title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: Principal photography commenced in November 2008 in Philadelphia. A set was erected to shoot the replica of a terrorist attack. The subway tube scene was shot underground where the train was hired. Khan noted the cold weather conditions to an added difficulty in getting the pitch and tone right while delivering dialogues. The characters were shooting in sync sound. There were 80 people in the unit. Also during the shoot, Kapoor fainted on the sets owing to the cold weather. Some scenes were filmed in Brooklyn. A three-minute erotic scene between Khan and Kapoor (through the song "Rasiya") was requested to be removed from the film print by Kapoor for personal reasons. She'd agreed to shoot for it because it was integral to the script. In an interview with "Press Trust of India", she was quoted saying: "“I've done kissing scenes earlier, but the lovemaking scene is explicit by my yardstick.” Khan flew down to India due to health reasons on 22 December 2008. D'Silva made an attempt to film in U.K. but cancelled due to lack of permissions and security issues. Filming took place in areas around Rajpath and Delhi Haat in February 2009. The song "Shukran Allah" was shot close to Humayun's Tomb with 2 lakh people witnessing the shoot. However, owing to the lead pair's popularity, there were a huge number of people who had come to see them especially. The areas of Jama Masjid and Janpath were always too high to shoot. Hence, barring a few shots, wide-angle shoots were cancelled enforcing recreation of scenes planned in Delhi for Mumbai between mid-March to April 2009. The Mumbai scenes bore continuity to the ones filmed in U.S. In May 2009, filming continued in New York. Johar's production house was accused of not paying its employees on the film's sets in US. In August 2009, the film was set to enter its last schedule in Pune. However, it was cancelled owing to the outbreak of swine flu. As per D'Silva, Oberoi's scenes formed about 80% of the film. His character was central to the drama. Oberoi used to visit D'Silva's room in Philadelphia every night to discuss diction, dialogues and looks. Oberoi also had the most single shots in the film. At times, the treatment of a few scenes were rewritten by Johar. Filming and post-production was wrapped up by November 2009.


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: The original score and soundtrack for the film were composed by Salim–Sulaiman. Salim Merchant agreed that the songs have a Sufi touch in them, as requested by Johar. The duo were approached while they were composing the now-shelved "Koochie Koochie Hota Hai". However, the composers were focused on the original score. Merchant pointed out that "Shukran Allah" was based on Khan's character where he is paying gratitude to God for giving him the love of this life. The Arabic lines translate to, 'Thank You, Allah, and All the Praise in this World is For You'. Originally a prayer, the composers decided to turn it into a love song. As per Merchant, "Ali Maula" was a chanting kind of song, sung by him. When they composed the song, they were unsure of its fitment in any film. They played it to Johar and D'Silva, who approved it for "Kurbaan". In an interview with Radio Mirchi, Kapoor called the track as the turning point of the film. Sulaiman Merchant called the track "Rasiya" as 'passionate', a song picturized on an intimate scene between Khan and Kapoor. Being pictured on a married couple, they kept maturity in the composition keeping a balance of sensuality.


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: The soundtrack received mixed-to-positive reviews from music critics. Critic Ruchika Kher of "Hindustan Times" assigned the album score of 3.5 out of 5 and stated: "On the whole, the album is worth checking out. Salim-Sulaiman have done a great job yet again." Ankit Ojha of "Planet Bollywood" reviewed: "Overall, "Kurbaan" is a good album which has a combination of some fine Sufi lyrics and some surprisingly enjoyable situational tracks that make for a more-rounded album (despite the inclusion of a minimal number of songs). Here, the urbanization goes for a toss to give more emphasis to the melody as a whole. Worth-a-buy!" Sukanya Verma of "Rediff" rated the album 3 on 5 noted, "A compact soundtrack with a mix of sweet-sounding and soul-stirring melodies to offer, "Kurbaan" is worth sacrificing a few bucks at a music shop counter." Critics based at "Bollywood Hungama" noted: ""Kurbaan" is a quality album all the way and clearly the best that Salim & Sulaiman have offered since "Fashion" (2008)."


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: The Central Board of Film Certification India awarded the film with an A (Restricted to adults) release certificate. Vinayak Azad (The Regional Officer of the Censor Board) noted the setting of the film, which is terrorism, led to the decision. Rensil D’Silva, the director of the film, tried convincing for a ‘U’ or ‘U/A’ certificate, however, there were no changes.


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: On review aggregator "Rotten Tomatoes", the film has 4 reviews and all four are positive. "Kurbaan" received positive reviews from critics in India and overseas.


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: In his review for "Economic Times", Gaurav Malani wrote: ""Kurbaan" is an outcome of sensitive filmmaking, Technically, the film is proficient in all departments. Undoubtedly. the narrative bears a striking resemblance to Kabir Khan's "New York" (2009), both in terms of the theme and setting of the story and structure of the screenplay." He gave the film a score of 3 (out of 5). Critic Taran Adarsh in his review for "Bollywood Hungama" gave the film 4 (out of 5), noting ""Kurbaan" is embellished with superlative performances. Khan is extraordinary in a role that only proves his versatility once again. He claimed the film as "the most powerful film to come out of the Hindi film industry in 2009, so far. The film has a captivating plot, gripping screenplay, superb performances and a riveting climax." Rajeev Masand from "CNN-IBN" noted "It's a compelling thriller that doesn’t shy away from touching prickly issues, director Rensil D’Silva makes a confident debut with a film that is respectable and engaging." He assigned a score of 3 on 5. Shubhra Gupta of "The Indian Express" rated the film 3 out of 5, noted: "Written sharply by producer Karan Johar, and directed intelligently by first-timer Rensil D'Silva, the film enunciates, with admirable clarity, contemporary conundrums." A review by Anil Sinanan for "Time Out" denoted, "However, this has to be applauded for exploring a topical and sensitive subject in the widest commercial context. Interesting, entertaining and solidly executed." The score assigned by her to the film was 3 on 5. Nikhat Kazmi of "The Times of India" rated the film 3.5 on 5, adding on 'Kudos to Karan Johar for shifting gears completely and entering into serious territory.' Ram Tarat of "Future Movies UK", pointed "A chilling yet appropriately tempered and charismatic antidote to your archetypal seasonal fare, "Kurbaan" is a gripping white knuckle ride that turns at all the right places for the ultimate thrill ride." He added on a score of 4 (out of 5) Baradwaj Rangan, his review for the film pointed: "It is yet another story about yet another terrorist. The hardware is there, but where’s the heart? "Kurbaan" wears its hot-button topicality proudly, like a gleaming medal that’s been well and truly earned. And the members of the cast do most of the earning, each one entrusted with disbursing a bit of the sugar-coated bitter medicine."


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: The film was released in 1250 screens across India. The first day box office collections were est. ₹40 million. Despite pre-release hype and controversy, it opened to average numbers. Also, the first day occupancy was 40%, below the expected average of 70%. The film's business in territories like Delhi, Lucknow, Bangalore and Hyderabad managed 50 to 60 per cent occupancy. However, the A (Restricted to Adult) certificate from the Censor Board limited the audiences. The film went on to earn est. ₹136 million in India in the first weekend of its release. The worldwide first weekend collection were around est. ₹242 million. However, the first week's collections improved meagre to est. ₹197 million in India whereas worldwide figure being est. ₹348 million. The all time worldwide gross was recorded as est. ₹429 million.


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: The film underperformed and hence, was declared as a flop by "Box Office India". In a year-end box office performance review by "DNA", the film was rounded in the category of big-budget movies. Siddharth Roy Kapur (distribution rights) admitted that 2009 was a tough year for the Indian film industry. Producer Mohan Kumar added: "Movies which did good business at the box office this year were fun films [...] even though Saif-Kareena starrer "Kurbaan" had a backdrop of terrorism, it did not do well."


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: "Kurbaan" first premiered on Colors, following which it subsequently began being broadcast on UTV Movies. A decade later, Star India acquired the rights, and retains them with several other films such as "Wake Up Sid" (2009).


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: A petitioner, Mohammed Ali, filed a petition in Bombay High Court to stay the release of the movie after claiming two of the songs ("Shukran Allah" and "Ali Maula") were objectionable. However, the Court refused to grant interim relief in a petition seeking a stay on release on the ground that its songs hurt sentiments of the minority community. In a related event, a local court rejected a private complaint seeking to delete an obscene shot (portrayed through the song "Rasiya") in the film showing Kapoor and Khan in partially nude poses. The Magistrate, who rejected the complaint, observed that no offence of alleged obscenity was made out against the film makers and actors. In another event, where the first poster of the film represented Khan bare-chested and Kapoor backless, she stated: "There is love, passion and violence - all combined in the film and what better way than to show it through a single still? You too would agree that there is nothing sleazy or vulgar about it." Women representing the Shiv Sena wrapped a saree around the film's poster during a defense. The party objected that the backless image shown in posters is against the Hindu culture of the state, and hence should have been immediately withdrawn.


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: Dharma Productions tied up Australia-based Swish Films to film a few scenes in Philadelphia and then left owing money to hundreds of local actors and vendors. Both Dharma and Swish Films were sued, according to documents filed in Common Pleas Court. The lawsuit sought in excess of $150,000 to be paid to in unpaid services and expenses for 25 of the vendors. The lawsuit requested restraining order that prevented the representatives of Dharma Productions from leaving the US with its assets and the shot footage. There were paid cheques that bounced, leaving more than $500,000 in unpaid bills.


