title: Johnson County War

text: Tensions in Johnson County remained high. On May 10, U.S. Marshall George Wellman, was ambushed and killed by locals en route to the small community of Buffalo. The incident received national attention, with Wellman being the only marshal to die in the war. Wellman was one of the hired guns who joined the Invaders, and his death was grieved by a large crowd. The 6th Cavalry, sent to relieve the county of its violence, was said to be influenced by intense local political and social pressure, and they were unable to keep the peace. One infamous event occurred when a group of men set fire to the post exchange and planted a homemade bomb in the cavalry's barracks. Noted officer Charles B. Gatewood was seriously injured by the bomb blast in the barracks, shattering his left arm and ending his cavalry career.


title: Johnson County War

text: The 9th Cavalry of "Buffalo Soldiers" was ordered to Fort McKinney to replace the 6th. In a fortnight the Buffalo Soldiers moved from Nebraska to the rail town of Suggs, Wyoming, where they created "Camp Bettens" to quell the local population. Reception from the settlers were negative and in one violent incident, a gunfight erupted between them and some Buffalo soldiers who entered the town. After being initially driven off, 20 more soldiers slipped from the camp to exact revenge, but the locals fought back, resulting in the death of one Buffalo Soldier named Pvt. Willis Johnson, and the wounding of two other soldiers. Another two detachments were sent and this time the locals allowed the soldiers to investigate but no one was convicted. The event forced the Army to retire the regiment from the place on November, 1892.


title: Johnson County War

text: In the fall of 1892, as the aftershock of the stand-off was still being felt throughout the county, two alleged horse rustlers were gunned down by range detectives east of the Big Horn River. The killers escaped the law with assistance from Otto Franc, a rancher who had sided with the large cattle company faction. On May 24, 1893, Nate Champion's brother, Dudley Champion, came to Wyoming looking for work and was shot and killed in cold blood. Fifteen miles from town, Dudley had come across the ranch of Mike Shonsey who, after seeing him, immediately grabbed a gun and fired at him. A coroner's inquiry ruled Shonsey's actions were self-defense and he was acquitted of murder. Afterwards, Shonsey left the country before the officials could continue with the investigation. A year before Nate Champion's death, Shonsey actually met him near the Beaver Creek Canyon, where a fight almost commenced between the two as Nate suspected that Shonsey was one of the five men who had attacked him in his cabin. He further threatened Shonsey and demanded he give up the names of the rest of the assassins. This event made Shonsey harbor hatred toward Nate and probably toward his brother Dudley as well. Dudley Champion was the last person killed in association with the Johnson County War.


title: Johnson County War

text: Emotions ran high for many years afterward. Some considered the large and wealthy ranchers as heroes who had sought what they regarded as justice by using violence to defend what they regarded as their rights to rangeland and water rights, while others saw the WSGA as heavy-handed outlaw vigilantes running roughshod over the law. A number of tall tales were spun by both sides afterwards to make their actions appear morally justified. Parties sympathetic to the invaders painted Ella Watson as a prostitute and cattle rustler, Jim Averell as her murderous partner in crime and pimp and Nate Champion as the leader of a vast cattle rustling empire, claiming that he was a leading member of the fabled "Red Sash Gang" of outlaws that supposedly included the likes of the Jesse James gang. These claims have since been discredited. While men frequently visited Watson's cabin, this was because she mended clothing for cowboys to earn extra money. While some accounts do note that Champion wore a red sash at the time of his death, such sashes were common. While the Hole in the Wall Gang was known to hide out in Johnson County, there is no evidence that Champion had any relationship to them. Parties sympathetic to the smaller ranchers spun tales that included some of the West's most notorious gunslingers under the employ of the Invaders, including such legends as Tom Horn and Big Nose George Parrot. Horn did briefly work as a detective for the WSGA in the 1890s but there is little evidence he was involved in the war.


title: Johnson County War

text: Although many of the leaders of the WSGA's hired force, such as William C. Irvine, were Democrats, the ranchers who had hired the group were tied to the Republican party and their opponents were mostly Democrats. Many viewed the rescue of the WSGA group at the order of President Harrison (a Republican) and the failure of the courts to prosecute them a serious political scandal with overtones of class war. As a result of the scandal, the Democratic Party became popular in Wyoming for a time, winning the governorship in 1892 and taking control of both houses of the state legislature in that election. Wyoming voted for the Democrat William Jennings Bryan in the 1896 U.S. Presidential Election, and Johnson County was one of the two counties in the state with the largest Bryan majorities.


title: Johnson County War

text: Historian Daniel Belgrad argues that in the 1880s centralized range management was emerging as the solution to the overgrazing that had depleted open ranges. Moreover, cattle prices at the time were low. Larger ranchers also were hurt by mavericking (taking lost, unbranded calves from other ranchers' herds), and responded by organizing cooperative roundups, blacklisting, and lobbying for stricter anti-maverick laws. These ranchers formed the WSGA and hired gunmen to hunt down rustlers, but local farmers resented the ranchers' collective political power. The farmers moved toward decentralization and the use of private winter pastures. Randy McFerrin and Douglas Wills argue that the confrontation represented opposing property rights systems. The result was the end of the open-range system and the dominance of large-scale stock ranching and farming. The popular image of the war, however, remains that of vigilantism by aggressive landed interests against small individual settlers defending their rights.


