title: Information warfare

text: As the U.S. Air Force often risks aircraft and aircrews to attack strategic enemy communications targets, remotely disabling such targets using software and other means can provide a safer alternative. In addition, disabling such networks electronically (instead of explosively) also allows them to be quickly re-enabled after the enemy territory is occupied. Similarly, counter-information warfare units are employed to deny such capability to the enemy. The first application of these techniques was used against Iraqi communications networks in the Gulf War.


title: Information warfare

text: Also during the Gulf War, Dutch hackers allegedly stole information about U.S. troop movements from U.S. Defense Department computers and tried to sell it to the Iraqis, who thought it was a hoax and turned it down. In January 1999, U.S. Air Intelligence computers were hit by a coordinated attack (Moonlight Maze), part of which came from a Russian mainframe. This could not be confirmed as a Russian cyber attack due to non-attribution – the principle that online identity may not serve as proof of real world identity.


title: Information warfare

text: The innovation of more advanced and autonomous ICTs has engendered a new revolution in military affairs, which encompasses nations' use of ICTs in both cyberspace and the physical battlefield to wage war against their adversaries. The three most prevalent revolutions in military affairs come in the form of cyberattacks, autonomous robots and communication management.


title: Information warfare

text: Within the realm of cyberspace, there are two primary weapons: network-centric warfare and C4ISR, which denotes integrated Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance. Furthermore, cyberspace attacks initiated by one nation against another nation have an underlying goal of gaining information superiority over the attacked party, which includes disrupting or denying the victimized party's ability to gather and distribute information. A real-world occurrence that illustrated the dangerous potential of cyberattacks transpired in 2007, when a strike from Israeli forces demolished an alleged nuclear reactor in Syria that was being constructed via a collaborative effort between Syria and North Korea. Accompanied with the strike was a cyberattack on Syria's air defenses, which left them blind to the attack on the nuclear reactor and, ultimately allowed for the attack to occur (New York Times 2014). An example of a more basic attack on a nation within cyberspace is a distributed denial of service (DDOS) attack, which is utilized to hinder networks or websites until they lose their primary functionality. As implied, cyberattacks do not just affect the military party being attacked, but rather the whole population of the victimized nation. Since more aspects of daily life are being integrated into networks in cyberspace, civilian populations can potentially be negatively affected during wartime. For example, if a nation chose to attack another nation's power grid servers in a specific area to disrupt communications, civilians and businesses in that area would also have to deal with power outages, which could potentially lead to economic disruptions as well.


title: Information warfare

text: Moreover, physical ICTs have also been implemented into the latest revolution in military affairs by deploying new, more autonomous robots (i.e. – unmanned drones) into the battlefield to carry out duties such as patrolling borders and attacking ground targets. Humans from remote locations pilot many of the unmanned drones, however, some of the more advanced robots, such as the Northrop Grumman X-47B, are capable of autonomous decisions. Despite piloting the drones from remote locations, a proportion of drone pilots still suffer from stress factors of more traditional warfare. According to NPR, a study performed by the Pentagon in 2011 found that 29% of drone pilots are “burned out” and undergo high levels of stress. Furthermore, approximately 17% of the drone pilots surveyed as the study were labeled "clinically distressed" with some of those pilots also showing signs of post-traumatic stress disorder.


title: Information warfare

text: Modern ICTs have also brought advancements to communications management among military forces. Communication is a vital aspect of war for any involved party and, through the implementation of new ICTs such as data-enabled devices, military forces are now able to disseminate information faster than ever before. For example, some militaries are now employing the use of iPhones to upload data and information gathered by drones in the same area.


title: Information warfare

text: In 2022 Ukrainian forces have taken advantage of deficiencies in Russian communications by allowing them to piggyback on Ukrainian networks, connect, and communicate. Ukrainian forces then eavesdrop, and cut off Russian communications at a crucial part of the conversation.


title: Information warfare

text: In an effort to build support prior to its invasion of Ukraine, Russia perpetuated a narrative that claimed the Ukrainian government was committing violence against its own Russian speaking population. By publishing large amounts of disinformation on the internet, the alternate narrative was picked up in search results, such as Google News.


title: Information warfare

text: Russian interference in foreign elections, most notably the Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections, has been described as information warfare.


title: Information warfare

text: While information warfare has yielded many advances in the types of attack that a government can make, it has also raised concerns about the moral and legal ambiguities surrounding this particularly new form of war. Traditionally, wars have been analyzed by moral scholars according to just war theory. However, with Information Warfare, Just War Theory fails because the theory is based on the traditional conception of war. Information Warfare has three main issues surrounding it compared to traditional warfare:


title: Information warfare

text: Recently, legal concerns have arisen centered on these issues, specifically the issue of the right to privacy in the United States of America. Lt. General Keith B. Alexander, who served as the head of Cyber Command under President Barack Obama, noted that there was a "mismatch between our technical capabilities to conduct operations and the governing laws and policies" when writing to the Senate Armed Services Committee. A key point of concern was the targeting of civilian institutions for cyberattacks, to which the general promised to try to maintain a mindset similar to that of traditional war, in which they will seek to limit the impact on civilians.


title: Product manager

text: A product manager (PM) is a professional role that is responsible for the development of products for an organization, known as the practice of product management. Product managers own the product strategy behind a product (physical or digital), specify its functional requirements, and manage feature releases. Product managers coordinate work done by many other functions (like software engineers, data scientists, and product designers), and are ultimately responsible for product outcomes. Product managers traditionally resided in the marketing organizations of technology companies, but have since additionally become staples of engineering and even product-specific teams.


title: Product manager

text: A product manager considers numerous factors such as intended customer or user of a product, the products offered by the competition, and how well the product fits with the company's business model. The scope of a product manager varies greatly, some may manage one or more product lines and others (especially in large companies) may manage small components or features of a product.


title: Product manager

text: In the financial services industry (banking, insurance etc.), product managers manage financial products (for example, credit card portfolios), their profit and loss, and also determine the business development strategy.


title: Product manager

text: The role of the product manager was originally created to manage the complexity of the product lines of a business, as well as to ensure that those products were profitable. Product managers can come from many different backgrounds, because their primary skills involve working well with customers and understanding the problems the product is intended to solve.


title: Product manager

text: A product manager is responsible for orchestrating the various activities associated with ensuring that a product is delivered that meets users' needs. A software product manager's role varies as the software moves through its lifecycle; earlier in the development process the product manager meets the intended audience of the product to engage in requirements elicitation, whereas later in the lifecycle the product manager's primary focus may be in acceptance testing of the product. Throughout all the stages of the product development process, the product manager represents the needs of end-users, evaluates market trends and competition, and uses this information to determine what features to build. For example, a product manager may decide a feature is needed because users are asking for it, or because the feature is needed to stay competitive. In order to facilitate this decision-making process the product manager may set out a vision for the product or a general framework for making product decisions. The product manager also ensures an atmosphere of cohesiveness and focused collaboration between all the members of the team, all in the interest of driving the product forward. Product managers are often thought of as sitting at the intersection of business, design, and technology.


title: Product manager

text: Within an agile software development environment, product delivery responsibilities are taken on by a product owner, a project role that can be performed by a product or engineering manager to ensure successful implementation of tactical plans and requirements during the development stage of a product. While the product manager has a strategic and long-term perspective with a strong focus on the market success of a product, a product owner aims to maximize the business value of the product or increment created by an agile project which can include benefits within an organization and does not explicitly relate to a product's marketability. Therefore, a product owner focuses mainly on the development of a product and may limit their product owner responsibilities to the duration of a project. The product manager role, in contrast, requires a long-term perspective of the market and product line.


title: Product manager

text: The day-to-day responsibilities of a product owner within an agile project include creating and prioritizing the product backlog, which is a list of things to be done by the development team, in order to maximize the business value created by the project. The product backlog is made up of user stories which are brief narrative descriptions of what a feature should do, including a checklist of items that are required to be in place in order for the feature to be considered done, called the acceptance criteria. The details of how the feature is developed are worked out by developers and designers. At the end of the development sprint, the product owner is responsible for verifying that the acceptance criteria have been met; only then is the work on the feature officially done.


title: Product manager

text: Product managers often start their careers as engineers or specialists in other functions and eventually transition to product management. Product managers undergo a structured interview process, often a mix of case-based product strategy interviews, analytical interviews, and more traditional behavioral interviews. Increasingly, large technology companies are hiring and training young graduates directly through programs like the Google Associate Product Manager program or the Facebook Rotational Product Manager program.


title: Product manager

text: Individual contributor product managers have no direct reports: they "lead through influence" in a cross-functional product team. As individuals grow in seniority, they eventually take on managing other PMs, under titles like Group Product Manager, Product Lead or Product Director. The Chief Product Officer (sometimes known as Head of Product or VP Product) is responsible for all product-related matters, including strategy, alignment, hiring, and management.


title: Product manager

text: Because of the broad responsibilities, product management is often seen as a training ground to C-level leadership roles in technology companies.


title: Product manager

text: Notable individuals who have held the role of product manager include Sundar Pichai (CEO of Google), Marissa Mayer (former CEO of Yahoo!), Premal Shah (president of Kiva.org), Reid Hoffman (founder of LinkedIn) and Kevin Systrom (founder of Instagram).


title: Hole.io

text: Hole.io is a 2018 arcade physics puzzle game with battle royale mechanics created by French studio Voodoo for Android and iOS.


title: Hole.io

text: Players control a hole in the ground that can move around the map. By consuming various objects, holes will increase in size, allowing players to consume larger objects as well as the smaller holes of other players.


title: Hole.io

text: Critics praised the game when it debuted, and it took the top spot in the free apps section on the App Store and on Google Play. Some critics however, characterized the game as a clone of the 2018 independent game "Donut County". It has also been criticized for being promoted as a multiplayer game when the other "players" are likely computer controlled NPCs.