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: Dharma then offered certain workers half the amount they are owed, whereas for the rest, they paid the full amount owed, including to the City of Philadelphia and Teamsters Local 107.


title: Kurbaan (2009 film)

text: In a few released prints of the film, a scene where Oberoi, Khan, and their university classmates interact in the film, the white students are speaking in English to a discussion on Islamic fundamentalism and America, a crux of the theme. D'Silva was miffed with the UTV to dub those lines in Hindi. However, initially, UTV assured D'Silva that dubbing was only for a very small number of prints that would go in the Hindi belt where English was not understood. Instead, UTV dubbed the sequence in 500 prints of "Kurbaan". However, Siddharth Roy Kapur added that being an important scene of the core debate, in order to not alienate a non-English speaking audience, they dubbed the scene in certain areas.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr ibn al-ʿAwwām (; 594–656) was an Arab Muslim commander in the service of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the caliphs Abu Bakr () and Umar () who played a leading role in the Ridda Wars against rebel tribes in Arabia in 632–633 and later participated in early Muslim conquests of Sasanian Iraq in 633–634, Byzantine Syria in 634–638, and the Exarchate of Africa in 639–643.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: An early convert to Islam, Zubayr was made the commander by Muhammad for the Battle of Badr in 624, in which Zubayr was instrumental in defeating the opponent forces of the Quraysh. He participated in almost all of the early Muslim battles and expeditions under Muhammad. In the Battle of the Trench, due to his military service, Muhammad bestowed the title "Hawari Rasul Allah" ('Disciple of Messenger of God') upon him. After Muhammad's demise, Zubayr was appointed as a commander, in the Ridda Wars, by caliph Abu Bakr. He was involved in the defense of Medina and Battle of Yamama. During Umar's caliphate, Zubayr served in the Muslim conquests of Egypt, Levant, Persia, Sudan, and Tripolitania.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: After Umar's assassination, Zubayr became an important political figure of the caliphate, being the chief advisor of the Shura that elected the third caliph Uthman. During the latter's caliphate, Zubayr advised the caliph in political and religious issues. After Uthman was assassinated, Zubayr pledged allegiance to the fourth caliph Ali, though later withdrew allegiance, after Ali refused to avenge Uthman's death. Zubayr's forces engaged with Ali's forces in the Battle of the Camel in December 656. In the aftermath, while Zubayr was prostrating in prayer, he was killed by Amr ibn Jurmuz.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr is generally considered by historians to be one of early Islam's most accomplished commanders. The Sunni Islamic tradition credits Zubayr as being "promised paradise". The Shia Islamic tradition views Zubayr negatively. The general's descendants, known as the Zubayrids, are found worldwide.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam was born in Mecca in 594. His father was Al-Awwam ibn Khuwaylid of the Asad clan of the Quraysh tribe, making Zubayr a nephew of Khadijah. His mother was Muhammad's aunt, Safiyya bint Abd al-Muttalib, hence Zubayr was Muhammad's first cousin. He had two brothers, Sa'ib and Abd al-Kaaba; a maternal brother, Safi ibn Al-Harith, who was from the Umayya clan; and several paternal siblings, including Hind bint Al-Awwam, a wife of Zayd ibn Haritha.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Al-Awwam died while Zubayr was still young. His mother, Safiyya, would beat him severely in order to make him "bold in battle". While he was still a boy, Zubayr fought an adult man and beat him up so fiercely that the man's hand was broken. Safiyya, who was pregnant at the time, had to carry the man home.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr was one of the first men to accept Islam under the influence of Abu Bakr, and is said to have been the fourth or fifth adult male convert.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr was one of the first fifteen emigrants to Abyssinia in 615, until he returned there in 616. During his stay in Abyssinia, a rebellion against Najashi, king of Aksum and benefactor of the Muslim emigrants, broke out. Najashi met the rebels in battle on the banks of the Nile. The Muslims were greatly worried and decided to send Zubayr to seek news from Najashi. By using an inflated waterskin, he swam down the Nile river until he reached the point where the battle was raging. He watched until Najashi had defeated the rebels and then swam back to the Muslims to report the victory. However, another version recorded Zubayr as crossing the Red Sea from the coast of the Arabian Peninsula.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr was among those who returned to Mecca in 619 when he heard that the Meccans had converted to Islam. However, as they approached Mecca, they learned that the report was false, and they had to enter the town under the protection of a citizen or by stealth. While he stayed with early converts of Islam in Mecca, Zubayr was given a shared responsibility as a hafiz, someone who memorized every verse of the Quran, along with Abu Bakr, Abdur Rahman ibn Auf, Talha and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas. Zubayr joined the general emigration to Medina in 622. At first he lodged with Al-Mundhir ibn Muhammad. It is disputed who became Zubayr's sworn brother, as various traditions name different people, including Abdullah ibn Mas'ud, Talhah, Ka'b ibn Malik, or Salama ibn Salama. As a shrewd merchant, Zubayr diverted his trading business route from Mecca to Medina at the beginning of the emigration.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr served as one of three main commanders of the Muslim forces in the Battle of Badr, along with Hamza ibn Abdul-Muttalib and Ali. In the course of the battle, he killed the Quraish champion Ubayda ibn Sa'id Umayya clan. According to some accounts Zubayr also killed Nawfal ibn Khuwaylid, although others credit his death to Ali.<ref name="Guillaume/Ishaq p. 337">Guillaume/Ishaq p. 337.</ref>


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: At the Battle of Uhud, Zubayr volunteered to take up Muhammad's sword, though Muhammad chose to give the sword to Abu Dujana al-Ansari instead. When the tide of the battle turned against the Muslim forces and many fled, Zubayr was among the few to stand with Muhammad. According to Mubarakpuri, Muhammad praised Zubayr as the "Hawari" for the first time due to his killing of Ibn Abi Talhah, a standard bearer of the Banu Abd al-Dar tribe. During the last phase of the battle, when the tide of the battle were changed as now the Muslim forces has suffered setback from Khalid ibn al-Walid counterattack, the Muslims ranks were separated each others.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Not long after the battle of Uhud, Muhammad sent Zubayr and Abu Bakr to chase the victorious Quraish forces in Hamra al-Asad, where they captured a Quraish soldier from Banu Jumah, Abu Izzah al-Jumahi. Muhammad then ordered Zubayr to execute Abu Izzah for breaking his promise with Muhammad at the battle of Badr to not involve himself in the war against them anymore.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later, after the invasion of Banu Nadir which resulted in the exile of Banu al-Nadir from Medina, their landed estates, which included palm-date gardens and cultivation fields along with their fortress residences, were confiscated and divided among the Muslims. Zubayr and Abu Salamah ibn `Abd al-Asad were acquired a shared property of al-Buwaylah from this campaign.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: During the Battle of the Trench, Zubayr fought and killed Nawfal ibn Abdullah ibn Mughirah al Makhzumi in a duel. However, other chroniclers such as Ibn Hajar Al-Asqalani recorded the man killed by Zubayr as Uthman ibn Mughirah al Makhzumi. The Muslim defenders cheered and praised the sharpness of the sword which Zubayr used, only for Zubayr to reply that it is not his sword which need to be complimented, but the strength of the arm which held the sword. Zubayr caused the enemy horsemens to flee after he strike the horse of Qurayshite warrior named Hubayr ibn Abi Wahb al Makhzumi, cutting the horse armour and crupper of Hubayr horse. Zubayr also played a reconnaissance role when he volunteered to spy on the Qurayza tribe for Muhammad. The latter then praised Zubayr: "Every Prophet has a disciple, and my disciple is Al-Zubayr."


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: After the battle, Muhammad immediately instructed the Muslim army to march without ceasing or resting to the settlement of Banu Qurayza, a Jewish tribe who had betrayed the Muslims in the previous battle. Banu Qurayza was besieged for several days before the Muslim soldiers, including Zubayr, broke through with a battering ram, and forced the surrender and execution of the garrison.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: In March 628 CE (6 AH), Muhammad set out for Mecca to perform the ritual pilgrimage of Umrah. The Quraysh denied the Muslims entry into the city and posted themselves outside Mecca, determined to offer resistance even though the Muslims did not have any intention or preparation for battle, which caused Muhammad to send Uthman ibn Affan as his envoy to meet with the leaders of Quraysh and negotiate their entry into the city. The Quraysh had Uthman stay longer in Mecca than they originally planned, which caused Muhammad to believe that Uthman had been killed. In response, Muhammad gathered his nearly 1,400 Sahaba and called them to pledge to fight until death and avenge the death of Uthman. After the pledge, verses were revealed in the Qur'an commemorating and appreciating the pledge and those who made it:


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Due to this verse, the pledge is also known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" as it was believed in Islam to be a cause for God's blessing towards those who took pledge, including Zubayr, while at the same day, the ratification of treaty of Hudaybiyyah also occurred.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: In 628, Zubayr participated in the Battle of Khaybar, defeating the Jewish champion Yassir in single combat. Afterward, the Muslims commented on how sharp his sword must have been; Zubayr replied that it had not been sharp but he had used it with great force. Later during the battle, Zubayr fought and killed another opposing champion in a duel. After the Muslims had conquered any of these eight Khaybar fortresses, the Jewish treasurer, Kinana, was brought to Muhammad, but he refused to reveal where their money was hidden. However, later Muhammad ibn Maslama decapitated Kinana, in retaliation for his brother Mahmud, who had been killed in the battle a few days earlier. Zubayr was later made one of the eighteen chiefs who each supervised the division of a block of the spoils of victory.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later, as the Muslim forces returned to Medina from Khaybar, they passed one more hostile Jewish fortress in Wadi al-Qura. During this battle Zubayr facing at least two enemy who challenged him to a duel; Zubayr accepted and defeated them both.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: In December 629, on the eve of the Conquest of Mecca, Zubayr and Ali brought back to Muhammad a letter from a spy intended for the Quraysh, making Muhammad confident that the Muslims would now take Mecca by surprise. When Muhammad entered Mecca, Zubayr held one of the three banners of the Emigrants and commanded the left wing of the conquering army.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later, during the Battle of Hunayn in 630 CE (8 AH), the Hawazin tribe forces under Malik ibn Awf ambushed the Muslims under the valley, which drove almost the entire Muslim army into retreat except Muhammad and several of his men, possibly including Zubayr. However, the Hawazin forces paused as they almost surrounded Muhammad and his followers, giving time for the Muslim army to regroup. After they consolidated themselves and rescued Khalid, who has been gravely injured during the first clash, the Muslims commenced a general counterattack, with Zubayr on the front of the Rashidun cavalry. The Hawazin forces were immediately driven out of the valley by the frontal attack led by Zubayr after a short engagement. Nafi' ibn Jubayr reported that he saw Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib passing instructions from Muhammad to Zubayr to plant the rallying flag. After the battles in Awtas, the Muslims engaged in the lengthy Siege of Ta'if, although they did not succeed in forcing an immediate surrender of the Hawazin. Later, Zubayr participated in the last campaign with Muhammad, the Expedition of Tabuk.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: At some point, Muhammad assigned Zubayr and Jahm ibn al-Suht to be registrars and auditors of the zakat funds. Muhammad also employ Al-Zubayr as one of his scribe. After the death of Muhammad, Ali ibn Zayd and several Tabi'un mentioned the scars covering Zubayr's body from wounds that he had suffered. It is said that in all of the battles with Muhammad, Zubayr wore a distinctive yellow turban, except for the Battle of Hunayn, in which he reportedly wore a red one.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: In the third week of July 632, during the Ridda Wars, the rebel army under Tulayha moved from Dhu Qissa to Dhu Hussa, from where they prepared to launch an attack on Medina. Abu Bakr received intelligence of the rebel movements, and immediately prepared for the defense of Medina in the form of newly organised elite guard unit al-Ḥaras wa-l-shurṭa to guard Medina. Zubayr was appointed as one commander of these units. These troops rode to the mountain passes of Medina at night, intercepting the rebel forces and forcing them to retreat to Dhu Qisha.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later, Abu Bakr insisted on sending Usama ibn Zayd to Balqa to execute the last will of Muhammad. The caliph appointed Zubayr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, and Khalid ibn al-Walid as officers under Usama. Tabari states that the expedition was successful, and Usama reached Syria and became the first Muslim force to successfully raid Byzantine territory, thus paving the way for the subsequent Muslim conquests of Syria and Egypt from the Byzantine Empire.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Since all horses and trained camels were brought by main army to Balqa, Abu Bakr and the rest of Haras forces left in the capital had to resort to fighting the rebels with only untrained camels. However, as the rebels retreated to the foothills on the outskirts of the city, Abu Bakr and the Medinese army could not catch up to the battle in the outskirt of Medina due to their untrained camels, so they had to wait until the next day to gather momentum for the second strike. The Medinese army engaged the rebels in the Battle of Zhu Qissa, which resulted in a rout of the rebel army. Then, after the rebels retreated from the outskirt of Medina, the caliph went further to the north to crush another Bedouin rebellion in Dumat al-Jandal.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later, according to Ibn Hisham on secondhand testimony, as Khalid ibn al-Walid engaged the biggest rebel faction led by Musaylimah, Zubayr has participated in the Battle of Yamama while bringing the ten-year old Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr on his horse. Hisham ibn Urwah has recorded that when the Muslim army faced a dire situation in the battle, while one of Zubayr brother, Sa'ib ibn al-Awwam had also fallen during the battle, Zubayr gave a rousing speech towards the Muslims to reinvigorate their spirit, which then followed with the Muslims pushing back until they gained the upper hand in the battle.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: During the Rashidun invasion of the Levant, after Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah had pacified the area in Moab, he sent Zubayr and Fadl ibn Abbas to subdue the city of Amman. Waqidi recorded that Said ibn Aamir al-Jumahi testified that during the battle, he saw in the front of Muslim army Zubayr and Fadl fighting ferociously against the Byzantines atop of their horses. Said ibn Amir followed by saying that the Rashidun army butchered the fleeing Byzantine soldiers, while some were captured as prisoners of war. Then Zubair managed to kill the Byzantine commander Nicetas and subdued the city of Amman.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later, Zubayr participated in the Battle of the Yarmuk in 636. In the battle, Zubayr was placed on the left wing commanded by Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, leading his personal squadron among other dozen squadrons of the left wing. Zubayr twice charged alone against the row of Byzantine soldiers, breaking up their ranks and suffering a heavy shoulder injury in the process. Abdullah ibn Zubayr, who at that time was still a child and was carried on his father's chest, testified that his father was doing the salah prayer on top of his camel while fighting the enemy at the same time. At some point, Zubayr fought side by side with Khalid ibn al-Walid and Hashim ibn Utba (also known as Hashim al-Marqal) until the three of them reached the tent of Vahan, commander of the Armenian division of the Byzantines, causing the chaotic retreat of the Armenian ranks. Zubayr's brother, Abd al Rahman al-Zubayr, died in the battle.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: After the battle at Yarmuk, Zubayr continued to accompany the Muslim army in the Levant and captured the coastal city of Ayla (modern-day Aqaba). After Jerusalem had been subdued, Zubayr accompanied caliph Umar to visit the city.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: In 635 to 636, the caliph assembled his council, including Zubayr, Ali, and Talhah, about the battle plan to face the Persian army of Rostam Farrokhzad in Qadisiyyah. At first the caliph himself led the forces (including Zubayr) from Arabia to Iraq, but the council urges Umar not to lead the army and instead appoint someone else, as his presence was needed more urgently in the capital. Umar agreed and asked the council to suggest the commander to lead the army. The council agreed to sent Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas; Sa'd served as the overall commander on Persian conquest and won the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later, the caliph heard that Sassanid forces from Mah, Qom, Hamadan, Ray, Isfahan, Azerbaijan, and Nahavand had gathered in Nahavand to counter the Arab invasion. Caliph Umar responded by assembling a war council consisting of Zubayr, Ali, Uthman ibn Affan, Talha, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, and Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib to discuss the strategy to face the Sassanids in Nahavand. The caliph want to lead the army himself, but Ali urged the caliph to instead delegate the battlefield commands to the field commanders. The caliph decides to send Zubayr, Tulayha, Amr ibn Ma'adi Yakrib, Abdullah ibn Amr Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays and others under the command of Al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin to go to Nahavand, to face the army of the Sasanian Empire in the battle of Nahavand. The reinforcements sent to aid the army in Nahavand numbered 4,000 soldiers.<ref name="Reconnaissance and its role in Arab-Islamic history until 23 AH / 645 CE"></ref> Then as the reinforcements from Medina arrived in Nahavand, Umar gave further instruction for the army from Kufa under Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman and the army of Basra under Abu Musa al-Ashari to merge with al-Nu'man's army under the overall command of al-Nu'man. The Arabs won a huge victory (hailed by medieval chroniclers as "Fatih al-Futuh" or "victory of victories") against the 150,000-man Sassanid army, more than half of whom were killed.<ref name="Reconnaissance and its role in Arab and Islamic history until 23 AH / 645 AD 2"></ref>