title: Johnson County War

text: By 1893, the WSGA was opened to the other small ranchers and farmers, finally ending their monopoly and control over Wyoming business interests. Previous practices of the WSGA, such as vigilantism and confiscation of cattle, were finally stopped. Many prominent leaders of the Association such as Frank Wolcott, Frank M. Canton and Tom Smith later left the area.


title: Johnson County War

text: The Johnson County War, with its overtones of class warfare coupled with the intervention ordered by the President of the United States to save the lives of a gang of hired killers and set them free, is not a flattering reflection on the American myth of the west. The Johnson County War has been one of the best-known range wars of the frontier. It has been a popular feature of the Western genre of fiction, which includes literature, films and television shows. "The Banditti of the Plains", written in 1894 by witness Asa Mercer, is the earliest record of the Johnson County War. The book was suppressed for many years by the WSGA, who seized and destroyed all but a few of the first edition copies from the 1894 printing; they were rumored to have hijacked and destroyed the second printing as it was being shipped from a printer north of Denver, Colorado. The book was reprinted several times in the 20th century and most recently in 2015. Frances McElrath's 1902 novel "The Rustler", took inspiration from the Johnson County War, and was sympathetic to the perspective of the small ranchers.


title: Johnson County War

text: "The Virginian", a seminal 1902 western novel by Owen Wister, took the side of the wealthy ranchers, creating a myth of the Johnson County War, but bore little resemblance to a factual account of the actual characters and events. Jack Schaefer's popular 1949 novel "Shane" treated themes associated with the Johnson County War and took the side of the settlers. The 1953 film "The Redhead from Wyoming," starring Maureen O'Hara, dealt with similar themes; in one scene Maureen O'Hara's character is told, "It won't be long before they're calling you Cattle Kate." In the 1968 novel "True Grit" by Charles Portis, the main character, Rooster Cogburn, was involved in the Johnson County War. In the early 1890s Rooster had gone north to Wyoming where he was "hired by stock owners to terrorize thieves and people called nesters and grangers... . I fear that Rooster did himself no credit in what they called the Johnson County War."


title: Johnson County War

text: Films such as "Heaven's Gate" (1980) and "The Johnson County War" (TV-movie, 2002) painted the wealthy ranchers as the "bad guys". "Heaven's Gate" was a dramatic romance loosely based on historical events, while "The Johnson County War" was based on the 1957 novel "Riders of Judgment" by Frederick Manfred. The range war was also portrayed in an episode of Jim Davis's syndicated western television series "Stories of the Century", with Henry Brandon as Nate Champion and Jean Parker as Ella Watson. American Heroes Channel presented the Johnson County War in the sixth episode of their "Blood Feuds" series documentary.


title: Johnson County War

text: The story of the Johnson County War from the point of view of the small ranchers was chronicled by Kaycee resident Chris LeDoux in his song "Johnson County War" on the 1989 album "Powder River". The song included references to the burning of the KC Ranch, the capture of the WSGA men, the intervention of the U.S. Cavalry and the release of the cattlemen and hired guns. The Jim Gatchell Memorial Museum in Buffalo featured dioramas and exhibits about the Johnson County War, as well as a bronze statue of Nate Champion. Kaycee, Wyoming, the old site of the KC Ranch, also erected the "Hoofprints in the Past" Museum to commemorate the war.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: In programming languages, a closure, also lexical closure or function closure, is a technique for implementing lexically scoped name binding in a language with first-class functions. Operationally, a closure is a record storing a function together with an environment. The environment is a mapping associating each free variable of the function (variables that are used locally, but defined in an enclosing scope) with the value or reference to which the name was bound when the closure was created. Unlike a plain function, a closure allows the function to access those "captured variables" through the closure's copies of their values or references, even when the function is invoked outside their scope.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: The concept of closures was developed in the 1960s for the mechanical evaluation of expressions in the λ-calculus and was first fully implemented in 1970 as a language feature in the PAL programming language to support lexically scoped first-class functions.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Peter J. Landin defined the term "closure" in 1964 as having an "environment part" and a "control part" as used by his SECD machine for evaluating expressions. Joel Moses credits Landin with introducing the term "closure" to refer to a lambda expression whose open bindings (free variables) have been closed by (or bound in) the lexical environment, resulting in a "closed expression", or closure. This usage was subsequently adopted by Sussman and Steele when they defined Scheme in 1975, a lexically scoped variant of Lisp, and became widespread.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Sussman and Abelson also use the term "closure" in the 1980s with a second, unrelated meaning: the property of an operator that adds data to a data structure to also be able to add nested data structures. This usage of the term comes from the mathematics usage rather than the prior usage in computer science. The authors consider this overlap in terminology to be "unfortunate."


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: The term "closure" is often used as a synonym for anonymous function, though strictly, an anonymous function is a function literal without a name, while a closure is an instance of a function, a value, whose non-local variables have been bound either to values or to storage locations (depending on the language; see the lexical environment section below).


