title: Fidelio

text: Jaquino once again begs Marzelline to marry him, but she continues to refuse. Fidelio, hoping to discover Florestan, asks Rocco to let the poor prisoners roam in the garden and enjoy the beautiful weather. Marzelline similarly begs him, and Rocco agrees to distract Pizarro while the prisoners are set free. The prisoners, ecstatic at their temporary freedom, sing joyfully ("O welche Lust"—"O what a joy"), but remembering that they might be caught by the prison's governor Pizarro, are soon quiet.


title: Fidelio

text: After meeting with Pizarro, Rocco reenters and tells Fidelio that Pizarro will allow the marriage, and Fidelio will also be permitted to join Rocco on his rounds in the dungeon ("Nun sprecht, wie ging's?"—"Speak, how did it go?"). Rocco and Fidelio prepare to go to Florestan's cell, with the knowledge that he must be killed and buried within the hour. Fidelio is shaken; Rocco tries to discourage Fidelio from coming, but Fidelio insists. As they prepare to leave, Jaquino and Marzelline rush in and tell Rocco to run, as Pizarro has learned that the prisoners were allowed to roam, and is furious ("Ach, Vater, Vater, eilt!"—"O, father, father, hurry!").


title: Fidelio

text: Before they can leave, Pizarro enters and demands an explanation. Rocco, thinking quickly, answers that the prisoners were given a little freedom in honor of the Spanish king's name day, and quietly suggests that Pizarro should save his anger for the prisoner in the dungeon below. Pizarro tells him to hurry and dig the grave, and then announces that the prisoners will be locked up again. Rocco, Leonore, Jacquino, and Marzelline reluctantly usher the prisoners back to their cells. ("Leb wohl, du warmes Sonnenlicht"—"Farewell, you warm sunshine").


title: Fidelio

text: Florestan is alone in his cell, deep inside the dungeons. He sings first of his trust in God, and then has a vision of his wife Leonore coming to save him ("Gott! Welch Dunkel hier!"—"God! What darkness here" and "In des Lebens Frühlingstagen"—"In the spring days of life"). Florestan collapses and falls asleep, while Rocco and Fidelio come to dig his grave. As they dig, Rocco urges Fidelio to hurry ("Wie kalt ist es in diesem unterirdischen Gewölbe!"—"How cold it is in this underground chamber" and "Nur hurtig fort, nur frisch gegraben"—"Come get to work and dig", the "Gravedigging Duet").


title: Fidelio

text: Florestan awakes and Fidelio recognizes him. When Florestan learns that the prison he is in belongs to Pizarro, he asks that a message be sent to his wife, Leonore, but Rocco says that it is impossible. Florestan begs for a drop to drink, and Rocco tells Fidelio to give him one. Florestan does not recognize Fidelio, his wife Leonore in disguise, but tells Fidelio that there will be reward for the good deed in Heaven ("Euch werde Lohn in bessern Welten"—"You shall be rewarded in better worlds"). Fidelio further begs Rocco to be allowed to give Florestan a crust of bread, and Rocco consents.


title: Fidelio

text: Rocco obeys his orders and sounds the alarm for Pizarro, who appears and asks if all is ready. Rocco says that it is, and instructs Fidelio to leave the dungeon, but Fidelio hides instead. Pizarro reveals his identity to Florestan, who accuses him of murder ("Er sterbe! Doch er soll erst wissen"—"Let him die! But first he should know"). As Pizarro brandishes a dagger, Fidelio leaps between him and Florestan and reveals her identity as Leonore, the wife of Florestan. Pizarro raises his dagger to kill her, but she pulls a gun and threatens to shoot him.


title: Fidelio

text: Just then, the trumpet is heard, announcing the arrival of the minister. Jaquino enters, followed by soldiers, to announce that the minister is waiting at the gate. Rocco tells the soldiers to escort Governor Pizarro upstairs. Florestan and Leonore sing to their victory as Pizarro declares that he will have revenge, while Rocco expresses his fear of what is to come ("Es schlägt der Rache Stunde"—"Revenge's bell tolls"). Together, Florestan and Leonore sing a love duet ("O namenlose Freude!"—"O unnamed joy!").


title: Fidelio

text: The prisoners and townsfolk sing to the day and hour of justice which has come ("Heil sei dem Tag!"—"Hail to the day!"). The minister, Don Fernando, announces that tyranny has ended. Rocco enters, with Leonore and Florestan, and he asks Don Fernando to help them ("Wohlan, so helfet! Helft den Armen!"—"So help! Help the poor ones!"). Rocco explains how Leonore disguised herself as Fidelio to save her husband. Previously in love with Fidelio, Marzelline is shocked. Rocco describes Pizarro's murder plot, and Pizarro is led away to prison. Florestan is released from his chains by Leonore, and the crowd sings the praises of Leonore, the loyal savior of her husband ("Wer ein holdes Weib errungen"—"Who has got a good wife").


title: Fidelio

text: The orchestra consists of 1 piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, contrabassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 2 trombones, timpani, and strings. There is also an offstage trumpet.


title: Hayley McFarland

text: Hayley McFarland (born March 29, 1991) is an American actress. She is best known for portraying Emily Lightman in the Fox crime drama series "Lie to Me". In the supernatural horror film "The Conjuring", McFarland portrayed Nancy Perron.


title: Hayley McFarland

text: Hayley McFarland was born on March 29, 1991, in Edmond, Oklahoma. She began performing in summer musicals at Oklahoma City's Lyric Theatre. While living in Oklahoma, she studied at Michelle De Long's ACTS Acting Academy, which notes fellow alumni such as Ryan Merriman of "Pretty Little Liars" fame. Michelle De Long is credited with sending a tape of the young actor to a manager in Los Angeles. Despite only being interested in musical theater, after being introduced to the manager, McFarland transitioned into acting. In her teens, McFarland made regular trips to audition in Los Angeles. She and her family moved to Los Angeles permanently in 2008.


title: Hayley McFarland

text: Her first major role came in the form of an independent film, "An American Crime", starring Elliot Page and Catherine Keener. She has appeared in isolated episodes on various TV series, including "Gilmore Girls", "ER", "Criminal Minds", and "". She was a main character of the crime drama series "Lie to Me" on Fox, portraying Emily Lightman for all three seasons from 2009 to 2011. McFarland also had a recurring role in the final two seasons of "FX" crime drama "Sons of Anarchy". McFarland has starred in several horror films, including "The Conjuring" and "Agnes".


title: Fireside chats

text: The fireside chats were a series of evening radio addresses given by Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the United States, between 1933 and 1944. Roosevelt spoke with familiarity to millions of Americans about recovery from the Great Depression, the promulgation of the Emergency Banking Act in response to the banking crisis, the 1936 recession, New Deal initiatives, and the course of World War II. On radio, he quelled rumors, countered conservative-dominated newspapers, and explained his policies directly to the American people. His tone and demeanor communicated self-assurance during times of despair and uncertainty. Roosevelt was regarded as an effective communicator on radio, and the fireside chats kept him in high public regard throughout his presidency. Their introduction was later described as a "revolutionary experiment with a nascent media platform."


title: Fireside chats

text: The series of chats were among the first 50 recordings made part of the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress, which noted it as "an influential series of radio broadcasts in which Roosevelt utilized the media to present his programs and ideas directly to the public and thereby redefined the relationship between President Roosevelt and the American people in 1933."


title: Fireside chats

text: Roosevelt believed that his administration's success depended upon a favorable dialogue with the electorate, possible only through methods of mass communication, and that it would allow him to take the initiative. The use of radio for direct appeals was perhaps the most important of Roosevelt's innovations in political communication. Roosevelt's opponents had control of most newspapers in the 1930s and press reports were under their control and involved their editorial commentary. Historian Betty Houchin Winfield says, "He and his advisers worried that newspapers' biases would affect the news columns and rightly so." Historian Douglas B. Craig says that Roosevelt "offered voters a chance to receive information unadulterated by newspaper proprietors' bias" through the new medium of radio.


title: Fireside chats

text: Roosevelt first used what would become known as fireside chats in 1929 as Governor of New York. Roosevelt was a Democrat facing a conservative Republican legislature, so during each legislative session he would occasionally address the residents of New York directly. His third gubernatorial address—April 3, 1929, on WGY radio—is cited by Roosevelt biographer Frank Freidel as being the first fireside chat.


title: Fireside chats

text: As president, Roosevelt began making the informal addresses on March 12, 1933, eight days after his inauguration. He had spent his first week coping with a month-long epidemic of bank closings that was hurting families nationwide. He closed the entire American banking system on March 6. On March 9 Congress passed the Emergency Banking Act, which Roosevelt used to effectively create federal deposit insurance when the banks reopened. At 10 p.m. ET that Sunday night, on the eve of the end of the bank holiday, to a radio audience of more than 60 million people, to tell them in clear language "what has been done in the last few days, why it was done, and what the next steps are going to be".


title: Fireside chats

text: The result, according to economic historian William L. Silber, was a "remarkable turnaround in the public's confidence...The contemporary press confirms that the public recognized the implicit guarantee and, as a result, believed that the reopened banks would be safe, as the President explained in his first Fireside Chat." Within two weeks people returned more than half of the cash they had been hoarding, and the first stock-trading day after the bank holiday marked the largest-ever one-day percentage price increase.


title: Fireside chats

text: The term "fireside chat" was inspired by a statement by Roosevelt's press secretary, Stephen Early, who said that the president liked to think of the audience as a few people seated around his fireside. Listeners could see Roosevelt in his study, in front of the fireplace, and imagine they were sitting beside him. The term was coined by CBS broadcast executive Harry C. Butcher of the network's Washington, D.C., office, in a press release before the address of May 7, 1933. The phrase has often been credited to CBS journalist Robert Trout, but he said he was simply the first to use the phrase on the air. The title was picked up by the press and public and later used by Roosevelt himself, becoming part of American folklore.


