento jurídico") located in Clunia.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: The aqueduct once transported water from the Rio Frio river, situated in mountains from the city in the La Acebeda region. It runs before arriving in the city.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: The construction of the aqueduct follows the principles laid out by Vitruvius in his "De Architectura" published in the mid-first century BC.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: The water was first gathered in a tank known as "El Caserón" (or "Big House"), and was then led through a channel to a second tower known as the "Casa de Aguas" (or "Waterhouse"). There it was naturally decanted and sand settled out before the water continued its route. Next the water traveled on a one-percent grade until it was high upon the "Postigo", a rocky outcropping on which sits the walled city center with its Alcázar or castle.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: To reach the old city, the water is conveyed by its aqueduct bridge. At Plaza de Díaz Sanz, the structure makes an abrupt turn and heads toward Plaza Azoguejo. It is there the monument begins to display its full splendor. At its tallest, the aqueduct reaches a height of , including nearly of foundation. There are both single and double arches supported by pillars. From the point the aqueduct enters the city until it reaches Plaza de Díaz Sanz, it includes 75 single arches and 44 double arches (or 88 arches when counted individually), followed by four single arches, totalling 167 arches in all.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: The first section of the aqueduct contains 36 semi-circular arches, rebuilt in the 15th century to restore a portion destroyed by the Moors in 1072. The line of arches is organized in two levels, decorated simply, in which simple moulds hold the frame and provide support to the structure. On the upper level, the arches are 5.1 metres (16.1 ft) wide. Built in two levels, the top pillars are both shorter and narrower than those on the lower level. The top of the structure contains the channel through which water travels, through a U-shaped hollow measuring 0.55 tall by 0.46 metre diameter. The top of each pillar has a cross-section measuring 1.8 by 2.5 metres (5.9 by 8.2 feet), while the base cross-section measures 2.4 by 3 metres (7.9 by 9.8 feet).


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: The aqueduct is built of unmortared, brick-like granite blocks. During the Roman era, each of the three tallest arches displayed a sign in bronze letters, indicating the name of its builder along with the date of construction. Today, two niches are still visible, one on each side of the aqueduct. One of them is known to have held the image of Hercules, who, according to legend, was founder of the city. That niche now contains an image of the Virgin. The other one used to hold an image of Saint Stephen, now lost.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: Within the walled city there was a distribution system via a deposit called a "castellum aquae". While the details of this system are not fully known, it has been established that the water followed a subterranean route. The main channel has been marked on the city's pavements.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: The first reconstruction of the aqueduct took place during the reign of the King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, known as "Los Reyes Católicos" or the Catholic Monarchs. Don Pedro Mesa, the prior of the nearby Jerónimos del Parral monastery, led the project. A total of 36 arches were rebuilt, with great care taken not to change any of the original work or style. Later, in the 16th century, the central niches and above-mentioned statues were placed on the structure. On 4 December, the day of Saint Barbara, who is the patron saint of artillery, the cadets of the local military academy drape the image of the Virgen de la Fuencisla in a flag.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: The aqueduct is the city's most important architectural landmark. It had been kept functioning throughout the centuries and preserved in excellent condition. It provided water to Segovia until the mid 19th century. Because of differential decay of stone blocks, water leakage from the upper viaduct, and pollution that caused the granite ashlar masonry to deteriorate and crack, the site was listed in the 2006 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund (WMF). Contrary to popular belief, vibrations caused by traffic that used to pass under the arches did not affect the aqueduct due to its great mass. WMF Spain brought together the Ministry of Culture, the regional government of Castilla y León, and other local institutions to collaborate in implementing the project, and provided assistance through the global financial services company American Express.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: One of the buildings of Segovia's former mint, the "Real Casa de Moneda", houses an aqueduct interpretation centre, developed with funding from European Economic Area grants.