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: the values of codice_1 and codice_2 are closures, in both cases produced by returning a nested function with a free variable from the enclosing function, so that the free variable binds to the value of parameter codice_3 of the enclosing function. The closures in codice_1 and codice_2 are functionally identical. The only difference in implementation is that in the first case we used a nested function with a name, codice_6, while in the second case we used an anonymous nested function (using the Python keyword codice_7 for creating an anonymous function). The original name, if any, used in defining them is irrelevant.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: A closure is a value like any other value. It does not need to be assigned to a variable and can instead be used directly, as shown in the last two lines of the example. This usage may be deemed an "anonymous closure".


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: The nested function definitions are not themselves closures: they have a free variable which is not yet bound. Only once the enclosing function is evaluated with a value for the parameter is the free variable of the nested function bound, creating a closure, which is then returned from the enclosing function.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Lastly, a closure is only distinct from a function with free variables when outside of the scope of the non-local variables, otherwise the defining environment and the execution environment coincide and there is nothing to distinguish these (static and dynamic binding cannot be distinguished because the names resolve to the same values). For example, in the below program, functions with a free variable codice_3 (bound to the non-local variable codice_3 with global scope) are executed in the same environment where codice_3 is defined, so it is immaterial whether these are actually closures:


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: This is most often achieved by a function return, since the function must be defined within the scope of the non-local variables, in which case typically its own scope will be smaller.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: This can also be achieved by variable shadowing (which reduces the scope of the non-local variable), though this is less common in practice, as it is less useful and shadowing is discouraged. In this example codice_11 can be seen to be a closure because codice_3 in the body of codice_11 is bound to the codice_3 in the global namespace, not the codice_3 local to codice_6:


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: The use of closures is associated with languages where functions are first-class objects, in which functions can be returned as results from higher-order functions, or passed as arguments to other function calls; if functions with free variables are first-class, then returning one creates a closure. This includes functional programming languages such as Lisp and ML, as well as many modern, multi-paradigm languages, such as


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Closures are also frequently used with callbacks, particularly for event handlers, such as in JavaScript, where they are used for interactions with a dynamic web page.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Closures can also be used in a continuation-passing style to hide state. Constructs such as objects and control structures can thus be implemented with closures. In some languages, a closure may occur when a function is defined within another function, and the inner function refers to local variables of the outer function. At run-time, when the outer function executes, a closure is formed, consisting of the inner function's code and references (the upvalues) to any variables of the outer function required by the closure.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Closures typically appear in languages with first-class functions—in other words, such languages enable functions to be passed as arguments, returned from function calls, bound to variable names, etc., just like simpler types such as strings and integers. For example, consider the following Scheme function:


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: In this example, the lambda expression codice_17 appears within the function codice_18. When the lambda expression is evaluated, Scheme creates a closure consisting of the code for the lambda expression and a reference to the codice_19 variable, which is a free variable inside the lambda expression.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: The closure is then passed to the codice_20 function, which calls it repeatedly to determine which books are to be added to the result list and which are to be discarded. Because the closure itself has a reference to codice_19, it can use that variable each time codice_20 calls it. The function codice_20 itself might be defined in a completely separate file.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Here is the same example rewritten in JavaScript, another popular language with support for closures:


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: The codice_24 keyword is used here instead of codice_7, and an codice_26 method instead of a global codice_20 function, but otherwise the structure and the effect of the code are the same.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Because the closure in this case outlives the execution of the function that creates it, the variables codice_11 and codice_29 live on after the function codice_30 returns, even though execution has left their scope and they are no longer visible. In languages without closures, the lifetime of an automatic local variable coincides with the execution of the stack frame where that variable is declared. In languages with closures, variables must continue to exist as long as any existing closures have references to them. This is most commonly implemented using some form of garbage collection.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: A closure can be used to associate a function with a set of "private" variables, which persist over several invocations of the function. The scope of the variable encompasses only the closed-over function, so it cannot be accessed from other program code. These are analogous to private variables in object-oriented programming, and in fact closures are analogous to a type of object, specifically function objects, with a single public method (function call), and possibly many private variables (the closed-over variables).