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later, after the siege of Shushtar, the Sassanid's chief commander, Hormuzan was captured by the Rashidun army. Zubayr then urged caliph Umar to pardon Hormuzan, which Umar granted.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: After the conquest of Jerusalem caliph Umar stayed for while in Jerusalem, Amr ibn al-As, who at that time was in Egypt besieging a Byzantine fortress, sent a message to Umar asking for reinforcements of exactly 8,000 soldiers. However, since at the moment the available manpower of the caliphate was strained, the caliph was only able to send 4,000 soldiers, led by four commanders. The four commanders were two veteran Muhajireen, Zubayr and Miqdad ibn Aswad, and two Ansari commanders named Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari and Ubadah ibn al-Samit. However, Baladhuri, Ibn al-Athir and Ibn Sa'd recorded that the four commander were Zubayr, Busr ibn Abi Artat, Umayr ibn Wahb, and Kharija ibn Hudhafa.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: There are differing opinions regarding the number of soldiers which Zubayr brought: some say 12,000, others only 8,000. Military historian Khalid Mahmud supports the view that the force with Zubayr numbered 4,000 fighters, as it is similar to the number of soldiers in previous reinforcements at the battles of the Yarmuk, al-Qadisiyyah and later to the battle of Nahavand. The second reason was the abrupt request for aid from Egypt only allowed for a small number of soldiers.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: As they arrived in Egypt, Zubayr immediately helped the Rashidun army capture the city of Faiyum. After the fall of Faiyum, Zubayr march to Ain Shams to assist 'Amr in besieging the Byzantine fortress at Heliopolis, which had been besieged before by 'Amr unsuccessfully for months. At Heliopolis Zubayr helped repel a surprise Byzantine counterattack at night against the Rashidun forces. The Byzantines eventually surrendered and the prefect of the city Al-Muqawqis, agreed to pay 50,000 gold coins.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later, during the Siege of Babylon Fortress, early chroniclers the mid medieval chronicler Qatadah reported that Zubayr personally led his soldiers climbing the walls of the fortress, then instructed his troops to shout Takbir the moment he reached the top of the wall. Zubayr immediately descended from the top of the wall and opened the gates, which caused the entire Muslim army to enter, prompting the terrified Muqawqis to surrender. In Tabari's version, it was the Byzantine garrison who opened the gate as they immediately surrendered after witnessed Zubayr climbing the fortress wall. Ibn Abd al-Hakam noted that Zubayr skipped the siege of Alexandria, as the siege was conducted by 'Ubadah ibn al-Samit.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later in 639, the Rashidun forces marched south to the Byzantine city named Oxyrhynchus (al-Bahnasa in Arabic). 'Amr delegated Khalid ibn al-Walid to lead Zubayr and a Muslim army of 10,000 under his command to invade the city, where they faced Sudanese Christian auxiliaries of the Byzantine-Beja coalition in the Battle of Darishkur.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Before the battle, the Rashidun army camped in a place which called "Dashur". Benjamin Hendrickx reported that the African Christians mustered around 20,000 "symmachoi" (black Sudanese auxiliary units of Byzantine), 1,300 war elephants with howdahs housing archers, and anti-cavalry units named "al-Quwwad" armed with iron staffs, all of them commanded by a patrician named Batlus. Al-Maqrizi and Waqidi stated in this conflict, Zubayr alongside Miqdad, Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar, and Uqba ibn Amir each led 500 Rashidun cavalry to fight against the elephant corps of Batlus, by using spears soaked in santonin plants and sulfur which then ignite their spears with flames to drive the elephants back in terror. while the elephant riders were toppled from the elephant's back and crushed underfoot on the ground. Meanwhile, the Quwwad warriors who used iron staffs were routed by the Rashidun cavalry soldiers who used a seized chain weapons on their hands to disarm the Quwwad staff weapons from their hands. It was narrated by Rafi' ibn Malik that the final phase of this battle occurred when Zubayr and several other commanders led a night raid with 1,000 Rashidun cavalry, which routed the enemy encampments and seized many spoils, including numerous sheep.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: After the victory at Darishkur, the Byzantine Sudanese forces fled to al-Bahnasa and locked the gates, which was followed by the Muslims besieging the town, as the Byzantines were reinforced by the arrival of 50,000 men, according to the report of al-Maqqari. The siege dragged on for months, until Khalid ibn al Walid commanded Zubayr, Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar and other commanders to intensify the siege and assigned them to lead around 10,000 Companions of the Prophet, among them 70 who were veterans of battle of Badr. They besieged the city for 4 months as Miqdad lead 200 horsemens, while Zubayr led 300 horsemen, and Dhiraar, Abdullah ibn Umar, Uqba ibn Amir al-Juhani 200 horsemen each. They camped in a village which was later renamed as Qays village, in honor of Qays ibn Harith, the overall commander of the Rashidun cavalry. The Byzantines and their Coptic allies showered the Rashidun army with arrows and stones from the city wall, until the Rashidun overcame the defenders, as Dhiraar came out from the battle with his entire body stained in blood, having slain 160 Byzantine soldiers during the battle. Chroniclers recorded that the Rashidun army finally breached the city gate under either Khalid ibn al-Walid or Qays ibn Harith.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: After the conquest of Egypt and Sudan, al-Zubayr followed 'Amr to the west. The Muslim army under Amr continued their campaign toward Tripolitania. It is recorded during the lengthy siege of Tripoli, seven or eight Muslim soldiers from the Madhlij tribe of Kinanah accidentally spotted an unguarded side of Tripoli and managed to slip into the city unnoticed. Caught off guard, the confused Byzantine garrison was thrown in panic by the intruders and fled with their ships anchored in the harbor. These Madhlij warriors used this opportunity to open the town gate and inform 'Amr, who led the Muslim army to enter the city unopposed. After they subdued Tripoli, Libda, and Sirte in 643 AD (22 AH), 'Amr sent Zubayr to besiege Sabratha in advance, before 'Amr joined him. In 644, after Zubayr and Amr had stormed Sabratha, they continued on to conquer Sharwas, a city in the Nafusa Mountains.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: However, further conquests in Africa came to halt after caliph Umar instructed them to restrain from advancing and consolidate the pacified region first. In 642, Zubayr settled in a house adjacent to the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As, neighboring the homes of other Sahabah such as Abd Allah ibn Amr ibn al-As, Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Abdullah ibn Umar, and Ubadah.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: At some point during Umar's reign, when Zubayr was in Medina, he along with Miqdad and the caliph's son, Abdullah ibn Umar, went to Khaybar to collect their share of the profits from properties and plantations in Khaybar in which they held a stake. These properties were managed and worked by the Jewish tribes of Khaybar, who has been subdued during the time of Muhammad. However, the Jewish tribes in Khaybar refused and instead hurt Abdullah ibn Umar, who suffered a broken hand from their harassment. This prompted caliph Umar to expel the entire Jewish population from Khaybar and give the properties to Muslim overlords.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later, as caliph Umar was dying in 644, he selected Zubayr and five other men to elect the next caliph. Zubayr personally gave his own vote to nominate Ali as caliph. After this, Zubayr officially served as a member of Majlis-ash-Shura, which was responsible for the elections of the caliph and functioned as a governmental advisory council regarding the law.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Later, in the year of 27 AH, during the Muslim conquest of North Africa, Zubayr and his son, Abdullah were sent by caliph Uthman as reinforcements for Abdallah ibn Sa'd when fighting a Byzantine splinter group of about 120,000 under Gregory the Patrician. During this battle, Zubayr's son, Abdullah ibn Zubayr, played a pivotal role as he led an attack that caught Gregory off guard when the two forces were still in stalemate, and decapitated the Byzantine general, causing the resistance of the Byzantine army to crumble as their morale plummeted.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: When Abdullah ibn Masud passed away, Zubayr petitioned caliph Uthman to give Abdullah's pension to his heirs, which was granted by the caliph. Later, when Miqdad ibn al-Aswad, one of Zubayr's fellow veterans, passed away from illness, Miqdad left a message for Zubayr to manage and sell one of his estates, from which the proceeds would be donated to Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali, with each receiving 18,000 dirhams from the endowment, while from the rest he also asked Zubayr to give each of Muhammad's wives 7,000 dirhams.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr's engagement in caliph Uthman's policy of land exchanging resulted in him gaining lands in Egypt, such as Fustat and Alexandria.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Uthman was assassinated in 656. Zubayr had reason to hope that he would be elected as the next caliph, although he knew that his old ally Talha was also a strong contender. However, Ali was elected, to the debate of Muhammad's widow Aisha. Thereupon Zubayr met with Aisha and Talha in Mecca, claiming he had only given allegiance to Ali at swordpoint.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr, Talha and Aisha called for Uthman's death to be avenged, and while Ali agreed, he said that he was not able to do it at the time. The allies then gathered an army and marched to Basra, where they defeated the governor and took over the city, putting to death everyone who had been implicated in the assassination of Uthman. When they were challenged over why they now cared about Uthman, when they had shown him so much hostility during his lifetime, they claimed: "We wanted Uthman to meet our demands. We didn't want him to be killed."


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: According to Adrian Brocket's translation of Tabari, Ali behaved like a man who suspected hostility towards himself, for he soon entered Basra with a professional army of 20,000. For several days, there were negotiations, as both sides asserted they wanted only to see justice done. But on 7 December 656, hostilities erupted as Aisha's warriors killed Ali's messenger-boy, and Ali responded, "Battle is now justified, so fight them!"


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Meanwhile, Ibn Kathir in his book "al Bidaya wa Nihaya" recorded a more detailed version that the side of Zubayr, Aisha, and Talha were in the way of agreement with Ali as through negotiation of al-Qa'qa ibn Amr as arbitrator. However, suddenly Abdullah ibn Saba', Malik al-Ashtar and Shuraih ibn Awfa incited a riot within the ranks of Ali's soldiers during the negotiations, plunging both sides into confusion and thus inciting the start of the combat. This, however, is not a tenable argument because Abullah ibn Saba' is a fictitious figure who, historians have proven, never existed and Malik al-Ashtar was the commander of Ali and very close to him - it is not conceivable that he would act against his caliph's orders or incite a riot without Ali's consent. Imputing the start of the war to Ali's camp is typically Umayyad revisionism.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: The battle started, but according to some traditions at some point Zubayr lost the desire to fight. He said that Ali had talked him out of it during the negotiations on the grounds that they were cousins, and reminding him that the Prophet had once told Zubayr that he would one day fight Ali and he (Zubayr) would be on the wrong side. Zubay's son 'Abd Allah accused him of fearing Ali's army. 'Abd Allah was hostile to Ali because his mother was Aisha's sister and she had raised him like her son. In a sermon of his, Ali laments that 'Zubayr remained a part of our family until his wretched son Abd Allah came along'. Whatever the case, Zubayr left the battlefield while Aisha continued to direct her troops from her camel. A man named Amr ibn Jarmouz decided to track Zubayr's movements and followed him to a nearby field. It was time for prayer so, after each had asked the other what he was doing there, they agreed to pray. While Zubayr was prostrating, Amr ibn Jurmuz stabbed him in the neck and killed him.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr is generally viewed by Islamic scholars as an important figure, who collectively classified Zubayr as being among the highest-ranked Companions of the Prophet, due to his inclusion among the ten Muslims to whom Muhammad guaranteed Paradise while they were still alive. This veneration of Zubayr's piety and high importance was highlighted by both classical and contemporary scholars, such as Ibn Taymiyyah. The Hadith were also highlighted and approved by the 18th Hanbalite scholar and founder of Wahhabism, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, whose opinion regarding Zubayr concurred with Muhammad ibn al-Uthaymeen's, another Hanbalite scholar and grand mufti of Saudi Arabia.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Aside from his inclusion in the hadith about ten companion who guaranteed paradise, scholars also exalted Zubayr for these six particular events:


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Shia Muslims generally view Zubayr negatively, as he is considered a heretic for his involvement in the Battle of the Camel.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr established a number of traditions in Islamic prayer and ethics, including a prayer gesture of clasping his right middle, ring, and pinky fingers while pointing the index finger and putting the thumb above the clasped middle finger, whether to sit down while eating and drinking, prohibiting sleep during Sübh, and reciting sura Ar-Ra'd, Ayah 13| whenever a Muslim hears the sound of thunder.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: As one of principal companions of Muhammad who followed him from the beginning of Islam, many hadith are attributed to Zubayr. However, there are very few hadith from Zubayr in comparison with other companions of Muhammad, as he was reluctant to tell many hadith about Muhammad even though he had been constantly in his company. As he explained to his son Abdullah, "I heard Allah’s Messenger say, ‘Anyone who tells a lie about me should take a seat in the Fire.'"