title: Fireside chats

text: Roosevelt customarily made his address from the Diplomatic Reception Room of the White House. He would arrive 15 minutes before air time to welcome members of the press, including radio and newsreel correspondents. NBC White House announcer Carleton E. Smith gave him a simple introduction: "Ladies and gentlemen, the President of the United States." Roosevelt most often began his talks with the words, "My friends" or "My fellow Americans", and he read his speech from a loose-leaf binder. Presidential advisor and speechwriter Samuel Rosenman recalled his use of common analogies and his care in avoiding dramatic oratory: "He looked for words that he would use in an informal conversation with one or two of his friends." Eighty percent of the words used were in the thousand most commonly used words in the English language.


title: Fireside chats

text: The radio historian John Dunning wrote that "It was the first time in history that a large segment of the population could listen directly to a chief executive, and the chats are often credited with helping keep Roosevelt's popularity high."


title: Fireside chats

text: Each radio address went through about a dozen drafts. Careful attention was also given to Roosevelt's delivery. When he realized that a slight whistle was audible on the air due to a separation between his two front lower teeth, Roosevelt had a removable bridge made.


title: Fireside chats

text: Roosevelt is regarded as one of the most effective communicators in radio history. Although the fireside chats are often thought of as having been a weekly event, Roosevelt in fact delivered just 31 addresses during his 4,422-day presidency. He resisted those who encouraged him to speak on radio more frequently, as shown in his response to Russell Leffingwell after the address of February 23, 1942:


title: Fireside chats

text: The one thing I dread is that my talks should be so frequent as to lose their effectiveness. ... Every time I talk over the air it means four or five days of long, overtime work in the preparation of what I say. Actually, I cannot afford to take this time away from more vital things. I think we must avoid too much personal leadership—my good friend Winston Churchill has suffered a little from this.


title: Fireside chats

text: Roosevelt's radio audiences averaged 18 percent during peacetime, and 58 percent during the war. The fireside chats attracted more listeners than the most popular radio shows, which were heard by 30 to 35 percent of the radio audience. Roosevelt's fireside chat of December 29, 1940 was heard by 59 percent of radio listeners. His address of May 27, 1941, was heard by 70 percent of the radio audience.


title: Fireside chats

text: An estimated 62,100,000 people heard Roosevelt's fireside chat on December 9, 1941—two days after the attack on Pearl Harbor—attaining a Hooper rating of 79, the record high for a Presidential address. Approximately 61,365,000 adults tuned on February 23, 1942, for Roosevelt's next fireside chat, in which he outlined the principal purposes of the war. In advance of the address Roosevelt asked citizens to have a world map in front of them as they listened to him speak. "I'm going to speak about strange places that many of them never heard of—places that are now the battleground for civilization," he told his speechwriters. "I want to explain to the people something about geography—what our problem is and what the overall strategy of the war has to be. … If they understand the problem and what we are driving at, I am sure that they can take any kind of bad news right on the chin." Sales of new maps and atlases were unprecedented, while many people retrieved old commercial maps from storage and pinned them up on their walls. "The New York Times" called the speech "one of the greatest of Roosevelt's career".


title: Fireside chats

text: Novelist Saul Bellow recalled hearing a fireside chat while walking in Chicago one summer evening. "The blight hadn't yet carried off the elms, and under them, drivers had pulled over, parking bumper to bumper, and turned on their radios to hear Roosevelt. They had rolled down the windows and opened the car doors. Everywhere the same voice, its odd Eastern accent, which in anyone else would have irritated Midwesterners. You could follow without missing a single word as you strolled by. You felt joined to these unknown drivers, men and women smoking their cigarettes in silence, not so much considering the President's words as affirming the rightness of his tone and taking assurance from it."


title: Fireside chats

text: This level of intimacy with politics made people feel as if they too were part of the administration's decision-making process and many soon felt that they knew Roosevelt personally. Most importantly, they grew to trust him. The conventional press grew to love Roosevelt because they too had gained unprecedented access to the goings-on of government.


title: Fireside chats

text: While many people revered Roosevelt for giving the speeches, there are some who have seen them as more detrimental than beneficial. A major criticism given about the fireside chats was this: “It can be argued that it is impracticable, that it rests on false assumptions about the nature of the American people, public opinion and Congress, and that the benefits of such a course are likely to be out‐weighed by the evils.” Fireside chats are a way to address the public directly, but besides that there is no way to control what the public does with that information, or how they use it. Another major critique among the usage of fireside chats is that by using them, one is more likely going to appeal to one side of an issue, essentially alienating anyone who is not in agreement. “The President may appeal successfully to a minority, even a majority, for its support, but if he does so by simultaneously creating a bitter, recalcitrant opposition that denies his authority and would resort even to violence to resist his policies, can one say that this is a successful President?”


title: Fireside chats

text: Every U.S. president since Roosevelt has delivered periodic addresses to the American people, first on radio, and later adding television and the Internet. The practice of regularly scheduled addresses began in 1982 when President Ronald Reagan started delivering a radio broadcast every Saturday. Currently, presidents use newer and more advanced forms of communication using specific social media outlets to project to bigger groups of people. Recent presidents also use news broadcast stations to their benefit to communicate more efficiently with bigger audiences. President Obama used the social media network Twitter for the first time in 2009 to address the public, much like FDR did while giving his famous fireside chats.


title: Fireside chats

text: The series of Roosevelt's 30 fireside chats was included with the first 50 recordings made part of the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. It is noted as "an influential series of radio broadcasts in which Roosevelt utilized the media to present his programs and ideas directly to the public and thereby redefined the relationship between the President and the American people."


title: Ty Hardin

text: Ty Hardin (born Orison Whipple Hungerford Jr.; January 1, 1930August 3, 2017) was an American actor best known as the star of the 1958 to 1962 ABC/Warner Bros. Western television series "Bronco".


title: Ty Hardin

text: Hardin was born in New York City, but reared in Texas, after his family moved to the capital city of Austin when he was six months old. His father, an acoustical engineer, left the family four years later.


title: Ty Hardin

text: Hardin graduated in 1949 from Lamar High School in Houston. A football scholarship enabled him to attend Blinn College in Brenham, Texas for one year, and then he went to the Dallas Bible Institute for one semester. He served in the United States Army during the Korean War. He was commissioned after attending Officer Candidate School in Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, and he became a pilot of Forward Observer O-1 Bird Dog liaison aircraft. He attained the rank of first lieutenant. After his return from service, he began taking courses at Texas A&M University in College Station on a scholarship under Coach Bear Bryant, for whom he played tight end.


title: Ty Hardin

text: A Paramount Pictures talent scout discovered Hardin while Hardin attended a costume party. He had rented revolvers from Western Costume, a motion picture costume rental company.


title: Ty Hardin

text: By 1957, Hardin acquired the services of agent Henry Willson and made his way to Hollywood, where he was put under contract by Paramount Pictures.


title: Ty Hardin

text: Initially billed as "Ty Hungerford", he made various minor appearances in several Paramount films, such as "The Space Children" (1958), "As Young as We Are" (1958) "I Married a Monster from Outer Space" (1958), "The Buccaneer" (1958) and "Last Train from Gun Hill" (1959).


title: Ty Hardin

text: Hardin tried to obtain a support role in the 1959 film "Rio Bravo" that had been promised to singer Ricky Nelson. John Wayne reportedly saw Hardin while visiting a film set at Paramount and was impressed with Hardin's appearance. Wayne introduced him to Howard Hawks and William T. Orr at Warner Bros. Television; they bargained for his seven-year contract and he moved to Warner Bros., who changed his stage surname to "Hardin", reminiscent of the Texas gunfighter John Wesley Hardin.


title: Ty Hardin

text: When Clint Walker walked out on his ABC series "Cheyenne" in 1958 during a contract dispute with Warner Bros., Hardin got his big break. Warner bought out Hardin's contract from Paramount Studios and installed him into "Cheyenne" for the remainder of the season, as the country cousin "Bronco Layne".


title: Ty Hardin

text: Walker and Warner Bros. came to terms after the season ended, but Hardin had made such a big hit on the show that Jack L. Warner gave him his own series, "Bronco", under the Cheyenne title. "Bronco" alternated weeks with "Sugarfoot", starring Will Hutchins, and "Cheyenne" for four years. The series ran from 1958 to 1962.


title: Ty Hardin

text: Warners cast Hardin in some films such as "Merrill's Marauders" (1962), where he was second billed to Jeff Chandler; "The Chapman Report" (1962); the spring break film "Palm Springs Weekend" (1963); "PT 109"; and "Wall of Noise" (1963).


title: Ty Hardin

text: When his contract expired, Hardin did "Guys and Dolls" in stock. He then left Hollywood to seek opportunity overseas as his series aired all over the world. Like many other American actors, Hardin traveled to Europe, where he made several spaghetti Westerns, including "Man of the Cursed Valley" (1964).


title: Ty Hardin

text: He appeared in the war film "Battle of the Bulge" (1965) shot in Spain, and the Western "Savage Pampas" (1966). He had the lead in "Death on the Run" (1967).


title: Ty Hardin

text: He supported Joan Crawford in "Berserk!" (1967) and played Captain Reno in "Custer of the West" (1967) shot in Spain. He had the lead in "Ragan" (1968) and "One Step to Hell" (1968).


title: Ty Hardin

text: Hardin starred in the 1968–1969 Australian television series "Riptide", in which he played an American running a charter boat company along the eastern seaboard of Australia.


