title: Saudi Arabian Grand Prix

text: The Grand Prix has received criticism from Amnesty International on the grounds of human rights in Saudi Arabia. Human Rights Watch also condemned the decision arguing that "it is part of a cynical strategy to distract from Saudi Arabia's human rights abuses". Formula One responded by saying that "[Formula One has] made our position on human rights and other issues clear to all our partners and host countries who commit to respect human rights in the way their events are hosted and delivered" and that "[Formula One has] worked hard to be a positive force everywhere it races, including economic, social and cultural benefits". According to Human Rights Watch, the Grand Prix and other sports events are being used by Saudi Arabia to distract people from serious human rights abuses. The Global Initiative Director at Human Rights Watch, Minky Worden, called upon Formula One to assess situation in Saudi Arabia and insist on releasing women's rights defenders who spoke in favour of women's right to drive. In February 2021, 45 human rights organizations called on Lewis Hamilton to boycott the Grand Prix, citing among other factors Saudi Arabia's role in the Yemeni Civil War and the assassination of "The Washington Post" journalist Jamal Khashoggi. Saudi Arabia has denied the Grand Prix was being used for sportswashing, arguing that the race forms part of the country's efforts to open itself up to the outside world. The event received criticism from human rights groups. Many accused the Arab nation and its Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman of "sportswashing" their image. It was claimed that Saudi Arabia was stepping into some of the biggest sport events to cover its human rights violations.


title: Saudi Arabian Grand Prix

text: Following the missile interception in Diriyah during the 2021 Diriyah ePrix, questions were raised about the event's viability. Formula One later stated that they would never go to high security risk areas, though they also stated that they had "every confidence that the Saudi government and its agencies have both the technology and capability to ensure this safety and security". During the 2021 race, Lewis Hamilton wore a rainbow-coloured helmet, showing his support for the LGBT community and showed that he wanted the rules on people in the LGBT community to change in Saudi Arabia. He also wore this helmet in the previous and following race.


title: Saudi Arabian Grand Prix

text: The 2022 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix was impacted by the Saudi-led war on Yemen. Yemen’s Houthi rebels carried out a missile attack on an Aramco oil depot (approximately from the circuit), causing an explosion, during the first of two practice sessions. The incident highlighted risks for the race, with drivers, such as Lewis Hamilton, raising concerns over the event’s safety. After discussions lasting several hours, an agreement was reached to hold the event. Besides the attack, there were serious questions over the years of human rights abuses in Saudi Arabia. The authoritative regime was criticised for its continued repression of dissidents, particularly in light of the mass execution of 81 people two weeks before the race.


title: Saudi Arabian Grand Prix

text: Named as the 'fastest street track' on the Formula One calendar, with Formula One cars averaging around , the track is the second longest on the Formula One calendar behind Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps in Belgium. The circuit is located on the Jeddah Corniche, adjoining the Red Sea. It was designed by Carsten Tilke, son of the famed circuit designer, Hermann Tilke.


title: Saudi Arabian Grand Prix

text: In Formula One, the Saudi Arabian Grand Prix race and qualifying are both held during the night, under the lights where the temperatures are substantially cooler than the day. The Formula 2 race is held during the day and two of the three Formula One practice sessions are held during daytime and high track temperatures.


title: Ice axe

text: An ice axe is a multi-purpose hiking and climbing tool used by mountaineers in both the ascent and descent of routes that involve snow, ice, or frozen conditions. Its use depends on the terrain: in its simplest role it is used like a walking stick, with the mountaineer holding the head in the center of their uphill hand. On steep terrain it is swung by its handle and embedded in snow or ice for security and an aid to traction. It can also be buried pick down, the rope tied around the shaft to form a secure anchor on which to bring up a second climber, or buried vertically to form a stomp belay. The adze is used to cut footholds, as well as scoop out compacted snow to bury the axe as a belay anchor.


title: Ice axe

text: The ice axe of today has its roots in the long-handled alpenstock that came before it. Not only is an ice axe used as a climbing aid, but also as a means of self-arrest in the event of a slip downhill.


title: Ice axe

text: Most ice axes meet design and manufacturing standards of organizations such as the Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) or European Committee for Standardization (CEN). There are two classifications of ice axe, Basic (B/Type 1) and Technical (T/Type 2).


title: Ice axe

text: For ski mountaineering and racing, where weight is of paramount concern, manufacturers have produced short (~) and light () ice axes. Some of these have aluminum alloy heads/picks which are unlikely to be as effective or robust as steel heads/picks.


title: Ice axe

text: Ice-axe spike-to-head lengths used to generally range from . This is just too short to be used as a walking stick on level ground (the way its forebearer, the 19th century alpenstock, was), but is ergonomic when ascending steep slopes. For flatter ground, where consequences of a slip are not large, walking poles are more appropriate.


title: Ice axe

text: The old method to approximate the correct length of an ice axe was for the climber to hold the axe (spike facing the ground) at his/her side while standing relaxed. The spike of the ice axe should barely touch the ground when the climber stands fully upright holding the axe in this manner. This may still be appropriate where the ice axe is to be used for travelling over relatively flat ground, perhaps, in the main, for glacier travel.


title: Ice axe

text: Modern mountaineers often carry shorter ice axes, , for general use with any thing over being generally regarded as too large and unwieldy for chopping steps or climbing steep snow. A walking pole (providing a third point of contact), although stabilising and making a slip less likely, is unlikely to stop a fall.


title: Ice axe

text: The antecedent of the ice axe was the alpenstock, a long wooden pole with an iron spike tip, used by shepherds for travel on snowfields and glaciers in the Alps since the Middle Ages. On 8 August 1786, Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard made the first ascent of Mont Blanc. Balmat, a chamois hunter and crystal collector, had experience with high mountain travel, and Paccard had made previous attempts to climb the peak. Illustrations show Balmat carrying two separate tools that would later be merged into the ice axe – an alpenstock (or baton) and a small axe that could be used to chop steps on icy slopes.


title: Ice axe

text: According to the earliest manufacturer of ice axes, Grivel, these two tools were merged to create the first true ice axe around 1840. Early ice axes had a vertical adze, with the cutting edge aligned with the direction of the shaft, as in a conventional axe. This design lasted until at least 1860, but eventually the adze was rotated to the current position, perpendicular to the direction of the shaft. The Italian Alpine Club published a book in 1889 entitled "Fiorio e Ratti – The dangers of mountaineering and rules to avoid them", which recommended ice axes as among "the inseparable companions of the mountaineer".


title: Ice axe

text: In the late 19th century, the typical ice axe shaft measured in length. British climber Oscar Eckenstein started the trend toward shorter ice axes with a lighter model measuring . Initially, this innovation was criticized by well-known climbers of the era, including Martin Conway, a prominent member of the Alpine Club, who was the leader of an early expedition to the Baltoro region near K2 in 1892 of which Eckenstein was a member.


title: Ice axe

text: Early ice axes had picks and adzes of about equal lengths. By the beginning of the 20th century, the pick lengthened to about twice the length of the adze. Improvements in crampon design (pioneered by Eckenstein in 1908) and ice climbing technique led to use of shorter, lighter ice axes appropriate to steeper ice climbs in the period between the world wars.


title: Ice axe

text: A famous rescue involving an ice axe took place during the Third American Karakoram Expedition to K2 in 1953. One of the climbers, Art Gilkey, was incapacitated by thrombophlebitis. The other climbers attempted to rescue him by lowering him down the mountain by rope, wrapped in a sleeping bag. While crossing a steep ice sheet, a slip caused Gilkey and five other climbers to begin falling down a steep slope. Climber Pete Schoening wedged his ice axe alongside a boulder, and managed to belay the roped climbers, saving their lives. (Gilkey, however, later in the same descent was swept away by an avalanche. Remains of his lost corpse were discovered in 1993.) Schoening's ice axe is now on display at the Bradford Washburn American Mountaineering Museum in Golden, Colorado.


title: Ice axe

text: In 1966, Yvon Chouinard led a significant redesign of ice axes, working with initially reluctant manufacturer Charlet to develop a ice axe with a dramatically curved pick. Chouinard believed that "a curve compatible with the arc of the axe's swing would allow the pick to stay put better in the ice. I had noticed that a standard pick would often pop out when I placed my weight on it." Chouinard's idea worked and began a period of innovation in ice axe design.


title: Ice axe

text: In 1978, the Safety Commission of the Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) established formal standards for ice axe safety and performance. This led to the replacement of the traditional wooden shaft by metal alloy shafts. Ergonomically curved handles became widespread in 1986. Use of modern aluminum alloys have led to a dramatic reduction in the weight of some ice axes. One model now on the market, the C.A.M.P. Corsa, weighs only with a shaft. One expert rated this lightweight ice axe as "ideal for low angle glacier travel" but said he "craved the solid and secure heft of a true steel mountain ax" in more demanding steep alpine conditions.


title: Ice axe

text: When not in use an ice axe is stored on the outside of a pack (rucksack). Many models come with a nylon webbing loop sewn on its rear base (off to one side to allow the pick to stay behind the hiker), together with a means to restrain its shaft. Rucksacks with attachment points for two ice axes are also available, popular in ice climbing where two tools are used.


title: Luminol

text: Luminol (CHNO) is a chemical that exhibits chemiluminescence, with a blue glow, when mixed with an appropriate oxidizing agent. Luminol is a white-to-pale-yellow crystalline solid that is soluble in most polar organic solvents, but insoluble in water.