title: Hole.io

text: "Hole.io" combines several gameplay mechanics. In Classic mode, the player's objective is to become the largest hole by the end of a two-minute round by travelling around the area and consuming trees, humans, cars, and other objects which fall into the hole if appropriately sized. Gradually the hole becomes larger and capable of sucking in buildings and smaller holes. If an object is too big it will not fall in and might block the way preventing other objects from going through. Players need to utilize the game's real time physics to their advantage and optimize their path for effective growth. Other holes can consume the player's hole resulting in "death" and respawning several seconds later.


title: Hole.io

text: "Battle" mode is a battle royale mode that pits the player against multiple opponents with the goal of being the last hole standing. While players can still consume the environment, the goal is to eliminate all other holes.


title: Hole.io

text: Both Classic and "Battle" mode are not played against players, but rather computers. Additionally, a solo mode exists which allows players to play alone with the goal of consuming as close to 100% of the city within two minutes. The simple mechanics of the game put it in the hyper-casual genre.


title: Hole.io

text: "Donut County" is a 2018 independent video game that was in development for at least six years before its release on 28 August 2018, sparking allegations by that game's developer that Voodoo copied his idea. Both games use the same mechanic of a hole in the ground swallowing objects to grow bigger; however, "Donut County" additionally features a storyline and a cast of characters which "Hole.io" lacks. Conversely, "Hole.io" adds a cityscape. According to "Variety", "Hole.io"'s developer Voodoo's entire range of games consists of clones of other games. Voodoo managed to secure a $200 million investment from Goldman Sachs shortly after releasing "Hole.io".


title: Hole.io

text: In an August 2018 interview Donut County creator Ben Esposito remarked that developers like Voodoo who clone were on one side of the game making spectrum while he was on the other side coming up with new ideas.


title: Hole.io

text: Soon after its release, "Hole.io" made it to the top of the free games section on the Apps Store and Google Play, receiving over 10 million downloads on Google Play alone.


title: Hole.io

text: While some reviewers criticized it for copying core mechanics of "Donut County", others characterized the game as being "oddly satisfying and addictive".


title: Orbital resonance

text: In celestial mechanics, orbital resonance occurs when orbiting bodies exert regular, periodic gravitational influence on each other, usually because their orbital periods are related by a ratio of small integers. Most commonly, this relationship is found between a pair of objects (binary resonance). The physical principle behind orbital resonance is similar in concept to pushing a child on a swing, whereby the orbit and the swing both have a natural frequency, and the body doing the "pushing" will act in periodic repetition to have a cumulative effect on the motion. Orbital resonances greatly enhance the mutual gravitational influence of the bodies (i.e., their ability to alter or constrain each other's orbits). In most cases, this results in an "unstable" interaction, in which the bodies exchange momentum and shift orbits until the resonance no longer exists. Under some circumstances, a resonant system can be self-correcting and thus stable. Examples are the 1:2:4 resonance of Jupiter's moons Ganymede, Europa and Io, and the 2:3 resonance between Pluto and Neptune. Unstable resonances with Saturn's inner moons give rise to gaps in the rings of Saturn. The special case of 1:1 resonance between bodies with similar orbital radii causes large solar system bodies to eject most other bodies sharing their orbits; this is part of the much more extensive process of clearing the neighbourhood, an effect that is used in the current definition of a planet.


title: Orbital resonance

text: A binary resonance ratio in this article should be interpreted as the "ratio of number of orbits" completed in the same time interval, rather than as the "ratio of orbital periods", which would be the inverse ratio. Thus, the 2:3 ratio above means that Pluto completes two orbits in the time it takes Neptune to complete three. In the case of resonance relationships among three or more bodies, either type of ratio may be used (whereby the smallest whole-integer ratio sequences are not necessarily reversals of each other), and the type of ratio will be specified.


title: Orbital resonance

text: Since the discovery of Newton's law of universal gravitation in the 17th century, the stability of the Solar System has preoccupied many mathematicians, starting with Pierre-Simon Laplace. The stable orbits that arise in a two-body approximation ignore the influence of other bodies. The effect of these added interactions on the stability of the Solar System is very small, but at first it was not known whether they might add up over longer periods to significantly change the orbital parameters and lead to a completely different configuration, or whether some other stabilising effects might maintain the configuration of the orbits of the planets.


title: Orbital resonance

text: It was Laplace who found the first answers explaining the linked orbits of the Galilean moons (see below). Before Newton, there was also consideration of ratios and proportions in orbital motions, in what was called "the music of the spheres", or "musica universalis".


title: Orbital resonance

text: The article on resonant interactions describes resonance in the general modern setting. A primary result from the study of dynamical systems is the discovery and description of a highly simplified model of mode-locking; this is an oscillator that receives periodic kicks via a weak coupling to some driving motor. The analog here would be that a more massive body provides a periodic gravitational kick to a smaller body, as it passes by. The mode-locking regions are named Arnold tongues.


title: Orbital resonance

text: A "mean-motion orbital resonance" occurs when two bodies have periods of revolution that are a simple integer ratio of each other. Depending on the details, this can either stabilize or destabilize the orbit.


title: Orbital resonance

text: "Stabilization" may occur when the two bodies move in such a synchronised fashion that they never closely approach. For instance:


title: Orbital resonance

text: Orbital resonances can also "destabilize" one of the orbits. This process can be exploited to find energy-efficient ways of deorbiting spacecraft. For small bodies, destabilization is actually far more likely. For instance:


title: Orbital resonance

text: Most bodies that are in resonance orbit in the same direction; however, the retrograde asteroid 514107 Kaʻepaokaʻawela appears to be in a stable (for a period of at least a million years) 1:−1 resonance with Jupiter. In addition, a few retrograde damocloids have been found that are temporarily captured in mean-motion resonance with Jupiter or Saturn. Such orbital interactions are weaker than the corresponding interactions between bodies orbiting in the same direction.


title: Orbital resonance

text: A "Laplace resonance" is a three-body resonance with a 1:2:4 orbital period ratio (equivalent to a 4:2:1 ratio of orbits). The term arose because Pierre-Simon Laplace discovered that such a resonance governed the motions of Jupiter's moons Io, Europa, and Ganymede. It is now also often applied to other 3-body resonances with the same ratios, such as that between the extrasolar planets Gliese 876 c, b, and e. Three-body resonances involving other simple integer ratios have been termed "Laplace-like" or "Laplace-type".


title: Orbital resonance

text: A "Lindblad resonance" drives spiral density waves both in galaxies (where stars are subject to forcing by the spiral arms themselves) and in Saturn's rings (where ring particles are subject to forcing by Saturn's moons).


title: Orbital resonance

text: A "secular resonance" occurs when the precession of two orbits is synchronised (usually a precession of the perihelion or ascending node). A small body in secular resonance with a much larger one (e.g. a planet) will precess at the same rate as the large body. Over long times (a million years, or so) a secular resonance will change the eccentricity and inclination of the small body.


title: Orbital resonance

text: Several prominent examples of secular resonance involve Saturn. There is a near-resonance between the precession of Saturn's rotational axis and that of Neptune's orbital axis (both of which have periods of about 1.87 million years), which has been identified as the likely source of Saturn's large axial tilt (26.7°). Initially, Saturn probably had a tilt closer to that of Jupiter (3.1°). The gradual depletion of the Kuiper belt would have decreased the precession rate of Neptune's orbit; eventually, the frequencies matched, and Saturn's axial precession was captured into a spin-orbit resonance, leading to an increase in Saturn's obliquity. (The angular momentum of Neptune's orbit is 10 times that of Saturn's rotation rate, and thus dominates the interaction.) However, it seems that the resonance no longer exists. Detailed analysis of data from the Cassini spacecraft gives a value of the moment of inertia of Saturn that is just outside the range for the resonance to exist, meaning that the spin axis does not stay in phase with Neptune's orbital inclination in the long term, as it apparently did in the past. One theory for why the resonance came to an end is that there was another moon around Saturn whose orbit destabilized about 100 million years ago, perturbing Saturn.


title: Orbital resonance

text: The perihelion secular resonance between asteroids and Saturn ("ν" = "g" − "g") helps shape the asteroid belt (the subscript "6" identifies Saturn as the sixth planet from the Sun). Asteroids which approach it have their eccentricity slowly increased until they become Mars-crossers, at which point they are usually ejected from the asteroid belt by a close pass to Mars. This resonance forms the inner and "side" boundaries of the asteroid belt around 2 AU, and at inclinations of about 20°.


title: Orbital resonance

text: Numerical simulations have suggested that the eventual formation of a perihelion secular resonance between Mercury and Jupiter ("g" = "g") has the potential to greatly increase Mercury's eccentricity and possibly destabilize the inner Solar System several billion years from now.


title: Orbital resonance

text: The Titan Ringlet within Saturn's C Ring represents another type of resonance in which the rate of apsidal precession of one orbit exactly matches the speed of revolution of another. The outer end of this eccentric ringlet always points towards Saturn's major moon Titan.


title: Orbital resonance

text: A "Kozai resonance" occurs when the inclination and eccentricity of a perturbed orbit oscillate synchronously (increasing eccentricity while decreasing inclination and vice versa). This resonance applies only to bodies on highly inclined orbits; as a consequence, such orbits tend to be unstable, since the growing eccentricity would result in small pericenters, typically leading to a collision or (for large moons) destruction by tidal forces.


title: Orbital resonance

text: In an example of another type of resonance involving orbital eccentricity, the eccentricities of Ganymede and Callisto vary with a common period of 181 years, although with opposite phases.


title: Orbital resonance

text: There are only a few known mean-motion resonances (MMR) in the Solar System involving planets, dwarf planets or larger satellites (a much greater number involve asteroids, planetary rings, moonlets and smaller Kuiper belt objects, including many possible dwarf planets).


title: Orbital resonance

text: Additionally, Haumea is thought to be in a 7:12 resonance with Neptune, and is thought to be in a 3:10 resonance with Neptune.