title: Ty Hardin

text: He returned to Europe to star in "The Last Rampage" (1970), "Quel maledetto giorno della resa dei conti" (1971), and "Drummer of Vengeance" (1971). He was in a 1970 German television series called "On the Trail of Johnny Hilling, Boor and Billy", shown in the former West Germany.


title: Ty Hardin

text: Hardin was in "The Last Rebel" (1971) "Acquasanta Joe" (1971), and "You're Jinxed, Friend You've Met Sacramento" (1972) and a small role in "Avanti!" (1972).


title: Ty Hardin

text: Hardin's later appearances included "" (1977), "Fire" (1977), and "Image of the Beast" (1980) as well as episodes of TV shows such as "The Love Boat".


title: Ty Hardin

text: In 1958, Hardin had his name changed legally from Orison Whipple Hungerford Jr. to Ty Hardin. He ascribed the change to a matter of convenience.


title: Ty Hardin

text: From 1962 to 1966, he was married to the 1961 Miss Universe, German beauty queen Marlene Schmidt, who later worked in the movie industry; they had one daughter. At the time of his death, Hardin lived with his eighth wife, Caroline, in Huntington Beach, California.


title: Ty Hardin

text: After difficulties with the Internal Revenue Service, Hardin founded a tax protest movement in Prescott, Arizona. In 1982, the movement became known as the Arizona Patriots. The group first gained public notice by its efforts to clog the Arizona court system lawsuits in the 1980s, a tactic also employed by Posse Comitatus.


title: Joo Woo-jae

text: Joo Woo-jae is a South Korean actor and model. He is known for his roles in dramas such as "Come and Hug Me", "Please Don't Date Him", "Love Alert" and "Best Chicken".


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The climate of Ireland is mild, humid and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes. Ireland's climate is defined as a temperate oceanic climate, or "Cfb" on the Köppen climate classification system, a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe. The island receives generally warm summers and cool winters.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: As Ireland is downwind of a large ocean, it is considerably milder in winter than other locations at the same latitude, for example Newfoundland in Canada or Sakhalin in Russia. The Atlantic overturning circulation, which includes ocean currents such as the North Atlantic Current and Gulf Stream, releases additional heat over the Atlantic, which is then carried by the prevailing winds towards Ireland giving, for example, Dublin a milder winter climate than other temperate oceanic climates in similar locations, for example Seattle in the United States.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The prevailing wind blows from the southwest, breaking on the high mountains of the west coast. Rainfall is therefore a particularly prominent part of western Irish life, with Valentia Island, off the west coast of County Kerry, getting almost twice as much annual rainfall as Dublin on the east ( vs. ).


title: Climate of Ireland

text: January and February are the coldest months of the year, and mean daily air temperatures fall between during these months. July and August are the warmest, with mean daily temperatures of , whilst mean daily maximums in July and August vary from near the coast, to inland. The sunniest months are May and June, with an average of five to seven hours sunshine per day. Though extreme weather events in Ireland are comparatively rare when compared with other countries in the European continent, they do occur. Atlantic depressions, occurring mainly in the months of December, January and February, can occasionally bring winds of up to to Western coastal counties, with the winter of 2013/14 being the stormiest on record. During the summer months, and particularly around late July/early August, thunderstorms can develop.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Ireland experiences a lack of temperature extremes compared to other areas at similar latitudes. There is regional variation, with inland areas being cooler in winter and warmer in summer than their coastal counterparts.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The warmest areas are found along the southwest coast. Valentia Island has the highest average temperature, at 10.9 °C.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The highest temperature ever recorded in Ireland was 33.3 °C at Kilkenny Castle, on 26 June 1887. The lowest temperature was -19.1 °C at Markree Castle on 16 January 1881.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Six of the warmest ten years in Ireland have occurred since 1990. Due to climate change, it is estimated that the temperatures will rise everywhere by up to 3.4 degrees by the end of the century.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Extreme heat and cold are both rare throughout the country. Summer temperatures exceeding 30 °C are rare, usually only occurring every few years (2022, 2021, 2018, 2016, 2013, 2006, 2005, 2003, 1995, 1990, 1989, 1983, 1976 and 1975 are recent examples), although they commonly reach the high 20s most summers. Severe freezes occur only occasionally in winter, with temperatures below -10 °C being very uncommon in the lowlands and temperatures below freezing uncommon in many coastal areas. However, temperatures in the Wicklow Mountains are said to reach -10 °C annually.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Air frost occurs frequently in the winter, with most areas seeing over 40 days of air frost every year. In northern areas, air frost occurs on average 10.2 days every January, the month in which air frost occurs most frequently. In the Sperrins and the Glens of Antrim air frost occurs around 80 days a year. The pattern is similar with ground frost, with on average around 100 days of ground frost in the lowlands and over 140 in the mountains. The number of frost days in Ireland have declined massively over the past decade. The largest season decrease has been known to take place in winter.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Roches Point, County Cork receives the fewest days with air frost, with an average of 7.0 days with air frost recorded annually.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Kilkenny, County Kilkenny receives the most days with air frost, with an average of 53.0 days with air frost recorded annually.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: In Dublin, Dublin Airport records air frost on average 24.3 days per year, while Casement Aerodrome (which is further inland) records air frost on average 41.3 days per year.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The sunniest months are May and June. During these months sunshine duration averages between 5 and 6½ hours per day over most of the country. The southeast gets the most sunshine, averaging over 7 hours a day in early summer. December is the most overcast month, with average daily sunshine ranging from about 1 hour in the north to almost 2 hours in the southeast. Over the year as a whole, most areas get an average of between 3¼ and 3¾ hours of sunshine each day. Irish skies are completely covered by cloud roughly half of the time.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The sunniest part of the island is the southeast coast. Rosslare, County Wexford was historically the sunniest area, however, the station was closed by Met Éireann in 2007. The sunniest station throughout the 1981 to 2010 period was Ballyrichard HSE in Arklow, County Wicklow, which received an average of 4.41 hours of sunshine per day.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The cloudiest (i.e. least sunny) parts of the island are generally the west and northwest of the country. Over the 1971-2000 averaging period, Claremorris, County Mayo was the cloudiest station, receiving just 1,072 hours of sunshine per year. From 1981 to 2010, Birr, County Offaly, in the Midlands, was the most cloudy (overcast) station, receiving on average 3.2 hours of sunshine per day, considerably less than the stations at Malin Head in the north or Belmullet in the west.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Inland areas tend to receive less sunshine than coastal areas due to the convective development of clouds over land. Cloud develops because of vertical air currents caused by thermal heating of the ground.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation on the island, and is extremely common throughout Ireland, although some parts of the west coast receive twice as much rain as the east coast. Rainfall in Ireland normally comes from Atlantic frontal systems which travel northeast over the island, bringing cloud and rain. Most of the eastern half of the country has between of rainfall in the year. Rainfall in the west generally averages between . In many mountainous districts rainfall exceeds per year. The wettest months almost everywhere are December and January. April is the driest month generally, but in many southern parts, June is the driest.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The average number of "wet days" (days with more than of rain) ranges from about 151 days a year along the east and southeast coasts, to about 225 days a year in parts of the west.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The wettest weather station is Glanagimla, Leenane, Co. Galway, which averages rain per year. The wettest synoptic weather station is Valentia Island, which receives of rain per year, on average.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The weather station with the highest number of "wet days" is Belmullet, with 193 days per year, while the station with the lowest number of "wet days" is Dublin Airport, with 128 days per year.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Severe cold weather is uncommon in Ireland with the majority of winter precipitation coming in the form of rain, although hills and mountainous regions in the country can commonly see up to 30 days of snowfall annually: the Wicklow Mountains region sometimes experiences 50 or more days of snowfall each year. Most low-lying regions of the island only see a few days of lying snow per year (from December to March inclusive), or may see no snow at all during some winters.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: However, there are preparations for snow and ice, including the distribution of grit, salt, and other snow-treatable minerals. In late 2011, the Irish Government set up "Winter-Ready", in order to prepare the country for such severe weather.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Due to its variability (which is mainly because of the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift, as well as Ireland's northerly latitude and vulnerability to Siberian/Arctic winds) Ireland's weather during the winter months is difficult to predict. The aforementioned factors make both extremely low temperatures and relatively mild temperatures possible.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The snowiest weather station is Clones, County Monaghan, which receives, on average, 18 days of snow and/or sleet per year. Of these, 6.2 days have snow lying at 09:00. The least snowy weather station is Valentia Island, County Kerry; which receives, on average, 5.6 days of snow and/or sleet per year. Of these, 0.8 days have snow lying at 09:00.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Hail, like snow and sleet, is also rare in Ireland; however, it can occur at any time of the year. It is most common in spring during thunderstorms.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Thunderstorms are quite rare in Ireland. They are more likely to happen in late spring, although they can occur at any time of the year.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Valentia Island, County Kerry experiences the most thunder; receiving it 7.1 days per year on average.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Generally, the coast tends to be windier than inland areas, and the west tends to be windier than the east.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The station with the highest mean wind speed is Malin Head, County Donegal, averaging at . Malin Head also receives the most gale-force winds, recording them on average 66.0 days per year.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The station that records the lowest number of gale-force winds is Birr, County Offaly; recording them on average 1.2 days per year.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The highest wind speed ever recorded in Ireland was at Fastnet Lighthouse, County Cork on 16 October 2017.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Tornadoes are very rare in Ireland, with around less than ten reported every year - mostly in August.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Fog is more common inland and on higher altitudes; mainly during winter and during the morning at times of high pressure.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: The least foggy station is that at Valentia Island, County Kerry, which has 8.9 days of fog per year.


title: Climate of Ireland

text: Visibility is generally very good, because of the proximity of industry to the coast, allowing breezes to disperse any smog. Mist and fog often occur, as well as coastal fog in the east, but it is generally not long-lasting. However, in winter, it can be slow to clear.