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: In his exegesis, Zubayr emphasized the importance of "sunnah" and tradition as guidance, as opposed to the more analytical "qiyas" method of Ahl al-Ra'y. Thus, Sunni Islam Madhhab scholars have accepted hadith and exegesis from Zubayr as the source of Islam jurisprudence.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr's ruling on Islamic law have been influential to the Shafi'i, Hanbali, Hanafi, and Zahiri schools.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: In the modern era, Permanent Committee for Scholarly Research and Ifta in Saudi Arabia used the practice of Zubayr as one of their source of fatawa, such as an act of government to spying any endangering act from enemy of the state, such as criminal behavior, alleged terrorism, and other illegal conduct. The committee based this ruling of espionage from the act of Zubayr of spying on Banu Qurayza for their alleged betrayal during the Battle of the Trench on the instruction of Muhammad.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: In Egypt, Zubayr's jurisprudence has had widespread influence, as Grand Mufti of Egypt, Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy recorded that due to Zubayr and 'Amr ibn al-As's long stay in Egypt, Muslims in Egypt and Faqīh scholars of the country base much of their fatwa and rulings on Zubayr's verdicts during his tenure in Africa.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr's conduct has been influential on Islamic interpretation of the rules of war, such as the use of military deception, the division of spoils of war at the Battle of the Yarmuk, the treatment of prisoners of war, and the use of torture as a method of interrogation.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr was known to be very wealthy as a result of his business career. His practice of offering loans with no interest became widespread in the Islamic world.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr owned at least a thousand slaves and reportedly freed one each day. Some of his ex-slaves became prominent in their own right, including Yarba ibn Rabban Mawla az-Zubayr, who became a scholar of hadith. Another slave who gained prominence was Abu Yahya Mawla az-Zubayr. Daniel Pipes argued that the practice of early Muslims such as Zubayr and Uthman ibn Affan of owning massive number of slaves and casual manumissions was the first indication of Mamluk, an Islamic military slave system.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr's status as an early Muslim hero and model of religious piety prompted many ethnic communities across the world to claim themselves as his descendants. particularly in Hejaz and Egypt. The Zubairi community which dwells in India and Pakistan also claims Zubayr as their ancestor, as descendant clans of Zubayr allegedly migrated from their homeland to the Indian subcontinent during the Umayyad campaigns in India in the 7th century AD.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr is described as of medium height, lean, dark-complexioned, and hairy, though with a thin beard. His hair hung down to his shoulders, and he did not dye it after it turned white. Other reports consider him burly and tall. Much of his body was covered with battle scars from his many military engagements. He was said to possess extraordinary physical strength, As he was said being able to split an adult man body perfectly into two with a single blow of his sword.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: Zubayr owned many horses, and established a high quality pedigree which was bred by his descendants for generations. He possessed a large number of properties, many slaves, and vast wealth, though he was said to be generous.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: There were reports from Zubayr's wives that he had "some harshness towards women". Atiqa only agreed to marry him on the condition that he would never beat her. However, contemporary writer Abdo Khal questioned the validity of this narration as he viewed the stories as based on unverified laymen interpretations in modern social media.


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: The two most notable of his sons were Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr, who claimed the caliphate during the reign of Yazid ibn Muawiyah, along with Zubayr's youngest son from Asma', Urwah ibn al-Zubayr, member of the most influential group of jurists known collectively as The Seven Fuqaha of Medina, prominent hadith scholar, and the first writer of "Seerah" or "Maghazi".


title: Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

text: One of Zubayr's daughters, Ramlah bint al-Zubayr, married the Umayyad prince Khalid ibn Yazid, despite the fact that Khalid was also the one who had killed Ramlah's brother Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr in the Battle of Maskin in 691. Ibn Asakir recorded that Ramlah was famous for her extraordinary beauty. Ramlah's beauty inspired Khalid to extoll her in his poems. However, this caused some trouble for Khalid, as various factions who disliked the Umayyad regime, such as the Shu'ubiyya movement, the Shia, and the Kharijites, spread exaggerated rumors regarding Khalid's poems for Ramlah. When these rumors reached the ears of the caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, he in turn berated and scolded Khalid's conduct, which the caliph regarded as vanity.


title: The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility

text: The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility is a novella written by Morgan Robertson and published as "Futility" in 1898, and revised as "The Wreck of the Titan" in 1912. It features a fictional British ocean liner "Titan" that sinks in the North Atlantic after striking an iceberg. The "Titan" and its sinking are famous for similarities to the passenger ship and its sinking 14 years later. After the sinking of the "Titanic" the novel was reissued with some changes, particularly in the ship's gross tonnage.


title: The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility

text: The first half of "Futility" introduces hero John Rowland, a disgraced former US Navy officer. Now an alcoholic denigrated to the lowest ranks of society, he has been dismissed from the Navy and works as a deckhand on the "Titan". One April night, the ship hits an iceberg and sinks, somewhat before the mid-point of the novel.


title: The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility

text: The second half of the story follows Rowland as he saves the young daughter of a former lover by jumping onto the iceberg with her. The pair find a lifeboat washed up on the iceberg and are eventually rescued by a passing ship. But the girl is recovered by her mother and Rowland is arrested for her kidnapping. A sympathetic magistrate discharges him and rebukes the mother for being unsympathetic to her daughter's savior. Rowland disappears from the world.


title: The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility

text: In a brief final chapter covering several years, Rowland works his way up from homeless and anonymous fisherman to a desk job and finally, two years after passing his civil service exam, to "a lucrative position under the Government".


title: The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility

text: A later edition includes a followup: Rowland receives a letter from the mother (who congratulates him and pleads for him to visit her) and from the girl.


title: The Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility

text: Although the novel was written before the RMS "Titanic" was even conceptualized, there are some uncanny similarities between the fictional and real-life versions. Like the "Titanic", the fictional ship sank in April in the North Atlantic, and there were not enough lifeboats for all the passengers. There are also similarities in size ( long for the "Titan" versus long for the "Titanic"), speed, and life-saving equipment. After the "Titanic" sinking, some people credited Robertson with precognition and clairvoyance, which he denied. Scholars attribute the similarities to Robertson's extensive knowledge of shipbuilding and maritime trends.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: Tarzan, the Ape Man is a 1981 American adventure film directed by John Derek and starring Bo Derek, Miles O'Keeffe, Richard Harris, and John Phillip Law. The screenplay by Tom Rowe and Gary Goddard is loosely based on the 1912 novel "Tarzan of the Apes" by Edgar Rice Burroughs, but from the point of view of Jane Parker.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: The original music score is composed by Perry Botkin Jr. Former Tarzan actor Jock Mahoney (billed as Jack O'Mahoney) was the film's stunt coordinator. The film is marketed with the tagline "Unlike any other "Tarzan" you've ever seen!" The original actor cast in the Tarzan role was fired (or quit) early in production, resulting in the sudden casting of his stunt double, Miles O'Keeffe, in the title role. The film was panned by critics, and in some circles has been considered to be one of the worst films ever made. Despite this, it was a box-office success, grossing $36.5 against a $6.5 million budget.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: James Parker is a hunter in Africa, searching for a mythical "white ape". He is joined by his estranged daughter, Jane, after her mother's death. They discover the "white ape" is actually Tarzan, an uncivilized white man raised by apes living in the jungle. James continues to pursue Tarzan with the purpose of capturing him, dead or alive, and bringing him back to England.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: Realizing that James is on his trail, Tarzan kidnaps Jane. Jane and Tarzan become fascinated by each other. Jane is then kidnapped by natives who intend to make her the wife of the tribe leader, forcing Tarzan into action. James is killed by the Ivory King, the huge brutish ruler of the tribe, and the natives remove Jane's clothes and tie her up. They wash her naked body in plain view, laughing at her shocked, humiliated protests, and then smear her with paint. Tarzan arrives and kills the Ivory King in single combat by breaking his neck, then performs the Tarzan yell before rescuing Jane. The final scene shows Tarzan and Jane making love and interacting with the animals peacefully.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: Bo Derek was extremely popular at the time due to her appearance in "10". After making "A Change of Seasons", she was meant to appear in "High Road to China" but pulled out of the film saying she wanted to be directed only by her husband John.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: In February 1980, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer announced the studio was making a Tarzan film with the Dereks. Warner Bros. complained, as that studio was also developing a Tarzan film with Robert Towne called "Greystoke" and they had the rights to the character from the Burroughs estate. MGM argued the Derek film would be the second remake of their 1932 film "Tarzan the Ape Man" which they had the right to do, having released the first remake in 1959. The Burroughs estate sued MGM.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: In a 2012 interview with the film history magazine "Filmfax", co-writer Gary Goddard revealed that he had originally been commissioned to write a screenplay for Bo Derek based upon the Marvel Comics superheroine, Dazzler; a 30-page treatment was completed before the project was canceled and work instead proceeded on "Tarzan, The Ape Man" which initially carried the working title "Me, Jane" reflecting its focus on Jane Porter as a showcase for Derek.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: The original Tarzan was Lee Canahalin. He injured his knee in 1980 meaning he was reliant on his stuntman. His stuntman had to undergo an emergency appendectomy when filming started. This resulted in Canahalin being replaced by Miles O'Keeffe.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: Richard Harris enjoyed working with the Dereks; Bo had played a supporting role in his movie "Orca", four years prior to "Tarzan".


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: The film was widely panned upon its release. Film critic and historian Leonard Maltin considers this one of the worst films ever to appear in his popular "TV Movies and Video Guide" (now simply "Movie Guide"): "Deranged 'remake' lacks action, humor and charm; Forget about comparisons to Johnny Weissmuller; O'Keefe makes Elmo Lincoln seem like Edwin Booth." Leslie Halliwell described "Tarzan, the Ape Man" as "certainly the worst of the Tarzan movies and possibly the most banal film so far made; even the animals give poor performances". In a discussion of Tarzan films, Thomas S. Hischak was also negative: "Produced and directed without a shred of talent by John Derek, "Tarzan, the Ape Man" often ranks high in the lists of the worst movies ever made."


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: However, critic Roger Ebert offered a somewhat more positive review of "Tarzan, the Ape Man", awarding it two and a half stars out of a possible four. According to Ebert, the film was "completely ridiculous, but at the same time it has a certain disarming charm." Ebert thought Harris's talents were completely wasted and the film's dramatic peak was "incomprehensible", yet he praised the forthright depiction of the sexual passion and tension between Tarzan and Jane, which had more typically been downplayed in film adaptations of the characters: "The Tarzan-Jane scenes strike a blow for noble savages, for innocent lust, for animal magnetism, and, indeed, for soft-core porn, which is ever so much sexier than the hard-core variety."