title: Luminol

text: Forensic investigators use luminol to detect trace amounts of blood at crime scenes, as it reacts with the iron in hemoglobin. Biologists use it in cellular assays to detect copper, iron, cyanides, as well as specific proteins via western blotting.


title: Luminol

text: When luminol is sprayed evenly across an area, trace amounts of an activating oxidant make the luminol emit a blue glow that can be seen in a darkened room. The glow only lasts about 30 seconds, but can be documented photographically. The glow is stronger in areas receiving more spray; the intensity of the glow does not indicate the amount of blood or other activator present.


title: Luminol

text: Luminol is synthesized in a two-step process, beginning with 3-nitrophthalic acid. First, hydrazine (NH) is heated with the 3-nitrophthalic acid in a high-boiling solvent such as triethylene glycol and glycerol. An acyl substitution condensation reaction occurs, with loss of water, forming 3-nitrophthalhydrazide. Reduction of the nitro group to an amino group with sodium dithionite (NaSO), via a transient hydroxylamine intermediate, produces luminol.


title: Luminol

text: To exhibit its luminescence, the luminol must be activated with an oxidant. Usually, a solution containing hydrogen peroxide (HO) and hydroxide ions in water is the activator. In the presence of a catalyst such as an iron or periodate compound, the hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form oxygen and water:


title: Luminol

text: Laboratory settings often use potassium ferricyanide or potassium periodate for the catalyst. In the forensic detection of blood, the catalyst is the iron present in haemoglobin. Enzymes in a variety of biological systems may also catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.


title: Luminol

text: The exact mechanism of luminol chemiluminescence is a complex multi-step reaction, especially in aqueous conditions. A recent theoretical investigation has been able to elucidate the reaction cascade as shown below. Luminol is first deprotonated in basic conditions, then oxidized to the anionic radical. Which in turn has two paths available to give the key intermediate α-hydroxy- peroxide. After cyclization to the endoperoxide, the mono-anion will undergo decomposition without luminescence, if the pH is too low (< 8.2) for a second deprotonation. The endoperoxide dianion, however can give the retro-Diels-Alder product: 1,2-dioxane-3,6-dione dianion. And after chemiexcitation by two single-electron-transfers (SET) gives 3-aminophthalate dianion in its first singlet excited-state (S1). This highly instable molecule relaxes to the ground state, thereby emitting light of around 425 nm wavelength (purple-blue), the so-called chemiluminescence.


title: Luminol

text: In 1928, German chemist H. O. Albrecht found that blood, among other substances, enhanced the luminescence of luminol in an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. In 1936, Karl Gleu and Karl Pfannstiel confirmed this enhancement in the presence of haematin, a component of blood. In 1937, German forensic scientist Walter Specht made extensive studies of luminol's application to the detection of blood at crime scenes. In 1939, San Francisco pathologists Frederick Proescher and A. M. Moody made three important observations about luminol:


title: Luminol

text: Crime scene investigators use luminol to find traces of blood, even if someone has cleaned or removed it. The investigator sprays a solution of luminol and the oxidant. The iron in blood catalyses the luminescence. The amount of catalyst necessary to cause the reaction is very small relative to the amount of luminol, allowing detection of even trace amounts of blood. The blue glow lasts for about 30 seconds per application. Detecting the glow requires a fairly dark room. Any glow detected may be documented by a long-exposure photograph.


title: Luminol

text: Luminol's use in a crime scene investigation is somewhat hampered by the fact that it reacts to iron- and copper-containing compounds, bleaches, horseradish, fecal matter, or cigarette smoke residue.


title: Luminol

text: Application of luminol to a piece of evidence may prevent other tests from being performed on it; however DNA has been successfully extracted from samples exposed to luminol.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: Romanization of Greek is the transliteration (letter-mapping) or transcription (sound-mapping) of text from the Greek alphabet into the Latin alphabet.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: The conventions for writing and romanizing Ancient Greek and Modern Greek differ markedly. The sound of the English letter B () was written as in ancient Greek but is now written as the digraph , while the modern sounds like the English letter V () instead. The Greek name became Johannes in Latin and then John in English, but in modern Greek has become ; this might be written as Yannis, Jani, Ioannis, Yiannis, or Giannis, but not Giannes or Giannēs as it would be for ancient Greek. The word might variously appear as Hagiοs, Agios, Aghios, or Ayios, or simply be translated as "Holy" or "Saint" in English forms of Greek placenames.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: Traditional English renderings of Greek names originated from Roman systems established in antiquity. The Roman alphabet itself was a form of the Cumaean alphabet derived from the Euboean script that valued as and as and used variant forms of and that became L and S. When this script was used to write the classical Greek alphabet, ⟨κ⟩ was replaced with ⟨c⟩, ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ became ⟨æ⟩ and ⟨œ⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ were simplified to ⟨i⟩ (more rarely—corresponding to an earlier pronunciation—⟨e⟩) and ⟨u⟩. Aspirated consonants like ⟨θ⟩, ⟨φ⟩, initial-⟨ρ⟩, and ⟨χ⟩ simply wrote out the sound: ⟨th⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨rh⟩, and ⟨ch⟩. Because English orthography has changed so much from the original Greek, modern scholarly transliteration now usually renders ⟨κ⟩ as ⟨k⟩ and the diphthongs ⟨αι, οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: "Greeklish" has also spread within Greece itself, owing to the rapid spread of digital telephony from cultures using the Latin alphabet. Since Greek typefaces and fonts are not always supported or robust, Greek email and chatting has adopted a variety of formats for rendering Greek and Greek shorthand using Latin letters. Examples include "8elo" and "thelw" for , "3ava" for , and "yuxi" for .


title: Romanization of Greek

text: Owing to the difficulties encountered in transliterating and transcribing both ancient and modern Greek into the Latin alphabet, a number of regulatory bodies have been established. The Hellenic Organization for Standardization (ELOT), in cooperation with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), released a system in 1983 which has since been formally adopted by the United Nations, the United Kingdom and United States.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: The following tables list several romanization schemes from the Greek alphabet to modern English. Note, however, that the ELOT, UN, and ISO formats for Modern Greek intend themselves as translingual and may be applied in any language using the Latin alphabet.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: The American Library Association and Library of Congress romanization scheme employs its "Ancient or Medieval Greek" system for all works and authors up to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, although Byzantine Greek was pronounced distinctly and some have considered "Modern" Greek to have begun as early as the 12th century.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: For treatment of polytonic Greek letters—for example, —see also the section on romanizing Greek diacritical marks below.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: ELOT approved in 1982 the ELOT 743 standard, revised in 2001, whose "Type 2" () "transcription" scheme has been adopted by the Greek and Cypriot governments as standard for Romanization of names on Greek and Cypriot passports. It also comprised a "Type 1" () "transliteration" table, which was extensively modified in the second edition of the standard.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: International versions of ELOT 743, with an English language standard document, were approved by the UN (V/19, 1987) and the British and American governments.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: The ISO approved in 1997 its version, ISO 843, with a different "Type 1" transliteration system, which was adopted four years later by ELOT itself, while the U.N. did not update its version. So the "transcriptions" of Modern Greek into Latin letters used by ELOT, UN and ISO are essentially equivalent, while there remain minor differences in how they approach reversible "transliteration".


title: Romanization of Greek

text: The American Library Association and Library of Congress romanization scheme employs its "Modern Greek" system for all works and authors following the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: In the table below, the special rules for vowel combinations () only apply when these letters function as digraphs. There are also words where the same letters stand side by side incidentally but represent separate vowels. In these cases each of the two letters is transcribed separately according to the normal rules for single letters. Such cases are marked in Greek orthography by either having an accent on the first rather than the second vowel letter, or by having a diaeresis over the second letter. For treatment of accents and diaereses—for example, —also see the section on romanizing Greek diacritical marks below.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: The traditional polytonic orthography of Greek uses several distinct diacritical marks to render what was originally the pitch accent of Ancient Greek and the presence or absence of word-initial . In 1982, monotonic orthography was officially introduced for modern Greek. The only diacritics that remain are the acute accent (indicating stress) and the diaeresis (indicating that two consecutive vowels should not be combined).


title: Romanization of Greek

text: When a Greek diphthong is accented, the accent mark is placed over the "second" letter of the pair. This means that an accent over the "first" letter of the pair indicates vowels which should be taken (and romanized) separately. Although the second vowel is not marked with a superfluous diaeresis in Greek, the first-edition ELOT 743 and the UN systems place a diaeresis on the Latin vowel for the sake of clarity.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: Apart from the diacritical marks native to Greek itself or used to romanize its characters, linguists also regularly mark vowel length with macrons () marking long vowels and rounded breves () marking short vowels. Where these are romanized, it is common to mark the long vowels with macrons over the Latin letters and to leave the short vowels unmarked; such macrons should not be confused or conflated with those used by some systems to mark eta and omega as distinct from epsilon, iota, and omicron.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: Greece's early Attic numerals were based on a small sample of letters (including heta) arranged in multiples of 5 and 10, likely forming the inspiration for the later Etruscan and Roman numerals.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: This early system was replaced by Greek numerals which employed the entire alphabet, including the nonstandard letters digamma, stigma, or sigma-tau (placed between epsilon and zeta), koppa (placed between pi and rho), and sampi (placed after omega). As revised in 2001, ELOT 743 provides for the uncommon characters to be given (in Greek) as $ for stigma, + for koppa, and / for sampi. These symbols are not given lower-case equivalents. When used as numbers, the letters are used in combination with the upper "keraia" numeral sign ⟨ʹ⟩ to denote numbers from 1 to 900 and in combination with the lower "keraia" ⟨͵⟩ to denote multiples of 1000. ("For a full table of the signs and their values, see" Greek numerals.)