title: Aqueduct of Segovia

text: There is a connection between the mint and the aqueduct in that coins minted in Segovia used the aqueduct as a mint mark. Another link is that the building provided for the mint in the 16th century harnessed water power to drive its machinery, although the water is taken directly from the River Eresma rather than sourced from the aqueduct.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: The sixth season of the American drama television series "24", also known as Day 6, premiered in the United States on Fox on January 14, 2007, and concluded on May 21, 2007. The season's storyline begins and ends at 6:00 a.m. It is set 20 months after the events of the previous season.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: The sixth season is set 20 months after season five. Over the last 11 weeks before Day 6, the United States has been targeted coast-to-coast in a series of suicide bombings. A man named Abu Fayed agrees to give the U.S. the location of Hamri Al-Assad, the supposed terrorist mastermind of these attacks, in exchange for former CTU Agent Jack Bauer with whom he has a personal grudge. As a result, President Wayne Palmer has negotiated the release of Bauer, who was illegally captured by Chinese government agents, under "high-price" terms.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: Agent Jack Bauer, having been taken prisoner by China 20 months earlier, is released under a deal arranged by President Wayne Palmer. Jack is immediately asked to sacrifice himself to Abu Fayed, who has offered CTU Hamri Al-Assad, who is believed to be the terrorist mastermind behind the suicide bombings of the last 11 weeks. Jack finds out, however, that Assad is actually trying to stop the attacks, which were orchestrated by Fayed. Jack escapes and saves Assad, which requires him to kill Curtis Manning who is bent on revenge for an earlier incident. Having found out that Fayed is planning to detonate five suitcase nuclear bombs, CTU agents attempt to retrieve one of them but they are too late. While crying over the loss of his friend Curtis, Jack watches in horror as a nuclear blast destroys Valencia.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: Jack discovers that his father Phillip and brother Graem are working against CTU and have been for some time. This reunites Jack with his nephew Josh Bauer and sister-in-law Marilyn Bauer who tells him that Audrey Raines is dead. Morris O'Brian is lured out of CTU, captured by Fayed and forced to arm the remaining nuclear bombs. After defusing one of them, Jack is aided by former President Charles Logan. Logan claims that his connection with the Russian Consulate General, Anatoly Markov can help Jack find Dmitri Gredenko, a former Russian general planning to arm RQ-2 Aerial Drones with the bombs to attack the U.S. Dissatisfied with Wayne Palmer's leadership during the crisis, Reed Pollock and a co-conspirator named Carson plan to assassinate Palmer and frame Al-Assad for it. Before Tom Lennox can prevent the attack, their bomb explodes, killing Assad and leaving Palmer in critical condition.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: Vice President Noah Daniels assumes executive powers and threatens retaliation. Logan fails to blackmail Markov into giving up Gredenko, so Jack breaks into the Russian Consulate and tortures information out of him. President Logan convinces his ex-wife Martha to call the Russian First Lady, Anya Suvarov. As a result, Yuri Suvarov authorizes action against the consulate by a CTU team (led by new Director of Field Operations Mike Doyle). Jack immediately gives CTU Gredenko's location, but it is too late, as Gredenko has already launched a drone toward San Francisco. Jack manages to locate the drone's pilot and crash land the drone, but radiation is released during the crash. Noah Daniels authorizes a nuclear strike against the Middle-East, but Wayne Palmer is brought out of his coma to intervene.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: Gredenko is captured by CTU and he agrees to help bring in Fayed in exchange for amnesty, but warns Fayed instead. Gredenko dies and Jack manages to track down Fayed. After a struggle, Jack single-handedly kills Fayed and finds the two remaining bombs. Jack then receives a phone call from Audrey, who is apparently still alive and is then turned over to Cheng Zhi. Cheng demands a Russian circuit board from one of the nukes, information that could start a war, in exchange for Audrey's freedom. President Palmer reluctantly authorizes Jack's plan but collapses during a press conference, allowing Daniels to assume executive duties and reverse the order. Jack goes rogue and goes through with the exchange, learning that Audrey has endured pharmaceutical torture. His plan to destroy the board fails and Cheng gets hold of it.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: Russia discovers that the Chinese have the circuit board and threatens military action. Cheng discovers that the board has been damaged and calls Phillip Bauer to fix it. Jack gets a lead from Audrey about Cheng's location but before they can use it, CTU is infiltrated by Chinese mercenaries, led by Zhou, and most members of CTU are taken hostage.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: Milo is fatally shot when he steps up to protect Nadia. Jack Bauer, Mike Doyle and others are able to kill the mercenaries and they learn that one of Phillip Bauer's conditions for helping the Chinese was that his grandson Josh be delivered to him. Phillip Bauer calls the White House and offers to give the circuit board for Josh, and they agree. Doyle takes Josh from Jack to go ahead with the exchange.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: Jack finds out about the deal and gets help from Bill Buchanan, who had been fired from CTU earlier after the Department of Justice needed a fall guy for the escape of Abu Fayed. The exchange fails as Jack predicted and Phillip Bauer manages to capture Josh on an offshore oil rig while still in possession of the circuit board. Daniels decides to launch an air strike against the oil rig but Jack and Bill commandeer a helicopter in order to save Josh. They arrive in time to kill Cheng's men, capture Cheng alive and rescue Josh. Phillip Bauer dies in the subsequent airstrike. Jack confronts Audrey's father, James Heller, by whom he feels abandoned and lashes out. Heller apologizes, but convinces Jack that Audrey would be safer without him. Jack tells a sleeping Audrey that even though he loves her, he must let her go for her own sake. He walks outside to a cliff and stares off at the ocean at an uncertain future.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: A shocking twist from the fourth episode was the detonation of a suitcase nuke that killed twelve thousand civilians. The subsequent episodes, however, hardly showed any of the panic that would result from this. David Fury explained the development by saying that the intended writing direction kept fluctuating. "In the early seasons of 24, [the writers tried] to map out stories and arc out stories [beforehand] a little bit more than they did, say, in seasons four and five, and four and five turned out to be two of most successful seasons." The nuclear threat was defused before the end of the season, leading to a story that was more personal for Jack. A panel of writers at Comic-Con said that they originally planned for Tony Almeida to return in the sixth-season finale.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: A ten-minute prequel to the sixth season of "24" is available on the Region-1 version of the Season 5 DVD. The clip begins seven months after Day 5 and shows the Chinese torturing Jack trying to learn the identity of a double agent in their ranks. What appear to be American covert-ops soldiers break into the complex and free Jack, bringing him to a Chinese man named Hong Wai. As Jack flinches in recognition of Hong, the Chinese show up and thank Jack for identifying the double agent they had suspected all along. Cheng Zhi then executes Hong.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: Additionally, an epilogue to Season 6 was released called "". It was first made available to American Express cardholders but was later released on the Season 6 DVD.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: The original trailer for the sixth season opens with Kiefer Sutherland breaking the fourth wall and thanking the fans. The trailer features scenes from the first four episodes and sets Jack Bauer up to be sacrificed. It was released on October 24, 2006.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: Eddie Izzard was cast as Darren McCarthy but left the show after one day of filming. According to Izzard, producers wanted to option further dates, but he was unavailable due to working on "The Riches". He was replaced by David Hunt.


title: 24 (season 6)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 74% with an average score of 7.9 out of 10 based on 31 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, ""24"s sixth day still delivers the goods on the action front, but this season's attempt to introduce Jack Bauer's familial angst into proceedings feels more contrived than inspired."


title: 24 (season 6)

text: Some members of the production staff cite Season 6 as their most disappointing season. In a 2010 interview, Howard Gordon said "I feel as though the story made a very wrong turn in season 6". Also, when speaking about Season 7, Kiefer Sutherland said "We hit a couple rough spots with a lot of our viewers in Season 6, and we really wanted to remedy that". Nevertheless, the season received many positive reviews, and holds a Metacritic score of 79 out of 100. For this season, Jean Smart received the Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series and Kiefer Sutherland received his sixth nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.


title: Golden poison frog

text: The golden poison frog ("Phyllobates terribilis"), also known as the golden dart frog or golden poison arrow frog, is a poison dart frog endemic to the rainforests of Colombia. The golden poison frog has become endangered due to habitat destruction within its naturally limited range. Despite its small size, this frog is likely the most poisonous animal on the planet.


title: Golden poison frog

text: The golden poison frog was described as "Phyllobates terribilis" in 1978 by herpetologists Charles W. Myers and Borys Malkin as well as biochemist John W. Daly; the species name "terribilis" is a reference to the deadly toxins present in the skin secretions of this species. Myers' research was based on hundreds of specimens collected on an expedition to the Quebrada Guangui and La Brea regions of the Colombian rainforest, and a breeding colony of 18 frogs established at the American Museum of Natural History.


title: Golden poison frog

text: The golden poison frog is endemic to humid forests of the Pacific coast of Colombia in the Cauca and Valle del Cauca Departments in the Chocó Rainforest. The optimal habitat of this species is the rainforest with high rain rates (5 m or more per year), altitudes from sea level to 200 m elevation, temperatures of at least 26 °C, and relative humidity of 80–90%. It is known only from primary forest. The eggs are laid on the ground; the males transport the tadpoles to permanent pools. Its range is less than 5,000 square km; destruction of this habitat has contributed to "P. terribilis" becoming an endangered species.