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: Reviewing the movie retrospectively for "The Encyclopedia of Fantasy", John Grant comments that the movie "is widely regarded as the direst of the Tarzan movies, but it has enough good bits (including some spectacular photography and moments of exquisite wrongness) that, if cut by about 40 minutes, it would be highly regarded. As it is, it leaves a nasty taste: its intention seems to be to appeal to those who find eroticism in the sexual humiliation of women." On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an aggregate score of 10% based on 2 positive and 18 negative critic reviews.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: Despite the negative reviews it received, the film was a success at the box office. It opened in 950 theatres in the United States, except New York, and was the highest-grossing film of the weekend with a gross of $6,700,809. It went on to gross US$36,565,280 in the United States and Canada.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: "Tarzan, the Ape Man" was released to DVD by Warner Home Video on June 8, 2004, as a Region 1 widescreen DVD.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: The Japanese manga series "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure" references this movie in chapter 265, the final chapter of the manga's third part, "Stardust Crusaders". Jōtarō Kūjō tests his grandfather Joseph Joestar with trivia questions, including "Who's the female lead in the 1981 film, "Tarzan, the Ape Man"?", which Joseph correctly answers with "Bo Derek". This scene is also featured in the last episode of the second season of the manga's 2012 anime adaptation.


title: Tarzan, the Ape Man (1981 film)

text: Gary Goddard said he was going to write more films for the Dereks including one called "Pirate Annie". However, financing for "Annie" was withdrawn when the studio, CBS, read the script and were unhappy with what they considered too small a role for Bo Derek.


title: Drilling rig

text: A drilling rig is an integrated system that drills wells, such as oil or water wells, or holes for piling and other construction purposes, into the earth's subsurface. Drilling rigs can be massive structures housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or natural gas extraction wells, or they can be small enough to be moved manually by one person and such are called augers. Drilling rigs can sample subsurface mineral deposits, test rock, soil and groundwater physical properties, and also can be used to install sub-surface fabrications, such as underground utilities, instrumentation, tunnels or wells. Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or trailers, or more permanent land or marine-based structures (such as oil platforms, commonly called 'offshore oil rigs' even if they don't contain a drilling rig). The term "rig" therefore generally refers to the complex equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the Earth's crust.


title: Drilling rig

text: Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile, such as those used in mineral exploration drilling, blast-hole, water wells and environmental investigations. Larger rigs are capable of drilling through thousands of metres of the Earth's crust, using large "mud pumps" to circulate drilling mud (slurry) through the drill bit and up the casing annulus, for cooling and removing the "cuttings" while a well is drilled. Hoists in the rig can lift hundreds of tons of pipe. Other equipment can force acid or sand into reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas; and in remote locations there can be permanent living accommodation and catering for crews (which may be more than a hundred). Marine rigs may operate thousands of miles distant from the supply base with infrequent crew rotation or cycle.


title: Drilling rig

text: Until internal combustion engines were developed in the late 19th century, the main method for drilling rock was muscle power of man or animal. The technique of oil drilling through percussion or rotary drilling has its origins dating back to the ancient Chinese Han Dynasty in 100 BC, where percussion drilling was used to extract natural gas in the Sichuan province. Early oil and gas drilling methods were seemingly primitive as it required several technical skills. The skills involved the availability of heavy iron bits and long bamboo poles, the manufacturing of long and sturdy cables woven from bamboo fiber, and levers. Heavy iron bits were attached to long bamboo cables suspended from bamboo derricks and then were repeatedly raised and dropped into a manually dug hole by having two to six men jumping on a lever. Han dynasty oil wells made by percussion drilling was effective but only reached 10 meters deep and 100 meters by the 10th century. By the 16th century, the Chinese were exploring and drilling oil wells more than deep. Chinese well drilling technology was introduced to Europe in 1828. A modernized variant of the ancient Chinese drilling technique was used by American businessman Edwin Drake to drill Pennsylvania's first oil well in 1859 using small steam engines to power the drilling process rather than by human muscle.Cable tool drilling was developed in ancient China and was used for drilling brine wells. The salt domes also held natural gas, which some wells produced and which was used for evaporation of the brine.


title: Drilling rig

text: Drake learned of cable tool drilling from Chinese laborers in the U. S. The first primary product was kerosene for lamps and heaters. Similar developments around Baku fed the European market.


title: Drilling rig

text: In the 1970s, outside of the oil and gas industry, roller bits using mud circulation were replaced by the first pneumatic reciprocating piston Reverse Circulation (RC) drills, and became essentially obsolete for most shallow drilling, and are now only used in certain situations where rocks preclude other methods. RC drilling proved much faster and more efficient, and continues to improve with better metallurgy, deriving harder, more durable bits, and compressors delivering higher air pressures at higher volumes, enabling deeper and faster penetration. Diamond drilling has remained essentially unchanged since its inception.


title: Drilling rig

text: Oil and natural gas drilling rigs are used not only to identify geologic reservoirs, but also used to create holes that allow the extraction of oil or natural gas from those reservoirs. Primarily in onshore oil and gas fields once a well has been drilled, the drilling rig will be moved off of the well and a service rig (a smaller rig) that is purpose-built for completions will be moved on to the well to get the well on line. This frees up the drilling rig to drill another hole and streamlines the operation as well as allowing for specialization of certain services, i.e. completions vs. drilling.


title: Drilling rig

text: Mining drilling rigs are used for two main purposes, exploration drilling which aims to identify the location and quality of a mineral, and production drilling, used in the production-cycle for mining. Drilling rigs used for rock blasting for surface mines vary in size dependent on the size of the hole desired, and is typically classified into smaller pre-split and larger production holes. Underground mining (hard rock) uses a variety of drill rigs dependent on the desired purpose, such as production, bolting, cabling, and tunnelling.


title: Drilling rig

text: In early oil exploration, drilling rigs were semi-permanent in nature and the derricks were often built on site and left in place after the completion of the well. In more recent times drilling rigs are expensive custom-built machines that can be moved from well to well. Some light duty drilling rigs are like a mobile crane and are more usually used to drill water wells. Larger land rigs must be broken apart into sections and loads to move to a new place, a process which can often take weeks.


title: Drilling rig

text: Small mobile drilling rigs are also used to drill or bore piles. Rigs can range from continuous flight auger (CFA) rigs to small air powered rigs used to drill holes in quarries, etc. These rigs use the same technology and equipment as the oil drilling rigs, just on a smaller scale.


title: Drilling rig

text: The drilling mechanisms outlined below differ mechanically in terms of the machinery used, but also in terms of the method by which drill cuttings are removed from the cutting face of the drill and returned to surface.


title: Drilling rig

text: An automated drill rig (ADR) is an automated full-sized walking land-based drill rig that drills long lateral sections in horizontal wells for the oil and gas industry. ADRs are agile rigs that can move from pad to pad to new well sites faster than other full-sized drilling rigs. Each rig costs about $25 million. ADR is used extensively in the Athabasca oil sands. According to the "Oil Patch Daily News", "Each rig will generate 50,000 man-hours of work during the construction phase and upon completion, each operating rig will directly and indirectly employ more than 100 workers." Compared to conventional drilling rigs", Ensign, an international oilfield services contractor based in Calgary, Alberta, that makes ADRs claims that they are "safer to operate, have "enhanced controls intelligence," "reduced environmental footprint, quick mobility and advanced communications between field and office." In June 2005 the first specifically designed slant automated drilling rig (ADR), Ensign Rig No. 118, for steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) applications was mobilized by Deer Creek Energy Limited, a Calgary-based oilsands company.


title: Drilling rig

text: A drill bucket, or auger bucket, is a drilling head that accumulates spoil inside and can be lifted from the hole periodically to be emptied.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The Israeli–Lebanese conflict, or the South Lebanon conflict, was a series of military clashes involving Israel, Lebanon and Syria, the Palestine Liberation Organization, as well as various militias acting from within Lebanon. The conflict peaked in the 1980s, during the Lebanese Civil War, and has abated since.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) recruited militants in Lebanon from among the Palestinian refugees who had been expelled or fled after the creation of Israel in 1948. After the PLO leadership and its Fatah brigade were expelled from Jordan in 1970–71 for fomenting a revolt, they entered Southern Lebanon, resulting in an increase of internal and cross-border violence. Meanwhile, demographic tensions over the Lebanese National Pact led to the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990). PLO actions were one of the key factors in the eruption of the Lebanese Civil War and its bitter battles with Lebanese factions caused foreign intervention. Israel's 1978 invasion of Lebanon pushed the PLO north of the Litani River, but the PLO continued their campaign against Israel. Israel invaded Lebanon again in 1982 in alliance with the major Lebanese Christian militias of the Lebanese Forces and Kataeb Party and forcibly expelled the PLO. In 1983, Israel and Lebanon signed the May 17 Agreement providing a framework for the establishment of normal bilateral relations between the two countries, but relations were disrupted with takeover of Shia and Druze militias in early 1984. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1985, but kept control of a security buffer zone, held with the aid of proxy militants in the South Lebanon Army (SLA).