title: Orbital resonance

text: As illustration of the latter, consider the well-known 2:1 resonance of Io-Europa. If the orbiting periods were in this relation, the mean motions formula_1 (inverse of periods, often expressed in degrees per day) would satisfy the following


title: Orbital resonance

text: Substituting the data (from Wikipedia) one will get −0.7395° day, a value substantially different from zero.


title: Orbital resonance

text: Actually, the resonance perfect, but it involves also the precession of perijove (the point closest to Jupiter), formula_3. The correct equation (part of the Laplace equations) is:


title: Orbital resonance

text: In other words, the mean motion of Io is indeed double of that of Europa taking into account the precession of the perijove. An observer sitting on the (drifting) perijove will see the moons coming into conjunction in the same place (elongation). The other pairs listed above satisfy the same type of equation with the exception of Mimas-Tethys resonance. In this case, the resonance satisfies the equation


title: Orbital resonance

text: The Laplace resonance involving Io–Europa–Ganymede includes the following relation locking the "orbital phase" of the moons:


title: Orbital resonance

text: This relation makes a triple conjunction impossible. (A Laplace resonance in the Gliese 876 system, in contrast, is associated with one triple conjunction per orbit of the outermost planet, ignoring libration.) The graph illustrates the positions of the moons after 1, 2 and 3 Io periods. formula_8 librates about 180° with an amplitude of 0.03°.


title: Orbital resonance

text: This reflects orbital periods for Styx, Nix and Hydra, respectively, that are close to a ratio of 18:22:33 (or, in terms of the near resonances with Charon's period, 3+3/11:4:6; see below); the respective ratio of orbits is 11:9:6. Based on the ratios of synodic periods, there are 5 conjunctions of Styx and Hydra and 3 conjunctions of Nix and Hydra for every 2 conjunctions of Styx and Nix. As with the Galilean satellite resonance, triple conjunctions are forbidden. formula_10 librates about 180° with an amplitude of at least 10°.


title: Orbital resonance

text: The dwarf planet Pluto is following an orbit trapped in a web of resonances with Neptune. The resonances include:


title: Orbital resonance

text: One consequence of these resonances is that a separation of at least 30 AU is maintained when Pluto crosses Neptune's orbit. The minimum separation between the two bodies overall is 17 AU, while the minimum separation between Pluto and Uranus is just 11 AU (see Pluto's orbit for detailed explanation and graphs).


title: Orbital resonance

text: The next largest body in a similar 2:3 resonance with Neptune, called a "plutino", is the probable dwarf planet Orcus. Orcus has an orbit similar in inclination and eccentricity to Pluto's. However, the two are constrained by their mutual resonance with Neptune to always be in opposite phases of their orbits; Orcus is thus sometimes described as the "anti-Pluto".


title: Orbital resonance

text: Neptune's innermost moon, Naiad, is in a 73:69 fourth-order resonance with the next outward moon, Thalassa. As it orbits Neptune, the more inclined Naiad successively passes Thalassa twice from above and then twice from below, in a cycle that repeats every ~21.5 Earth days. The two moons are about 3540 km apart when they pass each other. Although their orbital radii differ by only 1850 km, Naiad swings ~2800 km above or below Thalassa's orbital plane at closest approach. As is common, this resonance stabilizes the orbits by maximizing separation at conjunction, but it is unusual for the role played by orbital inclination in facilitating this avoidance in a case where eccentricities are minimal.


title: Orbital resonance

text: While most extrasolar planetary systems discovered have not been found to have planets in mean-motion resonances, chains of up to five resonant planets and up to seven at least near resonant planets have been uncovered. Simulations have shown that during planetary system formation, the appearance of resonant chains of planetary embryos is favored by the presence of the primordial gas disc. Once that gas dissipates, 90–95% of those chains must then become unstable to match the low frequency of resonant chains observed.


title: Orbital resonance

text: Cases of extrasolar planets close to a 1:2 mean-motion resonance are fairly common. Sixteen percent of systems found by the transit method are reported to have an example of this (with period ratios in the range 1.83–2.18), as well as one sixth of planetary systems characterized by Doppler spectroscopy (with in this case a narrower period ratio range). Due to incomplete knowledge of the systems, the actual proportions are likely to be higher. Overall, about a third of radial velocity characterized systems appear to have a pair of planets close to a commensurability. It is much more common for pairs of planets to have orbital period ratios a few percent larger than a mean-motion resonance ratio than a few percent smaller (particularly in the case of first order resonances, in which the integers in the ratio differ by one). This was predicted to be true in cases where tidal interactions with the star are significant.


title: Orbital resonance

text: A number of near-integer-ratio relationships between the orbital frequencies of the planets or major moons are sometimes pointed out (see list below). However, these have no dynamical significance because there is no appropriate precession of perihelion or other libration to make the resonance perfect (see the detailed discussion in the section above). Such near resonances are dynamically insignificant even if the mismatch is quite small because (unlike a true resonance), after each cycle the relative position of the bodies shifts. When averaged over astronomically short timescales, their relative position is random, just like bodies that are nowhere near resonance. For example, consider the orbits of Earth and Venus, which arrive at almost the same configuration after 8 Earth orbits and 13 Venus orbits. The actual ratio is 0.61518624, which is only 0.032% away from exactly 8:13. The mismatch after 8 years is only 1.5° of Venus' orbital movement. Still, this is enough that Venus and Earth find themselves in the opposite relative orientation to the original every 120 such cycles, which is 960 years. Therefore, on timescales of thousands of years or more (still tiny by astronomical standards), their relative position is effectively random.


title: Orbital resonance

text: The presence of a near resonance may reflect that a perfect resonance existed in the past, or that the system is evolving towards one in the future.


title: Orbital resonance

text: The least probable orbital correlation in the list is that between Io and Metis, followed by those between Rosalind and Cordelia, Pallas and Ceres, Jupiter and Pallas, Callisto and Ganymede, and Hydra and Charon, respectively.


title: Orbital resonance

text: A past resonance between Jupiter and Saturn may have played a dramatic role in early Solar System history. A 2004 computer model by Alessandro Morbidelli of the Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur in Nice suggested that the formation of a 1:2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn (due to interactions with planetesimals that caused them to migrate inward and outward, respectively) created a gravitational push that propelled both Uranus and Neptune into higher orbits, and in some scenarios caused them to switch places, which would have doubled Neptune's distance from the Sun. The resultant expulsion of objects from the proto-Kuiper belt as Neptune moved outwards could explain the Late Heavy Bombardment 600 million years after the Solar System's formation and the origin of Jupiter's Trojan asteroids. An outward migration of Neptune could also explain the current occupancy of some of its resonances (particularly the 2:5 resonance) within the Kuiper belt.


title: Orbital resonance

text: While Saturn's mid-sized moons Dione and Tethys are not close to an exact resonance now, they may have been in a 2:3 resonance early in the Solar System's history. This would have led to orbital eccentricity and tidal heating that may have warmed Tethys' interior enough to form a subsurface ocean. Subsequent freezing of the ocean after the moons escaped from the resonance may have generated the extensional stresses that created the enormous graben system of Ithaca Chasma on Tethys.


title: Orbital resonance

text: The satellite system of Uranus is notably different from those of Jupiter and Saturn in that it lacks precise resonances among the larger moons, while the majority of the larger moons of Jupiter (3 of the 4 largest) and of Saturn (6 of the 8 largest) are in mean-motion resonances. In all three satellite systems, moons were likely captured into mean-motion resonances in the past as their orbits shifted due to tidal dissipation (a process by which satellites gain orbital energy at the expense of the primary's rotational energy, affecting inner moons disproportionately). In the Uranian system, however, due to the planet's lesser degree of oblateness, and the larger relative size of its satellites, escape from a mean-motion resonance is much easier. Lower oblateness of the primary alters its gravitational field in such a way that different possible resonances are spaced more closely together. A larger relative satellite size increases the strength of their interactions. Both factors lead to more chaotic orbital behavior at or near mean-motion resonances. Escape from a resonance may be associated with capture into a secondary resonance, and/or tidal evolution-driven increases in orbital eccentricity or inclination.


title: Orbital resonance

text: Mean-motion resonances that probably once existed in the Uranus System include (3:5) Ariel-Miranda, (1:3) Umbriel-Miranda, (3:5) Umbriel-Ariel, and (1:4) Titania-Ariel. Evidence for such past resonances includes the relatively high eccentricities of the orbits of Uranus' inner satellites, and the anomalously high orbital inclination of Miranda. High past orbital eccentricities associated with the (1:3) Umbriel-Miranda and (1:4) Titania-Ariel resonances may have led to tidal heating of the interiors of Miranda and Ariel, respectively. Miranda probably escaped from its resonance with Umbriel via a secondary resonance, and the mechanism of this escape is believed to explain why its orbital inclination is more than 10 times those of the other regular Uranian moons (see Uranus' natural satellites).


title: Orbital resonance

text: Similar to the case of Miranda, the present inclinations of Jupiter's moonlets Amalthea and Thebe are thought to be indications of past passage through the 3:1 and 4:2 resonances with Io, respectively.


title: Orbital resonance

text: Neptune's regular moons Proteus and Larissa are thought to have passed through a 1:2 resonance a few hundred million years ago; the moons have drifted away from each other since then because Proteus is outside a synchronous orbit and Larissa is within one. Passage through the resonance is thought to have excited both moons' eccentricities to a degree that has not since been entirely damped out.


title: Orbital resonance

text: In the case of Pluto's satellites, it has been proposed that the present near resonances are relics of a previous precise resonance that was disrupted by tidal damping of the eccentricity of Charon's orbit (see Pluto's natural satellites for details). The near resonances may be maintained by a 15% local fluctuation in the Pluto-Charon gravitational field. Thus, these near resonances may not be coincidental.