title: Golden poison frog

text: The golden poison frog is the largest species of the poison dart frog family, and can reach a weight of nearly 30 grams with a length of 6 cm as adults. Females are typically larger than males. The adults are brightly colored, while juvenile frogs have mostly black bodies with two golden-yellow stripes along their backs. The black fades as they mature, and at around 18 weeks of age the frog is fully colored. The frog's color pattern is aposematic (a coloration to warn predators of its toxicity). Despite their common name, golden poison frogs occur in four main color varieties or morphs:


title: Golden poison frog

text: The yellow morph is the reason "Phyllobates terribilis" has the common name golden poison frog. These frogs can be pale yellow to deep, golden yellow in color. Yellow "Phyllobates terribilis" specimens are found in Quebrada Guangui, Colombia.


title: Golden poison frog

text: The largest morph of "Phyllobates terribilis" exists in the La Brea and La Sirpa areas in Colombia; despite the name "mint green" these frogs can be metallic green, pale green, or white.


title: Golden poison frog

text: Orange examples of "Phyllobates terribilis" exist in Colombia, as well. They tend to be a metallic orange or yellow-orange in color, with varying intensity. They have been observed living near yellow specimens in Quebrada Guangui, Colombia, and it is unclear to what extent these represent an individual subpopulation or locality distinct from the yellow morph.


title: Golden poison frog

text: The orange blackfoot morph is a captive bred line established by Tesoros de Colombia, a Colombian company that aims to reduce poaching of wild dart frogs by breeding rare species and flooding the pet trade with low cost animals to decrease the value of wild specimens to poachers. This morph is golden yellow to a deep orange. They have dark markings on their feet, throat, vent, and rump that range from distinct black to nearly absent or speckled grey.


title: Golden poison frog

text: The frog is normally diurnal; golden poison frogs live evenly spaced without forming larger congregations.


title: Golden poison frog

text: This species is an unspecialized ambush hunter; an adult frog can eat food items much larger in relation to its size than most other dendrobatids. The main natural sources of food of "P. terribilis" are the ants in the genera "Brachymyrmex" and "Paratrechina", but many kinds of insects and other small invertebrates can be eaten, specifically termites and beetles, which can easily be found on the rainforest floor. Tadpoles feed on algae, mosquito larvae, and other edible material that may be present in their environment.


title: Golden poison frog

text: Males advertise to receptive females with a trilling call. Golden poison frogs are notable for demonstrating tactile courtship during reproduction, each partner stroking its mate's head, back, flanks, and cloacal areas prior to egg deposition. The eggs are fertilized externally. The golden poison frogs lay their eggs on the ground, hidden beneath leaf litter. Once the tadpoles emerge from their eggs, they stick themselves to the mucus on the backs of their parents. The adult frogs carry their young into the canopy, depositing them in the pools of water that accumulate in the centre of bromeliads and water-filled tree holes. The tadpoles feed on algae and mosquito larvae in their nursery.


title: Golden poison frog

text: Golden poison frogs are so toxic that adult frogs likely have few – if any – predators. The snake species "Leimadophis epinephelus" has shown resistance to several frog toxins including batrachotoxin, and has been observed to eat juvenile frogs without ill effects.


title: Golden poison frog

text: The golden poison frog is the most poisonous animal on the planet; these frogs produce deadly alkaloid batrachotoxins in their skin glands as a defense against predators. To become poisoned a predator generally must attempt to consume the frog, although this species is so toxic that even touching an individual frog can be dangerous. This extraordinarily lethal poison is very rare. Batrachotoxin is found only in three poisonous frogs from Colombia (all genus "Phyllobates"), a few birds from Papua New Guinea, and four Papuan beetles of the genus "Choresine" in the family Melyridae. Batrachotoxin affects the sodium channels of nerve cells. While it is unknown how the frog avoids poisoning itself, other species of poisonous frogs have been demonstrated to express a "toxin sponge" protein in blood plasma, internal organs, and muscle that binds and sequesters the toxin so as to prevent autointoxication.


title: Golden poison frog

text: Batrachotoxin binds to, and irreversibly opens, the sodium channels of nerve cells leaving the muscles in an inactive state of contraction, which can lead to paralysis, heart fibrillation, heart failure, and death. The average dose carried will vary between locations, and consequent local diet, but the average wild golden poison frog is generally estimated to contain about one milligram of poison, enough to kill between 10 and 20 humans, or up to two African bull elephants. Smaller doses have been shown to cause seizures, salivation, muscle contractions, dyspnoea and death in mice: the subcutaneous LD50 is just 0.2 µg / kg, although low doses such as 0.01 µg / kg and 0.02 µg / kg may be lethal. Myers "et al." estimate that the lethal dose for humans is between 2.0 and 7.5 µg.


title: Golden poison frog

text: Golden poison frogs appear to rely on the consumption of small insects or other arthropods to synthesize batrachotoxin; frogs kept in captivity fed on commercially available feeder insects will eventually lose their toxicity, and frogs bred in captivity are considered non-toxic. It is not clear which prey species supplies the potent alkaloid that gives golden poison frogs their exceptionally high levels of toxicity, or whether the frogs modify another available toxin to produce a more efficient variant, as do some of the frogs from the genus "Dendrobates". Scientists have suggested the crucial prey item may be a small beetle from the family Melyridae. At least one species of these beetles produces the same toxin found in golden poison frogs. Their relatives in Colombian rainforests could be the source of the batrachotoxins found in the highly toxic "Phyllobates" frogs of that region.


title: Golden poison frog

text: Golden poison frogs are a very important frog to the local indigenous cultures, such as the Emberá and Cofán people in Colombia's rainforest. The frog is the main source of the poison in the darts used by the natives to hunt their food. The Emberá people carefully expose the frog to the heat of a fire, and the frog exudes small amounts of poisonous fluid. The tips of arrows and darts are soaked in the fluid, and remain deadly for two years or longer.


title: Golden poison frog

text: The golden poison frog is a popular vivarium subject due to its bright color and bold personality in captivity. Despite its dangerous toxicity in the wild, captive specimens raised without their natural food sources are non-toxic in captivity. Due to their small range in the wild, poaching for the pet trade formerly represented a serious threat to the survival of the species. Due to efforts of frog breeders like Tesoros de Colombia, captive bred frogs are now widely available for the pet trade. As these specimens are legal, non-toxic, healthier, and less expensive when compared to poached animals, the demand for illegally obtained wild caught specimens has decreased. Today, the IUCN estimates that the majority of golden poison frogs sold for the pet trade are legally produced from captive lines, and estimates the threat from collection for the pet trade to be small.