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 1)

text: The first season of the American comedy-drama television series "Orange Is the New Black" premiered on Netflix on July 11, 2013, at 12:00 am PST in multiple countries. It consists of thirteen episodes, each between 51–60 minutes. The series is based on Piper Kerman's memoir, "" (2010), about her experiences at FCI Danbury, a minimum-security federal prison. Created and adapted for television by Jenji Kohan. In July 2011, Netflix was in negotiations with Lionsgate for a 13-episode TV adaptation of Kerman's memoirs. The series began filming in the old Rockland Children's Psychiatric Center in Rockland County, New York, on March 7, 2013. The title sequence features photos of real former female prisoners including Kerman herself.


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 1)

text: The series revolves around Piper Chapman (Taylor Schilling), a woman in her 30s living in New York City who is sentenced to 15 months in Litchfield Penitentiary, a minimum-security women's federal prison (initially operated by the "Federal Department of Corrections," a fictional version of the Federal Bureau of Prisons, and later acquired by Management & Correction Corporation (MCC), a private prison company) in upstate New York. Piper had been convicted of transporting a suitcase full of drug money for her then-girlfriend Alex Vause (Laura Prepon), an international drug smuggler.


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 1)

text: "Orange is the New Black" received critical acclaim. The series received numerous accolades including but not limited to: Satellite Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy and Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Comedy Series. Also was nominated for a , and NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Writing in a Dramatic Series. Taylor Schilling was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama. For the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards, the series was honored with 12 nominations, winning Outstanding Casting for a Comedy Series, Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series and Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series (Uzo Aduba).


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 1)

text: Piper Chapman (Taylor Schilling) is sentenced to fifteen months at Litchfield Penitentiary, a women's prison, for a drug-related crime she committed ten years earlier. Leaving behind her supportive fiancé, Larry (Jason Biggs), Piper begins her term at Litchfield and meets several inmates including Red (Kate Mulgrew), the powerful matriarch of the prison kitchen; Nicky Nichols (Natasha Lyonne), a former heroin addict whom Piper befriends; Miss Claudette (Michelle Hurst), Piper's stern roommate; and Suzanne "Crazy Eyes" Warren (Uzo Aduba), a mentally unstable inmate who makes a romantic move on Piper. Piper also meets Sam Healy (Michael J. Harney), her homophobic counselor who deals with many of the inmates' problems. Struggling to adjust to the dynamics of the prison, Piper's problems are further compounded when she discovers that her former lover, Alex Vause (Laura Prepon), is in the same prison as her. The first season mainly focuses on Piper's experiences in prison and her growing relationship with Alex, while also providing the backstories of several inmates at Litchfield.


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 1)

text: Show creator Jenji Kohan read Piper Kerman's memoir after a friend sent it to her. She then set up a meeting with Kerman to pitch her on a TV adaptation, which she notes she "screwed up" as she spent most of the time asking Kerman about her experiences she described in the book rather than selling her on the show. This appealed to Kerman as it let her know that she was a fan and she signed off on the adaptation. Kohan would later go on to describe the main character, Piper Chapman, as a "trojan horse" for the series, allowing it to focus on characters whose demographics would not normally be represented on TV. In July 2011, it was revealed that Netflix was in negotiations with Lionsgate for a 13-episode TV adaptation of Kerman's memoirs with Kohan as creator. In November 2011, negotiations were finalized and the series had been greenlit.


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 1)

text: Casting announcements began in August 2012 with Taylor Schilling, the first to be cast, in the lead role as Piper Chapman, followed by Jason Biggs as Piper's fiancé Larry Bloom. Laura Prepon and Yael Stone were next to join the series. Abigail Savage, who plays Gina, and Alysia Reiner, who plays Fig, had auditioned for role of Alex Vause. Prepon initially auditioned for Piper Chapman, however Kohan felt she would not worry about her [in prison], noting a "toughness and a presence to her that wasn’t right for the character." Kohan instead gave her the role of Alex. Stone had originally auditioned for the role of Nicky Nichols, but she was not considered "tough enough" for the character; she was asked to audition for Lorna Morello instead. Likability was important for Morello, whom casting director Jen Euston deemed "a very helpful, nice, sweet Italian girl." Laverne Cox, a black transgender woman, was cast as Sophia Burset, a transgender character. "The Advocate" touted "Orange Is the New Black" as possibly the first women-in-prison narrative to cast a transgender woman for this type of role. Natasha Lyonne was to audition for Alex, but was asked to read for the character Nicky Nichols; "[Kohan knew] she could do Nicky with her eyes closed. She was perfect," said Euston. Uzo Aduba read for the part of Janae Watson but was offered the character Suzanne "Crazy Eyes" Warren. Taryn Manning was offered the role of Tiffany "Pennsatucky" Doggett. "This American Life" host Ira Glass was offered a role as a public radio host, but he declined. The role instead went to Robert Stanton, who plays the fictional host Maury Kind.


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 1)

text: "Orange Is the New Black" has received critical acclaim, particularly praised for humanizing prisoners and for its depiction of race, sexuality, gender and body types. The first season received positive reviews from critics, review aggregator Metacritic gave it a weighted average score of 79 out of 100 based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating favorable reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, season one has a 93% approval rating based on 40 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10 . The site's critical consensus is ""Orange Is the New Black" is a sharp mix of black humor and dramatic heft, with interesting characters and an intriguing flashback structure."


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 1)

text: Hank Stuever, television critic for "The Washington Post", gave "Orange Is the New Black" a perfect score. In his review of the series, he stated: "In Jenji Kohan's magnificent and thoroughly engrossing new series, "Orange Is the New Black", prison is still the pits. But it is also filled with the entire range of human emotion and stories, all of which are brought vividly to life in a world where a stick of gum could ignite either a romance or a death threat." Maureen Ryan, of "The Huffington Post", wrote: ""Orange" is one of the best new programs of the year, and the six episodes I've seen have left me hungry to see more."


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 1)

text: "Orange Is the New Black" was considered one of the best shows of the year by many critics and journalists.


title: Orange Is the New Black (season 1)