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: In stateful languages, closures can thus be used to implement paradigms for state representation and information hiding, since the closure's upvalues (its closed-over variables) are of indefinite extent, so a value established in one invocation remains available in the next. Closures used in this way no longer have referential transparency, and are thus no longer pure functions; nevertheless, they are commonly used in impure functional languages such as Scheme.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Note: Some speakers call any data structure that binds a lexical environment a closure, but the term usually refers specifically to functions.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Closures are typically implemented with a special data structure that contains a pointer to the function code, plus a representation of the function's lexical environment (i.e., the set of available variables) at the time when the closure was created. The referencing environment binds the non-local names to the corresponding variables in the lexical environment at the time the closure is created, additionally extending their lifetime to at least as long as the lifetime of the closure itself. When the closure is entered at a later time, possibly with a different lexical environment, the function is executed with its non-local variables referring to the ones captured by the closure, not the current environment.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: A language implementation cannot easily support full closures if its run-time memory model allocates all automatic variables on a linear stack. In such languages, a function's automatic local variables are deallocated when the function returns. However, a closure requires that the free variables it references survive the enclosing function's execution. Therefore, those variables must be allocated so that they persist until no longer needed, typically via heap allocation, rather than on the stack, and their lifetime must be managed so they survive until all closures referencing them are no longer in use.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: This explains why, typically, languages that natively support closures also use garbage collection. The alternatives are manual memory management of non-local variables (explicitly allocating on the heap and freeing when done), or, if using stack allocation, for the language to accept that certain use cases will lead to undefined behaviour, due to dangling pointers to freed automatic variables, as in lambda expressions in C++11 or nested functions in GNU C. The funarg problem (or "functional argument" problem) describes the difficulty of implementing functions as first class objects in a stack-based programming language such as C or C++. Similarly in D version 1, it is assumed that the programmer knows what to do with delegates and automatic local variables, as their references will be invalid after return from its definition scope (automatic local variables are on the stack) – this still permits many useful functional patterns, but for complex cases needs explicit heap allocation for variables. D version 2 solved this by detecting which variables must be stored on the heap, and performs automatic allocation. Because D uses garbage collection, in both versions, there is no need to track usage of variables as they are passed.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: In strict functional languages with immutable data ("e.g." Erlang), it is very easy to implement automatic memory management (garbage collection), as there are no possible cycles in variables' references. For example, in Erlang, all arguments and variables are allocated on the heap, but references to them are additionally stored on the stack. After a function returns, references are still valid. Heap cleaning is done by incremental garbage collector.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: In ML, local variables are lexically scoped, and hence define a stack-like model, but since they are bound to values and not to objects, an implementation is free to copy these values into the closure's data structure in a way that is invisible to the programmer.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Scheme, which has an ALGOL-like lexical scope system with dynamic variables and garbage collection, lacks a stack programming model and does not suffer from the limitations of stack-based languages. Closures are expressed naturally in Scheme. The lambda form encloses the code, and the free variables of its environment persist within the program as long as they can possibly be accessed, and so they can be used as freely as any other Scheme expression.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Closures are closely related to Actors in the Actor model of concurrent computation where the values in the function's lexical environment are called "acquaintances". An important issue for closures in concurrent programming languages is whether the variables in a closure can be updated and, if so, how these updates can be synchronized. Actors provide one solution.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Closures are closely related to function objects; the transformation from the former to the latter is known as defunctionalization or lambda lifting; see also closure conversion.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: As different languages do not always have a common definition of the lexical environment, their definitions of closure may vary also. The commonly held minimalist definition of the lexical environment defines it as a set of all bindings of variables in the scope, and that is also what closures in any language have to capture. However the meaning of a variable binding also differs. In imperative languages, variables bind to relative locations in memory that can store values. Although the relative location of a binding does not change at runtime, the value in the bound location can. In such languages, since closure captures the binding, any operation on the variable, whether done from the closure or not, are performed on the same relative memory location. This is often called capturing the variable "by reference". Here is an example illustrating the concept in ECMAScript, which is one such language:


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Function codice_31 and the closures referred to by variables codice_11 and codice_6 all use the same relative memory location signified by local variable codice_3.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: In some instances the above behaviour may be undesirable, and it is necessary to bind a different lexical closure. Again in ECMAScript, this would be done using the codice_35.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: For this example the expected behaviour would be that each link should emit its id when clicked; but because the variable 'e' is bound the scope above, and lazy evaluated on click, what actually happens is that each on click event emits the id of the last element in 'elements' bound at the end of the for loop.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Again here variable codice_36 would need to be bound by the scope of the block using codice_37 or the codice_38 keyword.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: On the other hand, many functional languages, such as ML, bind variables directly to values. In this case, since there is no way to change the value of the variable once it is bound, there is no need to share the state between closures—they just use the same values. This is often called capturing the variable "by value". Java's local and anonymous classes also fall into this category—they require captured local variables to be codice_39, which also means there is no need to share state.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Some languages enable you to choose between capturing the value of a variable or its location. For example, in C++11, captured variables are either declared with codice_40, which means captured by reference, or with codice_41, which means captured by value.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Yet another subset, lazy functional languages such as Haskell, bind variables to results of future computations rather than values. Consider this example in Haskell:


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: The binding of codice_42 captured by the closure defined within function codice_31 is to the computation codice_44—which in this case results in division by zero. However, since it is the computation that is captured, and not the value, the error only manifests itself when the closure is invoked, and actually attempts to use the captured binding.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Yet more differences manifest themselves in the behavior of other lexically scoped constructs, such as codice_45, codice_46 and codice_47 statements. Such constructs can, in general, be considered in terms of invoking an escape continuation established by an enclosing control statement (in case of codice_46 and codice_47, such interpretation requires looping constructs to be considered in terms of recursive function calls). In some languages, such as ECMAScript, codice_45 refers to the continuation established by the closure lexically innermost with respect to the statement—thus, a codice_45 within a closure transfers control to the code that called it. However, in Smalltalk, the superficially similar operator codice_52 invokes the escape continuation established for the method invocation, ignoring the escape continuations of any intervening nested closures. The escape continuation of a particular closure can only be invoked in Smalltalk implicitly by reaching the end of the closure's code. The following examples in ECMAScript and Smalltalk highlight the difference:


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: The above code snippets will behave differently because the Smalltalk codice_52 operator and the JavaScript codice_45 operator are not analogous. In the ECMAScript example, codice_55 will leave the inner closure to begin a new iteration of the codice_56 loop, whereas in the Smalltalk example, codice_57 will abort the loop and return from the method codice_31.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Common Lisp provides a construct that can express either of the above actions: Lisp codice_59 behaves as Smalltalk codice_57, while Lisp codice_61 behaves as JavaScript codice_55. Hence, Smalltalk makes it possible for a captured escape continuation to outlive the extent in which it can be successfully invoked. Consider:


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: When the closure returned by the method codice_31 is invoked, it attempts to return a value from the invocation of codice_31 that created the closure. Since that call has already returned and the Smalltalk method invocation model does not follow the spaghetti stack discipline to facilitate multiple returns, this operation results in an error.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Some languages, such as Ruby, enable the programmer to choose the way codice_45 is captured. An example in Ruby:


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Both codice_66 and codice_7 in this example are ways to create a closure, but semantics of the closures thus created are different with respect to the codice_45 statement.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: In Scheme, definition and scope of the codice_45 control statement is explicit (and only arbitrarily named 'return' for the sake of the example). The following is a direct translation of the Ruby sample.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Some languages have features which simulate the behavior of closures. In languages such as Java, C++, Objective-C, C#, VB.NET, and D, these features are the result of the language's object-oriented paradigm.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: With a gcc extension, a nested function can be used and a function pointer can emulate closures, providing the function does not exit the containing scope.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: The following example is invalid because codice_72 is a top-level definition (depending on compiler version, it could produce a correct result if compiled without optimization, i.e. at codice_73):


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Java enables classes to be defined inside methods. These are called "local classes". When such classes are not named, they are known as "anonymous classes" (or anonymous "inner" classes). A local class (either named or anonymous) may refer to names in lexically enclosing classes, or read-only variables (marked as codice_39) in the lexically enclosing method.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: The capturing of codice_39 variables enables you to capture variables by value. Even if the variable you want to capture is non-codice_39, you can always copy it to a temporary codice_39 variable just before the class.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Capturing of variables by reference can be emulated by using a codice_39 reference to a mutable container, for example, a single-element array. The local class will not be able to change the value of the container reference itself, but it will be able to change the contents of the container.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Local classes are one of the types of inner class that are declared within the body of a method. Java also supports inner classes that are declared as "non-static members" of an enclosing class. They are normally referred to just as "inner classes". These are defined in the body of the enclosing class and have full access to instance variables of the enclosing class. Due to their binding to these instance variables, an inner class may only be instantiated with an explicit binding to an instance of the enclosing class using a special syntax.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Upon execution, this will print the integers from 0 to 9. Beware to not confuse this type of class with the nested class, which is declared in the same way with an accompanied usage of the "static" modifier; those have not the desired effect but are instead just classes with no special binding defined in an enclosing class.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: As of Java 8, Java supports functions as first class objects. Lambda expressions of this form are considered of type codice_83 with T being the domain and U the image type. The expression can be called with its codice_84 method, but not with a standard method call.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Apple introduced blocks, a form of closure, as a nonstandard extension into C, C++, Objective-C 2.0 and in Mac OS X 10.6 "Snow Leopard" and iOS 4.0. Apple made their implementation available for the GCC and clang compilers.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Pointers to block and block literals are marked with codice_52. Normal local variables are captured by value when the block is created, and are read-only inside the block. Variables to be captured by reference are marked with codice_86. Blocks that need to persist outside of the scope they are created in may need to be copied.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: [[Visual Basic .NET]], which has many language features similar to those of C#, also supports lambda expressions with closures:


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: In [[D (programming language)|D]], closures are implemented by delegates, a function pointer paired with a context pointer (e.g. a class instance, or a stack frame on the heap in the case of closures).


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: D version 1, has limited closure support. For example, the above code will not work correctly, because the variable a is on the stack, and after returning from test(), it is no longer valid to use it (most probably calling foo via dg(), will return a 'random' integer). This can be solved by explicitly allocating the variable 'a' on heap, or using structs or class to store all needed closed variables and construct a delegate from a method implementing the same code. Closures can be passed to other functions, as long as they are only used while the referenced values are still valid (for example calling another function with a closure as a callback parameter), and are useful for writing generic data processing code, so this limitation, in practice, is often not an issue.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: This limitation was fixed in D version 2 - the variable 'a' will be automatically allocated on the heap because it is used in the inner function, and a delegate of that function can escape the current scope (via assignment to dg or return). Any other local variables (or arguments) that are not referenced by delegates or that are only referenced by delegates that do not escape the current scope, remain on the stack, which is simpler and faster than heap allocation. The same is true for inner's class methods that reference a function's variables.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: [[C++]] enables defining [[function object]]s by overloading codice_87. These objects behave somewhat like functions in a functional programming language. They may be created at runtime and may contain state, but they do not implicitly capture local variables as closures do. As of [[C++11|the 2011 revision]], the C++ language also supports closures, which are a type of function object constructed automatically from a special language construct called "lambda-expression". A C++ closure may capture its context either by storing copies of the accessed variables as members of the closure object or by reference. In the latter case, if the closure object escapes the scope of a referenced object, invoking its codice_87 causes undefined behavior since C++ closures do not extend the lifetime of their context.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: [[Eiffel (programming language)|Eiffel]] includes inline agents defining closures. An inline agent is an object representing a routine, defined by giving the code of the routine in-line. For example, in