title: Orbital resonance

text: The smaller inner moon of the dwarf planet Haumea, Namaka, is one tenth the mass of the larger outer moon, Hiʻiaka. Namaka revolves around Haumea in 18 days in an eccentric, non-Keplerian orbit, and as of 2008 is inclined 13° from Hiʻiaka. Over the timescale of the system, it should have been tidally damped into a more circular orbit. It appears that it has been disturbed by resonances with the more massive Hiʻiaka, due to converging orbits as it moved outward from Haumea because of tidal dissipation. The moons may have been caught in and then escaped from orbital resonance several times. They probably passed through the 3:1 resonance relatively recently, and currently are in or at least close to an 8:3 resonance. Namaka's orbit is strongly perturbed, with a current precession of about −6.5° per year.


title: Radius of curvature

text: In differential geometry, the radius of curvature, , is the reciprocal of the curvature. For a curve, it equals the radius of the circular arc which best approximates the curve at that point. For surfaces, the radius of curvature is the radius of a circle that best fits a normal section or combinations thereof.


title: Radius of curvature

text: where is the arc length from a fixed point on the curve, is the tangential angle and is the curvature.


title: Radius of curvature

text: If the curve is given in Cartesian coordinates as , i.e., as the graph of a function, then the radius of curvature is (assuming the curve is differentiable up to order 2):


title: Radius of curvature

text: Let be as above, and fix . We want to find the radius of a parametrized circle which matches in its zeroth, first, and second derivatives at . Clearly the radius will not depend on the position , only on the velocity and acceleration . There are only three independent scalars that can be obtained from two vectors and , namely , , and . Thus the radius of curvature must be a function of the three scalars , and .


title: Radius of curvature

text: where is the center of the circle (irrelevant since it disappears in the derivatives), are perpendicular vectors of length (that is, and ), and is an arbitrary function which is twice differentiable at .


title: Radius of curvature

text: These three equations in three unknowns (, and ) can be solved for , giving the formula for the radius of curvature:


title: Radius of curvature

text: In an ellipse with major axis and minor axis , the vertices on the major axis have the smallest radius of curvature of any points, ; and the vertices on the minor axis have the largest radius of curvature of any points, .


title: Radius of curvature

text: Stress in the semiconductor structure involving evaporated thin films usually results from the thermal expansion (thermal stress) during the manufacturing process. Thermal stress occurs because film depositions are usually made above room temperature. Upon cooling from the deposition temperature to room temperature, the difference in the thermal expansion coefficients of the substrate and the film cause thermal stress.


title: Radius of curvature

text: Intrinsic stress results from the microstructure created in the film as atoms are deposited on the substrate. Tensile stress results from microvoids (small holes, considered to be defects) in the thin film, because of the attractive interaction of atoms across the voids.


title: Radius of curvature

text: The stress in thin film semiconductor structures results in the buckling of the wafers. The radius of the curvature of the stressed structure is related to stress tensor in the structure, and can be described by modified Stoney formula. The topography of the stressed structure including radii of curvature can be measured using optical scanner methods. The modern scanner tools have capability to measure full topography of the substrate and to measure both principal radii of curvature, while providing the accuracy of the order of 0.1% for radii of curvature of 90 meters and more.


title: Pratibha Sinha

text: Pratibha Sinha (born 4 July 1969) is a former Indian actress working in Bollywood movies and the daughter of Mala Sinha, a former Bollywood actress herself and Mala Sinha was one of the highest paid and most popular actress back in late 50s 60s and 70s. She made her film debut opposite Sujoy Mukherjee (son of 1960s star Joy Mukherjee) in the 1992 film "Mehboob Mere Mehboob". She is mostly remembered for her dance performance in the 1996 blockbuster "Raja Hindustani" in the song "Pardesi Pardesi". She quit acting in 2000.


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: XY gonadal dysgenesis, also known as Swyer syndrome, is a type of hypogonadism in a person whose karyotype is 46,XY. Though they typically have normal female external genitalia, the person has functionless gonads, fibrous tissue termed "streak gonads", and if left untreated, will not experience puberty. Such gonads are typically surgically removed (as they have a significant risk of developing cancer). The typical medical treatment is hormone replacement therapy.


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: Humans with Swyer syndrome develop with external phenotypes typical of females and nonfunctional gonads instead of ovaries or testes. Individuals are most commonly diagnosed during puberty after menstruation fails to occur (primary amenorrhea).


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: Seven other genes have been identified with probable associations that are as-yet less clearly understood.


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: There are several forms of gonadal dysgenesis. The term "pure gonadal dysgenesis" (PGD) has been used to describe conditions with normal sets of sex chromosomes (e.g., 46,XX or 46,XY), as opposed to those whose gonadal dysgenesis results from missing all or part of the second sex chromosome. The latter group includes those with Turner syndrome (i.e., 45,X) and its variants, as well as those with mixed gonadal dysgenesis and a mixture of cell lines, some containing a Y chromosome (e.g., 46,XY/45,X).


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: Thus Swyer syndrome is referred to as PGD, 46,XY, and XX gonadal dysgenesis as PGD, 46,XX. People with PGD have a normal karyotype but may have defects of a specific gene on a chromosome.


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: The first known step of sexual differentiation of a normal XY fetus is the development of testes. The early stages of testicular formation in the second month of gestation requires the action of several genes, one of the earliest and most important of which is "SRY": the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome.


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: When such a gene is defective, the indifferent gonads fail to differentiate into testes in an XY fetus. Without testes, no testosterone or antimüllerian hormone (AMH) is produced. Without testosterone, the wolffian ducts fail to develop, so no internal male organs are formed. Also, the lack of testosterone means that no dihydrotestosterone is formed and consequently the external genitalia fail to virilize, resulting in normal female genitalia. Without AMH, the Müllerian ducts develop into normal internal female organs (uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix, vagina).


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: Due to the inability of the streak gonads to produce sex hormones (both estrogens and androgens), most of the secondary sex characteristics do not develop. This is especially true of estrogenic changes such as breast development, widening of the pelvis and hips, and menstrual periods. As the adrenal glands can make limited amounts of androgens and are not affected by this syndrome, most of these persons will develop pubic hair, though it often remains sparse.


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: Evaluation of delayed puberty usually reveals elevation of gonadotropins, indicating that the pituitary is providing the signal for puberty but the gonads are failing to respond. The next steps of the evaluation usually include checking a karyotype and imaging of the pelvis. The karyotype reveals XY chromosomes and the imaging demonstrates the presence of a uterus but no ovaries (the streak gonads are not usually seen by most imaging). Although an XY karyotype can also indicate a person with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome, the absence of breasts, and the presence of a uterus and pubic hair exclude the possibility. At this point it is usually possible for a physician to make a diagnosis of Swyer syndrome.


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: Swyer syndrome represents one phenotypic result of a failure of the gonads to develop properly, and hence is part of a class of conditions termed gonadal dysgenesis. There are many forms of gonadal dysgenesis.


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: Swyer syndrome is an example of a condition in which an externally unambiguous female body carries dysgenetic, atypical, or abnormal gonads. Other examples include complete androgen insensitivity syndrome, partial X chromosome deletions, lipoid congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and Turner syndrome.


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: Upon diagnosis, estrogen and progestogen therapy is typically commenced, promoting the development of female characteristics.


title: XY gonadal dysgenesis

text: A 2017 study estimated that the incidence of Swyer syndrome is approximately 1 in 100,000 females. Fewer than 100 cases have been reported as of 2018. There are extremely rare instances of familial Swyer syndrome.


title: Burt Lancaster filmography

text: Burton Stephen Lancaster (November 2, 1913 – October 20, 1994) was an American actor and producer. Initially known for playing tough guys with a tender heart, he went on to achieve success with more complex and challenging roles over a 45-year career in film and, later, television. He was a four-time nominee for the Academy Award for Best Actor (winning once), and he also won two BAFTA Awards and one Golden Globe Award for Best Lead Actor. The American Film Institute ranks Lancaster as of the greatest male stars of classic Hollywood cinema.


title: Burt Lancaster filmography

text: Lancaster performed as a circus acrobat in the 1930s. After serving in World War II, the 32-year-old Lancaster landed a role in a Broadway play and drew the attention of a Hollywood agent. His breakthrough role was the film noir "The Killers" in 1946 alongside Ava Gardner. A critical success, it launched both of their careers. In 1953, Lancaster played the illicit lover of Deborah Kerr in the military drama "From Here to Eternity". A box office smash, it won eight Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and landed a Best Actor nomination for Lancaster. In 1956, he starred in "The Rainmaker", with Katharine Hepburn, earning a Best Actor Golden Globe nomination, and in 1957 he starred in "Gunfight at the O.K. Corral" with frequent co-star Kirk Douglas. During the 1950s, his production company, Hecht-Hill-Lancaster, was highly successful, with Lancaster acting in films such as: "Trapeze" in 1956, a box office smash in which he used his acrobatic skills; "Sweet Smell of Success" (1957), a dark drama today considered a classic; "Run Silent, Run Deep" (1958), a WWII submarine drama with Clark Gable; and "Separate Tables" (1958), a hotel-set drama which received seven Oscar nominations.


title: Burt Lancaster filmography

text: In the early 1960s, Lancaster starred in a string of critically successful films, each in very disparate roles. Playing a charismatic biblical con-man in "Elmer Gantry" in 1960 won him the Academy Award and the Golden Globe for Best Actor. He played a Nazi war criminal in 1961 in the all-star, war-crime-trial film, "Judgment at Nuremberg". Playing a bird expert prisoner in "Birdman of Alcatraz" in 1962, he earned the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actor and his third Oscar nomination. In 1963, Lancaster traveled to Italy to star as an Italian prince in the epic period drama "The Leopard". In 1964, he played a US Air Force general who, opposed by a colonel played by Kirk Douglas, tries to overthrow the president in "Seven Days in May". Then, in 1966, he played an explosives expert in the western "The Professionals".