text: The series began airing on broadcast television in New Zealand on TV2 on August 19, 2013. It premiered in Australia on October 9, 2013, on Showcase.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: The lead–crime hypothesis is a research area that involves a study of the correlation between elevated blood lead levels in children and increased rates of crime, delinquency, and recidivism later in life.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: Lead is widely understood to be highly toxic to multiple organs of the body, particularly the brain. Individuals exposed to lead at young ages are more vulnerable to learning disabilities, decreased I.Q., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and problems with impulse control, all of which may be negatively impacting decision making and leading to the commission of more crimes as these children reach adulthood, especially violent crimes.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: Proponents of the lead–crime hypothesis argue that the removal of lead additives from motor fuel, and the consequent decline in children's lead exposure, explains the fall in crime rates in the United States beginning in the 1990s. This hypothesis also offers an explanation of the earlier rise in crime in the preceding decades as the result of increased lead exposure throughout the mid-20th century.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: The lead–crime hypothesis is not mutually exclusive with other explanations of the drop in US crime rates such as the legalized abortion and crime effect. Lead exposure during the years in question correlated with exposure to urban poverty, due to close residential or primary school proximity with high-density motor vehicle traffic burning leaded gasoline or from residing in older, poorly maintained housing stock, much of which contained high levels of lead in the form of lead paint, lead solder, or other lead-based building materials; additionally, municipalities with a low taxation base often continued to receive drinking water via degraded lead pipes rather than upgrading to modern infrastructure. The difficulty in measuring the effect of lead exposure on crime rates lies in separating the effect from other indicators of low socioeconomic status such as poorer schools, nutrition, and medical care, exposure to other pollutants, and other variables that are predictive of criminal behavior.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: Lead is a naturally occurring metal of bluish-grey color that has been used for multiple purposes in the history of human civilization. Being soft and pliable, as well as resistant to corrosion compared to other metals, has resulted in lead being used for many different items across time. Some of the earliest items made from lead were beads and jewelry dating back to 7th millennium B.C. Its malleability made lead an ideal choice for the Romans to build pipes for transporting water. Furthermore, lead acetate (also referred to as "sugar of lead") has been reported to have been used medicinally in the past. However, it was also noted that exposure to lead may have health consequences. The botanist Nicander was one of the first to write about the uses of lead. Dioscorides would later report that "the mind gives way" in individuals exposed to lead. Nonetheless, despite the hazards posed by lead, its durability made it useful and it was added to items such as glass, paint, and eventually gasoline. The widespread substance is also able to function as a shield against various forms of radiation.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: The use of leaded products such as lead paint and leaded gasoline have resulted in higher environmental levels of lead in the air and soil. Lead is also a stable element and does not break down in the environment, so it must be physically removed. Most cases of lead exposure occur via inhalation or ingestion, though transdermal exposure is also possible. Once in the body lead has a half-life of approximately 30 days if in the blood, but can remain in the body for 20 to 30 years if it has accumulated in bones and organs. Expanded scientific investigation into organolead chemistry and the varied ways in which human biology changes due to lead exposure took place throughout the 20th century. Although it has continued to be in wide use even into the 21st century, greater understanding of blood lead levels (BLLs) and other factors have meant that a new scientific consensus has emerged. No safe level of lead in the human bloodstream exists as such; any amount can contribute to neurological problems and other health issues.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: Analyses of the role of lead exposure in the brain have been ongoing for the past few decades. Lead can interfere with numerous neurotransmitter systems in the brain, most likely because of its ability to mimic calcium. Elevation of aminolevulinic acid from lead-induced disruption of heme synthesis results in lead poisoning having symptoms similar to acute porphyria. Exposure to lead can also alter brain structure and function. At the behavioral level, exposure to lead has been observed to cause increases in impulsive actions and social aggression, as well as the possibility of developing attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Those conditions likely influence personality traits and behavioral choices, with examples including having poor job performance, beginning a pattern of substance abuse, and undergoing teenage pregnancy. Evidence that lead exposure contributes to lower intelligence quotient (IQ) scores goes back to a seminal 1979 study in "Nature", with later analysis finding the link particularly robust.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: The heavy metal lead can be found readily in the environment, especially in urban and industrialized areas. The majority of modern day environmental lead contamination can be traced back to leaded paint and the addition of tetraethyllead and tetramethyllead to gasoline, though other sources have contributed as well. Though some of the hazards of lead exposure have been documented for centuries, recognition of the hazards posed did not appear to gain much traction until the 1960s with the Senate hearings of Edmund Muskie that would help lead to the phaseout of leaded gasoline and lead-based paint in the 1970s. Blood lead levels would drop in a statistically significant way soon after the phaseout. In the decades since, scientists have concluded that no safe threshold for lead exposure exists.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: Though efforts to reduce environmental levels of lead were initially slowed down by the lead industry, the emergence of Clair Patterson in the 1960s would lead to more meaningful changes. The establishment of the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 and the influence of the Consumer Product Safety Commission would help ensure that gasoline and paint could only contain trace amounts of lead. Furthermore, several major legislative acts were passed to help reduce the amount of lead being introduced into the environment, including the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Lead Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: The international process of trying to lower the prevalence of lead has been largely spearheaded by the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV). The non-governmental organization partners with major oil companies, various governmental departments, multiple civil society groups, and other such institutions worldwide. Efforts to phase-out lead in transport fuel achieved major gains in over seventy-five nations. In discussions at the 2002 Earth Summit, institutions under the umbrella of the United Nations vowed to emphasize public–private partnerships (PPPs) in order to help developing and transitional countries go unleaded.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: The lead–crime hypothesis arose out of the confluence of several events, primarily the decrease in crime rates in the 1990s and the reduction of environmental lead pollution in the 1970s. After decades of relatively steady increases, crime rates in the United States started to sharply decline in the 1990s. The trend continued into the new millennium. Multiple possible explanations have come about, with academic studies pointing to complex, multifactorial causation as different social trends occurred at the same time. The fact that in the United States anti-lead efforts took place simultaneously alongside falls in violent crime rates attracted attention from researchers. Changes were not uniform across the country, even while increasingly stringent Environmental Protection Agency rules went into force from 1970s onward. Several areas had far greater lead exposure compared to others for years.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: While there is strong evidence indicating that genetics influence the development of violent and aggressive behavior, more recent attention has focused on environmental factors such as lead exposure. Though there is anecdotal evidence suggesting that knowledge of a relationship between lead exposure and behavior dates back centuries, direct observations would not be documented until the late 1800s. Research in the mid-1900s observed that children previously treated for lead poisoning displayed a series of aberrant behaviors, including violence and aggression. Further research has yielded similar results, finding that past lead exposure functions as a predictor for criminal activity. Nation-wide analyses have also demonstrated positive associations between air-lead concentrations and measures of criminality and homicide. A meta-analysis of studies examining the relationship between lead and conduct problems arrived at a similar conclusion, suggesting that the magnitude of the relationship between lead exposure and behavior is comparable to the relationship between lead exposure and I.Q. While the scientific literature suggests there is a relationship between lead exposure and behavioral issues such as delinquency and criminality, directly relating these observations to the decrease in overall criminality is more difficult.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: According to Jessica Wolpaw Reyes of Amherst College, between 1992 and 2002 the phase-out of lead from gasoline in the U.S. "was responsible for approximately a 56% decline in violent crime". While cautioning that the findings relating to "murder are not robust if New York and the District of Columbia are included," Wolpaw Reyes concluded: "Overall, the phase-out of lead and the legalization of abortion appear to have been responsible for significant reductions in violent crime rates." According to Reyes, "Childhood lead exposure increases the likelihood of behavioral and cognitive traits such as impulsivity, aggressivity, and low IQ that are strongly associated with criminal behavior".


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: A 2011 study by the California State University found that "Ridding the world of leaded petrol, with the United Nations leading the effort in developing countries, has resulted in $2.4 trillion in annual benefits, 1.2 million fewer premature deaths, higher overall intelligence and 58 million fewer crimes", according to the United Nations News Centre. The executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Achim Steiner argued that "Although this global effort has often flown below the radar of [the] media and global leaders, it is clear that the elimination of leaded petrol is an immense achievement on par with the global elimination of major deadly diseases."


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: According to a May 2017 study, lead exposure in childhood substantially increased school suspensions and juvenile detention among boys in Rhode Island, suggesting that the phasing out of leaded gasoline may explain a significant part of the decline in crime in the United States beginning in the 1990s.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: A 2018 longitudinal study conducted in New Zealand found only a weak association between childhood lead levels and criminal conviction, which was no longer significant after controlling for sex. In New Zealand, there is no correlation between lead exposure and socioeconomic status, thus social class does not act as a confounder. The authors conclude that "past studies of the association between BLL and crime, in which high BLL and low socioeconomic status were associated, may not have completely overcome confounding". Data from the same cohort was published the next year as well and has been cited in review papers as evidence of lead poisoning having long-lasting consequences for mental health and personality.


title: Lead–crime hypothesis

text: A 2022 meta-analysis, which pooled 542 estimates from 24 studies and corrected for publication bias, found that the estimates indicated that "the abatement of lead pollution may be responsible for 7–28% of the fall in homicide in the US," leaving 93-72% unaccounted for. It concluded that "Lead increases crime, but does not explain the majority of the fall in crime observed in some countries in the 20th century. Additional explanations are needed".


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Countries and territories around the world have enforced lockdowns of varying stringency in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Some include total movement control while others have enforced restrictions based on time. In many cases, only essential businesses are allowed to remain open. Schools, universities and colleges have closed either on a nationwide or local basis in countries, affecting approximately percent of the world's student population.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Beginning with the first lockdown in China's Hubei province and nationwide in Italy in March, lockdowns continued to be implemented in many countries throughout 2020 and 2021. On 24 March 2020, the entire 1.3 billion population of India was ordered to stay at home during its lockdown, making it the largest of the pandemic. The world's longest continuous lockdown lasting 234 days took place in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 2020. As of October 2021, the city of Melbourne, Australia, and certain cities in Peru and Chile spent the most cumulative days in lockdown over separate periods, although measures varied between these countries.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: A few countries and territories did not use the strategy, including Japan, Belarus, Sweden, South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Tanzania, two states in Brazil and certain United States states.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: A number of Australian states, territories, and cities have implemented lockdowns in response to the pandemic. The country entered a general nationwide lockdown on 23 March 2020 during the first wave of the pandemic, which was lifted on 15 May.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: The state of Victoria, particularly its capital city of Melbourne, the country's second most populous city with five million residents, entered an extended lockdown on 7 July 2020 in response to a rapidly growing community outbreak. Initial measures included the closure of all non-essential services, including retail entertainment venues and gyms. Restaurant and bar establishments were permitted to open in take-away and delivery capacities only. Schools and childcare facilities were also ordered to close. Face coverings were made mandatory as of 23 July 2020, with a fine of $200 AUD for non-compliance to those above 12 years of age, although formal exemptions could be acquired. Initially scheduled to last six weeks, restrictions were tightened further on 2 August after cases continued to grow, including a ban on travel further than a five kilometre radius from place of residence, a nighttime curfew of 8pm to 5am, a one-hour limit on outdoor exercise, a one-person per day limit on shopping for essentials, and public gatherings limited to a maximum of two people. Restrictions were progressively eased as the case rate declined, and were completely lifted on 28 October. With a total duration of 112 days, the Victorian lockdown was at the time the longest continuous period of COVID-19 lockdown globally as of October 2020. The lockdown resulted in the state recording zero active cases of COVID-19 in November 2020.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Victoria entered its fourth lockdown on 28 May 2021 in response to an outbreak of the Delta variant. Originally scheduled for seven days, the lockdown was extended to two weeks and lifted on 10 June. Another outbreak of the Delta variant saw Greater Sydney enter lockdown on 26 June 2021, scheduled to last until 16 July, but extended by two weeks on 14 July then until 28 August and the end of September 2021. Combined with snap lockdowns declared in Brisbane, Perth, and Darwin, more than 12 million people were in lockdown across Australia on 29 June 2021.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Brief "snap lockdowns" in response to new clusters, particularly of the Alpha, Beta, and Delta variants, have been implemented at various times across the country.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Metropolitan Melbourne's 6th lockdown ended in October 2021, with the city spending among the longest amounts of time spent in lockdown in the world.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: In November 2021, Austria introduced lockdown measures, but only for unvaccinated people, in response to an increase in cases and low vaccination rate. The country introduced a lockdown for all citizens a few days later, making it the first European country to reintroduce such measures in the winter of 2021.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 22 March 2020, Bangladesh announced a ten-day lockdown, starting from 26 March. The lockdown in the country was extended several times to 30 May.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 15 April 2021, Cambodia's government enacted a strict stay-at-home order across the entirety of Phnom Penh and Ta Khmau in response to the country's largest COVID-19 outbreak of the pandemic. Certain districts were declared as "red zones", banning people from leaving their homes except for medical emergencies. Sihanoukville also entered a lockdown on 24 April.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 25 January 2020, the first identified presumptive case in Canada was a 56-year-old male who had travelled to Wuhan, China, before returning to Toronto on 22 January. Canada issued a travel advisory against non-essential travel to China due to the outbreak, including a regional travel advisory to avoid all travel to the province of Hubei.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 26 January 2020, Chief Public Health Officer Dr. Theresa Tam tweeted, "There is no clear evidence that this virus is spread easily from person to person. The risk to Canadians remains low."