title: Somatization disorder

text: Somatization disorder is a mental and behavioral disorder characterized by recurring, multiple, and current, clinically significant complaints about somatic symptoms. It was recognized in the DSM-IV-TR classification system, but in the latest version DSM-5, it was combined with undifferentiated somatoform disorder to become "somatic symptom disorder", a diagnosis which no longer requires a specific number of somatic symptoms. ICD-10, the latest version of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, still includes somatization syndrome.


title: Somatization disorder

text: In the DSM-5 the disorder has been renamed somatic symptom disorder (SSD), and includes SSD with predominantly somatic complaints (previously referred to as somatization disorder), and SSD with pain features (previously known as pain disorder).


title: Somatization disorder

text: The symptoms do not all have to occur at the same time, but may occur over the course of the disorder. A somatization disorder itself is chronic but fluctuating that rarely remits completely. A thorough physical examination of the specified areas of complaint is critical for somatization disorder diagnosis. Medical examination would provide objective evidence of subjective complaints of the individual.


title: Somatization disorder

text: Diagnosis of somatization disorder is difficult because it is hard to determine to what degree psychological factors are exacerbating subjective feelings of pain. For instance, chronic pain is common in 30% of the U.S. population, making it difficult to determine whether or not the pain is due to predominantly psychological factors.


title: Somatization disorder

text: In ICD-10, the latest version of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, somatization syndrome is described as:


title: Somatization disorder

text: Although somatization disorder has been studied and diagnosed for more than a century, there is debate and uncertainty regarding its pathophysiology. Most current explanations focus on the concept of a misconnection between the mind and the body. Genetics probably contributes a very small amount to development of the disorder.


title: Somatization disorder

text: One of the oldest explanations for somatization disorder advances the theory that it is a result of the body's attempt to cope with emotional and psychological stress. The theory states that the body has a finite capacity to cope with psychological, emotional, and social distress, and that beyond a certain point symptoms are experienced as physical, principally affecting the digestive, nervous, and reproductive systems. There are many different feedback systems where the mind affects the body; for instance, headaches are known to be associated with psychological factors, and stress and the hormone cortisol are known to have a negative impact on immune functions. This might explain why somatization disorders are more likely in people with irritable bowel syndrome, and why patients with SSD are more likely to have a mood or anxiety disorder. There is also a much increased incidence of SSD in people with a history of physical, emotional or sexual abuse.


title: Somatization disorder

text: Another hypothesis for the cause of somatization disorder is that people with the disorder have heightened sensitivity to internal physical sensations and pain. A biological sensitivity to somatic feelings could predispose a person to developing SSD. It is also possible that a person's body might develop increased sensitivity of nerves associated with pain and those responsible for pain perception, as a result of chronic exposure to stressors.


title: Somatization disorder

text: Cognitive theories explain somatization disorder as arising from negative, distorted, and catastrophic thoughts and reinforcement of these cognitions. Catastrophic thinking could lead a person to believe that slight ailments, such as mild muscle pain or shortness of breath, are evidence of a serious illness such as cancer or a tumor. These thoughts can then be reinforced by supportive social connections. A spouse who responds more to his or her partner's pain cues makes it more likely that he or she will express greater pain. Children of parents who are preoccupied or overly attentive to the somatic complaints of their children are more likely to develop somatic symptoms. Severe cognitive distortions can make a person with SSD limit the behaviors he or she engages in, and cause increased disability and impaired functioning.


title: Somatization disorder

text: A recent review of the cognitive–affective neuroscience of somatization disorder suggested that catastrophization in patients with somatization disorders tends to present a greater vulnerability to pain. The relevant brain regions include the dorsolateral prefrontal, insular, rostral anterior cingulate, premotor, and parietal cortices.


title: Somatization disorder

text: To date, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the best established treatment for a variety of somatoform disorders including somatization disorder. CBT aims to help patients realize their ailments are not catastrophic and to enable them to gradually return to activities they previously engaged in, without fear of "worsening their symptoms". Consultation and collaboration with the primary care physician also demonstrated some effectiveness. The use of antidepressants is preliminary but does not yet show conclusive evidence. Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT) has been used in treating somatization disorder among the elderly; however, the results were still debatable with some concerns around the side effects of using ECT. Overall, psychologists recommend addressing a common difficulty in patients with somatization disorder in the reading of their own emotions. This may be a central feature of treatment; as well as developing a close collaboration between the GP, the patient and the mental health practitioner.


title: Somatization disorder

text: There are cultural differences in the prevalence of somatization disorder. For example, somatization disorder and symptoms were found to be significantly more common in Puerto Rico. In addition the diagnosis is also more prevalent among African Americans and those with less than a high school education or lower socioeconomic status.


title: Somatization disorder

text: There is usually co-morbidity with other psychological disorders, particularly mood disorders or anxiety disorders. Research also showed comorbidity between somatization disorder and personality disorders, especially antisocial, borderline, narcissistic, histrionic, avoidant, and dependent personality disorder.


title: Somatization disorder

text: About 10-20 percent of female first degree relatives also have somatization disorder and male relatives have increased rates of alcoholism and sociopathy.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: Karni Mata Temple of Deshnoke (Hindi: करणी माता मंदिर), also known as Madh Deshnoke, is a prominent Hindu temple dedicated to Karni Mata at the town of Deshnoke, located 30 km south of Bikaner, in Rajasthan. It has become the most important pilgrimage site for devotees of "Charani" "sagatis" after access to Hinglaj was restricted following the partition of India. The temple is also a popular destination for tourists and pilgrims and is renowned, both in India and internationally, as the “Temple of Rats” due to the numerous black rats (Rattus rattus) known as "kābā" which are considered holy and treated with utmost care by the devotees. This is sometimes upheld as exemplary of an "environmentally conscious Hindu ethos". The temple draws visitors from across the country for blessings, as well as curious tourists from around the world.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: The temple was originally constituted 500 years ago, around 1530 CE, after the "mahaprayan" of Karni Mata. It initially began with the inner sanctum covered by the dome and grew in size with constructions being added by the devotees throughout the centuries.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: Karni Mata was an embodiment of Shakti and remained celibate therefore she married her younger sister to her husband, Depaji, for the continuation of his line. From her, Depaji had four sons, the youngest of whom was Lakshman. Karniji cared for them as her own children.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: One day, Lakshman drowned in a Kapil Sarovar in nearby Kolayat while bathing. Her younger sister pleaded to Karni Mata to bring Lakshman back to life. Thus, Karni Mata lifted the body with her hands and brought it to where the murti (inner sanctum) is now, closed the doors, and said not to open them. She went to the god of death, Yamraj and demanded for Lakshman to be returned to life. The god of death queried, "if so, how will the cycle of rebirth work? By what law will it move?" Karni Mata thus declared that her family will not come to Yamraj anymore. "Wherever I live, they will live. When they die, they will stay with me."