title: Burt Lancaster filmography

text: In 1970, Lancaster starred in the box-office hit, air-disaster drama "Airport". He experienced a career resurgence in 1980 with the crime-romance "Atlantic City", winning the BAFTA for Best Actor and landing his fourth Oscar nomination. Starting in the late 1970s, he also appeared in television mini-series, including the award-winning "Separate but Equal" with Sidney Poitier. He continued acting into his late 70s, until a stroke in 1990 forced him to retire; four years later he died from a heart attack. His final film role was in the Oscar-nominated "Field of Dreams".


title: Del Amitri

text: Del Amitri are a Scottish alternative rock band formed in Glasgow in 1980. Between 1985 and 2002, the band released six studio albums. Their 1995 single "Roll to Me" reached number 10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Five Del Amitri albums have reached the Top 10 in the UK. Globally, Del Amitri have sold six million albums.


title: Del Amitri

text: Del Amitri's founding member and main songwriter, Justin Currie, explained in 2010 that the band's name "was invented to be meaningless – basically a corruption of the Greek name 'Dimitri'." In 2018, Currie clarified that 'Del Amitri' is a bastardisation of the name of a film producer who appeared in the closing credits of a film he saw in 1979 – "probably Dimitri-something, but we couldn't remember... so eventually through osmosis or maybe Chinese Whispers 'Dimitri' became 'Del Amitri'." Many sources have repeated a claim that the name was chosen because it is Greek for "from the womb", but this is untrue.


title: Del Amitri

text: Del Amitri grew out of Justin Currie's Jordanhill College School band. The band was formed with the original line-up of Currie (bass and vocals), James Scobbie (guitars), Donald Bentley (guitars) and Paul Tyagi (drums). Scobbie and Bentley left the band in 1982 to study at university. A new line-up came together after Currie placed an advertisement in the window of a music store. Scobbie and Bentley were replaced by Iain Harvie (guitar) and Bryan Tolland (second guitar). From then on, Currie and Harvie have remained the only constant members of the band.


title: Del Amitri

text: In 1984, Del Amitri were signed by Chrysalis Records, which released their eponymous debut album in 1985.


title: Del Amitri

text: As recording started for what would become Del Amitri's second album, the line-up changed. Currie and Harvie invited keyboard player Andy Alston to join the band and fired both guitarist Bryan Tolland and drummer Paul Tyagi. Tolland was replaced in the studio by Mick Slaven and Tyagi by The Commotions' Stephen Irvine. However, Slaven and Irvine chose not to join the band full-time and were replaced by David Cummings and Brian McDermott, respectively.


title: Del Amitri

text: Released in 1989, "Waking Hours" reached No.6 in the UK Albums Chart and gave the band their most successful UK single, "Nothing Ever Happens", which peaked at No 11. They also gained some mainstream exposure abroad for the first time, as "Waking Hours" was a success in several territories with the single "Kiss This Thing Goodbye" flirting with the lower reaches of the US "Billboard" Hot 100's Top 40. In between "Waking Hours" and their next album, the band released the single "Spit in the Rain", which reached No. 21 in the UK.


title: Del Amitri

text: The line-up of Currie, Harvie, Alston, Cummings and McDermott proved to be stable and successful. They stayed together to record the follow-up album "Change Everything", which was released in 1992 and became the band's biggest chart success, reaching No. 2 in the UK, being held off top spot only by Lionel Richie's best-of collection, "Back to Front". The single "Always the Last to Know" peaked at No. 13 in the UK, and again provided them with an entry into Top 40 in the US. The video for the song was directed by Oil Factory's Pedro Romhanyi. Their increasing success in the USA led to appearances on the television show "Late Night with David Letterman" and the Woodstock '94 anniversary festival.


title: Del Amitri

text: "Twisted" was released in 1995 and peaked at No. 3 in the UK. Ash Soan joined the band as a permanent member after touring with them on drums starting in 1994; although on the album, drums were played by Chris Sharrock.


title: Del Amitri

text: The single "Roll to Me", only a moderate hit in the UK where it reached No. 22, reached the Top 10 in the US charts; this was a noteworthy achievement during an era when British acts were finding success in the US difficult.


title: Del Amitri

text: Del Amitri's fifth album, "Some Other Sucker's Parade", was released in 1997 and reached No. 6 in the UK chart.


title: Del Amitri

text: The band found it harder to capitalise on their previous successes in the US, however, and lost out on more airplay at home when their record company took the decision to withdraw the album's planned third single "Medicine" in September 1997, putting out a false press story that the lyrics could be interpreted as a critique of the then recently deceased Diana, Princess of Wales.


title: Del Amitri

text: Five years passed before Del Amitri released another album. In 1998, however, they recorded the official anthem for the Scottish World Cup squad, "Don't Come Home Too Soon". It reached No. 15 on the charts, becoming their third biggest UK hit and their last Top 20 entry to date. They also released a best of album, "Hatful of Rain: The Best of Del Amitri", which was a No. 5 success in the UK Albums Chart and was accompanied by a new track, "Cry to Be Found", which reached No. 40.


title: Del Amitri

text: The album "Can You Do Me Good?" was released in the spring of 2002. Both the album and the single "Just Before You Leave", reached the Top 40. The band then went on hiatus.


title: Del Amitri

text: On 18 August 2013, during an interview with Terry Wogan on his BBC Radio 2 programme, Currie hinted at a Del Amitri reunion. A UK tour was subsequently announced. As part of the tour, the band played to 8,000 people in the SSE Hydro, Glasgow on 24 January 2014. A live album, called "Into The Mirror", was released following the tour.


title: Del Amitri

text: Del Amitri reformed again in July 2018, playing eight dates in seven UK cities. Their live set included a new song, 'You Can't Go Back', and a cover of Twenty One Pilots' hit song, "Heathens". In July 2018, Currie said that a new group album and further activity was possible.


title: Del Amitri

text: On 2 March 2020, drummer Ash Soan revealed that work on Del Amitri's seventh studio album had begun at Vada Studios, Worcestershire. On 8 April, Justin Currie confirmed that the band finished recording the album "the night before the UK-wide lockdown" began on 24 March, and that they expected to tour in January 2021, following a one-off free show in December 2020 for Scottish NHS workers. On 5 May via a short video clip, the band announced that they had signed to Cooking Vinyl.


title: Del Amitri

text: In November 2020, the band announced new single "Close Your Eyes And Think of England" and released the album title "Fatal Mistakes." The album was released by Cooking Vinyl on 28 May 2021 alongside bonus album "Outtakes & B-side" (the latter of which is available for a limited period with the parent album). In its first week of release, "Fatal Mistakes" landed at No. 5 on the UK Album Chart, marking the band's sixth album to reach the UK Top 10.


title: Del Amitri

text: Del Amitri announced a tour in support of "Fatal Mistakes" will begin in September 2021"," concluding with a hometown show at Glasgow on 20 December 2021.


title: Del Amitri

text: Del Amitri announced through their Instagram that a new documentary on the band had been made entitled "You Can't Go Back". The film is set to premiere on British TV channel Sky Arts on September 4.


title: Del Amitri

text: On 12 December 2022 Justin Currie and Ian Harvey appeared at the launch of the Blu-ray Disc Every Night Has a Dawn at the Glasgow Film Theatre where they took part in a Q & A session following the showing of excerpts of the film which was recorded live at Glasgow Barrowland on the third night of a tour finale on 11 June 2022.


title: Greg Laurie

text: Greg Laurie (born December 10, 1952) is an American author and pastor who serves as the senior pastor of Harvest Christian Fellowship with campuses in Riverside, Orange County and Maui.


title: Greg Laurie

text: Laurie came to faith at the age of 17 as the Jesus Movement was exploding in Southern California. He has written a book, “"Jesus Revolution",” about his experiences from that great American spiritual awakening. Greg’s story along with his wife Cathe's, will be told in the new film, "Jesus Revolution" from Kingdom Story Company will be released in theaters nationwide on February 24, 2023.


title: Greg Laurie

text: Laurie holds two honorary doctorates from Biola University and Azusa Pacific University. He serves on the board of directors for the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association. He also is the Evangelist for Harvest Crusades and is featured on over 1500 radio and TV stations across the nation. Laurie has produced 2 films: "Steve McQueen: American Icon" and "'A Rush Of Hope". He is working on a third. Laurie is also the author of 70 books, including "Hope For Hurting Hearts", "Steve McQueen: The Salvation of An American Icon", "Johnny Cash: The Redemption Of An American Icon" and "Billy Graham: The Man I Knew".


title: Greg Laurie

text: Greg Laurie was born in Long Beach, California. He was raised by a single mother who had seven marriages, often moving to vastly different locations such as New Jersey and Hawaii. Working as a newspaper delivery man for the Daily Pilot in Los Angeles, CA was Greg Laurie's first job. Laurie was not raised in the Christian faith or a church environment. In 1970, when Laurie was 17 years old, he became a devout Christian at Newport Harbor High School under the ministry of evangelist Lonnie Frisbee.


title: Greg Laurie

text: At the age of 19, under the ministry of Calvary Chapel Pastor Chuck Smith, he was given the opportunity to lead a Bible study of 30 people. The church that formed from this group, Harvest Christian Fellowship, has grown to become one of the largest churches in the United States. In 2013, Harvest Christian Fellowship celebrated its 40th anniversary. The church has another dedicated campus in Irvine as well as a satellite campus in Lahaina, Hawaii. They have a congregation of approximately 5,000 people with a weekend viewing audience for their online service of over 250,000 people. The church also houses more than 80 ministries. Harvest recently merged with Kumulani Chapel in Maui, Hawaii, and that church is now called Harvest Kumulani.