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Three days later, on 29 January, Dr. Tam told Canadians that "It's going to be rare, but we are expecting cases."


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 1 February, the position of the prime minister and the administration remained that it would be discriminatory to exclude travellers from China, the source (and, at the time, still the epicentre) of the disease.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Ontario, the country's most populous province, had its first provincewide lockdown starting on 26 December 2020. The lockdown was strengthened with a stay-at-home order effective 14 January 2021, and reopened on a regional basis starting 10 February. As a result of the third wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in the province caused by SARS-CoV-2 variants, the government of Ontario once again announced a four-week provincewide shutdown effective 3 April. This shutdown was once again strengthened with another 28-day stay-at-home order starting 8 April, in order to quickly combat the urgent crisis in the province's hospital capacity being caused by the variants.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: The city of Toronto, Ontario is considered to have the longest continuous COVID-19 lockdown of any major city in the world.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: China was the first country to enforce the quarantine and lockdown of cities and later whole provinces in late January 2020. Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping said he personally authorized the unprecedented lockdown of Wuhan and other cities beginning on 23 January. Although such measures are a very old tool of epidemic control, their use at the scale of a large city such as Wuhan or the even larger scale of provinces was controversial among experts at the time, with questions about their effectiveness and their ethics. Some public health experts, while not always condemning the measure, raised the issue of the inevitable psychological toll such measures would have. An ex-World Health Organization (WHO) official who headed the organization's Western Pacific Region during the SARS outbreak said that "the containment of a city [hadn't] been done in the history of international public health policy". The WHO called the decision to quarantine Wuhan "new to science". By early April, all lockdowns had ended or relaxed to a certain degree as the cases started to dwindle and the outbreak had come under control.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On March 27, 2022, Shanghai experienced an extended lockdown. Many residents lacked food.And on June 1, 2022, Shanghai was returning to normal.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: The following cities are currently enforcing lockdown measures; Chengdu, since September 2022 and Guangzhou, since November 2022.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 19 March 2020, Fiji confirmed its first case in Lautoka. In response, the Government of Fiji ordered the lockdown of the city on 20 March with closures of all schools and non-essential services all over the country. On 3 April 2020, Fiji's capital, Suva, went into lockdown after confirming two new cases. More than 300,000 residents were confined to their homes and all non-essential services in the city was closed for two weeks.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 19 April 2021, Nadi and Lautoka went into lockdown after recording its first community transmission in one year. As cases continues to escalate in its second wave, the government has ruled out any possibility of a nationwide lockdown but would focus on targeted lockdowns of communities instead.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: From 17 March 2020, all people in France were required to complete and carry an exemption form to leave their homes and can be fined for non-essential journeys. Essential journeys include shopping for food, travelling to and from work, accessing healthcare, and exercising within 1 km of the home for up to 1 hour. Police around the country had set up road blocks to check people who were out and about had good reason and that their exemption declarations were in order. These measures were lifted on 11 May 2020, with remaining restrictions on travel further than 100 km away from one's residence. The latter restrictions were lifted on 2 June 2020.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 28 October, president Emmanuel Macron announced a second lockdown until at least 1 December 2020. During this second lockdown, schools remain open and more industries can keep operating (construction, public services...). Like the first lockdown, citizens need to sign their certificates to can go around within 1 km up to hour per day. Fines are 135 euros the 1st time, 200 euros for 2 times within 15 days and 3750 euros and 6 months jail sentence for 3 times within 30 days.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 12 March, Taoiseach Leo Varadkar announced the closure of all schools, colleges and childcare facilities in Ireland until the end of August. On 27 March, Varadkar announced a national stay-at-home order for at least two weeks; the public were ordered to stay at home in all circumstances. All non-essential shops and services, including all pubs, bars, hotels and nightclubs closed and all public and private gatherings of any number of people was banned. The Garda Síochána (Irish police) were given power to enforce the measures, which were repeatedly extended until 18 May.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: A roadmap to easing restrictions in Ireland that included five stages was adopted by the government on 1 May 2020 and subsequently published online. The fourth and final phase of easing COVID-19 restrictions in Ireland was initially scheduled to take place on 20 July, but was repeatedly postponed until 31 August at the earliest.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 7 August, Taoiseach Micheál Martin announced a regional lockdown and a series of measures for counties Kildare, Laois and Offaly following significant increases of COVID-19 cases in the three counties, which came into effect from midnight and will remain in place for two weeks.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: All non-essential businesses and services closed and all public and private gatherings of any number of people was banned again on 21 October following the Government's announcement to move the entire country to lockdown restrictions for six weeks until 1 December. On 27 November, the Government agreed to ease restrictions from 1 December.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: A third wave of COVID-19 arrived in Ireland on 21 December. The Government acted swiftly and on 22 December, lockdown restrictions with a number of adjustments were announced, which came into effect from Christmas Eve until 12 January 2021 at the earliest.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: All non-essential businesses and services closed and all public and private gatherings of any number of people was banned again on 31 December (New Year's Eve) following the Government's announcement to move the entire country to full lockdown restrictions from 30 December until 31 January 2021 at the earliest, in an attempt to get a third surge in cases of COVID-19 under control. On 26 January, the Government extended the lockdown restrictions until 5 March. On 23 February, the Government extended the Level 5 lockdown restrictions for another six weeks until 5 April (Easter Monday) at the earliest, while its new revised Living with COVID-19 plan was published.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 30 March, the Government announced a phased easing of restrictions from Monday 12 April. On 29 April, the Government announced a reopening plan for the country throughout May and June from 10 May, with a further reopening planned announced on 31 August that would see all remaining COVID-19 restrictions in Ireland eased by 22 October.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: After a fourth wave of COVID-19 arrived in Ireland in October, the Government published on 19 October a revised plan for the easing of restrictions, with nightclubs allowed to reopen, however the continued use of masks, vaccine certificates and social distancing measures would remain in place until at least February 2022. On 3 December, the Government reintroduced a series of measures that would commence from 7 December amid concerns of the Omicron variant, with nightclubs to close, indoor cultural and sporting events to operate at 50% capacity and a maximum of four households allowed to meet indoors.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: The Omicron variant caused a fifth wave of COVID-19 to arrive in late December and early January 2022, with record levels of cases reported over the Christmas and New Year period. As cases began to fall sharply, Taoiseach Micheál Martin announced on 21 January the easing of almost all COVID-19 restrictions, with the requirements of vaccine certificates and social distancing to end, restrictions on household visits and capacity limits for indoor and outdoor events to end, nightclubs to reopen and pubs and restaurants to resume normal trading times, while rules on isolation and the wearing of masks would remain. Remaining restrictions were agreed to be removed from 28 February, with mask wearing in schools, indoor retail settings and on public transport to be voluntary, restrictions in schools to end and testing to be scaled back.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 9 March 2020, the government of Italy under Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte imposed a national quarantine, restricting the movement of the population except for necessity, work, and health circumstances, in response to the growing outbreak of COVID-19 in the country. Additional lockdown restrictions mandated the temporary closure of non-essential shops and businesses. This followed a restriction announced on the previous day which affected sixteen million people in the whole region of Lombardy and in fourteen largely-neighbouring provinces in Emilia-Romagna, Veneto, Piedmont and Marche, and prior to that a smaller-scale lockdown of ten municipalities in the province of Lodi and one in the province of Padua that had begun in late February. The restrictions were loosened in May 2020.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: The lockdown measures, despite being widely approved by the public opinion, were also described as the largest suppression of constitutional rights in the history of the republic. Nevertheless, Article 16 of the Constitution states that travel restrictions may be established for reasons of health or security.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Malaysia introduced the nationwide Movement Control Order (MCO) on 18 March 2020, which was initially announced to last to 14 April but was extended several times. The MCO prohibited mass gatherings, movement within the country, and most industries and all education institutions were ordered to close. Extended Movement Control Orders (EMCO) were implemented in areas where suspected superspreading events or widespread transmission had occurred. The Royal Malaysian Police were mobilized to enforce restrictions. These restrictions were later eased under the "Conditional MCO" (CMCO), which maintained some restrictions on assembly and movement but allowed some sectors to reopen which was later further relaxed to the "Recovery MCO" (RMCO) nationwide. Localized CMCOs restrictions were introduced in the states of Sabah and Selangor were later introduced in response to outbreaks in those states. The MCO was reinstated nationwide in January 2021.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: In September 2020, Myanmar introduced a strict stay-at-home order and "cordon sanitaire" for the entirety of the country's largest city Yangon amid a major local outbreak. All non-essential businesses were ordered to close. The city's 4 million residents were given less than 24 hours notice before the lockdown came into effect.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Myanmar's State Administration Council announced a nationwide lockdown in July 2021 in response to an increase in cases and deaths.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Beginning 27 March 2020, a 21-day lockdown of the regions of Erongo and Khomas was announced. On 14 April 2020 the lockdown was extended to 4 May. It now officially applied to all regions, although the stay-at-home order was already enforced countrywide. Only essential businesses remained open. Schools were closed, parliamentary sessions suspended, and generally all gatherings of more than 10 people were prohibited. Formal and informal bars were closed and the sale of alcohol prohibited. This "stage 1" of the lockdown was in force until 4 May 2020. From then on, regulations are to be gradually eased.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: A lockdown in the Netherlands began on 19 December 2021 which is expected to last (at least) until 14 January 2022.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 23 March 2020, Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern raised New Zealand's COVID-19 alert level to three and announced the closure of all schools beginning on that day, and two days later moved to four at 11:59 p.m. on 25 March 2020 – a nationwide lockdown. While all sporting matches and events as well as non-essential services such as pools, bars, cafes, restaurants, playgrounds closed, essential services such as supermarkets, petrol stations, and health services remained open.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: The alert level was moved back down to Level 3 at 11:59 pm on 27 April, and moved to Level 2 at 11:59 pm on 13 May, lifting the rest of the lockdown restrictions while maintaining physical distancing. On 8 June, Prime Minister Ardern announced that New Zealand would be entering into Alert Level 1 at midnight on 9 June, lifting restrictions on daily life, business activities, mass gatherings and public transportation. However, the country's borders would remain closed to most international travel.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Following a new outbreak consisting of four cases of community transmission in Auckland on 11 August, the Government placed the Auckland Region on a Level 3 lockdown from 12:00 am on 12 August while the rest of the country move to Level 2 at the same time. On 30 August, Prime Minister Ardern announced that Auckland would enter into "Alert Level 2.5" from 11:59pm on that night while the rest of the country would remain on Level 2. Under Level 2.5, all social gatherings including birthday parties will be limited to ten people; masks will be mandatory for all Aucklanders using public transportation; and aged care facilities will be operating under strict conditions. The only public gatherings allowed in Auckland are funerals and tangihanga, which will be limited to 50 people.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: A new community case of COVID-19 in New Zealand was reported on 17 August 2021, after many months without one. In response, the Government took the country to a full nationwide Alert Level 4 lockdown beginning the following day. One week later, that lockdown remained in place as community case numbers for this community outbreak of the Delta variant reached 148.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Nigeria announced a lockdown in early 2020 that lasted for two weeks, beginning on 30 March and ending on 12 April.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: In May 2022, North Korean leader Kim Jong-un declared a national emergency and strict lockdown in response to the first confirmed COVID-19 cases in the country.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Stay-at-home orders in the United States have come from several states and a large number of local jurisdictions, sometimes leading to conflicts between different levels of government and a patchwork of inconsistent dates and rules.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 15 March 2020, Puerto Rico governor Wanda Vázquez Garced signed an executive order to order all citizens to stay home starting at 9 p.m. with exceptions in limited circumstances between 5 a.m. and 9 pm. Governmental operations and non-essential businesses were to be closed until 30 March.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: The first order within the states was simultaneously imposed by health authorities in heart of the San Francisco Bay Area (Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, San Mateo, and Santa Clara counties and the cities of San Francisco and Berkeley) effective 17 March 2020, affecting nearly 6.7 million people. Other cities and counties across the state followed suit over the next two days, until Gavin Newsom, the governor of California, issued a state-wide order effective 19 March 2020.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 20 March 2020, New York governor Andrew Cuomo announced the state-wide stay-at-home order with a mandate for remote work effective 22 March. Illinois governor J. B. Pritzker followed that lead on the same day with a state-wide order which would go into effect on 21 March at 5 pm. Ned Lamont, the governor of Connecticut, signed an executive order called "Stay Safe, Stay At Home" to take effect state-wide on 23 March at 8 p.m.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 20 March 2020, Navajo Nation announced that it had broadened the stay-at-home order to cover the entire reservation, the largest in the country.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 21 March 2020, New Jersey governor Phil Murphy announced a state-wide stay-at-home order effective at 9 p.m. on the same day.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 22 March 2020, Ohio governor Mike DeWine and Ohio Department of Health director Amy Acton issued a state-wide stay-at-home order effective 23 March. In the afternoon, the Louisiana governor John Bel Edwards announced a state-wide stay-at-home order in a press conference. Delaware governor John Carney followed suit with a stay-at-home order for his state.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 24 March 2020, Wisconsin governor Tony Evers issued a state-wide stay-at-home order to close all non-essential businesses and ordered no gatherings of any size effective 25 March until 24 April. Vermont governor Phil Scott signed a stay-at-home order and directed closure of in-person operations of non-essential businesses effective 25 March until 15 April.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 25 March, Idaho governor Brad Little and Minnesota governor Tim Walz issued stay-at-home orders for their respective states. Colorado Governor Jared Polis issued a stay at home order effective on Thursday the 26th at 6 a.m. through 11 April 2020.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 1 April, Florida governor Ron DeSantis issued a stay-at-home order effective Friday, 3 April 2020 until the end of the month. On 2 April, Georgia governor Brian Kemp issued a stay-at-home order effective Friday, 3 April 2020, until Monday, 13 April 2020. It overrules any local stay-at-home restrictions previously in place, and instructs residents to stay at home unless they're conducting "essential services," meaning either traveling to and from jobs or other exceptions, including buying groceries; purchasing medical equipment; going out to exercise; and visiting medical facilities. The same day, Dr. Anthony Fauci publicly questioned why all states were not under stay-at-home orders.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: In late May 2020, citywide curfews were enacted in San Francisco and several surrounding cities; San Jose; Minneapolis; Atlanta; Chicago; Cleveland; Columbus; Denver; Jacksonville, FL; Los Angeles; Memphis, TN; Omaha, Nebraska; Lincoln, Nebraska; Pittsburgh, Philadelphia; Portland; Salt Lake City; San Antonio; Buffalo, New York; Rochester, NY; Syracuse; New York City; Milwaukee; Seattle; Cincinnati; Indianapolis, Indiana; Fayetteville; Raleigh, North Carolina; Charleston, SC; Sacramento, CA; Columbia, SC; and Asheville, NC due to protests regarding the murder of George Floyd. Countywide curfews were enacted for Los Angeles County, California and Alameda County, California as well. Arizona enacted a state-wide curfew. These curfews are imposed as complemented to stay-at-home order that imposed by state or local authorities.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: On 2 November 2020, Massachusetts governor Charlie Baker issued a night-time stay-at-home advisory and business curfew effective 6 November 2020.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Most countries and territories affected with COVID-19 introduced and enforced some form of lockdown. However, only a few exceptions included Japan, South Korea and Taiwan, which rapidly and consistently implemented highly organized mass testing, contact tracing, public messaging and selective quarantining to identify and isolate outbreaks. South Korea's K-Quarantine system was praised in international media for its effectiveness. Authorities in Tokyo, the capital of Japan, advised businesses to close and the population to stay at home, but did not have legal authority to enforce a lockdown or penalise non-compliance. Compliance with advice was nevertheless high.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: In the European Union, the only nation not following this strategy is Sweden. Led by its state epidemiologist Anders Tegnell measures in Sweden included the closing of universities and high schools and asking older and at-risk residents to avoid social contact, while keeping restaurants, primary schools and kindergartens open and not mandating face masks. However, in early 2021, new laws permitting lockdown were enacted and Prime Minister Stefan Löfven warned that a lockdown was being considered. As of November 2021, a national lockdown had not been announced. However certain regions of Sweden have declared their own lockdowns to help slow the rate of infection. The region of Uppsala reported 908 cases per 100,000 people over a two-week period compared to a national average of 772 in early April 2021. This caused the Health Chief of the region, Mikael Köhler, to ask individuals within the region to "act as if they were in a personal lockdown."