title: Romanization of Greek

text: These values are traditionally romanized as Roman numerals, so that would be translated as Alexander III of Macedon and transliterated as "Aléxandros III o Makedṓn" rather than "Aléxandros G"' or "Aléxandros 3". Greek laws and other official documents of Greece which employ these numerals, however, are to be formally romanized using "decimal" Arabic numerals.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: Ancient Greek text did not mark word division with spaces or interpuncts, instead running the words together ("scripta continua"). In the Hellenistic period, a variety of symbols arose for punctuation or editorial marking; such punctuation (or the lack thereof) are variously romanized, inserted, or ignored in different modern editions.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: Modern Greek punctuation generally follows French with the notable exception of Greek's use of a separate question mark, the "erotimatiko", which is shaped like the Latinate semicolon. Greek punctuation which has been given formal romanizations include:


title: Romanization of Greek

text: There are many archaic forms and local variants of the Greek alphabet. Beta, for example, might appear as round Β or pointed throughout Greece but is also found in the forms (at Gortyn), and (Thera), (Argos), (Melos), (Corinth), (Megara and Byzantium), and even (Cyclades). Well into the modern period, classical and medieval Greek was also set using a wide array of ligatures, symbols combining or abbreviating various sets of letters, such as those included in Claude Garamond's 16th-century "grecs du roi". For the most part, such variants—as and for π, for στ, and for —are just silently emended to their standard forms and transliterated accordingly. Letters with no equivalent in the classical Greek alphabet such as heta ( & ), meanwhile, usually take their nearest English equivalent (in this case, h) but are too uncommon to be listed in formal transliteration schemes.


title: Romanization of Greek

text: The sounds of Modern Greek have diverged from both those of Ancient Greek and their descendant letters in English and other languages. This led to a variety of romanizations for names and placenames in the 19th and 20th century. The Hellenic Organization for Standardization (ELOT) issued its system in cooperation with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1983. This system was adopted (with minor modifications) by the United Nations' Fifth Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names at Montreal in 1987, by the United Kingdom's Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use (PCGN) and by the United States' Board on Geographic Names (BGN) in 1996, and by the ISO itself in 1997. Romanization of names for official purposes (as with passports and identity cards) were required to use the ELOT system within Greece until 2011, when a legal decision permitted Greeks to use irregular forms (such as "Demetrios" for ) provided that official identification and documents also list the standard forms (as, for example, "Demetrios OR Dimitrios"). Other romanization systems still encountered are the BGN/PCGN's earlier 1962 system and the system employed by the American Library Association and the United States' Library of Congress.


title: Survey methodology

text: As a field of applied statistics concentrating on human-research surveys, survey methodology studies the sampling of individual units from a population and associated techniques of survey data collection, such as questionnaire construction and methods for improving the number and accuracy of responses to surveys. Survey methodology targets instruments or procedures that ask one or more questions that may or may not be answered.


title: Survey methodology

text: Researchers carry out statistical surveys with a view towards making statistical inferences about the population being studied; such inferences depend strongly on the survey questions used. Polls about public opinion, public-health surveys, market-research surveys, government surveys and censuses all exemplify quantitative research that uses survey methodology to answer questions about a population. Although censuses do not include a "sample", they do include other aspects of survey methodology, like questionnaires, interviewers, and non-response follow-up techniques. Surveys provide important information for all kinds of public-information and research fields, such as marketing research, psychology, health-care provision and sociology.


title: Survey methodology

text: A single survey is made of at least a sample (or full population in the case of a census), a method of data collection (e.g., a questionnaire) and individual questions or items that become data that can be analyzed statistically. A single survey may focus on different types of topics such as preferences (e.g., for a presidential candidate), opinions (e.g., should abortion be legal?), behavior (smoking and alcohol use), or factual information (e.g., income), depending on its purpose. Since survey research is almost always based on a sample of the population, the success of the research is dependent on the representativeness of the sample with respect to a target population of interest to the researcher. That target population can range from the general population of a given country to specific groups of people within that country, to a membership list of a professional organization, or list of students enrolled in a school system (see also sampling (statistics) and survey sampling). The persons replying to a survey are called respondents, and depending on the questions asked their answers may represent themselves as individuals, their households, employers, or other organization they represent.


title: Survey methodology

text: Survey methodology as a scientific field seeks to identify principles about the sample design, data collection instruments, statistical adjustment of data, and data processing, and final data analysis that can create systematic and random survey errors. Survey errors are sometimes analyzed in connection with survey cost. Cost constraints are sometimes framed as improving quality within cost constraints, or alternatively, reducing costs for a fixed level of quality. Survey methodology is both a scientific field and a profession, meaning that some professionals in the field focus on survey errors empirically and others design surveys to reduce them. For survey designers, the task involves making a large set of decisions about thousands of individual features of a survey in order to improve it.


title: Survey methodology

text: The most important methodological challenges of a survey methodologist include making decisions on how to:


title: Survey methodology

text: The sample is chosen from the sampling frame, which consists of a list of all members of the population of interest. The goal of a survey is not to describe the sample, but the larger population. This generalizing ability is dependent on the representativeness of the sample, as stated above. Each member of the population is termed an element. There are frequent difficulties one encounters while choosing a representative sample. One common error that results is selection bias. Selection bias results when the procedures used to select a sample result in over representation or under representation of some significant aspect of the population. For instance, if the population of interest consists of 75% females, and 25% males, and the sample consists of 40% females and 60% males, females are under represented while males are overrepresented. In order to minimize selection biases, stratified random sampling is often used. This is when the population is divided into sub-populations called strata, and random samples are drawn from each of the strata, or elements are drawn for the sample on a proportional basis.


title: Survey methodology

text: There are several ways of administering a survey. The choice between administration modes is influenced by several factors, including


title: Survey methodology

text: Different methods create mode effects that change how respondents answer, and different methods have different advantages. The most common modes of administration can be summarized as:


title: Survey methodology

text: There are several different designs, or overall structures, that can be used in survey research. The three general types are cross-sectional, successive independent samples, and longitudinal studies.


title: Survey methodology

text: In cross-sectional studies, a sample (or samples) is drawn from the relevant population and studied once. A cross-sectional study describes characteristics of that population at one time, but cannot give any insight as to the causes of population characteristics because it is a predictive, correlational design.


title: Survey methodology

text: A successive independent samples design draws multiple random samples from a population at one or more times. This design can study changes within a population, but not changes within individuals because the same individuals are not surveyed more than once. Such studies cannot, therefore, identify the causes of change over time necessarily. For successive independent samples designs to be effective, the samples must be drawn from the same population, and must be equally representative of it. If the samples are not comparable, the changes between samples may be due to demographic characteristics rather than time. In addition, the questions must be asked in the same way so that responses can be compared directly.


title: Survey methodology

text: Longitudinal studies take measure of the same random sample at multiple time points. Unlike with a successive independent samples design, this design measures the differences in individual participants’ responses over time. This means that a researcher can potentially assess the reasons for response changes by assessing the differences in respondents’ experiences. Longitudinal studies are the easiest way to assess the effect of a naturally occurring event, such as divorce that cannot be tested experimentally.


title: Survey methodology

text: However, longitudinal studies are both expensive and difficult to do. It's harder to find a sample that will commit to a months- or years-long study than a 15-minute interview, and participants frequently leave the study before the final assessment. In addition, such studies sometimes require data collection to be confidential or anonymous, which creates additional difficulty in linking participants' responses over time. One potential solution is the use of a self-generated identification code (SGIC). These codes usually are created from elements like 'month of birth' and 'first letter of the mother's middle name.' Some recent anonymous SGIC approaches have also attempted to minimize use of personalized data even further, instead using questions like 'name of your first pet. Depending on the approach used, the ability to match some portion of the sample can be lost.


title: Survey methodology

text: In addition, the overall attrition of participants is not random, so samples can become less representative with successive assessments. To account for this, a researcher can compare the respondents who left the survey to those that did not, to see if they are statistically different populations. Respondents may also try to be self-consistent in spite of changes to survey answers.


title: Survey methodology

text: Questionnaires are the most commonly used tool in survey research. However, the results of a particular survey are worthless if the questionnaire is written inadequately. Questionnaires should produce valid and reliable demographic variable measures and should yield valid and reliable individual disparities that self-report scales generate.


title: Survey methodology

text: A variable category that is often measured in survey research are demographic variables, which are used to depict the characteristics of the people surveyed in the sample. Demographic variables include such measures as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, race, and age. Surveys often assess the preferences and attitudes of individuals, and many employ self-report scales to measure people's opinions and judgements about different items presented on a scale. Self-report scales are also used to examine the disparities among people on scale items. These self-report scales, which are usually presented in questionnaire form, are one of the most used instruments in psychology, and thus it is important that the measures be constructed carefully, while also being reliable and valid.


title: Survey methodology

text: Reliable measures of self-report are defined by their consistency. Thus, a reliable self-report measure produces consistent results every time it is executed. A test's reliability can be measured a few ways. First, one can calculate a test-retest reliability. A test-retest reliability entails conducting the same questionnaire to a large sample at two different times. For the questionnaire to be considered reliable, people in the sample do not have to score identically on each test, but rather their position in the score distribution should be similar for both the test and the retest. Self-report measures will generally be more reliable when they have many items measuring a construct. Furthermore, measurements will be more reliable when the factor being measured has greater variability among the individuals in the sample that are being tested. Finally, there will be greater reliability when instructions for the completion of the questionnaire are clear and when there are limited distractions in the testing environment. Contrastingly, a questionnaire is valid if what it measures is what it had originally planned to measure. Construct validity of a measure is the degree to which it measures the theoretical construct that it was originally supposed to measure.