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: the argument to codice_89 is an agent, representing a procedure with two arguments; the procedure finds the country at the corresponding coordinates and displays it. The whole agent is "subscribed" to the event type codice_90 for a


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: certain button, so that whenever an instance of the event type occurs on that button – because a user has clicked the button – the procedure will be executed with the mouse coordinates being passed as arguments for codice_3 and codice_92.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: The main limitation of Eiffel agents, which distinguishes them from closures in other languages, is that they cannot reference local variables from the enclosing scope. This design decision helps in avoiding ambiguity when talking about a local variable value in a closure - should it be the latest value of the variable or the value captured when the agent is created? Only codice_93 (a reference to current object, analogous to codice_94 in Java), its features, and arguments of the agent itself can be accessed from within the agent body. The values of the outer local variables can be passed by providing additional closed operands to the agent.


title: Closure (computer programming)

text: Embarcadero C++Builder provides the reserve word __closure to provide a pointer to a method with a similar syntax to a function pointer.


title: Alizeh Shah

text: Alizeh Shah (Urdu: علیزہ شاہ; born 9 June 2000) is a Pakistani actress who appears in Urdu television. She made her acting debut in 2016, with a supporting role Alina in "Choti Si Zindagi". In 2018, Her performance as Palwasha in "Ishq Tamasha" earned her the Hum Award for Best Television Sensation. Shah get widely recognized after portraying the role of Dua in "Ehd-e-Wafa" (2019).


title: Alizeh Shah

text: After that she has portraying the main roles in several serials "Hoor Pari" (2019), "Jo Tu Chahey" (2019), "Mera Dil Mera Dushman" (2020), "Tanaa Banaa" (2021) and "bebasi" (2022).


title: Alizeh Shah

text: Shah first appeared on television when she was 6 years old, working in a commercial alongside Wasim Akram, and began her professional acting career in 2017. She initially had a short role in Tere Naal Love Ho Gaya, followed by the role as Alina in Hum TV's Choti Si Zindagi. She has since played the female lead in Hoor Pari and Jo Tu Chahey. Shah played the character of Tamana in the TV series Daldal and the role of Palwasha in drama serial Ishq Tamasha, for which she received a nomination for the Best Television Sensation Female award at the seventh Hum Awards. She had performed the role of Dua in the drama serial Ehd-e-Wafa. She was last seen as Maira in ARY Digital's "Mera Dil Mera Dushman".