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: Then, Karni Mata chose the embodied form of the "kābā" —so that when human Charanas from her lineage die, they will be reborn as "kābā" and live near her within the temple, and when "kābā" die, they will again be reborn as human Charanas. In this manner, Charan Avatar differs from this general understanding of Hindu rebirth, in that the "jāti" is maintained across births despite being in a differently embodied form.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: In the temple complex reside an approximately 20,000 "kābā" who are cared for by the temple's staff and workers who consider them as kin. The "kābā" reside and move in spaces throughout the inner temple complex, including within the main temple, the kitchen, near the massive iron pots used to make halwa, in the various side rooms, and on the rooftop. In each space, there are different food items available to the "kābā".


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: Those nearest to the murti of Karni Mata feed on the various forms of prasad offered to the goddess such as laddu, nuts, coconut, and sugar crystals as well as milk, roti, grains, fruits, vegetables, and even liquor. For the "kābā" on the rooftop and near the iron pots, their diet consists mainly of grains, fruits, vegetables, roti, and water. Therefore, "kābā" of Deshnoke temple have access to a rich variety of resources and are provided protection from predators (cats, etc) by their human Charan kinsmen.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: It is observed that "kābā" have become habituated to human interaction and touch; they scurry across and lie in the devotee's lap or perch on their shoulders while they are sitting in the temple. They eat from the hands of visitors and from the same thali (plate) as the Charan workers in the kitchen.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: Eating food that has been nibbled on by the "kābā" is considered to be a "high honour". Temple rules state that if you accidentally step on one of the rats and kill it, you must replace it with a rat made of solid silver or gold.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: Out of all of the thousands of "kābā" rats in the temple, there are a few white "kābā", which are considered to be especially holy. They are believed to be the manifestations of Karni Mata herself and her four sons. Sighting them is a special blessing and visitors put in extensive efforts to bring them forth, offering prasad, a sweet holy food.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: The main presiding body administrating the temple complex is "Shri Karani Mandir Nij Pranyas". The trust consists of an elected committee and is the predominant landholding institution in Deshnoke. It governs several dharmshalas, two museums dedicated to the history of Karni Mata, and two large gaushalas, which produce dairy and other products that derive from the bovines kept there.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: At the temple, Charan workers serve as religious specialists and conduct various rituals such as "puja" and "aarti", receive offerings from visiting pilgrims, clean the inner spaces of the temple, conduct surveillance in the CCTV room and at the main entrance of the temple, and provide care for the "kābā".


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: Besides the temple complex, the trust also governs several gaushalas and sponsors annual "gaukatha". The temple administration also enforces the ban on the cutting of trees in Deshnoke.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: The largest Charan lineage in Deshnoke is of the Depavats, of whom there are more than 500 families altogether.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: "Baridari" refers to the current Head Priest who is chosen from the lineage of Karni Mata, i.e. a Depavat. He is elected to serve the duty determined through a rotating list held by the temple administration. He is the only individual who can enter the innermost sanctum ("garbhagriha") where Karni Mata's murti is housed and is unable to leave the temple boundaries during their month-long role as "baridari". During his tenure, the "baridari" lives day and night in the temple with the "kābā".


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: The building was completed in its current form in the early 20th century in the late Rajput architecture by Maharaja Ganga Singh of Bikaner.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: In front of the temple is a beautiful marble facade, which has solid silver doors built by Maharaja Ganga Singh. Across the doorway are more silver doors with panels depicting the various legends of the Goddess. The image of the Goddess is enshrined in the inner sanctum.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: The temple is opened to the public early in the morning at 04:00. The priests perform Mangla-Aarti and offer bhog (special food) in worship. Devotees make offerings to the rats, which roam about the temple in large numbers and are considered auspicious. Offerings include cheese and sweets. There are also bowls of milk around the temple for the rats to enjoy. There are two kinds of offerings made: the 'dwar-bhent' is attributed to the priests and the workers, while the 'kalash-bhent' is utilized for the temple maintenance and development.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: Many worshipers believe the rats' saliva has healing properties and will share food and milk with the rats.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: The Oran of Deshnoke, established by Karni Mata herself, is a 42 km stretch marked as sacrosanct by the deity where no being is to be harmed or any tree-wood to be cut for use as fuel. The Oran Parikrama in the Navratras usually attracts tens of thousands of people.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: The temple feature across media such as National Geographic, various documentaries, Indian tourism sites and literature.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: The temple appeared on the first season of the American reality television series "The Amazing Race".


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: Because of its revered rat population, the temple was featured in the 2016 documentary film "Rats", directed by Morgan Spurlock.


title: Karni Mata Temple

text: The Temple was also featured in Season 2, Episode 3 of "Mighty Trains" as a stop on the week-long train route of the "Maharajas' Express".


title: Interstate 35

text: Interstate 35 (I-35) is a major Interstate Highway in the central United States. As with most primary Interstates that end in a five, it is a major cross-country, north–south route. It stretches from Laredo, Texas, near the Mexican border to Duluth, Minnesota, at Minnesota State Highway 61 (MN 61, London Road) and 26th Avenue East. The highway splits into I-35E and I-35W in two separate places, the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex in Texas and at the Minnesota twin cities of Minneapolis–Saint Paul.


title: Interstate 35

text: At , I-35 is the ninth-longest Interstate Highway following I-94, and it is the third-longest north–south Interstate Highway, following I-75 and I-95. Even though the route is generally considered to be a border-to-border highway, this highway does not directly connect to either international border. I-35's southern terminus is the traffic signal at Hidalgo Street in Laredo, Texas, just short of the Mexican border. Travelers going south can take one of two toll bridges across the Rio Grande and the border, either straight ahead into the Juárez–Lincoln International Bridge, or via Business Interstate 35-A (Bus. I-35-A) through downtown Laredo into the Gateway to the Americas International Bridge. To the north, I-35 terminates in Duluth, Minnesota, with connections to Canada from the Interstate's terminus via MN 61 to Grand Portage, or north to the border at International Falls, Minnesota, via U.S. Route 53 (US 53) in Duluth.