title: Greg Laurie

text: Laurie holds two honorary doctorates from Biola University and Azusa Pacific University. He serves on the board of directors for the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association He is also a chaplain for the Newport Beach Police Department. In 2013, Laurie served as the Honorary Chairman of the National Day of Prayer Task Force.


title: Greg Laurie

text: President Donald Trump selected Pastor Laurie as one of several evangelical church leaders to participate in the National Prayer Service hosted at the Washington National Cathedral following the Presidential Inauguration of 2017.


title: Greg Laurie

text: In 2017, Greg Laurie organized a movement entitled "The Year of Good News." Multiple church leaders signed the letter he penned to initiate the movement. One of the paragraphs of the letter reads, "In a time of fake news, distracting news, divisive news, disorderly news, and, sometimes, depressing news, we—as Christians and as leaders—want to recommit ourselves to making sure that the Good News of Jesus cuts through it all. We call upon Christians in America to make 2017 "The Year of Good News."


title: Greg Laurie

text: Laurie has written more than 70 books, including "The Upside-Down Church" (1999, co-authored with David Kopp): this book won a Gold Medallion Book Award in the "Christian ministry" category in 2000.


title: Greg Laurie

text: Laurie is host of the syndicated radio program "A New Beginning", which is broadcast on over 1100 radio stations worldwide. "A New Beginning" is also featured as a Christian podcast available on iTunes. Laurie has appeared on ABC World News Tonight, Fox News, MSNBC, and CNN. He is also a guest commentator at WorldNetDaily and appears regularly in a weekly television program called GregLaurie.tv on the Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN). The television program is also featured every week on American Forces Network TV.


title: Greg Laurie

text: Laurie is a speaker for public evangelistic events called Harvest Crusades, founded in 1990. They are large-scale evangelistic outreach projects which local churches organize nationally and internationally. Over 5.6 million attendees have participated in Harvest Crusades since they began in 1990. In addition, 1.8 million have reportedly watched the events online. Harvest Crusades have been held in California, Chicago, Seattle, Oregon, Philadelphia, New York, Hawaii, Florida, Texas, North Carolina, New Zealand and Australia. Events have been held at AT&T Stadium in Dallas, TX, Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles, CA, Angel Stadium in Anaheim, CA, and Madison Square Garden in New York, NY.


title: Greg Laurie

text: Laurie resides in Newport Beach with his wife, Catherine. The couple had two sons, Christopher and Jonathan, as well as 5 grandchildren. On July 24, 2008, Christopher was killed at the scene of a 9 a.m. car accident on the eastbound Riverside Freeway west of Serfas Club Drive in Corona, California. He was 33 years old.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: The total installed nuclear power capacity is over 13 GWe, ranking 7th in the world in 2020. Energoatom, a Ukrainian state enterprise, operates all four active nuclear power stations in Ukraine.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: 70 TWh of electricity generation was nuclear in 2020, which was over 50%. This was the 3rd largest share, only France and Slovakia had a higher share. The largest nuclear power plant in Europe is in Ukraine.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: The 1986 Chernobyl disaster in Northern Ukraine was the world's most severe nuclear accident to date.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: Lack of coal for Ukraine's coal-fired power stations due to the War in Donbas and a shut down of one of the six reactors of the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant led to rolling blackouts throughout the country in December 2014. Due to the Russo-Ukrainian War, the nuclear power plant has been damaged.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: The largest nuclear power plant in Europe, the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, is located in Ukraine.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: In 2006, the government planned to build 11 new reactors by the year 2030, which would almost double the current amount of nuclear power capacity.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: Ukraine's power sector is the twelfth-largest in the world in terms of installed capacity, with 54 gigawatts (GW).


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: Renewable energy still plays a very modest role in electrical output; in 2005 energy production was met by the following sources: nuclear (47%), thermal (45%), hydroelectric and other (8%).


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, and is one of only two classified as a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale (the other being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster). The battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles, crippling the Soviet economy.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: Ukraine used to receive its nuclear fuel exclusively from Russia by the Russian company TVEL. Since 2008 the country also gets nuclear fuel from Westinghouse.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: Since 2014 Westinghouse's share of imports grew to more than 30% in 2016 due to strong social disapproval of any economic relations with Russia after Crimea annexation. In 2018 Westinghouse's contract to supply VVER fuel was extended to 2025. Oil and natural gas provide the remainder of the country's energy; these are also imported from the former Soviet Union.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: In 2011 Energoatom began a project to bring safety into line with international standards at an estimated cost of $1.8 billion, with a target completion date of 2017. In 2015 the completion date was put back to 2020, due to financing delays. In 2015 some government agencies made corruption allegations against Energoatom, with concerns raised by Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk. In March 2016, Energoatom's assets and bank accounts were frozen by Ukrainian courts over allegedly unpaid debts; Energoatom appealed the decision, but the frozen finances led to contractual breaches. In June 2016 its bank accounts were unfrozen.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: In February 2018 Ukraine secured $250 million of U.S. funding to build a spent nuclear fuel storage facility, which will avoid the need to ship spent nuclear fuel to Russia.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: In 2018 Energoatom stated that electricity prices were too low to cover the cost of new nuclear fuel, and called for a price increase.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: In 2008 Westinghouse Electric Company won a five-year contract selling nuclear fuel to three Ukrainian reactors starting in 2011. Following Euromaidan then President Viktor Yanukovych introduced a ban on Rosatom nuclear fuel shipments to Europe via Ukraine, which was in effect from 28 January until 6 March 2014. By 2016, Russia's share was down to 55 percent, Westinghouse supplying nuclear fuel for six of Ukraine's VVER-1000 nuclear reactors. After the Russian annexation of Crimea in April 2014, Energoatom and Westinghouse extended the contract for fuel deliveries through 2020.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: In 2019 Energoatom and Turboatom signed a five year contract to modernize condensers and turbines at a number of Ukrainian nuclear power plants.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: On 4 December 2019, Ukraine's government appointed Pavlo Pavlyshyn as acting head of Energoatom. During January 2020 Energoatom discussed eight legislative bills with the chairman of the Ukrainian parliament subcommittee on nuclear energy and safety, aimed at meeting international obligations and standards, and the financial stabilization of Energoatom.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: In August 2021 Energoatom and Westinghouse signed a contract for construction of Westinghouse AP1000 reactors to replace the unfinished blocks in Khmelnitskyi power plant.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: On 24 February 2022, the Ukrainian electricity grid disconnected from the post-Soviet IPS/UPS grid, ahead of synchronizing with the Synchronous grid of Continental Europe which was achieved on March 16.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: In March 2022, Russian forces seized control of the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant. It continues to operate and supply data, including from a remote monitoring system, to the International Atomic Energy Agency. On 6 June, IAEA Director General Rafael Grossi said "at least five of the seven indispensable pillars of nuclear safety and security have been compromised" in Russia's occupation of the plant, and after attacks in August, that all seven had been breached. Because of the 2022 Russian war against Ukraine, the nuclear power plant has been damaged.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: In 2005 there were 17 deposits on the state balance account. Three of them Vatutine, Central, and Michurinske were being developed, while an ore enrichment factory was being built at Novokostiantyniv. Number of deposits are exhausted (i.e. Devladove, Zhovtorichenske, Pershotravneve, Bratske).


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: Activists have been long alerting about "Dnipro Chemical Plant" in Kamianske, which is a Soviet-times military uranium processing facility that consists of industrial buildings, equipment containing uranium waste as well as large landfills where tailings were stored. Small scale soil, water and dust leaks have been documented from the facility, but apart from securing the perimeter not much has been done to properly secure the plant.