title: Alizeh Shah

text: In May 2021, Alizeh ventured into singing with a Punjabi song titled "Badnamiyan", alongside singer Sahir Ali Bagga. She faced backlash on social media for wearing a tank top in the music video, going against modest clothing norms in the country. In July 2021, she was again faced with criticism for wearing revealing attire at the Hum Style Awards.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time is a 2013 platform stealth video game, the fourth and latest title in the "Sly Cooper" series. "Thieves in Time" is available on the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita. Though the original series was developed by Sucker Punch Productions for the PlayStation 2, this game was developed by Sanzaru Games, who had previously ported the original games into high-definition versions for the PlayStation 3. The game was teased in these versions, but it was not formally announced until several months later at the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo during Sony's presentation on June 6, 2011.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: The game, set in a world populated by anthropomorphic animals, follows from the end of "". Sly Cooper, a raccoon from a long line of master thieves, will need to reunite with his gang to repair the "Thievius Raccoonus", a book chronicling the Cooper family line whose pages have been affected by a villain traveling through time. The player controls Sly, Bentley, Murray, Carmelita Fox, and Sly's ancestors, using their skills to pull off heists and reveal who is putting the Cooper history in a jam. This game is also a part of Sony's cross-buy initiative, allowing purchasers of the PlayStation 3 version of the game to receive a free copy of the game for the PlayStation Vita via the PlayStation Network. The player can also save their game in the cloud, allowing them to play on one system and later continue playing on the other system.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: "Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time" was met with a generally positive critical reception upon release. It was well-received for its amount of content, graphics, writing, as well as the utilization of the Cross-Buy program. However, the return of the previous entries' stealth platform genre in the context of video games at the time, the sections for characters besides the titular protagonist, and the mini-games divided reviewers. Of wide condemnation were the loading screens, which were perceived as common and excessively long.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: As with other "Sly Cooper" entries, "Thieves in Time" is a 3D platform stealth game with puzzle-solving and the ability to explore wide open spaces, regardless if they are part of the required objective. Players primarily control Sly Cooper, who must sneak around and navigate various obstacles to help restore the history of the "Thievius Raccoonus". Similar to the series "Assassin's Creed" (2007–present), players go back into time periods saving his ancestors and killing the land's tyrant. Many of Sly's abilities return, such as navigating poles and ropes, jumping across narrow platforms and stealing items from guards. New to this game are costumes earned throughout the course of the game, which give Sly access to new abilities. Examples include a suit of armor that allows Sly to reflect projectiles with a shield, an archery outfit that lets him shoot arrows at targets to create rope lines, and an Arabian pirate-like suit that allows him to slow down time and use a sword to break sturdy objects. These costumes can be taken to previously visited levels to reach secret areas.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: New secret masks and treasures are hidden throughout the game; the latter item, unlike its counterpart in previous installments, is collectible only and cannot be sold on the game's ThiefNet service (although the player still receives an in-game monetary reward). The clue bottles from "Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus" and "" make a return, allowing the player to unlock new abilities for all of the playable characters. A new feature allows anyone who owns both the PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 3 versions of the game to use the Vita system as "a set of x-ray goggles" to find any of these hidden collectibles anywhere in the world, through the use of augmented reality. The binary characters displayed during Bentley's plans are ASCII-encoded text messages and can be decoded manually.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: Bentley, Murray, and Carmelita Fox return as playable characters, along with some of Sly's ancestors, who each possess unique abilities. Worlds in the game are claimed to be three times the size of the original trilogy. The game also supports stereoscopic 3D and local multiplayer in some sections of the game.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: Sly is faking amnesia to be with his love interest Carmelita, Murray is racing with the team van, and Bentley and Penelope are constructing a time machine. However, the words began vanishing from the pages of the "Thievius Raccoonus", and Penelope disappears, so Bentley reforms the gang to repair the damage to the Cooper's history and find out who is responsible. Meanwhile, Carmelita discovers Sly's deception after she catches him robbing an art museum to steal the Feudal Japan-era dagger to get to Feudal Japan, and wants to permanently get her hands on him for lying to her.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: The team begins their time-traveling journey in Feudal Japan, where they rescue Rioichi Cooper, a ninja and the inventor of sushi. After a showdown with El Jefe, a Cuban military strategist tiger who overthrew several small countries and sold them to the highest bidder, Rioichi's cane is stolen. In the Wild West, the gang breaks outlaw Tennessee "Kid" Cooper, who was framed for bank robbery before he had started, out of jail. They also discover Carmelita being held hostage by Toothpick, a self-proclaimed "gunslinger" armadillo posing as the town's new sheriff, under the orders of a black-market art dealer skunk named Cyrille Le Paradox, who sent her back in time to impede her investigation of him. The gang, however, gets captured as well.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: After the rescue, they manage to defeat Toothpick, but unforeseen complications cause them to be sent to the Ice Age in Prehistoric Australia. Carmelita is still very upset at Sly and leaves the group. A cave-raccoon nicknamed "Bob" teams up with the gang to stop The Grizz, an art thief bear forging cave paintings. After much thought, Carmelita finally decides to help the gang in order to stop Le Paradox and return home. They then travel to Medieval England, where they recruit Sir Galleth of The Knights of the Cooper Order, a knight with a flair for the dramatic. They confront the tyrant Black Knight in control of the area, but are shocked to discover it is actually Penelope, who believes Sly is a negative influence on Bentley and provided Le Paradox with a means of traveling through time. This revelation sends Bentley into a deep depression, but eventually overcomes it and arrives just in time to save the gang from Penelope and break up with her.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: The gang finally catches up to Le Paradox in Ancient Arabia with the help of Salim Al-Kupar, the last active member of the Forty Thieves, and battle Ms. Decibel, a "music snob" elephant with the power of hypnosis thanks to a trumpet stuck in her trunk. Le Paradox's plan is eventually revealed: forge documents in the past depicting a fake royal lineage to expand his fortune and influence, and steal the Cooper ancestors' canes as revenge for his own family's misfortune as thieves. As a final insult to Sly, he kidnaps Carmelita.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: The gang returns to present-day Paris, now under Le Paradox's control. Using Carmelita as bait, Le Paradox captures Sly. However, Bentley, Murray, and a team of Cooper ancestors retrieve the missing canes and free them just as Le Paradox inadvertently rips a hole in the space-time continuum. Finally reconciling with Carmelita, Sly sends everyone home just before entering a final showdown with Le Paradox atop his blimp, ending with Le Paradox falling into the sea. The various villains are sent to prison, though Penelope escapes and remains at large. However, though Le Paradox was later found and incarcerated, Sly was trapped aboard the blimp and has disappeared, saddening everyone, especially Carmelita who was hurt the most. Despite this, the gang vows to do whatever it takes to find him, no matter when or where he is.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: If all trophies are collected, a secret ending shows Sly waking up, surrounded by the wreckage of Le Paradox's blimp in front of a jackal-headed temple and pyramids in Ancient Egypt.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: Sanzaru Games, a California developer whose only major credits included "Ninja Reflex" (2008) and the PlayStation 2 port of "Secret Agent Clank" (2008), were interested in developing the "Sly Cooper" franchise further after Sucker Punch Productions, the original developer, had moved on to the "Infamous" series. Quickly after the purchase of a PlayStation 3 development kit, they worked out a prototype game engine for the console which they presented to Sony Computer Entertainment. Sony was impressed and gave them the development duties for the PlayStation 3 conversion of the original trilogy, "The Sly Collection" and then subsequently green-lit "Thieves in Time".