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In 1985, Hezbollah, a Lebanese Shia radical movement sponsored by Iran, called for armed struggle to end the Israeli occupation of Lebanese territory. When the Lebanese civil war ended and other warring factions agreed to disarm, Hezbollah and the SLA refused. Combat with Hezbollah weakened Israeli resolve and led to a collapse of the SLA and an Israeli withdrawal in 2000 to their side of the UN designated border.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Citing Israeli control of the Shebaa farms territory, Hezbollah continued cross-border attacks intermittently over the next six years. Hezbollah now sought the release of Lebanese citizens in Israeli prisons and successfully used the tactic of capturing Israeli soldiers as leverage for a prisoner exchange in 2004. The capturing of two Israeli soldiers by Hezbollah ignited the 2006 Lebanon War. Its ceasefire called for the disarmament of Hezbollah and the respecting of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Lebanon by Israel.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Hostilities were suspended on 8 September 2006. As of 2015, the situation has generally remained calm, despite both sides violating the ceasefire agreements; Israel by making near-daily flights over Lebanese territory, and Hezbollah by not disarming.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The territories of what would become the states of Israel and Lebanon were once part of the Ottoman Empire which lasted from 1299 until its defeat in World War I and subsequent dissolution in 1922. As a result of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in 1917, the British occupied Palestine and parts of what would become Syria. French troops took Damascus in 1918. The League of Nations officially gave the French the Mandate of Syria and the British the Mandate of Palestine after the 1920 San Remo conference, in accordance with the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The largely Christian enclave of the French Mandate became the French-controlled Lebanese Republic in 1926. Lebanon became independent in 1943 as France was under German occupation, though French troops did not completely withdraw until 1946.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The rise of anti-Semitism in Europe, culminating in the Holocaust during World War II, had meant an increase of Jewish immigrants to a minority Jewish, majority Arab Mandate. During the 1936–39 Arab revolt and thereafter the British increasingly came to rely on Jewish police forces to help maintain order. Eventually, the resultant rise in ethnic tensions and violence between the Arabs and Jews due to Jewish immigration and collaboration would force the British to withdraw in 1947. (The area of their mandate east of the Jordan river had already become the independent state of Jordan in 1946.) The United Nations General Assembly developed a gerrymandered 1947 UN Partition Plan, to attempt to give both Arabs and Jews their own states from the remains of the British Mandate; however, this was rejected by the Arabs, and the situation quickly devolved into a full-fledged civil war.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In 1948, the Lebanese army had by far the smallest regional army, consisting of only 3,500 soldiers. At the prompting of Arab leaders in the region, Lebanon agreed to join the other armies that were being assembled around the perimeter of the British Mandate territory of Palestine for the purpose of invading Palestine. Lebanon committed 1,000 of these soldiers to the cause. The Arab armies waited for the end of the Mandate and the withdrawal of British forces, which was set for 15 May 1948.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Israel declared its independence on 14 May 1948. The next day, the British Mandate officially expired and, in , the seven-member Arab League, including Lebanon, publicly proclaimed their aim of creating a democratic "United State of Palestine" in place of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. The League soon entered the conflict on the side of the Palestinian Arabs, thus beginning the international phase of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Transjordan, and Iraq declared war on the new state of Israel. They expected an easy and quick victory in what came to be called the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The Lebanese army joined the other Arab armies in the invasion. It crossed into the northern Galilee. By the end of the conflict, however, it had been repulsed by Israeli forces, which occupied South Lebanon. Israel signed armistice agreements with each of its invading neighbors. The armistice with Lebanon was signed on 23 March 1949. As part of the agreement with Lebanon, Israeli forces withdrew to the international border.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: By the conclusion of that war, Israel had signed ceasefire agreements with all of the neighbouring Arab countries. The territory it now controlled went well beyond what had been allocated to it under the United Nations Partition Plan, incorporating much of what had been promised to the Palestinian Arabs under the Plan. However, it was understood by all the state parties at the time that the armistice agreements were not peace treaties with Israel, nor the final resolution of the conflict between them, including the borders.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: After the war, the United Nations estimated 711,000 Palestinian Arabs, out an estimated 1.8 million dwelling in the Mandate of Palestine, fled, emigrated or were forced out of Israel and entered neighboring countries. By 1949, there were 110,000 Palestinian Arabs in Lebanon, moved into camps established by and administered by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: With the exception of two camps in the Beirut area, the camps were mostly Muslim. Lebanese Christians feared that the Muslim influx would affect their political dominance and their assumed demographic majority. Accordingly, they imposed restrictions on the status of the Palestinian refugees. The refugees could not work, travel, or engage in political activities. Initially the refugees were too impoverished to develop a leadership capable of representing their concerns. Less democratic regimes also feared the threat the refugees posed to their own rule, but Lebanon would prove too weak to maintain a crackdown.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) recruited militants in Lebanon from among the families of Palestinian refugees who had left Israel in 1948.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Despite sharing in the ongoing border tensions over water, Lebanon rejected calls by other Arab governments to participate in the 1967 Six-Day War. Militarily weak in the south, Lebanon could not afford conflict with Israel.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Nevertheless, the loss of additional territory radicalized the Palestinians languishing in refugee camps hoping to return home. The additional influx of refugees turned Palestinian camps throughout the Middle East into centers of guerrilla activity.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The PLO, from its inception in 1964 by Ahmed Shukeri, began executing numerous terror attacks on Israeli civilians in attempt to fulfill its mission charter's vow to pursue in "the path of holy war (al-jihad)" until the establishment of a Palestinian State in place of the State of Israel. The series of attacks (such as the 1966 bombings in Romema, Jerusalem) drove the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) to strike in return, instigating the long and still unresolved struggle between the PLO and the IDF.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: From 1968 onwards, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) began conducting raids from Lebanon into Israel, and Israel began making retaliatory raids against Lebanese villages to encourage the Lebanese people to themselves deal with the fedayeen. After an Israeli airline was machine-gunned at Athens Airport, Israel raided the Beirut International Airport in retaliation, destroying 13 civilian aircraft.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The unarmed citizenry could not expel the armed foreigners, while the Lebanese army was too weak militarily and politically. The Palestinian camps came under Palestinian control after a series of clashes in 1968 and 1969 between the Lebanese military and the emerging Palestinian guerrilla forces. In 1969 the Cairo Agreement guaranteed refugees the right to work, to form self-governing committees, and to engage in armed struggle. "The Palestinian resistance movement assumed daily management of the refugee camps, providing security as well as a wide variety of health, educational, and social services."


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 8 May 1970, a PLO faction, called the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine, (DFLP) crossed into Israel and carried out the Avivim school bus massacre.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In 1970, the PLO attempted to overthrow a reigning monarch, King Hussein of Jordan, and following his quashing of the rebellion in what Arab historians call Black September, the PLO leadership and their troops fled from Jordan to Syria and finally Lebanon, where cross-border violence increased.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: With headquarters now in Beirut, PLO factions recruited new members from the Palestinian refugee camps. South Lebanon was nicknamed "Fatahland" due to the predominance there of Yasser Arafat's Fatah organization. With its own army operating freely in Lebanon, the PLO had created a state within a state. By 1975, more than 300,000 Palestinian displaced persons lived in Lebanon.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In reaction to the 1972 Munich massacre, Israel carried out Operation Spring of Youth. Members of Israel's elite Special Forces landed by boat in Lebanon on 9 April 1973, and with the aid of Israeli intelligence agents, infiltrated the PLO headquarters in Beirut and assassinated several members of its leadership.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In 1974 the PLO altered its focus to include political elements, necessary for a dialogue with Israel. Those who insisted on a military solution left to form the Rejectionist Front, and Yassir Arafat took over the PLO leadership role.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command, which split from the PLO in 1974, carried out the Kiryat Shmona massacre in April of that year. In May 1974, the DFLP crossed again into Israel and carried out the Ma'alot massacre.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) was a complex conflict in the form of various factions and shifting alliances between and among Lebanese Maronite Catholics, Lebanese Muslims, Palestinian Muslims, Lebanese Druze, and other non-sectarian groups. Governmental power had been allotted among the different religious groups by the National Pact based partially on the results of the 1932 census. Changes in demographics and increased feelings of deprivation by certain ethnic groups, as well as Israeli–Palestinian clashes in the south of the county all contributed to the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Beginning in May 1976, Israel supplied the Maronite militias, including the Lebanese Forces, led by Bachir Gemayel, with arms, tanks, and military advisers. The border between Israel and Lebanon was at this time was nicknamed the Good Fence.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Fearing loss of commercial access to the port of Beirut, in June 1976 Syria intervened in the civil war to support the Maronite dominated government, and by October had 40,000 troops stationed within Lebanon.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 11 March 1978, eleven PLO militants made a beach landing 30 km. south of Haifa, Israel, where they seized a bus, full of people, killing those on board in what is known as the Coastal Road massacre. By the end of the incident, nine hijackers and 38 Israeli civilians (including 13 children) were dead.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In response, on 14 March 1978, Israel launched Operation Litani occupying southern Lebanon, except for the city of Tyre, with 25,000 troops. The objective was to push the PLO away from the border and bolster a Lebanese Christian militia allied with Israel, the South Lebanese Army (SLA). However, the PLO concluded from the name of the operation that the invasion would halt at the Litani River and moved their forces north, leaving behind a token force of a few hundred men. As a result, the casualties were almost all civilians.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 19 March 1978, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 425, which called for Israel's immediate withdrawal and the establishment of a United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon. When Israel forces withdrew later in 1978, they turned over its positions in Lebanon to the South Lebanon Army which would continue fighting as a proxy for Israel against the PLO until Israel drove the PLO out of Lebanon in 1982.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 22 April 1979, Samir Kuntar and three other members of the Palestine Liberation Front, a sometimes faction of the PLO, landed in Nahariya, Israel from Tyre, Lebanon by boat. After killing a police officer who had discovered their presence, they took a father and his daughter hostage in an apartment building. After fleeing with the hostages from police back to the beach, a shootout killed one policeman and two of the militants. Kuntar then executed the hostages before he and the remaining invader were captured.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In April 1981, the United States brokered a cease-fire in southern Lebanon among Israel, Syria and the PLO.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The 1982 Lebanon war began on 6 June 1982, when Israel invaded again for the purpose of attacking the Palestine Liberation Organization. The Israeli army laid siege to Beirut. During the conflict, according to Lebanese sources, between 15,000 and 20,000 people were killed, mostly civilians. According to American military analyst Richard Gabriel, between 5,000 and 8,000 civilians were killed. Fighting also occurred between Israel and Syria. The United States, fearing a widening conflict and the prestige the siege was giving PLO leader Yasser Arafat, got all sides to agree to a cease-fire and terms for the PLO's withdrawal on 12 August. The Multinational Force in Lebanon arrived to keep the peace and ensure PLO withdrawal. The PLO leadership retreated from Beirut on 30 August 1982 and moved to Tunisia.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The National Assembly of Lebanon narrowly chose Bachir Gemayel as president-elect, but when he was assassinated on 14 September 1982, Israel reoccupied West Beirut. In parallel, Maronite militia Kataeb Party carried out the Sabra and Shatila massacre.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In 1983, the United States brokered the May 17 Agreement, a peace treaty between Israel and Lebanon in all but name. The agreement called for a staged Israeli withdrawal over the next eight to twelve weeks and the establishment of a "security zone" to be patrolled by the Lebanese army in southern Lebanon, but was conditional on Syrian withdrawal as well. In August 1983, as Israel withdrew from the areas southeast of Beirut to the Awali River, Lebanese factions clashed for control of the freed territory.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In February 1984, the Lebanese Army collapsed, with many units forming their own militias. Shia and Druze militias took over much of Beirut in early 1984 and consolidated power. The National Assembly of Lebanon, under pressure from Syria and Muslim militias, cancelled the 17 May Agreement on 5 March 1984.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 15 January 1985, Israel adopted a phased withdrawal plan, finally retreating to the Litani River to form the deep Israeli Security Zone (map at) while using the native South Lebanese Army militia to help control it.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 16 February 1985, Shia Sheik Ibrahim al-Amin declared a manifesto in Lebanon, announcing a resistance movement called Hezbollah, whose goals included combating the Israeli occupation. During the South Lebanon conflict (1985–2000) the Hezbollah militia waged a guerrilla campaign against Israeli forces occupying Southern Lebanon and their South Lebanon Army proxies. "Throughout the period of 1985–92, there were very few limited exchanges between Israeli and Hezbollah or Amal forces in southern Lebanon", and "with the exception of 1988, during which twenty-one Israeli soldiers were killed, the number of Israeli fatalities per year over this period was in the single-digit figure".