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Some of the countries that did not enact lockdowns during 2020, did so later in the pandemic. In Malawi, a proposed lockdown by the government was delayed by the High Court throughout 2020, until a state of emergency was declared and the country entered a lockdown in January 2021 in response to a worsening outbreak. Although Cambodia restricted movement within the country during a period in 2020, it introduced its first major restrictions, including a curfew and later a stay-at-home order in the capital Phnom Penh, during its largest outbreak to date in early 2021. East Timor also enacted its first lockdown of its capital Dili in March 2021 and Turkey entered its first nationwide lockdown in April 2021.


title: COVID-19 lockdowns by country

text: Two states in Brazil and several others in the United States did not introduce any lockdown-type measures (commonly known as "stay-at-home orders").


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: Renal tubular acidosis (RTA) is a medical condition that involves an accumulation of acid in the body due to a failure of the kidneys to appropriately acidify the urine. In renal physiology, when blood is filtered by the kidney, the filtrate passes through the tubules of the nephron, allowing for exchange of salts, acid equivalents, and other solutes before it drains into the bladder as urine. The metabolic acidosis that results from RTA may be caused either by insufficient secretion of hydrogen ions (which are acidic) into the latter portions of the nephron (the distal tubule) or by failure to reabsorb sufficient bicarbonate ions (which are alkaline) from the filtrate in the early portion of the nephron (the proximal tubule). Although a metabolic acidosis also occurs in those with chronic kidney disease, the term RTA is reserved for individuals with poor urinary acidification in otherwise well-functioning kidneys. Several different types of RTA exist, which all have different syndromes and different causes. RTA is usually an incidental finding based on routine blood draws that show abnormal results. Clinically, patients may present with vague symptoms such as dehydration, mental status changes, or delayed growth in adolescents.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: The word "acidosis" refers to the tendency for RTA to cause an excess of acid, which lowers the blood's pH. When the blood pH is below normal (7.35), this is called "acidemia". The metabolic acidosis caused by RTA is a normal anion gap acidosis.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: An overview of types 1, 2, and 4 is presented below (type 3 is usually excluded from modern classifications):


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: Distal RTA (dRTA) is the classical form of RTA, being the first described. Distal RTA is characterized by a failure of H+ secretion into lumen of nephron by the alpha intercalated cells of the medullary collecting duct of the distal nephron.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: This failure of acid secretion may be due to a number of causes, and it leads to an inability to acidify the urine to a pH of less than 5.3. Because renal excretion is the primary means of eliminating from the body, there is consequently a tendency towards acidemia. There is an inability to excrete H while cannot be reclaimed by the cell, leading to acidemia (as builds up in the body) and hypokalemia (as cannot be reabsorbed by the alpha cell).