title: Survey methodology

text: Six steps can be employed to construct a questionnaire that will produce reliable and valid results. First, one must decide what kind of information should be collected. Second, one must decide how to conduct the questionnaire. Thirdly, one must construct a first draft of the questionnaire. Fourth, the questionnaire should be revised. Next, the questionnaire should be pretested. Finally, the questionnaire should be edited and the procedures for its use should be specified.


title: Survey methodology

text: The way that a question is phrased can have a large impact on how a research participant will answer the question. Thus, survey researchers must be conscious of their wording when writing survey questions. It is important for researchers to keep in mind that different individuals, cultures, and subcultures can interpret certain words and phrases differently from one another. There are two different types of questions that survey researchers use when writing a questionnaire: free response questions and closed questions. Free response questions are open-ended, whereas closed questions are usually multiple choice. Free response questions are beneficial because they allow the responder greater flexibility, but they are also very difficult to record and score, requiring extensive coding. Contrastingly, closed questions can be scored and coded more easily, but they diminish expressivity and spontaneity of the responder. In general, the vocabulary of the questions should be very simple and direct, and most should be less than twenty words. Each question should be edited for "readability" and should avoid leading or loaded questions. Finally, if multiple items are being used to measure one construct, the wording of some of the items should be worded in the opposite direction to evade response bias.


title: Survey methodology

text: A respondent's answer to an open-ended question can be coded into a response scale afterwards, or analysed using more qualitative methods.


title: Survey methodology

text: Survey researchers should carefully construct the order of questions in a questionnaire. For questionnaires that are self-administered, the most interesting questions should be at the beginning of the questionnaire to catch the respondent's attention, while demographic questions should be near the end. Contrastingly, if a survey is being administered over the telephone or in person, demographic questions should be administered at the beginning of the interview to boost the respondent's confidence. Another reason to be mindful of question order may cause a survey response effect in which one question may affect how people respond to subsequent questions as a result of priming.


title: Survey methodology

text: The following ways have been recommended for reducing nonresponse in telephone and face-to-face surveys:


title: Survey methodology

text: Brevity is also often cited as increasing response rate. A 1996 literature review found mixed evidence to support this claim for both written and verbal surveys, concluding that other factors may often be more important.


title: Survey methodology

text: A 2010 study looking at 100,000 online surveys found response rate dropped by about 3% at 10 questions and about 6% at 20 questions, with drop-off slowing (for example, only 10% reduction at 40 questions).


title: Survey methodology

text: Some researchers have also discussed the recipient's role or profession as a potential factor affecting how nonresponse is managed. For example, faxes are not commonly used to distribute surveys, but in a recent study were sometimes preferred by pharmacists, since they frequently receive faxed prescriptions at work but may not always have access to a generally-addressed piece of mail.


title: Survey methodology

text: Survey methodologists have devoted much effort to determining the extent to which interviewee responses are affected by physical characteristics of the interviewer. Main interviewer traits that have been demonstrated to influence survey responses are race, gender,


title: Survey methodology

text: These interviewer effects are particularly operant when questions are related to the interviewer trait. Hence, race of interviewer has been shown to affect responses to measures regarding racial attitudes,


title: Survey methodology

text: While interviewer effects have been investigated mainly for face-to-face surveys, they have also been shown to exist for interview modes with no visual contact, such as telephone surveys and in video-enhanced web surveys. The explanation typically provided for interviewer effects is social desirability bias: survey participants may attempt to project a positive self-image in an effort to conform to the norms they attribute to the interviewer asking questions. Interviewer effects are one example survey response effects.


title: Wizard101

text: Wizard101 is a 2008 massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) developed and published by KingsIsle Entertainment. Players take on the role of student wizards who must save the Spiral, the fictional universe in which the game is set, from various threats. Players battle enemies by casting spells using a variety of different weapons in a turn-based combat system, similar to collectible card games.


title: Wizard101

text: The fictional universe of the Spiral is divided into many worlds, each of which has multiple areas. The worlds of the Spiral are islands suspended in midair within spheroid atmospheres. The first world in the game, Wizard City, is a university city based around the Ravenwood School of Magical Arts, which players join at the start of the game.


title: Wizard101

text: Players can unlock all areas temporarily via a paid subscription or unlock each area permanently with the game's premium currency ""Crowns"". A wizard first starting the game must choose a school: Fire, Ice, Storm, Myth, Life, Death, or Balance, each complete with their own set of unique spells and playstyles.


title: Wizard101

text: The game is based around "duels": two teams made up of one to four players or computer enemies on each team who take turns casting spells. Spells can be cast using "pips". A player gains one pip every round, and there is a chance that that pip will be a "power pip", worth two regular pips for spells that are of the player's class. Spells can reduce the health of enemy creatures, increase the health of players or their allies, add shields that reduce damage, add blades or traps that modify the amount of damage done, and more. When a player reduces a computer enemy's health to zero, they are defeated; players with a health of zero can be healed by others on their team unless they "flee" the duel. When every player or computer on a team has zero health, the other team wins. When the players win a combat, they earn rewards, which are distributed automatically so players need not argue over spoils.


title: Wizard101

text: As the player progresses, more worlds become available. There are many main worlds, with a few smaller side ones that are optional. When wizards level up, they gain new badge titles and automatic increases in their base statistics: health, mana, and energy. Most equipment also has level restrictions. Hobbies such as training pets, fishing, and gardening require energy; crafting instead requires various resources called "reagents". Players can duel each other in the PvP arena and some houses. As of November 2022, players can achieve a maximum level of 160.


title: Wizard101

text: The game offers a choice of either a subscription or a "Free-to-Play" option with microtransactions. Free-to-Play customers can purchase access to different areas of content using an in-game premium currency called "Crowns". Such areas need to be bought only once. Crowns also can be used to purchase exclusive in-game items and access PvP tournaments. Crowns can be purchased with a game card, from the online store or earned in small amounts through SuperRewards.


title: Wizard101

text: Subscriptions unlock all playable worlds, as well as allowing players to compete in ranked PvP matches and ranked Pet Derby races, enter tournaments for gold, store more items in their backpack, and gain the ability to post on the Wizard101 Message Board, along with other minor benefits for the duration of their membership.


title: Wizard101

text: "Wizard101" has various parental controls available that can be managed by a "Master Account" through the game's website. Once a setting is changed on the Master Account, it goes into effect on all connected accounts in a family of accounts. Parental control options include changing the chat settings to restrict the account from certain chat functions.


title: Wizard101

text: If a player is under 13 years of age, they are not able to see text messages and are restricted to "menu chat", a selection of phrases that can be used to interact with other players (must have made a debit/credit card purchase). However, with a master password, the parent can allow a child under 13 to use text chat. If the player is 13 years or older, they can send and see text messages, but word filters are in place to censor profanity, numbers, and personal information such as emails or names. Filtered words are marked red while typing, and will be sent as three dots once sent. If the player is 18 years or older and has verified their account via credit card, text messages become much less restrictive, allowing them to see and type some words that are usually filtered, though some are still restricted. Filtered words that are generally restricted by 13+ text chat is visible to 18+ chat, and are marked yellow. Those with 18+ chat can see them, but not 13+ chat.


title: Wizard101

text: A player's name must be decided through predetermined names made up of a first name and a one-part or a two-part surname. The official game forums are also heavily moderated, and forum posts must be checked by a moderator before they are made visible.


title: Wizard101

text: The development of "Wizard101" began in 2005, soon after the founding of KingsIsle Entertainment. Company founder Elie Akilian hired J. Todd Coleman, who served as creative director of the game from its launch through 2013. The game entered open beta on August 6, 2008, and it launched successfully on September 2, 2008. On August 25, 2010, it was announced that "Wizard101" would be released in foreign territories later that year.


title: Wizard101

text: "Wizard101" launched a European Beta version on December 15, 2010, and then released the game on February 15, 2011, in partnership with Gameforge. This eventually included releases of the game in English, French, Italian, Spanish, German, Polish, and Greek. It was announced on August 17, 2011, that KingsIsle Entertainment and Taomee Holdings Limited had an agreement to launch "Wizard101" in China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau. "Wizard101" Taiwan officially launched on April 27, 2012, with the others to follow.


title: Wizard101

text: The Chinese version of "Wizard101" had changes made to the game to conform with laws or appeal to the gaming culture in the country. Any references to skeletons or death had to be censored or removed. Quests required more monsters to be defeated or more items collected. The game would suggest players take breaks if playing for long periods and after two hours, or the player will enter a "fatigued" state, where rewards and stats are cut in half, and after five hours, the "unhealthy" state would cut all rewards given completely.


title: Wizard101

text: In 2012, KingsIsle Entertainment released "Pirate101", a sister game of "Wizard101", also set in the 101 universe. It was described as "comfortable and familiar" to "Wizard101", but featuring "entirely new design, setting, and gameplay mechanics".