title: Nuclear power in Ukraine

text: All of Ukraine's RBMK reactors (the type involved in the 1986 Chernobyl disaster) were located at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. All of the reactors there have been shut down, leaving only the much safer VVER reactors operating in the country. Three of the reactors listed were built in post-independence Ukraine, with the first one of these being constructed in 1995; the other sixteen reactors the country inherited from the Soviet Union.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: On 13 March [1 March, Old Style], 1881, Alexander II, the Emperor of Russia, was assassinated in Saint Petersburg, Russia while returning to the Winter Palace from Mikhailovsky Manège in a closed carriage.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: The assassination was planned by the Executive Committee of "Narodnaya Volya" ("People's Will"), chiefly by Andrei Zhelyabov. Of the four assassins coordinated by Sophia Perovskaya, two of them actually committed the deed. One assassin, Nikolai Rysakov, threw a bomb which damaged the carriage, prompting the Tsar to disembark. At this point a second assassin, Ignacy Hryniewiecki, threw a bomb that fatally wounded Alexander II.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: Alexander II had previously survived several attempts on his life, including the attempts by Dmitry Karakozov and Alexander Soloviev, the attempt to dynamite the imperial train in Zaporizhzhia, and the bombing of the Winter Palace in February 1880. The assassination is popularly considered to be the most successful action by the Russian nihilist movement of the 19th century.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: On 25–26 August 1879, on the anniversary of his coronation, the 22-member Executive Committee of "Narodnaya Volya" resolved to assassinate Alexander II in the hopes that it would precipitate a revolution. Over the subsequent year and a half, the various attempts on Alexander's life had ended in failure. The Committee then decided to assassinate Alexander II on his way back to the Winter Palace following his usual Sunday visit to the Mikhailovsky Manège. Andrei Zhelyabov was the chief organizer of the plot. The group had observed his routines for a couple of months and was able to deduce the alternate intentions of the entourage. They found that the Tsar would either head for home by going through Malaya Sadovaya Street or by driving along the Catherine Canal. If by the Malaya Sadovaya, the plan was to detonate a mine placed under the street. To further ensure the success of the plot, four bomb-throwers were to loiter at the corners of the street; after the explosion, all of them were to close in on the Tsar and use their bombs if necessary. If, on the other hand, the Tsar passed by the canal, the bomb-throwers alone were to be relied upon. Ignacy Hryniewiecki (Ignaty Grinevitsky), Nikolai Rysakov, Timofey Mikhailov, and Ivan Yemelyanov had volunteered as bomb-throwers.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: The group opened a cheese store in the Eliseyev Emporium on Malaya Sadovaya, and used one of the rooms to dig a tunnel extending to the middle of the street, where they would lay large quantities of dynamite. The hand-held bombs were designed and chiefly manufactured by Nikolai Kibalchich. The night before the attack, Perovskaya along with Vera Figner (also one of seven women on the Executive Committee) helped assemble the bombs.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: Zhelyabov was to have directed the bombing, and he was supposed to assail Alexander II with dagger or pistol in case both the mine and the bombs were unsuccessful. When Zhelyabov was arrested two days prior to the attack, his wife Sophia Perovskaya took the reins.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: The Tsar travelled both to and from the "Manège" in a closed two-seater carriage drawn by a pair of horses. He was accompanied by five mounted Cossacks and Frank (Franciszek) Joseph Jackowski, a Polish noble, with a sixth Cossack sitting on the coachman's left. The emperor's carriage was followed by three sleighs carrying, among others, the chief of police Colonel Dvorzhitzky and two officers of the Gendarmerie.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: On the afternoon of 13 March, after having watched the manoeuvres of two Guard battalions at the "Manège", the Tsar's carriage turned into Bolshaya Italyanskaya Street, thus avoiding the mine in Malaya Sadovaya. Perovskaya, by taking out a handkerchief and blowing her nose as a predetermined signal, dispatched the assassins to the Canal. On his way back, the Tsar also decided to pay a brief visit to his cousin, the Grand Duchess Catherine. This gave the bombers ample time to reach the Canal on foot; with the exception of Mikhailov, they all took up their new positions.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: At 2:15 PM, the carriage had gone about 150 yards down the quay until it encountered Rysakov who was carrying a bomb wrapped in a handkerchief. On the signal being given by Perovskaya, Rysakov threw the bomb under the Tsar's carriage. The Cossack who rode behind (Alexander Maleichev) was mortally wounded and died later that day. Among those injured was a fourteen year old peasant boy (Nikolai Zakharov) who served as a delivery boy in a butcher's shop. However, the explosion had only damaged the bulletproof carriage. The emperor emerged shaken but unhurt. Rysakov was captured almost immediately. Police Chief Dvorzhitsky heard Rysakov shout out to someone else in the gathering crowd. The coachman implored the Emperor not to alight. Dvorzhitzky offered to drive the Tsar back to the Palace in his sleigh. The Tsar agreed, but he decided to first see the culprit, and to survey the damage. He expressed solicitude for the victims. To the anxious inquires of his entourage, Alexander replied, "Thank God, I'm untouched".


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: He was ready to drive away when a second bomber, Hryniewiecki, who had come close to the Tsar, made a sudden movement, throwing a bomb at his feet. A second explosion ripped through the air and the Emperor and his assassin fell to the ground, both mortally injured. Since people had crowded close to the Tsar, Hryniewiecki's bomb claimed more injuries than the first (according to Dvorzhitsky, who was himself injured, there were about 20 people with wounds of varying degree). Alexander was leaning on his right arm. His legs were shattered below the knee from which he was bleeding profusely, his abdomen was torn open, and his face was mutilated. Hryniewiecki himself, also gravely wounded from the blast, lay next to the Tsar and the butcher's boy.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: Ivan Yemelyanov, the third bomber in the crowd, stood ready, clutching a briefcase containing a bomb that would be used if the other two bombers failed. However, he instead along with other bystanders rushed to answer the Tsar's barely audible cries for help; he could barely whisper: "Take me to the palace... there... I will die." Alexander was carried by sleigh to his study in the Winter Palace, where almost the same day twenty years earlier, he had signed the Emancipation Edict freeing the serfs. Members of the Romanov family came rushing to the scene. The dying emperor was given Communion and Last rites. When the attending physician, Sergey Botkin, was asked how long it would be, he replied, "Up to fifteen minutes." At 3:30 that day, the personal flag of Alexander II was lowered for the last time.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: The thrower of the fatal second bomb, Hryniewiecki, was carried to the military hospital nearby, where he lingered in agony for several hours. Refusing to cooperate with the authorities or even to give his name, he died that evening. In a vain attempt to save his own life, Rysakov, the first bomb-thrower who had been captured at the scene, cooperated with the investigators. His testimony implicated the other participants, and enabled the police to raid the group's headquarters. The raid took place on March 15, two days after the assassination. Helfman was arrested and Sablin fired several shots at the police and then shot himself to avoid capture. Mikhailov was captured in the same building the next day after a brief gunfight. The tsarist police apprehended Sophia Perovskaya on March 22, Nikolai Kibalchich on March 29, and Ivan Yemelyanov on April 14.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: Zhelyabov, Perovskaya, Kibalchich, Helfman, Mikhailov, and Rysakov were tried by the Special Tribunal of the Ruling Senate on March 26–29 and sentenced to death by hanging. The sentence was duly carried out upon the State criminals on April 15, 1881. In the case of Hesya Helfman, her execution was deferred on account of her pregnancy. Alexander III later commuted her sentence of death to katorga (forced labor) for an indefinite period of time. She died of a post-natal complication in January 1882, and her infant daughter did not long survive her.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: Yemelyanov was tried the following year and was sentenced to life imprisonment at hard labor; however, he received a pardon from the Tsar after serving 20 years. Vera Figner remained at large until 10 February 1883; during this time she orchestrated the assassination of General Mayor Strelnikov, the military prosecutor of Odessa. In 1884, Figner was sentenced to die by hanging which was then commuted to indefinite penal servitude. She likewise served for 20 years until a plea from her dying mother persuaded the last tsar, Nicholas II, to set her free.


title: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

text: A temporary shrine was erected on the site of the attack while plans and fundraising for a more permanent memorial were undertaken. In order to build a permanent shrine on the exact spot where the assassination took place, it was decided to narrow the canal so that the section of road on which the tsar had been driving could be included within the walls of the church. The permanent memorial took the form of the Church of the Savior on Blood. Construction began in 1883 under Alexander III, and was completed in 1907 under Nicholas II. An elaborate shrine, in the form of a ciborium, was constructed at the end of the church opposite the altar, on the exact place of Alexander's assassination. It is embellished with topaz, lazurite, and other semi-precious stones, making a striking contrast with the simple cobblestones of the old road, which are exposed in the floor of the shrine.


title: Vizio

text: Vizio Inc. (stylized as VIZIO) is an American publicly traded company that designs and sells televisions, sound bars, viewer data, and advertising. The company was founded in 2002 and is based in Irvine, California.


title: Vizio

text: The company was founded in 2002 as V Inc. by entrepreneur William Wang and two founding employees. By 2004, Wang changed the company name to Vizio.


title: Vizio

text: In 2006, the company's revenue was estimated at $700 million, and in 2007 it was estimated to have exceeded $2 billion. Vizio is known for selling its HDTVs at lower prices than its competitors.


title: Vizio

text: On October 19, 2010, Vizio signed a 4-year contract to sponsor U.S. college football's annual Rose Bowl game in Pasadena, California, beginning with the 2011 Rose Bowl and ending with the 2014 Vizio BCS National Championship Game. When the Rose Bowl contract ended, Vizio signed a contract to sponsor the Fiesta Bowl making the official name the Vizio Fiesta Bowl.


title: Vizio

text: In late 2014, Vizio acquired Advanced Media Research Group, Inc., the parent of entertainment website BuddyTV.


title: Vizio

text: On July 24, 2015, Vizio filed with U.S. regulators to raise up to $172.5 million in an initial public offering of Class A common stock; however, the IPO was never completed.


title: Vizio

text: In August 2015, Vizio acquired Cognitive Media Networks, Inc, a provider of automatic content recognition (ACR). Cognitive Media Networks was subsequently renamed Inscape Data. Inscape functioned as an independent entity until the end of 2020, when it was combined with Vizio Ads and SmartCast; the three divisions combining to operate as a single unit.


title: Vizio

text: In November 2015, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and Office of the New Jersey Attorney General brought charges against Vizio, alleging it collected non-personal information on its customers and sold it to advertisers. In February 2017, Vizio agreed to pay $2.2 million to settle the charges. Additionally, the settlement required Vizio to delete the data it had captured and update its data collection practices. After the settlement, the company only collected data from TV units that opted in through disclosures.


title: Vizio

text: On July 26, 2016, Chinese electronics company LeEco announced that it would acquire Vizio for US$2 billion; however, the acquisition was cancelled in April 2017.


title: Vizio

text: From the year 2016 onwards, Vizio launched its SmartCast across all television sets including apps such as Netflix, YouTube and Disney+.


title: Vizio

text: In 2018, Vizio launched a free streaming service called WatchFree, powered by Pluto TV, on its SmartCast platform.


title: Vizio

text: As of 2021, Vizio had 527 employees across the U.S. in states including California, South Dakota, Washington, Arkansas, Minnesota, Texas, and New York. The company reported total revenue of $2.04 billion and net income of $102.5 million by the end of 2020.


title: Vizio

text: In March 2021, Vizio filed for an IPO. In the same month, Vizio was listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol VZIO.


title: Vizio

text: Vizio produces television sets and soundbars and has previously produced tablets, mobile phones and computers. Vizio manufactures its products in Mexico, China, and Vietnam under agreements with ODM assemblers in those countries.


title: Vizio

text: Television sets are Vizio's primary product category, and in 2007 the company became the largest LCD TV seller (by volume) in North America. In February 2009, Vizio announced they would stop production of plasma televisions and would focus on the LED-backlit LCD displays .


title: Vizio

text: In March 2016, Vizio announced the release of SmartCast TVs that allowed users to control the screen from a tablet or mobile app. The following year, Vizio relaunched its smart TV platform to include apps directly on the screen, including Amazon Prime Video and Netflix.