title: Interstate 35

text: In addition to the Dallas–Fort Worth and Minneapolis–Saint Paul areas, the major cities that I-35 also connects to include (from south to north) San Antonio, Texas; Austin, Texas; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Wichita, Kansas; Kansas City, Missouri; and Des Moines, Iowa.


title: Interstate 35

text: I-35 northbound begins at a traffic-signaled intersection with Bus. I-35-A in Laredo, Texas, just north of the Rio Grande and the international border between Mexico and the US. It has a concurrency with US 83. Through Webb, La Salle, and Frio counties, it has a mostly north-northeastern course, turning more northeasterly around Moore. It then cuts across the corners of Medina and Atascosa counties before entering Bexar County and San Antonio.


title: Interstate 35

text: I-35 is named the Pan Am Expressway in San Antonio. There, it has brief concurrencies with I-10 (with it US 87) and I-410, and it serves as the northern terminus of I-37. I-35 heads northeast out of the city toward the state capital, Austin.


title: Interstate 35

text: In Austin, I-35 is the Interregional Highway and has a concurrency with US 290 through Downtown Austin. Throughout Austin, elevated express lanes were constructed on either side of the original freeway. Prior to this expansion, this section included an at-grade railroad crossing, which is extremely unusual for a freeway. From Austin, I-35 goes through Round Rock, Temple, Pflugerville, and Waco. In Belton, south of Temple, it serves as the current eastern terminus for I-14. In Waco, I-35 is known as the Jack Kultgen Freeway, and begins its concurrency with US 77. The campuses of both the University of Texas at Austin and Baylor University are located adjacent to I-35.


title: Interstate 35

text: I-35 then heads to Hillsboro, where it splits into I-35W and I-35E and runs through the Dallas–Fort Worth area. The official milemarkers, along with the route of US 77, follow I-35E through Dallas—I-35W, which is in length, carries its own mileage from Hillsboro to Denton, as though it were an I-35 loop. In Dallas, I-35E is the R.L. Thornton Freeway south of I-30, which picks up the name heading east. North of I-30, it is the Stemmons Freeway.


title: Interstate 35

text: After passing through Dallas and Fort Worth, I-35's two forks rejoin each other in Denton near the University of North Texas campus. The unified Interstate then continues north to Gainesville before crossing the Red River into Oklahoma.


title: Interstate 35

text: In Oklahoma, I-35 runs from the Red River at the Texas border to the Kansas state line near Braman. It passes through or adjacent to many of the state's major cities. From south to north, these cities include Ardmore, Pauls Valley, Purcell, Norman, Moore, Oklahoma City, and Edmond. In Downtown Oklahoma City, I-35 has a major junction with I-40 and spurs into I-235 through the north central inner city as heavy traffic follows through the city into the northern area of the state.


title: Interstate 35

text: Between the Oklahoma state line and Emporia, I-35 is part of the Kansas Turnpike. This section of Interstate serves Wichita and passes through the Flint Hills area. At Emporia, I-35 branches off on its own alignment. This free section of I-35 provides access to Ottawa before entering the Kansas City Metropolitan Area, where it serves Johnson County and Kansas City, Kansas.


title: Interstate 35

text: Of note on the route, at several points between Cassoday and Emporia in the Flint Hills, dirt driveways that provide direct access without a ramp, for cattle trucks, may be found in either direction along the highway.


title: Interstate 35

text: BETO Junction is a highway intersection in Coffey County, Kansas, that is the intersection of US 75 and I-35. It derives its name from the four major cities nearest the intersection: Burlington, Emporia, Topeka, and Ottawa. It is located north of Burlington at exit 155. Historically, the intersection referred to as "BETO Junction" before I-35 was constructed was located on the old US 75 alignments south and east, near Waverly, Kansas.


title: Interstate 35

text: I-35 enters Missouri southwest of Kansas City's Central Business District as a six-lane highway. After merging with Southwest Trafficway and Broadway, it becomes eight lanes and continues north to downtown Kansas City, where it serves as the west and north legs of the downtown freeway loop. Along the north edge of the loop, I-35 joins with I-70 immediately west of Broadway and carries six lanes of traffic with a speed limit of . Upon leaving the loop, I-29 begins, concurrent with I-35. The two Interstates cross the Missouri River together on the Bond Bridge.


title: Interstate 35

text: After crossing the river, I-29 and I-35 split. I-35 heads north to Cameron, Missouri, and then continues northward to the Iowa state line.


title: Interstate 35

text: In Des Moines, I-35 has a overlap with I-80. The concurrency takes place northwest of the downtown district of the city. At exit 127 of I-80, the overlap turns east and terminates at exit 137 via an interchange with I-235.


title: Interstate 35

text: I-35 is part of the Avenue of the Saints between Clear Lake and St. Paul, Minnesota. A four-lane link has been completed between Clear Lake and I-380 in Waterloo, Iowa.


title: Interstate 35

text: At Medford, Minnesota, the on- and offramps lead to roundabouts rather than standard cross intersections. This is the first site in the state linked to a major highway to use roundabouts.


title: Interstate 35

text: I-35 splits again into I-35W and I-35E in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul area. The mile- and exit-numbering sequence continues along I-35E. At one sharp turn in I-35W near the junction with I-94, drivers are advised to slow to (although many drivers are able to maintain the speed limit of ). It is not possible to go from westbound I-94 to northbound I-35W, from southbound I-35W to eastbound I-94, and vice versa, without resorting to surface streets.


title: Interstate 35

text: On I-35E in Minnesota between MN 5 and I-94, in both directions, trucks weighing more than are banned from the freeway, and the speed limit drops to . This section was not completed until the late 1980s (although the route was cleared and graded earlier) due to opposition from the historic Crocus Hill neighborhood, which sits only a few hundred feet from the alignment. The four-lane alignment, "parkway" design was a compromise. The truck bypass for this section is signed on I-494 and I-694 to the east of Saint Paul.


title: Interstate 35

text: I-35 has an interchange with I-535/US 53 in Duluth, Minnesota, known locally as the "Can of Worms". This junction features a pair of left exits from I-35, a stoplight, and lane drops over the I-35 bridge.