title: Wizard101

text: In 2014, Taomee no longer advertised "Wizard101". In April 2015, "Wizard101" Taiwan announced that it would shut down on May 25, 2015, but the date was rescheduled to October 15, 2015. "Wizard101" China announced its shutdown date as November 1, 2015. In September 2018, to celebrate the game's 10 year anniversary, the game was given a separate re-release on the gaming platform, Steam. Prior to the ten-year update, the graphics for Wizard City, the starting area of the game, were revamped along with the character models and animations. When the update did appear on September 8, 2018, players were able to get two housing items and a wand (sparkler) to celebrate the ten years. To get one of the housing items, the players are forced to go on a short quest, in which the company, Kingsisle Entertainment, thanks to the supporters of its game through the use of well-established characters in the game. This was a limited-time event, which ended shortly before November 2018.


title: Wizard101

text: On February 15, 2022, both KingsIsle and Gameforge announced that the European "Wizard101" servers would slowly transition to the KingsIsle and gamigo teams over the course of several months in the second quarter of 2022. It is "assured that game progress and Crowns balance will be maintained after the switch".


title: Wizard101

text: In 2008, composer Nelson Everhart was asked to write the music for "Wizard101". The team initially asked him to compose a "Harry Potter"-style track, which got him the job. That music eventually became the score for Marleybone.


title: Wizard101

text: In 2010, the second world Celestia was released. In association with Selena Gomez's released single "Round and Round", a questline for the popstar was made and players who completed the quest were given a statue and portrait of Gomez. However, the questline has since been removed.


title: Wizard101

text: In 2011, a campaign centered around a "mystery composer" was launched in anticipation for "Wizard101"s upcoming Wintertusk expansion. It was finally revealed that Nick Jonas was the mystery composer. He worked with KingsIsle for two months, writing a total of seven atmospheric tracks for Wintertusk.


title: Wizard101

text: According to KingsIsle Entertainment's press releases, the game has experienced a steady growth in the number of accounts: 2 million in April 2009, 5 million in September 2009, 10 million players by June 2010, 15 million by January 2011, 20 million by July 2011, and 30 million by July 2013. As of November 2014, there are currently about 50 million accounts created.


title: Wizard101

text: The game currently scores an average of 77.5% from ratings on GameRankings. GameShark reviewer Toni Dimayuga noted the game's overall ambiance and graphic setting as well as the overall fun nature of "Wizard101" in the pro column, while the combat (in particular defeats) and the perceived restrictive nature of chat were criticized.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: "Won't Get Fooled Again" is a song by the English rock band the Who, written by Pete Townshend. It was released as a single in June 1971, reaching the top 10 in the UK, while the full eight-and-a-half-minute version appears as the final track on the band's 1971 album "Who's Next", released that August.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: Townshend wrote the song as a closing number of the "Lifehouse" project, and the lyrics criticise revolution and power. The track is known for a staccato keyboard figure, played on a simple home organ with a “rhythm” feature that produced a synth-like effect. The Who tried recording the song in New York in March 1971, but re-recorded a superior take at Stargroves the next month using the organ from Townshend's original demo. Ultimately, "Lifehouse" as a project was abandoned in favour of "Who's Next", a straightforward album, where it also became the closing track. It has been performed as a staple of the band's setlist since 1971, often as the set closer, and was the last song drummer Keith Moon played live with the band.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: As well as being a hit, the song has achieved critical praise, appearing as one of "Rolling Stone"s The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. It has been covered by several artists, such as Van Halen, who took their version to No. 1 on the "Billboard" Album Rock Tracks chart. It has been used for several TV shows and films (most notably ""), and in some political campaigns.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: The song was originally intended for a rock opera Townshend had been working on, "Lifehouse", which was a multi-media exercise based on his followings of the Indian religious avatar Meher Baba, showing how spiritual enlightenment could be obtained via a combination of band and audience. The song was written for the end of the opera, after the main character, Bobby, is killed and the "universal chord" is sounded. The main characters disappear, leaving behind the government and army, who are left to bully each other. Townshend described the song as one "that screams defiance at those who feel any cause is better than no cause". He later said that the song was not strictly anti-revolution despite the lyric "We'll be fighting in the streets", but stressed that revolution could be unpredictable, adding, "Don't expect to see what you expect to see. Expect nothing and you might gain everything." Bassist John Entwistle later said that the song showed Townshend "saying things that really mattered to him, and saying them for the first time."


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: Townshend had been reading Universal Sufism founder Inayat Khan's "The Mysticism of Sound and Music", which referred to spiritual harmony and the universal chord, which would restore harmony to humanity when sounded. Townshend realised that the newly emerging synthesizers would allow him to communicate these ideas to a mass audience. He had met the BBC Radiophonic Workshop which gave him ideas for capturing human personality within music. Townshend interviewed several people with general practitioner-style questions, and captured their heartbeat, brainwaves and astrological charts, converting the result into a series of audio pulses. For the demo of "Won't Get Fooled Again", he linked a Lowrey organ into an EMS VCS 3 filter that played back the pulse-coded modulations from his experiments. He subsequently upgraded to an ARP 2500. The synthesizer did not play any sounds directly as it was monophonic; instead it modified the block chords on the organ as an input signal. The demo, recorded at a slower tempo than the version by the Who, was completed by Townshend overdubbing drums, bass, electric guitar, vocals and handclaps.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: The Who's first attempt to record the song was at the Record Plant on W 44 Street, New York City, on 16 March 1971. Manager Kit Lambert had recommended the studio to the group, which led to his producer credit, though the "de facto" work was done by Felix Pappalardi. This take featured Pappalardi's Mountain bandmate, Leslie West, on lead guitar.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: Lambert proved to be unable to mix the track, and a fresh attempt at recording was made at the start of April at Mick Jagger's house, Stargroves, using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio. Glyn Johns was invited to help with production, and he decided to re-use the synthesized organ track from Townshend's original demo, as the re-recording of the part in New York was felt to be inferior to the original. Keith Moon had to carefully synchronise his drum playing with the synthesizer, while Townshend and Entwistle played electric guitar and bass.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: Townshend played a 1959 Gretsch 6120 Chet Atkins hollow body guitar fed through an Edwards volume pedal to a Fender Bandmaster amp, all of which he had been given by Joe Walsh while in New York. This combination became his main electric guitar recording setup for subsequent albums. Although intended as a demo recording, the end result sounded so good to the band and Johns, they decided to use it as the final take. Overdubs, including an acoustic guitar part played by Townshend, were recorded at Olympic Studios at the end of April. The track was mixed at Island Studios by Johns on 28 May. After "Lifehouse" was abandoned as a project, Johns felt "Won't Get Fooled Again", along with other songs, were so good that they could simply be released as a standalone single album, which became "Who's Next". This song is written in the key of A Mixolydian.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: "Won't Get Fooled Again" was first released in the UK as a single A-side on 25 June 1971, edited down to 3:35. It replaced "Behind Blue Eyes", which the group felt did not fit the Who's established musical style, as the choice of single. It was released in July in the US. The B-side, "I Don't Even Know Myself", was recorded at Eel Pie Studios in 1970 for a planned EP that was never released. The single reached No. 9 in the UK charts and No. 15 in the US. Initial publicity material showed an abandoned cover of "Who's Next" featuring Moon dressed in drag and brandishing a whip.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: The full-length version of the song appeared as the closing track of "Who's Next", released in August in the US and 27 August in the UK, where it topped the album charts. "Won't Get Fooled Again" drew strong praise from critics, who were impressed that a synthesizer had managed to be integrated so successfully within a rock song. Who author Dave Marsh described singer Roger Daltrey's scream near the end of the track as "the greatest scream of a career filled with screams". "Cash Box" said of it that the song has "rousing magic with the Who's trademark instrumental and vocal strength" and that "revolutionary lyric matched by the group's performance fervor make this a monster on its way." Rock critic Paul Williams in a "Rolling Stone" issue, published on 17 September 1981, compared the instrumental built-up of the long version to the Doors' "Light My Fire". In 2021, the song was ranked number 295 on "Rolling Stone"s The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. As of March 2018 it was certified Silver for 200,000 sold copies in the UK.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: The Who first performed the song live at the opening date of a series of "Lifehouse"-related concerts in the Young Vic theatre, London on 14 February 1971. It has subsequently been part of every Who concert since, often as the set closer and sometimes extended slightly to allow Townshend to smash his guitar or Moon to kick over his drumkit. The group performed live over the synthesizer part being played on a backing tape, which required Moon to wear headphones to hear a click track, allowing him to play in sync. It was the last track Moon played live in front of a paying audience on 21 October 1976 and the last song he ever played with the Who at Shepperton Studios on 25 May 1978, which was captured on the documentary film "The Kids Are Alright". The song was part of the Who's set at Live Aid in 1985, Live 8 in 2005, T4 on the Beach in 2008 and Capital FM's Summertime Ball concert in 2009, 2010 and 2015 and the radio station's Jingle Bell Ball concerts in 2009 and 2015.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: In October 2001, The Who performed the song at The Concert for New York City to help raise funds for the families of firemen and police officers killed during the 9/11 attacks. They finished their set with "Won't Get Fooled Again" to a responsive and emotional audience, with close-up aerial video footage of the World Trade Center buildings playing behind them on a huge digital screen. In February 2010, the group closed their set during the halftime show of Super Bowl XLIV with this song. While the Who have continued to play the song live, Townshend has expressed mixed feelings for it, alternating between pride and embarrassment in interviews. Who biographer John Atkins described the track as "the quintessential "Who's Next" track but not necessarily the best."