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: By the end of 1990 the Lebanese Civil War was effectively over. In March 1991, the National Assembly of Lebanon passed an amnesty law that pardoned all political crimes prior to its enactment, and in May 1991, the militias—with the important exceptions of Hezbollah and the SLA—were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly rebuild themselves as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian institution.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: From 1985 through 2000, Israel continued to fund the South Lebanon Army. In 1992, Hezbollah won ten out of 128 seats in the Lebanese National Assembly.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 25 July 1993 Israel launched Operation Accountability, known in Lebanon as the Seven-Day War. The given reason was to retaliate for the death of IDF soldiers in the "security zone", which Israel had created in 1985 in southern Lebanon to protect its northern borders from both Hezbollah and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command. On 10 July Hezbollah undertook an operation in which 5 Israeli soldiers were killed; a further attack on 19 July caused several further casualties to the IDF, and on the 23rd. another Israeli soldier was killed. Cross-border raids were frequent from both sides, and Operation Accountability arose from the escalation in hostilities. Thousands of buildings were bombed, resulting in 120 dead and 500,000 displaced civilians. Israeli forces also destroyed infrastructure such as power stations and bridges. According to Michael Brecher, the aim of Operation Accountability was to precipitate a large flight of Lebanese refugees from the south towards Beirut and thereby put the Lebanese government under pressure to rein in Hezbollah. Hezbollah retaliated with rocket attacks on Israeli villages, though inflicting significantly fewer casualties. After Lebanon complained to the UN, the Security Council called on Israel to withdraw its occupying forces from Lebanese territory. A truce agreement brokered by the US secured an Israeli undertaking to stop attacks north of its security zone in Lebanon, and a Hezbollah agreement to desist from firing rockets into Israel.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 11 April 1996 Israel initiated Operation Grapes of Wrath, known in Lebanon as the April War, which repeated the pattern of Operation Accountability., which was triggered by Hezbollah Katyusha rockets fired into Israel in response to the killing of two Lebanese by an IDF missile, and the killing of Lebanese boy by a road-side bomb. Israel conducted massive air raids and extensive shelling in southern Lebanon. 106 Lebanese died in the shelling of Qana, when a UN compound was hit in an Israeli shelling. The conflict ended on 26 April 1996 with the Israeli-Lebanese Ceasefire Understanding in which both Hezbollah and Israel agreed to, respect the "rules of the game" and forgo attacks on civilians.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In January 2000, Hezbollah assassinated the man responsible for day to day SLA operations, Colonel Akel Hashem. The Israeli Air Force, in apparent response, on 7 February struck Lebanon's civilian infrastructure, including power stations at Baalbek, Deir Nbouh and Jambour. Eighteen people were reported to have been injured.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Following its declaration of intent to implement UNSC Resolution 425 on 1 April 1998, and after the collapse of the South Lebanon Army in the face of a Hezbollah onslaught, Israel declared 24 May 2000 that they would withdraw to their side of the UN designated border, the Blue Line, 22 years after the resolution had been approved. The South Lebanon Army's equipment and positions largely fell into the hands of Hezbollah. Lebanon celebrates 25 May, Liberation Day, as a national holiday.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In May 2004, Hezbollah militiamen killed an Israeli soldier along the border within the Israeli held Shebaa Farms.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Between July and August 2004 there was a period of more intense border conflict. Hezbollah said the clash began when Israeli forces shelled its positions, while Israel said that Hezbollah had started the fighting with a sniper attack on a border outpost.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 2 September 2004 Resolution 1559 was approved by the United Nations Security council, calling for the disbanding of all Lebanese militia. An armed Hezbollah was seen by the Israeli government as a contravention of the resolution. The Lebanese government differed from this interpretation.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 26 May 2006, a car bomb killed Palestinian Islamic Jihad leader Mahmoud Majzoub and his brother in Sidon. The Prime Minister of Lebanon Fuad Saniora called Israel the prime suspect, but Israel denied involvement. On 28 May 2006, rockets were fired from Lebanon into Israel.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 10 June 2006 the Lebanese army arrested members of an alleged Israeli spy ring, including Mahmoud Rafeh, his wife, and two children. Police discovered bomb-making materials, code machines and other espionage equipment in his home. Rafeh reportedly confessed to the Majzoub killings and to working for Mossad, and admitted that his cell had assassinated two Hezbollah leaders in 1999 and 2003 and the son of Ahmed Jibril, leader of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command, in 2002. Former Lebanese Minister Walid Jumblatt, an outspoken critic of Hezbollah, suspected that the exposure of the spy ring was a Hezbollah fabrication.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 12 July 2006, in an incident known as Zar'it-Shtula incident, the Hezbollah initiated diversionary rocket attacks on Israeli military positions near the coast and near the Israeli border village of Zar'it, while another Hezbollah group crossed from Lebanon into Israel and ambushed two Israeli Army vehicles, killing three Israeli soldiers and seizing two.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Hezbollah promptly demanded the release of Lebanese prisoners held by Israel, including Samir Kuntar and an alleged surviving perpetrator of the Coastal Road massacre, in exchange for the release of the captured soldiers.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Heavy fire between the sides was exchanged across the length of the Blue Line, with Hezbollah targeting IDF positions near Israeli towns.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Thus began the 2006 Lebanon War. Israel responded with massive airstrikes and artillery fire on targets throughout Lebanon, an air and naval blockade, and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon. In Lebanon the conflict killed over 1,100 people, including combatants, severely damaged infrastructure, and displaced about one million people. Israel suffered 42 civilian deaths as a result of prolonged rocket attacks being launched into northern Israel causing the displacement of half a million Israelis. Normal life across much of Lebanon and northern Israel was disrupted, in addition to the deaths in combat.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: A United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect on 14 August 2006. The blockade was lifted on 8 September.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Since the civil war, Israel has routinely breached Lebanese airspace, waters, and borders, which is illegal since it violates Lebanon's territory and United Nations Security Council Resolution 425 and 1701.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The most frequent breaches are overflights by Israeli war planes and drones; such violations have occurred since the inception of the Israeli–Lebanese conflict, and have happened continuously and almost daily since the 2006 Lebanon war, being the source of much conflict between Lebanon and Israel. Israeli warplanes sometimes stage mock attacks on Lebanese cities, and emit sonic booms that frighten civilians.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In 2007 the Lebanese government complained that Israeli planes had flown into Lebanese airspace 290 times within four months, and that Israeli troops had crossed the border 52 times.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: In 2006 French Defense Minister Michele Alliot-Marie stated: "I remind that the violations of the airspace are extremely dangerous, they are dangerous first because they may be felt as hostile by forces of the coalition that could be brought to retaliate in cases of self defense and it would be a very serious incident." US officials on visit in Israel also demanded that Israel stop the overflights since they undermined the standing of Lebanese Prime Minister Fouad Siniora.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On 19 August 2010, the Lebanese military reported that 12 aircraft belonging to the IDF entered into Lebanese territory, which they claim is a violation of Resolution 1701. In the three incidents, the IDF planes made circle maneuvers, fired no shots and left Lebanese airspace soon after.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: The UN has continuously protested the repeated Israeli overflights. Lebanese officials fear the escalation in overflights heighten tensions and could lead to war.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Israel rejects such criticism, and claim the overflights are necessary. In spite of this, a leaked US cable shows that Israel offered to stop such violations.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: On land, the Blue Line is often crossed, as well as incursions into the Shebaa Farms (which Israel considers Israeli territory as part of Golan Heights, which it captured from Syria in 1967, but which Lebanon claims is Lebanese territory). The 2010 Israel–Lebanon border clash was also performed on the basis of claims of such violations.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: At sea, Israeli gunboats have shot into Lebanese territorial waters, and there have been Lebanese claims that Israel is breaching the law of the sea and might lay claim on Lebanese natural resources through the Tamar gas field.


title: Israeli–Lebanese conflict

text: Hezbollah uses such violations as justification for the legitimacy of their continued armed resistance against Israel.


title: Plant pathology

text: Plant pathology (also phytopathology) is the scientific study of diseases in plants caused by pathogens (infectious organisms) and environmental conditions (physiological factors). Organisms that cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Not included are ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that affect plant health by eating plant tissues. Plant pathology also involves the study of pathogen identification, disease etiology, disease cycles, economic impact, plant disease epidemiology, plant disease resistance, how plant diseases affect humans and animals, pathosystem genetics, and management of plant diseases.


title: Plant pathology

text: Control of plant diseases is crucial to the reliable production of food, and it provides significant problems in agricultural use of land, water, fuel and other inputs. Plants in both natural and cultivated populations carry inherent disease resistance, but there are numerous examples of devastating plant disease impacts, such as the Great Famine of Ireland and chestnut blight, as well as recurrent severe plant diseases like rice blast, soybean cyst nematode, and citrus canker.