title: Vizio

text: In 2018, Vizio released its first Quantum Dot LED 4K TV. Vizio has added functionality for Google Assistant and Alexa-enabled devices, Apple Airplay2, Apple HomeKit and gaming features for its SmartCast TVs.


title: Vizio

text: Vizio's sound bar products are named by series, including the V-Series, M-Series, and Elevate. Series names pair with suggested TV products.


title: Vizio

text: In 2013, Vizio released the Home Theater Sound Bar, a surround sound home audio system." In 2018, the company released its first Dolby Atmos soundbars. In 2020, Vizio released the Elevate soundbar, the first Atmos soundbar with rotating speakers. At CES 2020, Vizio earned the CES innovation award product designation for the Elevate sound bar.


title: Vizio

text: Vizio's audio collection includes entry and mid-level sound bars that include surround sound, as well as premium versions.


title: Vizio

text: SmartCast is the operating system/platform that Vizio uses in all their smart TVs. It uses both Chromecast and Apple AirPlay. In June 2021 Vizio updated SmartCast with a Vizio voice feature. The platform allows access to a limited number of streaming apps like Apple TV+, Disney+, Hulu, Netflix and Prime Video.


title: Vizio

text: Vizio has previously produced other products in addition to televisions and soundbars. In 2011, Vizio introduced the Via Tablet and Via Phone, its first tablet and mobile phone products. The following year, Vizio began producing laptops, creating a lineup of PC computers that came in ultrabook and notebook models. Also in 2012, Vizio introduced several HD Android smartphones in Asian markets, including China, and began selling the "Vizio Co-Star," a Google TV digital media player. In 2013, the company released the Vizio Tablet PC, its first Windows 8 tablet. The company stopped producing tablets and computers in 2014.


title: Vizio

text: On October 19, 2021, Software Freedom Conservancy filed a lawsuit against Vizio Inc. because the company failed to fulfill the requirements of the GNU General Public License by failing to provide the source code. Software Freedom Conservancy states in the lawsuit that Vizio is "not providing and technical information that copyleft licenses require, Vizio was not even informing its customers about copylefted software and the rights it gives them as consumers." On November 29, 2021, Vizio filed a request to remove the case into US federal court. On Friday, 13 May 2022, Federal District Judge Josephine Staton sided with Software Freedom Conservancy and granted a motion to send the lawsuit back to Superior Court, to answer breach-of-contract claims.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: The Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine, also known as the Siegfried Line campaign, was a phase in the of World War II.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: This phase spans from the end of the Battle of Normandy, or Operation Overlord, (25 August 1944) incorporating the German winter counter-offensive through the Ardennes (commonly known as the Battle of the Bulge) and Operation Nordwind (in Alsace and Lorraine) up to the Allies preparing to cross the Rhine in the early months of 1945. This roughly corresponds with the official United States military European Theater of Operations Rhineland and Ardennes-Alsace campaigns.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: German forces had been routed during the Allied break-out from Normandy. The Allies advanced rapidly against an enemy that put up little resistance. But after the liberation of Paris in late August 1944, the Allies paused to re-group and organise before continuing their advance from Paris to the River Rhine. The pause allowed the Germans to solidify their lines—something they had been unable to do west of Paris.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: By the middle of September 1944, the three Western Allied army groups; the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group (Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery) in the north, the United States U.S. 12th Army Group (Lieutenant General Omar Bradley) in the center, and the Franco-American 6th Army Group (Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers) in the south, formed a broad front under the Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower and his headquarters SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force).


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: While Montgomery and Bradley each favored relatively direct thrusts into Germany (with Montgomery and Bradley each offering to be the spearhead of such an assault), General Eisenhower disagreed. Instead, he chose a "broad-front" strategy, which allowed the Allies to gain ground from the beaten Germans in all sectors, allowed the advancing Allied forces to support each other.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: The rapid advance through France had caused considerable logistical strain, made worse by the lack of any major port other than the relatively distant Cherbourg in western France. Although Antwerp was seen as the key to solving the Allied logistics problems, its port was not open to Allied shipping until the Scheldt estuary was clear of German forces. As the campaign progressed, all the belligerents, Allied as well as German, felt the effects of the lack of suitable replacements for front-line troops.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: There were two major defensive obstacles to the Allies. The first was the natural barriers made by the rivers of eastern France. The second was the Siegfried Line, which fell under the command, along with all "Wehrmacht" forces in the west, of "Generalfeldmarschall" Gerd von Rundstedt.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: Although the breakout from Normandy had taken longer than planned, the advances until September had far exceeded expectations. Bradley, for example, by September had four more divisions than planned and all of his forces were ahead of their expected position. One effect was that insufficient supplies could be delivered to the various fronts to maintain the advance: demand had exceeded the expected needs.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: Much war material still had to be brought ashore across the invasion beaches and through the one remaining Mulberry harbour (the other had been destroyed in an English Channel storm). Although small harbours, such as Isigny, Port-en-Bessin, and Courcelles, were being used, the major forward ports such as Calais, Boulogne, Dunkirk and Le Havre either remained in German hands as "fortresses" or had been systematically destroyed. The availability of Cherbourg had been valuable until the breakout, but then the shortage of transport to carry supplies to the rapidly advancing armies became the limiting factor.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: Although fuel was successfully pumped from Britain to Normandy via the Pluto pipeline, this still had to reach the fronts, which were advancing faster than the pipelines could be extended. The railways had been largely destroyed by Allied attacks and would take much effort to repair, so fleets of trucks were needed in the interim. In an attempt to address this acute shortage of transport, three newly arrived U.S. infantry divisions—the 26th, 95th, and 104th—were stripped of their trucks in order to haul supplies. Advancing divisions of the U.S. 12th Army Group left all their heavy artillery and half their medium artillery west of the Seine, freeing their trucks to move supplies for other units. Four British truck companies were loaned to the Americans. Unfortunately, 1,500 other British trucks were found to have critical engine faults and were unusable, limiting assistance from that quarter. The Red Ball Express was an attempt to expedite deliveries by truck but capacity was inadequate for the circumstances.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: The 6th Army Group advancing from southern France were supplied adequately from Toulon and Marseille because it had captured ports intact and the local railway system was less damaged. This source supplied about 25% of the Allied needs.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: At this time the main Allied supply lines still ran back to Normandy, presenting serious logistical problems. The solution was to open the port of Antwerp. This major port had been captured at 90% intact on 4 September, but the occupation of Antwerp was not enough as the 21st Army Group failed to gain sea access by clearing the Scheldt estuary. So the port could not be used until 29 November after a protracted campaign by the Canadian First Army; initially the estuary was weakly held, but the German 15th Army was allowed to dig in there.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: The delay in securing this area has been blamed on General Eisenhower as the 21st Army Group commander, Field Marshal Montgomery favored Operation Market-Garden and opening the French Channel ports over clearing the approaches to the port of Antwerp in the Battle of the Scheldt. However, even if the Scheldt Estuary had been secured immediately at the start of September, the port of Antwerp would not solve the supply crisis in that month, for the approaches had been mined by the Germans two months earlier, and when finally taken it took one month to clear it.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: The German armies had lost large numbers of troops in Normandy and the subsequent pursuit. To counteract this, about 20,000 "Luftwaffe" personnel were reallocated to the German Army, invalided troops were redrafted into the front line and "Volkssturm" units were formed using barely trained civilians.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: British manpower resources were limited after five years of war and through worldwide commitments. Replacements were no longer adequate to cover losses and some formations were disbanded to maintain the strength of others. The Canadians were also short of manpower, due to a reluctance to require conscripts to serve outside Canada or Canadian waters. This had arisen from Conscription Crisis of 1917 during World War I; to avoid similar problems in World War II, the National Resources Mobilization Act of 1940 prohibited sending conscripts overseas. However, this provision of the Act was later removed, leading to the Conscription Crisis of 1944.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: American losses now called on replacements direct from the United States. They were often inexperienced and not used to the harsh conditions of the latter part of the campaign. There were also complaints about the poor quality of troops released into the infantry from less-stressed parts of the U.S. Army. At one point, after the Battle of the Bulge had highlighted the shortage of infantrymen, the army relaxed its embargo on the use of black soldiers in combat formations. Black volunteers performed well throughout the phase and prompted a permanent change in military policy.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: The Channel ports were urgently needed to maintain the Allied armies. By the time that Brussels was liberated, it had become difficult to supply the 21st Army Group adequately. Indeed, one corps—VIII Corps—was withdrawn from active service to free its transport for general use. The Canadian First Army was tasked with liberating the ports during its advance along the French coast. The ports involved were Le Havre, Dieppe, Boulogne, Calais, and Dunkirk in France, as well as Ostend in Belgium. Adolf Hitler had appreciated their strategic value. He issued a Führer Order declaring them to be "fortresses" that must receive adequate materiel for a siege and be held to the last man.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: Dieppe was evacuated by the Germans before Hitler's order had been received and, consequently, the Canadians took it with little trouble and with the port installations largely intact. Ostend had been omitted from the Führer Order and was also undefended, although demolitions delayed its use. The other ports were defended to varying degrees, however, and they required substantial work to bring them into use, except for Dunkirk which was sealed off to the rear of the Allied advance.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: The first operation of the Rhineland campaign, "Market Garden", was commanded by Montgomery and was to secure a bridgehead over the Rhine in the north, at Arnhem, which would outflank the Siegfried Line.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: "Market Garden" had two distinct parts. "Market" was to be the largest airborne operation in history, dropping three and a half divisions of American, British, and Polish paratroopers to capture key bridges and prevent their demolition by the Germans. "Garden" was a ground attack by the British Second Army across the bridges. It was assumed that the German forces would still be recovering from the previous campaign and opposition would not be very stiff for either operation.


title: Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine

text: If successful, the Allies would have a direct route into Germany that bypassed the main German defenses and also seize territory from which the Germans launched V-1s and V-2s against London, Antwerp and elsewhere.