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: Several live and alternative versions of the song have been released on CD or DVD. In 2003, a deluxe version of "Who's Next" was reissued to include the Record Plant recording of the track from March 1971 and a live version recorded at the Young Vic on 26 April 1971. The song is also included on the album "Live at the Royal Albert Hall", from a 2000 show with Noel Gallagher guesting.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: Daltrey, Entwistle and Townshend have each performed the song at solo concerts. Townshend has re-arranged the song for solo performance on acoustic guitar. On 30 June 1979, he performed a duet of the song with classical guitarist John Williams for the 1979 Amnesty International benefit "The Secret Policeman's Ball".


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: In May 2019, Daltrey and Townshend performed a version of the song on classroom instruments with Jimmy Fallon and his house band the Roots for the "Tonight Show".


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: The song was first covered in a distinctive soul style by Labelle on their 1972 album "Moon Shadow". Van Halen covered the song in concert in 1992. Eddie Van Halen re-arranged the track so that the synthesizer part was played on the guitar. A live recording was released on "", and made it to number one on the "Billboard" Album Rock Tracks chart.


title: Won't Get Fooled Again

text: Both Axel Rudi Pell (on "Diamonds Unlocked") and Hayseed Dixie (on "Killer Grass") covered the song in their established styles of metal and bluegrass respectively. Richie Havens covered the track on his 2008 album, "Nobody Left to Crown", playing the song at a slower tempo than the original.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: On January 5, 1935, a man who had given his name as Roland T. Owen, later identified as Artemus Ogletree, died at a hospital in Kansas City, Missouri, United States from beating and stabbing injuries. His death was preceded by a two-day stay in Room 1046 at the Hotel President in what is now the city's Power & Light District marked by communication with someone named "Don", and unusual behavior and incidents noted by the hotel's staff, before he was found wounded in his room the morning of his death. When no next of kin could be located, leading to suspicions that his name was an alias, his body was stored in a local funeral parlor for almost two months. A planned burial in the city's potter's field was averted when an anonymous donor provided funds for a funeral and a floral arrangement signed "Louise".


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: The man's true identity remained unknown for a year and a half until Ruby Ogletree, an Alabama woman who had seen a photo of a distinctive scar on his head in the news, identified him as her son Artemus. She said he had left Birmingham in 1934 at the age of 17 to hitchhike to California. Later she received two letters purportedly from him, some from as far away as Egypt. In August 1935, a caller claiming to be from Memphis, Tennessee told her that Artemus was in Cairo. The letters had also been sent after Artemus' death. Records kept by shipping companies found no records that Ogletree had gone to Egypt. No other suspect has ever been identified.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: The letters later were used to link the killing to a 1937 murder in New York, but no charges were filed against the man arrested in that case, one of whose aliases had been "Donald Kelso". The FBI later investigated but was unable to produce any new leads.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: In 2012, a historian at the Kansas City Public Library wrote two posts on the library's blog about the case. At the end of the last one he revealed that in 2003 or 2004, he had taken a call from someone out of state related to the case. The caller said that they had been helping to inventory the belongings of a recently deceased elderly person when they found a box with newspaper clippings about the Ogletree case and an item mentioned repeatedly in the stories, but they refused to say what that item was. The Kansas City police continue to investigate.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Artemus Ogletree was born in Florida in 1915, one of three children. During his childhood, an accident with some hot grease left a sizable scar on his head above his ear, which remained hairless afterward. In 1934 he left his family, by then living in Birmingham, Alabama, to hitchhike to California. He kept them updated on his progress by mail; they wired him money.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Early on the afternoon of January 2, 1935, Ogletree walked into the Hotel President, in what is now the Power & Light District of Kansas City, Missouri, and asked for an interior room several floors up, giving his name as Roland T. Owen, with a Los Angeles address. Staff remembered him as dressed well and wearing a dark overcoat; he brought no bags with him.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Ogletree paid for one night. The staff noted that in addition to the visible scar on his temple, he had cauliflower ear, and concluded he was probably a boxer or professional wrestler. They believed him to be in his early 20s.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Randolph Propst, a bellhop, accompanied Ogletree up in the elevator to the 10th floor. On the way, Ogletree told him that he had spent the previous night at the nearby Muehlebach Hotel but found the $5 ($ in current dollars) nightly rate too high. Propst opened Room 1046, which per the guest's request was on the inside, overlooking the hotel's courtyard rather than the street outside. He watched as Ogletree took a hairbrush, comb and toothpaste from his overcoat pocket, the extent of his unpacking.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: After Ogletree put those items above the sink, he and Propst left the room. The bellboy returned to lock it, and gave Ogletree the key. After returning to the lobby, he saw Ogletree leave the hotel. A short time afterward, Mary Soptic, one of the hotel maids, returned from a day off to work the afternoon shift. She went into Room 1046 and was surprised to find Ogletree there, since the previous night a woman had been in the room. She apologized, but he said she could go ahead and clean the room.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: While she did, she noticed that he had the shades drawn and left only one dim lamp on. This would remain the case when she encountered Ogletree in the room on other occasions during his stay. "He was either worried about something or afraid" in addition to this preference for low light, she told police later. After she had been cleaning for a few minutes, Ogletree put his overcoat on and brushed his hair. He then left, but asked her to leave the room unlocked as he was expecting some friends in a few minutes.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Soptic did as he asked. At 4 p.m. she returned to the room with freshly laundered towels. Inside, the room was dark. She saw Ogletree lying on the bed, fully dressed. Visible in the light from the hallway was a note on his bedside table that read "Don: I will be back in fifteen minutes. Wait".