title: Interstate 35

text: The national northern terminus of I-35 is at an intersection in eastern Duluth. Drivers' options include merging with London Road/MN 61 northbound, proceeding through the stop lights onto 26th Avenue East, or turning left onto London Road southbound.


title: Interstate 35

text: Some portions of I-35 in Oklahoma City were already built in 1953, before the Interstate system was created. Through Norman, Oklahoma, the Interstate opened in June 1959. In Moore, it opened in two parts: the northern half, connecting Moore to Oklahoma City, opened in January 1960. The southern half, linking it to Norman, was opened to traffic in June 1967.


title: Interstate 35

text: I-35 through Oklahoma largely parallels US 77. This is in large part due to efforts of the towns of Wynnewood, Paoli, and Wayne, which fought to keep I-35 as close as possible to US 77. This was successful due to a threat from Governor Henry Bellmon to build a toll road rather than I-35, and legislation preventing state funds for the Interstate from being spent if it were more than from the U.S. Route.


title: Interstate 35

text: I-35 was completed in Oklahoma in 1971, when parts of the Interstate running through Carter Co. and Murray Co. were opened to traffic.


title: Interstate 35

text: The final segment of I-35 (as originally planned) to open was in north-central Iowa, between Mason City and US 20 near Iowa Falls. This segment was delayed due to some controversy. Originally, I-35 was to follow the alignment of US 69 from Des Moines to the Minnesota border, but Mason City's business community lobbied for the route to be moved closer to their city. On September 1, 1965, the alignment was changed to instead parallel US 65 through northern Iowa, which brought the highway much closer to Mason City. This created a long diagonal section through Wright and Franklin counties. Local farmers objected to their farms being bisected into triangular pieces, and resulting litigation delayed I-35 for several years. A November 1972 ruling rejected a lawsuit filed by the farmers, and the final segment of I-35 was allowed to proceed, eventually opening in 1975.


title: Interstate 35

text: The Paseo Bridge over the Missouri River in Kansas City, Missouri, was replaced by the dual-span cable-stayed Christopher S. Bond Bridge in December 2010.


title: Interstate 35

text: The proposed Trans-Texas Corridor toll-road project included one proposal (TTC-35) to primarily parallel I-35 from the Mexican border up to the Oklahoma border. There are major disagreements as to what impact this parallel route would have on I-35 in terms of traffic, maintenance, and commerce.


title: Interstate 35

text: The Trans-Texas Corridor was first proposed by Texas Governor Rick Perry in 2002. It consisted of a wide highway that also carried utilities such as electricity, petroleum, and water as well as railway track and fiberoptic cables. In July 2007, US Representative Duncan Hunter successfully offered an amendment to House Resolution 3074, the FY2008 Transportation Appropriations Act, prohibiting the use of federal funds for Department of Transportation participation in the activities of the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America (SPP). Hunter stated that: "Unfortunately, very little is known about the NAFTA Super Highway. This amendment will provide Congress the opportunity to exercise oversight of the highway, which remains a subject of question and uncertainty, and ensure that our safety and security will not be compromised in order to promote the business interests of our neighbors." Fellow Republican Congressman and presidential candidate Ron Paul brought the issue to mainstream prominence during the December 2007 CNN–YouTube GOP debate, where he rejected the concept and also called it the NAFTA Superhighway after the North American Free Trade Agreement and, like Hunter, framed it within the ultimate goal of creating a North American Union.


title: Interstate 35

text: In 2011, the Texas Legislature formally repealed its authority for the establishment and operation of the Trans-Texas Corridor with the passage of HB 1201.


title: Bro culture

text: Bro culture is a subculture of young people (originally young men, hence "brother culture") who spend time partying with others like themselves. Although the original image of the bro lifestyle is associated with sports apparel and fraternities, it lacks a consistent definition. Most aspects vary regionally such as in California where it overlaps with surf culture. Oxford Dictionaries have noted that bros frequently self-identify with neologisms containing the word "bro" as a prefix or suffix.


title: Bro culture

text: Bro was originally an abbreviated form of the word brother but began to assume non-familial connotations in the 20th century. In this evolution, it was first used to refer to another man, such as a "guy" or "fellow". In these ways, it was semantically similar to the use of "brother". In the 1970s, bro came to refer to a male friend rather than just another man. The word became associated with young men who spend time partying with others like themselves. Oxford Dictionaries identified the use of the term "bro" as the one "defining feature" of the changing cultural attributes of young manhood. Other variations exist such as brah, breh, bruh (African American Vernacular English), Bruv (British).


title: Bro culture

text: The applications of bro subculture correlate with neologisms that include the word. The word is used as a modifier for compound terms such as "brogrammer" and "curlbro". Oxford Dictionaries wrote that the term "lends itself" to compounding and blending, with combinations such as "bro-hug" and "bro-step" and portmanteaux such as "bro-down", "bromance", and "brohemian". This creation of neologisms was called "portmanbros" by 2009. Oxford compared this trend to man- prefixes (e.g., man cave, mansplaining, manscaping) but noted that the bro portmanteaux subset refers to a smaller portion of masculinity, noting that many of the terms were "stunt coinages" with little hope of widespread adoption. However, the term "bromance", whose first usage was recorded in a 2001 issue of "TransWorld Surf", entered the "Oxford English Dictionary". The term "bro-hug" was used at least eight times in "The New York Times" between 2010 and 2013 and "brogrammer" once became the center of Silicon Valley gender conversations. In comparison to the "hipster" modifier, Oxford Dictionaries called the "bro" modifier more playful, and responsible for making the subculture "ripe for (often self-inflicted) mockery".


title: Bro culture

text: Bro culture is not defined consistently or concretely, but refers to a type of "fratty masculinity," predominantly "if not exclusively" white, associated with frayed-brim baseball hats, oxford shirts, sports team T-shirts, and boat shoes or sandals. NPR also noted that bros could include people of color and women, though that is not the popular conception of bro subculture.


title: Bro culture

text: The wide-ranging iterations of bro include "twenty-something investment bankers", fraternity brothers in flannel shirts, and "laconic surfers". NPR identified four types of bros: dudely, jockish, preppy, and stoner-ish. In their description, dudely bros form close and homosocial friendships in a group of bros, jockish bros are defined by ability at team sports tempered by interest in alcohol, preppy bros wear "conservatively casual" clothes such as Abercrombie and Fitch (and are the sons of Brooks Brothers-wearing men) and flaunt "social privilege", and stoner-ish bros may not necessary use cannabis but speak relaxedly and exude the air of surfers. The gay community on Reddit has coined the term "gaybro" to refer to gay men who exhibit bro characteristics in defiance of the usual stereotypes of gay male behavior.