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: This leads to the clinical features of dRTA; In other words, the intercalated cells' apical H+/K+ antiporter is non-functional, resulting in proton retention and potassium excretion. Since calcium phosphate stones demonstrate a proclivity for deposition at higher pHs (alkaline), the substance of the kidney develops stones bilaterally; this does not occur in the other RTA types.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: Distal RTA has also been linked to specific genetic mutations that will alter when the disease will present in the patient's life. Patient's with mutations in "ATP6V1B1" and "ATP6V0A4" will present with symptoms within the first year of life, while those with mutation of the "SLC4A1" have delayed onset around 10 years of age. Electrolyte imbalances remain the same, while in severe cases symptoms can advance to amino aciduria and hyperammonemia. In a large Asian series of Distal renal Tubular Acidosis in Sjogren's Syndrome, late diagnosis is a rule in spite of overt hypokalemic periodic paralysis in a vast majority of them


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: dRTA is the most common form of RTA diagnosed in Western countries, and can be classified as either hereditary (primary) or acquired (secondary). Primary RTA generally results from systemic and autoimmune diseases or drug and toxin exposure in adults, whereas pediatric RTA results from genetic defects in the proteins that facilitate urine acidification at the distal tubule. Hereditary dRTA generally presents as failure to thrive during the first several months of life. Other common clinical manifestations in children include a variety of gastrointestinal and urinary symptoms, including polyuria, polydipsia, constipation, diarrhea, bouts of dehydration, and decreased appetite.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: Proximal RTA (pRTA) is caused by a failure of the proximal tubular cells to reabsorb filtered bicarbonate from the urine, leading to urinary bicarbonate wasting and subsequent acidemia. Reabsorption of bicarbonate is typically 80-90% in the proximal tubule and failure of this process leads to decreased systemic buffer and metabolic acidosis. The distal intercalated cells function normally, so the acidemia is less severe than dRTA and the alpha intercalated cells can produce H to acidify the urine to a pH of less than 5.3. pRTA also has several causes, and may occasionally be present as a solitary defect, but is usually associated with a more generalized dysfunction of the proximal tubular cells called Fanconi syndrome, in which there is also phosphaturia, glycosuria, aminoaciduria, uricosuria, and tubular proteinuria.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: The principal feature of Fanconi syndrome is bone demineralization (osteomalacia or rickets) due to phosphate wasting.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: In some patients, RTA shares features of both dRTA and pRTA. This rare pattern was observed in the 1960s and 1970s as a transient phenomenon in infants and children with dRTA (possibly in relation with some exogenous factor such as high salt intake) and is no longer observed. This form of RTA has also been referred to as juvenile RTA.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: Combined dRTA and pRTA is also observed as the result of inherited carbonic anhydrase II deficiency. Mutations in the gene encoding this enzyme give rise to an autosomal recessive syndrome of osteopetrosis, renal tubular acidosis, cerebral calcification, and mental retardation. It is very rare and cases from all over the world have been reported, of which about 70% are from the Maghreb region of North Africa, possibly due to the high prevalence of consanguinity there.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: The kidney problems are treated as described above. There is no treatment for the osteopetrosis or cerebral calcification.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: Type 3 is rarely discussed. Most comparisons of RTA are limited to a comparison of types 1, 2, and 4.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: Type 4 RTA is not actually a tubular disorder at all nor does it have a clinical syndrome similar to the other types of RTA described above. It was included in the classification of renal tubular acidoses as it is associated with a mild (normal anion gap) metabolic acidosis due to a "physiological" reduction in proximal tubular ammonium excretion (impaired ammoniagenesis), which is secondary to hypoaldosteronism, and results in a decrease in urine buffering capacity. Its cardinal feature is hyperkalemia, and measured urinary acidification is normal, hence it is often called hyperkalemic RTA or tubular hyperkalemia.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: Renal tubular acidosis was first described in 1935 by Lightwood and 1936 by Butler et al. in children. Baines et al. first described it in adults in 1945.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: Donald L. Lewis postulated the character Tiny Tim, of "A Christmas Carol", was suffering from renal tubular acidosis.


title: Renal tubular acidosis

text: Researchers published in PLOS ONE in 2009 speculated that the infamously afflicted Charles II of Spain may have suffered from renal tubular acidosis in tandem with combined pituitary hormone deficiency.


title: Alaeddin Pasha

text: Alaeddin Pasha, or Alaeddin Bey ("Alâeddin Paşa"; Söğüt, – Bursa, 1331), was the brother of Orhan I, who succeeded their father, Osman I, in the leadership of the Ottoman Empire. His mother was a Turkish woman named Rabia Bala Hatun. It is not certain whether Alaeddin or Orhan was the elder son. Some historians claim that Alaeddin was Osman's second son, but others argue that there is a good chance that he was the oldest. Nevertheless, Orhan ruled the country and became the first Ottoman ruler to take the title of Sultan. According to tradition and Ottoman historiography as presented by historian Idris Bitlisi, Alaeddin was more passive than his warrior brother, and thus stayed at home instead of fighting to expand the newly forming Ottoman Empire. He received training in the management of the state affairs. There is a good chance that Orhan was selected to inherit leadership of the Empire because of his skills as a warrior.


title: Alaeddin Pasha

text: In contrast to later Ottoman history, when succession became an issue that could lead to violent civil war, Alaeddin accepted his position graciously and there was no feud between the brothers. Alaeddin quickly submitted to his brother's rule, offering his allegiance and thus gaining the respect of the government and of the people. In fact, it seems that Alaeddin enjoyed a relaxed lifestyle and was more concerned with the fact that their father left Orhan and him no fortune along with the Empire than the issue of succession. Ties between these two brothers, unlike so many other Ottoman princes, remained amiable for the remainder of their lives. Because of his training in affairs of the state, Orhan sought Alaeddin's advice, which he received willingly. In return, Alaeddin requested the village of Fodrā and his request was granted.


title: Alaeddin Pasha

text: In 1328 or 1329, Alaeddin met with Orhan in order to congratulate him on his recent acquisition of İzmit. During this visit, Alaeddin made his most important contribution to the Ottoman Empire. He made three suggestions to Orhan in order to improve the efficiency and legitimacy of the early Ottoman Empire. These three suggestions include the introduction of a monetary system, the selection of an official Ottoman costume, and a complete reorganization of the army.


title: Alaeddin Pasha

text: During the years 1328 and 1329 silver coins were indeed stamped in Orhan's name. On the front, they showed the Islamic article of faith. On the other side, it said (in Arabic): "May Allah make his reign eternal."


title: Alaeddin Pasha

text: In the same tradition as the Byzantines who had headdresses and costumes of richly embroidered material, an official, but more modest, costume was chosen for government and military workers. While the general public was allowed to wear whatever they wanted, a "coniform cap of white felt was prescribed on the grounds of the highly esteemed Arabic maxim, 'the best garment is a white one'". This way, military and government officials were able assert their legitimacy in leadership.


title: Alaeddin Pasha

text: Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the organization of the military received a complete overhaul. Alaeddin proposed that the military be divided into subsets, and an officer be placed in control of each section. This organization seems extremely simple, which leads to the conclusion that before this, there was no control over the army. Also, Alaeddin proposed that a contingent of foot soldiers be instituted that could be summoned in war time to fight. These soldiers, when instituted, had no training and the idea failed. Later on, this failed idea was replaced by the Janissary Corps, but there is no evidence that Alaeddin had anything to do with the development of the janissaries.


title: Alaeddin Pasha

text: In addition to his participation in Ottoman Empire state affairs, Alaeddin seems to have led a very pious, quiet life. He had several mosques built. The Alaeddin Bey Cami in Bursa, completed in 1335, is a typical example of the single unit mosque. It is very advanced architecture, with 8.2 square meters and a three-bay portico. The dome is supported by Turkish triangles and there is a single minaret. Accordingly, the “near perfection of the (Alaeddin Bey) Bursa Mosque lies in the simplicity of which an ideal space is expressed” (Goodwin 18). Although, now after having undergone restoration in the 19th century, the east and west windows are no longer directly across, but slightly askew. The minaret, if it is the original, is the first example of a minaret, but due to architectural weaknesses brought on by the placement of the minaret, it is very likely a later addition.


title: Deltron 3030

text: Deltron 3030 is an alternative hip hop trio composed of producer Dan the Automator (as the Cantankerous Captain Aptos), rapper Del the Funky Homosapien (as Deltron Zero/Deltron Osiris), and DJ Kid Koala (as Skiznod the Boy Wonder). They also collaborate with a variety of other musicians under many futuristic pseudonyms.


title: Deltron 3030

text: The group's debut album "Deltron 3030", released on May 23, 2000, is a concept album set in the year 3030 that tells of the dualistic conflict of fatalism that takes place between the moral concepts of "righteousness" and "malevolence." The story tells a prophetic tale of a warrior's thirst for battle as Del's alter ego, who goes by the name "Deltron-Zero," along with his comrade who happens to be a time-traveling cyborg wizard named "the Automator," face-off against megalithic corporations that megalomaniacally rule over our thermodynamic universe. The lyrics were written in less than two weeks and are characterized by extravagant allusions to futuristic outer-space themes in the tradition of Afrofuturist works by Sun Ra and George Clinton. Many samples originated with the contemporary French classical composer William Sheller.