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: The next morning, Soptic returned to Room 1046 around 10:30. The door was locked, which led her to assume that Ogletree was out since it could only be locked from the outside, but when she opened it with her own key Ogletree was present, sitting in the dark just where he had been the previous afternoon. The phone rang and he answered it. "No, Don, I don't want to eat. I am not hungry. I just had breakfast ... No, I am not hungry", he said.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Still holding the phone, Ogletree asked Soptic about her job as she cleaned. He wanted to know if she was responsible for the entire floor, and if the President was residential. He repeated his complaint about the Muehlebach's exorbitant rates, after which she finished cleaning, and left.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Again at 4 p.m., Soptic returned with fresh towels. Inside Room 1046, she could hear two men talking, so she knocked. A voice she described as loud and deep, probably not Ogletree's, asked who it was. She responded that she had brought fresh towels, to which the voice said "We don't need any". Yet Soptic knew there were no towels in the room, as she had taken them herself in the morning.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Two hours later, Jean Owen of Lee's Summit, near Kansas City, checked into the President after having shopped in the city for a few hours. Feeling sick, she had decided not to drive back home that night. She was given Room 1048; her boyfriend, who worked in a flower shop in the city, came to visit her there at 9:20 p.m. and stayed for two hours. Later that night, she told police, she heard men and women talking loudly and profanely all over the floor.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Owen was not the only person to note unusual late night activity on the President's 10th floor. Elevator operator Charles Blocher, who began his shift at midnight, reported later that he was fairly busy until 1:30 a.m. After that time, most of the hotel quieted down for the night, except for a loud party in Room 1055.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Blocher recalled one visitor in particular, a woman he had seen at the hotel visiting male guests in their rooms on other occasions and thus believed to be a prostitute, a conclusion shared by other hotel staff who were familiar with her. She came in first sometime during his first three hours; he took her to the 10th floor where she asked about Room 1026. Five minutes later, the elevator was summoned there again; it turned out to be the same woman, who expressed puzzlement that her client was not in Room 1046 since, she said, he had called her and on previous visits with him he had always been present. She wondered if, in fact, he was in Room 1024 since she could see through the room's transom window that the light was on in there. She remained on the floor after the conversation.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: A half-hour later, Blocher got another signal to take the elevator back to the 10th floor. The woman was waiting again and he took her down to the lobby. An hour later he took her, and a different man, to the 9th floor. At 4:15 a.m., a call from that floor turned out to be the woman; he took her to the lobby and she left the hotel for the night. Another call to the 9th floor 15 minutes later turned out to be the man who had come up with her. He told Blocher he could not sleep and was going out for a walk.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Whether these activities are related to the Ogletree case has not been established. He may not have been at the hotel earlier that night. At 11 p.m. Robert Lane, a city worker driving on 13th Street near Lydia Avenue, saw a man dressed in only an undershirt, pants and shoes run into his path and flag him down. When Lane stopped, the man apologized, saying he had mistaken Lane's car for a taxi.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: The man asked Lane if he could take him to somewhere he might be able to get a taxi. Lane agreed and let the man in. "You look as if you've been in it bad", he observed; the man swore he would kill someone else tomorrow, presumably in retaliation for whatever had been done to him. In the mirror Lane saw a deep scratch on the man's arm; he also noticed that he was cupping his arm, possibly to catch blood from a more severe wound.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: At the nearby intersection of 12th Street and Troost Avenue, where taxi drivers often waited for fares during the overnight hours, Lane stopped and let the man out. The man thanked him, got out, and honked the horn of a taxi parked nearby, drawing the driver from a nearby restaurant, after which Lane drove away.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: After Ogletree's death, Lane went to view the body. He saw the same scratch on the arm and went to the police, telling them he believed Ogletree had been the man he picked up.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: At 7 a.m., a new switchboard operator, Della Ferguson, came on shift. She was preparing to make a requested wakeup call to Room 1046 when she noticed a light indicating that the phone there was off the hook.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Propst, who had led Ogletree there two days earlier, was on shift again and drew the assignment. The door to Room 1046 was locked, with a "Do Not Disturb" sign hanging from the doorknob. After several loud knocks, a voice from inside told him to enter; however he could not as the door had been locked. The same voice told him, after another knock, to turn on the lights, but he still could not enter. Finally, Propst just shouted through the door to hang the phone up, and left.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Propst told Ferguson that the guest in Room 1046 was probably drunk and she should wait another hour. At 8:30 a.m., the phone had still not been hung up. Another bellboy, Harold Pike, was sent to the 10th floor. The "Do Not Disturb" sign was still on the door, and it was still locked, but Pike had a key and let himself in. Inside he found Ogletree in the dark, lying on the bed naked, apparently drunk. The light from the hallway showed some dark spots on the bedding, but rather than turn on the room light Pike went to the telephone stand, where he saw the phone had been knocked to the floor. He put it back on the stand, replacing the handset.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Shortly after 10:30 a.m., another operator reported that the phone in Room 1046 was once again off the hook. Again Propst was sent to the room to see what was going on; the "Do Not Disturb" sign remained on the knob. This time he had a key, and after his knocks drew no response, he opened the door and found Ogletree on his knees and elbows two feet (60 cm) away, his head bloodied. Propst turned the light on, put the phone back on the hook, and then noticed blood on the walls of both the main room and bathroom, as well as on the bed itself.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Propst went downstairs immediately for help. He returned with the assistant manager, but when they did they could only open the door six inches (15 cm), as Ogletree had in the interim fallen on the floor. Eventually Ogletree got up and when the two hotel employees were able to enter the room, he went and sat on the edge of the bathtub. The assistant manager called the police; they were joined by Dr. Harold Flanders of Kansas City General Hospital.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Ogletree had been bound with cord around his neck, wrists, and ankles. His neck had further bruising, suggesting someone had been attempting to strangle him. He had been stabbed more than once in the chest above the heart; one of these wounds had punctured his lung. Blows to his head had left him with a skull fracture on the right side. In addition to the blood Propst had seen, there was some additional spatter on the ceiling.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Dr. Flanders cut the cords from Ogletree's wrist and asked him who had done this to him. "Nobody", Ogletree answered. Asked, then, what had caused these injuries, he said he had fallen and hit his head on the bathtub. The doctor asked if he had been trying to kill himself. After saying no, Ogletree lost consciousness and was taken to the hospital. He was completely comatose by the time he arrived and died shortly after midnight on January 5.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: The Kansas City Police Department (KCPD) began investigating immediately by interviewing Jean Owen, whose identical last name and proximity to the dead man overnight struck them as interesting. They detained her while she told them what she had heard the night before. After her boyfriend came to the police station and corroborated her account, she was released and returned to Lee's Summit.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Doctors performed an autopsy on Ogletree and determined he had died from his wounds. Dr. Flanders had examined not just the body but the bloodstains in the room. Since much of it had dried by the time he had arrived, he estimated the wounds had been inflicted between 4 and 5 a.m. that day, consistent with what Pike had seen and before Propst's first visit.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Detectives searching Room 1046 took note as much of what they did "not" find as what they did. Consistent with what Propst had observed, there were no clothes in the closets or drawers. The only evidence of anything other than what Ogletree had been wearing was the tag of a necktie, indicating it had been made by a New Jersey company. Also missing from the room were the soap, shampoo, and towels provided by the hotel to every room.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: There were no knives, which led to the dismissal of suicide as a cause of Ogletree's death since the stab wounds in his chest could not be accounted for; the cords tying him up also suggested the involvement of others. One of the room's two glasses was found in the sink, missing a piece; the other was on the shelf. Detectives found some other items that might have been evidence: a hairpin, safety pin, unsmoked cigarette, and a full bottle of diluted sulfuric acid. Four fingerprints, small enough that detectives believed they had been a woman's, were found on the room's phone; they could not be matched to Ogletree or to any of the hotel employees who had been known to have entered the room.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: The police sought help through the press. Both of the city's evening newspapers carried the story on their front pages the next day. "There is no doubt that someone else is mixed up in this", Detective Johnson told reporters, confirming that the case was considered a homicide.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: It soon became apparent that "Roland T. Owen" was in all likelihood an alias. Officers in Kansas City contacted the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) to notify next of kin, but were informed that they could find no record that anyone under that name was living in the California city at the time. The dead man's fingerprints were sent to what was at the time the Justice Department's Bureau of Investigation (later the FBI) to find a possible match in their collection.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: A woman called the Hotel President that night to ask what "Roland T. Owen" looked like. She told the desk that he lived in Clinton, southeast of Kansas City. On January 6, the Sunday newspapers reported that the man in Room 1046 had died under an assumed name, and tips began coming in. Members of the public went to the local funeral home where he had been laid out, leading Lane to tell police of his encounter with the man. After interviewing Lane, Johnson was not as certain as Lane was that the man had been Ogletree, since none of the hotel staff had reported seeing him leave or return during the night of January 3–4. Police were able to establish one sighting of Ogletree outside the hotel, a report that he had been seen with two women at several "liquor places" on 12th Street.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Wire services began picking up the story, and it ran in newspapers and on radio around the country, with requests to send photographs to Kansas City. More leads on the man's identity came in as a result, and the KCPD had to devote considerable time to corresponding with police all over the country via mail and telegram to follow up on leads. Eventually they were able to eliminate many.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: In Kansas City, an early lead proved false when a bloodied towel found at the hotel turned out to have been used to clean up Room 1046 after the police had left. Officers recalled Propst's account that on his way there after he checked in, the man had said that he had left the nearby Muehlebach Hotel after one night due to their high rates, and checked with that hotel's staff. No Roland T. Owen had checked in there, but staff recalled a man of Ogletree's appearance checking in under the name Eugene K. Scott, also giving Los Angeles as his address, and requesting a room on the interior of the building. Again, after investigating, the LAPD reported that there was no one by that name in their city.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: The mystery seemed solved when a man identified the body as his cousin, but then when the man's sister came to view the body, she confirmed that the cousin had in fact died five years earlier; the resemblance between the two had been very strong. A week into the investigation, Toni Bernardi, a wrestling promoter from Little Rock, Arkansas, said after viewing the body that the man, identifying himself as Cecil Werner, had approached him around the beginning of December 1934 about wrestling some matches. Bernardi had referred him to another promoter in Omaha, Nebraska, but that promoter did not recognize Ogletree.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Within a few days, two new homicides in the city drew detectives' attention away from the case, even as more were assigned to the homicide squad. Leads were still followed, but less vigorously than they had been in the week after the case, and none of them yielded any significant information. Newspaper coverage likewise dwindled.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: The case returned to the newspapers on March 3, when the funeral home where the body had been kept announced it would be burying the man in the city's potter's field the next day. That day, the funeral home received a call from a man who asked that the funeral be delayed so they could send the funeral home the money for a grave and service at Memorial Park Cemetery in Kansas City, Kansas, so, the caller said, the dead man would be near his sister. The funeral director warned the caller he would have to tell the police about the call; the caller said he knew and that did not bother him.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: The caller was slightly more forthcoming when the funeral director asked why Ogletree had been killed. According to the caller, Ogletree had had an affair with one woman while engaged to marry another. The caller and the two women had apparently arranged the encounter with him at the President in order to exact revenge. "Cheaters usually get what's coming to them!" the caller said, and hung up.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: The service was postponed per the anonymous caller's request. On March 23, the funeral home received a delivery envelope, the address carefully lettered using a ruler with $25 ($ in current dollars) wrapped in newspaper; it was enough to cover the expenses. The sender was unknown.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Two additional envelopes with $5 each were sent to a local florist for an arrangement of 13 American Beauty roses to go with the grave, after a similar call was made to them; both phone calls turned out to have been made from pay phones. Included with this payment was a card, with disguised handwriting, reading "Love Forever – Louise". The funeral was held shortly afterwards. Besides the officiating minister, the only attendees were police detectives, some of whom served as pallbearers. Other detectives, posing as gravediggers, staked out the grave for the next several days, but no one came to visit.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Several days after the funeral, a woman called the "Kansas City Journal-Post"s newsroom to inform them that their earlier story that the dead man from Room 1046 would be buried in a pauper's grave was incorrect, that he had in fact been given a formal funeral. She said the funeral home and flower shop could verify this. Asked to identify herself, she said "Never mind, I know what I'm talking about", Pressed for what that was, she responded, "He got into a jam", and ended the conversation.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Images of the dead man continued to be circulated nationwide in the hope of identifying him. One of these finally did, when a friend of Ruby Ogletree in Birmingham, Alabama, showed her an issue of "The American Weekly", a Sunday newspaper supplement published by the Hearst Corporation, with an article about the case. The unidentified man looked a great deal like her son Artemus, whom the family had not seen since he left to hitchhike to California in 1934, although he had kept up correspondence with them.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Ruby contacted the KCPD, and was able to provide enough information about the previous pseudonymous corpse, including a description of his head scar, which she explained was the result of a childhood accident in which some hot grease had spilled there. In November, another issue of the supplement carried a story identifying the man as Artemus Ogletree and explaining how his identity had been determined.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: While that question had been answered, Ruby's account raised more questions. She had received several letters purportedly from her son "after" he had been killed. The first, early in 1935, postmarked in Chicago, aroused her suspicions since it was typewritten and as far as she knew, Artemus did not know how to type. It was also written in a highly colloquial style that was not consistent with his previous letters.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: In May 1935, another letter purportedly from Artemus said he was going to Europe. It was followed by a special-delivery letter saying that his ship was sailing that day. Both were sent from New York.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: In August of that year, Ruby received a telephone call from Memphis, Tennessee. The man calling told her that Artemus had saved his life in a fight, and that Artemus himself could not call because he was now living in Cairo (the capital of Egypt) where he had married a wealthy woman and was well. He was unable to write, the caller said, because he had lost one of his thumbs in the fight where he had saved the caller.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Ruby talked with the man for a half-hour. She recalled that he spoke wildly and irrationally, but seemed to have first-hand knowledge of Artemus. She gave the police the name the man identified himself by; this name has never been made public.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: If Artemus had, at some point before his death, gone to Egypt or anywhere else overseas, he had not done so under his own name. No steamship company at the time had any record that he had traveled with them. The consular section at the U.S. Embassy in Cairo was unable to find any evidence he had been there.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: Information developed through the police's conversations with Ruby Ogletree helped them establish a third hotel in Kansas City—the St. Regis—where Artemus had stayed. There, he had shared a room with another man. Whether that had been "Don" could not be established.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: In 1937 the New York City police arrested a man named Joseph Martin on a murder charge, after he had killed a man he shared a room with and put the body in a trunk to be shipped to Memphis. Among the several aliases he was found to have used was "Donald Kelso". According to a story about the case in "The New Yorker", the KCPD had matched samples of his handwriting to that in the letters written to Ruby Ogletree.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: No charges were filed against the man for the Ogletree case, and the KCPD kept the case open. The files show that different detectives reviewed the case every few years through the 1950s. Each time they noted that they would keep the case open and follow up, but no new evidence was uncovered. Gradually the case went cold.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: In 2003 or 2004, John Horner, a local historian at the Kansas City Public Library, fielded a call from someone out of state who said they had been helping to inventory the belongings of an elderly person who had recently died. Among them was a shoebox which turned out to be filled with newspaper clippings related to the case, as well as, according to them, one item mentioned in the newspaper stories. The caller identified neither themselves nor the item. Horner did not make this public until the conclusion of the second of two posts he made on the library's blog retelling the story in 2012.