title: Bro culture

text: Oxford Dictionaries identify bros metonymously as those who themselves use the word to refer to others, such as in the example of "don't tase me, bro", in which the taserer is not a bro, but the tased is. Oxford also recognized Neil Patrick Harris' character Barney Stinson on the sitcom "How I Met Your Mother" as "the quintessence of a certain iteration of the contemporary bro," noting how his language uses the word liberally. A survey from NPR's "Codeswitch" blog named popular figures such as Matthew McConaughey, Brody Jenner, Joe Rogan, Dane Cook, and John Mayer as representative of bro subculture, with Ryan Lochte as their "platonic ideal of bro-dom".


title: Bro culture

text: Lax bro subculture is defined as a laid-back ("chill") lifestyle associated with lacrosse. The bounds of the subculture are loose, but its character traits include "understated confidence that critics call arrogance", long hair known as "lettuce," colorful board shorts, flat-brim baseball hats, and colorful half-calf socks. The bands O.A.R., Dispatch, and Dave Matthews Band are associated with lax bros. Typical lax bro attitude and style are common in middle schools and universities according to a 2012 report in "The Boston Globe". Enthusiasts praise the subculture's sense of identity and popularization of a sport indigenous to the United States, while detractors take issue with the "preppie/frat boy image that glorifies elitism and wealth, and values flash over hard work".


title: Bro culture

text: The phenomenon of the brogrammer sees bro culture take root in the technology industry. The term is almost always applied pejoratively, generally in reference to a workplace culture that undervalues people who do not fit into the bro lifestyle, particularly women. Brogrammer culture can be contrasted with geek culture, which values ability and passion over image.


title: Bro culture

text: In 2013, former Microsoft game designer Daniel Cook wrote that the company was responsible for developing the bro subculture within video gaming, explaining that the "Xbox put machismo, ultra-violence and chimpboys with backwards caps in the spotlight. [...] Gamers were handed a pre-packaged group identity via the propaganda machine of a mega corporation." Cook writes that Microsoft has done this in order to distance the Xbox from its console competitors, which were portrayed as "kids platform[s]".


title: Bro culture

text: Since 2013, the term has been adopted by feminists and the media to refer to a misogynist culture within an organization or community. In a "New York Magazine" article in September 2013, Ann Friedman wrote: ""Bro" once meant something specific: a self-absorbed young white guy in board shorts with a taste for cheap beer. But it’s become a shorthand for the sort of privileged ignorance that thrives in groups dominated by wealthy, white, straight men." "Vox" referred to Silicon Valley's "bro culture problem" in its review of Emily Chang's book "Brotopia". In 2014 and 2017, "Inc" published articles using the term in a similarly pejorative manner.


title: Bro culture

text: In its coverage of the 2019 Telegramgate scandal, in which investigative journalists published text messages written by the governor of Puerto Rico, "The New York Times" referred to "an arrogant 'bro' culture of elites who joked about making chumps out of even their own supporters."


title: Shaquill Griffin

text: Shaquill "Shaq" Griffin (born July 20, 1995) is an American football cornerback for the Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League (NFL). He is the twin brother of former linebacker Shaquem Griffin, and both brothers played college football for the University of Central Florida Knights. Griffin was drafted by the Seattle Seahawks in the third round of the 2017 NFL Draft.


title: Shaquill Griffin

text: Shaquill Griffin was born to Tangie and Terry Griffin on July 20, 1995, in St. Petersburg Florida, less than two minutes before Shaquem. Shaquill and Shaquem competed together in track, baseball, and football.


title: Shaquill Griffin

text: Griffin attended Lakewood High School in St. Petersburg, Florida. He played high school football for the Spartans. He chose to attend UCF after high school.


title: Shaquill Griffin

text: Griffin played for the University of Central Florida (UCF) Knights from 2013 to 2016, rejecting offers from other teams including the Miami Hurricanes, his dream team, to play with his twin brother Shaquem. He left UCF one season before Shaquem, as Shaquem redshirted his freshman year while Shaquill saw playing time.


title: Shaquill Griffin

text: As a freshman, Shaquill recorded six total tackles and one pass defensed in four games. As a sophomore, Shaquill recorded 15 total tackles and an interception in six games. As a junior, he recorded 43 total tackles, one interception returned for a touchdown (against Temple), and 11 passes defensed in 11 games. As a senior, he recorded 49 total tackles, four interceptions (one against Tulane returned for a touchdown), 15 passes defensed, and one fumble recovery.


title: Shaquill Griffin

text: Griffin accepted his invitation to the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl. On January 24, 2017, he appeared in the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl for Jim Zorn's American team and recorded three combined tackles as they lost 27–7 to the National team. He was one of 35 collegiate cornerbacks to be invited to the NFL Scouting Combine in Indianapolis, Indiana. Griffin was a top performer among his position group, finishing second in the broad jump, third in the vertical jump, and ran the fourth-fastest 40-yard dash among all defensive backs. On March 22, 2017, Griffin attended Central Florida's pro day, but opted to stand on his combine numbers and only performed positional drills for team representatives and scouts from 20 NFL teams and three CFL teams. Throughout the draft process, Griffin had private workouts and visits with multiple teams, including the Pittsburgh Steelers, Tennessee Titans, Detroit Lions, Indianapolis Colts, San Francisco 49ers, Seattle Seahawks, Dallas Cowboys, and Philadelphia Eagles. At the conclusion of the pre-draft process, Griffin was projected to be a third- or fourth-round pick by NFL draft experts and scouts. He was ranked the 17th-best cornerback prospect in the draft by NFLDraftScout.com.


title: Shaquill Griffin

text: The Seattle Seahawks selected Griffin in the third round (90th overall) of the 2017 NFL Draft. He was the 13th cornerback selected in 2017.


title: Shaquill Griffin

text: On June 15, 2017, the Seattle Seahawks signed Griffin to a four-year, $3.25 million contract that includes a signing bonus of $758,620. Griffin joined the defensive unit nicknamed the Legion of Boom for its final season.


title: Shaquill Griffin

text: Throughout training camp, Griffin competed against Jeremy Lane, DeShawn Shead, and Neiko Thorpe for the starting cornerback job. Head coach Pete Carroll named Griffin the fourth cornerback on the depth chart behind Richard Sherman, Jeremy Lane, and Neiko Thorpe.