title: Murder of Artemus Ogletree

text: The absence of suspects in the case has inspired the rise of several theories. The telephone calls alleging that Ogletree was killed in retaliation for his broken engagement have provided support for that theory. Organized crime has also been considered, since the name "Don" can also be a title for a Mafia boss. Lastly, it has been suggested that "Don", whoever he was, killed Ogletree for some personal reason, either with the help of the "commercial woman" Blocher saw in the hotel late that night or by himself.


title: Bitola

text: Bitola (; ) is a city in the southwestern part of North Macedonia. It is located in the southern part of the Pelagonia valley, surrounded by the Baba, Nidže, and Kajmakčalan mountain ranges, north of the Medžitlija-Níki border crossing with Greece. The city stands at an important junction connecting the south of the Adriatic Sea region with the Aegean Sea and Central Europe, and it is an administrative, cultural, industrial, commercial, and educational centre. It has been known since the Ottoman period as the "City of Consuls", since many European countries had consulates in Bitola.


title: Bitola

text: Bitola, known during the Ottoman Empire as Manastır or Monastir, is one of the oldest cities in North Macedonia. It was founded as Heraclea Lyncestis in the middle of the 4th century BC by Philip II of Macedon. The city was the last capital of the First Bulgarian Empire (1015-1018) and the last capital of Ottoman Rumelia, from 1836 to 1867. According to the 2002 census, Bitola is the second-largest city in the country. Bitola is also the seat of the Bitola Municipality.


title: Bitola

text: The name "Bitola" is derived from the Old Church Slavonic word (, meaning "monastery, cloister"), literally "abode," as the city was formerly noted for its monastery. When the meaning of the name was no longer understood, it lost its prefix "o-". The name "Bitola" is mentioned in the Bitola inscription, related to the old city fortress built in 1015 during the ruling of Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria (1014–1015) when Bitola served as capital of the First Bulgarian Empire. Modern Slavic variants include the Macedonian (), the Serbian () and Bulgarian (). In Byzantine times, the name was Hellenized to () or (), hence the names "Butella" used by William of Tyre and "Butili" by the Arab geographer al-Idrisi.


title: Bitola

text: The Modern Greek name for the city (, ), also meaning "monastery", is a calque of the Slavic name. The Turkish name () is derived from the Greek name, as is the Albanian name (), and the Ladino name ( ). The Aromanian name, or alternatively, , is derived from the same root as the Macedonian name.


title: Bitola

text: Bitola is located in the southwestern part of North Macedonia. The Dragor River flows through the city. Bitola lies at an elevation of 615 metres above sea level, at the foot of Baba Mountain. Its magnificent Pelister mountain (2,601 m) is a national park with exquisite flora and fauna, among which is the rarest species of pine, known as Macedonian pine or pinus peuce. It is also the location of a well-known ski resort.


title: Bitola

text: Covering an area of . and with a population of 122,173 (1991), Bitola is an important industrial, agricultural, commercial, educational and cultural centre. It represents an important junction that connects the Adriatic Sea to the south with the Aegean Sea and Central Europe.


title: Bitola

text: Bitola has a mildly continental climate typical of the Pelagonija region, experiencing very warm and dry summers, and cold and snowy winters. The Köppen climate classification for this climate is "Cfb", which would be an oceanic climate, going by the original threshold.


title: Bitola

text: There are a number of prehistoric archaeological sites around Bitola. The earliest evidence of organized human settlements are the archaeological sites from the early Neolithic period, among which the most important are the tells of Veluška Tumba and Bara Tumba near the village of Porodin, first inhabited around 6000 BC. Excavated settlements from the Copper Age are the sites of Tumba near the village of Crnobuki, Šuplevec near the village of Suvodol, and Visok Rid near the village of Bukri. The Bronze Age is represented by remains of a settlement at Tumba near the village of Kanino and Tumba near Karamani, among others. An extensive tumulus from the Iron Age was excavated in the 1960s at the site of Visoi, near Beranci, containing around 50 radially placed burials.


title: Bitola

text: The region of Bitola was known as Lynkestis in antiquity, a region that became part of Upper Macedonia, and was ruled by semi-independent chieftains until the later Argead rulers of Macedon. The tribes of Lynkestis were known as "Lynkestai". According to Nicholas Hammond, they were a Greek tribe belonging to the Molossian group of the Epirotes. There are important metal artifacts from the ancient period at the necropolis of Crkvište near the village of Beranci. A golden earring dating from the 4th century BC is depicted on the obverse of the North Macedonian 10-denar banknote, issued in 1996.


title: Bitola

text: Heraclea Lyncestis ( - "City of Hercules upon the Land of the Lynx") was an important settlement from the Hellenistic period till the early Middle Ages. It was founded by Philip II of Macedon by the middle of the 4th century BC, and named after the Greek hero Heracles. With its strategic location, it became a prosperous city. The Romans conquered this part of Macedon in 148 BC and destroyed the political power of the city. However, its prosperity continued mainly due to the Roman Via Egnatia road which passed near the city. A number of archaeological monuments from the Roman period can be seen today in Heraclea, including a portico, thermae (baths), a theater. The theatre was once capable of housing an audience of around 2,500 people.


title: Bitola

text: In the early Byzantine period (4th to 6th centuries AD) Heraclea became an important episcopal centre. Some of its bishops were mentioned in the acts of the first Church Councils, including Bishop Evagrius of Heraclea in the Acts of the Sardica Council of 343. The city walls, a number of Early Christian basilicas, the bishop's residence, and a lavish city fountain are some of the remains of this period. The floors in the three naves of the Great Basilica are covered with mosaics with a very rich floral and figurative iconography; these well preserved mosaics are often regarded as one of the finest examples of the early Christian art in the region. During the 4th and 6th centuries, the names of other bishops from Heraclea were recorded. The city was sacked by Ostrogothic forces, commanded by Theodoric the Great in 472 AD and, despite a large gift to him from the city's bishop, it was sacked again in 479. It was restored in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. However, in the late 6th century the city suffered successive attacks by various tribes, and eventually the region was settled by the early Slavic peoples. Its imperial buildings fell into disrepair and the city gradually declined to a small settlement, and survived as such until around the 11th century AD.


title: Bitola

text: In the 6th and 7th centuries, the region around Bitola experienced a demographic shift as more and more Slavic tribes settled in the area. In place of the deserted theater, several houses were built during that time. The Slavs also built a fortress around their settlement. Bitola was a part of the First Bulgarian Empire from the middle of the 8th to the early 11th centuries, after which it again became part of the Byzantine Empire, and in turn was briefly part of the Serbian Empire during the 14th century. Arguably, a number of monasteries and churches were built in and around the city during the Medieval period (hence its other name "Manastir").


title: Bitola

text: In the 10th century, Bitola came under the rule of tsar Samuel of Bulgaria. He built a castle in the town, later used by his successor Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria. The town is mentioned in several medieval sources. John Skylitzes's 11th-century chronicle mentions that Emperor Basil II burned Gavril's castle in Bitola, when passing through and ravaging Pelagonia. The second chrysobull (1019) of Basil II mentioned that the Bishop of Bitola depended on the Archbishopric of Ohrid. During the reign of Samuil, the city was the seat of the Bitola Bishopric. In many medieval sources, especially Western, the name "Pelagonia" was synonymous with the Bitola Bishopric. According to some sources, Bitola was known as Heraclea since what once was the Heraclea Bishopric later became the Pelagonian Metropolitan's Diocese. In 1015, Tsar Gavril Radomir was killed by his cousin Ivan Vladislav, who then declared himself tsar and rebuilt the city's fortress. To commemorate the occasion, a stone inscription written in the Cyrillic alphabet was set in the fortress; in it the Slavic name of the city is mentioned: Bitol.