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: "Thieves in Time" represents a return to the series after a near eight-year hiatus following the release of "Sly 3". Several hints of the series' revival were previously included in both "Infamous" games by Sucker Punch. In addition to other nods to the series, such as Sly Cooper's calling-card logo patch on "Infamous"' protagonist Cole MacGrath's backpack in both games and the ability to use Sly's cane as an alternate melee weapon within "Infamous 2", both games features marquees that included the title ""Sly 4"". A teaser trailer included in "The Sly Collection", released in late 2010, titled ""Sly 4"", was believed to be an indication that a new game would soon be announced. The game was formally announced for PlayStation 3 during Sony's presentation at the 2011 E3 convention on June 6, 2011. A PlayStation Vita version was revealed on May 18, 2012 during the GTTV television show.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: At Gamescom 2012, Sony Computer Entertainment announced the new cross-buy program. Through this program, one could purchase the PS3 version of a game and receive the PS Vita version (provided one is available) completely free of charge through a code redeemable at the PS Vita's PlayStation Store, with "Thieves in Time" among the games supporting the program. A new trailer was also seen at Gamescom 2012, introducing Salim Al-Kupar as another confirmed ancestor and sending news that the release date had been pushed back to early 2013. Sony later clarified the release date to be in February 2013, stating that they didn't want "Thieves in Time" to release at the same time as all of the other games coming out in the fall of 2012; putting it in February would give it more prominence during the game's vital opening week with fewer big-name titles releasing at the same time.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: A demo for the game is included on the North American version of the "Ratchet & Clank Collection", which released on August 28; however, it only has a single mission to play. Another demo, including the Paris prologue, was released on January 22 for PlayStation Plus members and January 29 for everyone on both the PS3 and PS Vita. On September 21, 2012, ten years after "Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus" released, Sony announced Sly 4's release date to be February 5, 2013, and announced that those who preordered would gain early access to a special outfit for Murray and two Paraglider "skins" that are available to everyone else in game once a certain amount of "Secret Sly Masks" are collected.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: The score for "Thieves in Time" was composed by videogame composer Peter McConnell, who also scored the previous two "Sly" games. McConnell composed more than 2.5 hours of music for this score in a wide variety of styles. All the music was recorded at Ocean Way in Nashville by the Nashville Music Scoring orchestra. It is available on iTunes and the PlayStation Network.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: Upon its release, "Thieves in Time" was the 9th best selling retail game of the month in the United States, and received "generally positive reviews" according to review aggregator Metacritic. The creators of "Sly Cooper" at Sucker Punch Productions expressed approval as well, stating on their Twitter account that they had "no problem handing over the Sly reigns [sic] to Sanzaru. Hope all enjoy it as much as we did."


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: "Thieves in Time"s gameplay, in terms of how well it adapted "Sly Cooper" to the generation of video gaming at the time, was debated. "Official Playstation Magazine" journalist Robert Pearson argued it was a success, minus the "dated boss battles and one or two grating design choices". Some critics appreciated the return of the series' typical collect-a-thon stealth platform style as a nostalgic reminder of both it and the gaming era it was from. "IGN"s Colin Moriarty was one of them, adding that it kept the franchise relevant by modernizing the previous-era mascot-based 3D platformer, not accomplished by other PlayStation series like "Jak & Daxter" and "Ratchet & Clank" which "have either disappeared entirely or gone in new and strange directions respectively". As reviewers from "Edge" and "Game Informer" explained, the gameplay was fresh by how skillfully-incorporated and varied its established gameplay components were. Others felt "Thieves in Times" latched too closely to the platform style and did not take enough risks, resulting in a repetitive, unsurprising, and dated experience. Marty Sliva disparagingly described the franchise's gameplay as dated to the early 2000s era after "Grand Theft Auto III": "It strives to deliver an open world, but that space feels sparse and unlived in. It leans on variety at the detriment of not allowing any one element to feel truly refined. It knows how to tell a long story, but doesn't quite know how to tell a particularly good one."


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: Moriarty and "GameSpot"s Tom McShea wrote the game's new set of characters, and the addition of moves unique to the ancestors, kept the gameplay fresh, exciting and diverse. "Push Square"s Sammy Barker claimed that the discovery of an ancestor's move motivated the player to search for the next world. On the other hand, Bramwell was disappointed by the moves. He argued that they lacked the "tactile pleasure" of maneuvering Sly Cooper, being only for "obvious and functional skills", and were overly fiddly to alternate between. "GameRevolution"s Alex Osborn argued the gameplay styles were too "shallow" to change up the gameplay. The ratio of sections for specific characters was also considered unbalanced by some reviewers. Osborn perceived that Sly Cooper still dominated the experience, and Carmichael found opportunities to play as Carmelita and the ancestors too small to be satisfying. Contrarily, "Eurogamer"s Tom Bramwell felt that the experience was generally let down by not enough platforming with Sly, and an overabundance of mini-games and sections with the other characters that were less thrilling. Similarly, Moriarty, despite being impressed by the amount of playable characters, wrote most lacked the "versatility" of Sly Cooper.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: The locales were generally praised for their detail, vibrant color palette, and diversity between them. Stephanie Carmichael of "VentureBeat" also acknowledged detail and variety in the character designs. However, Sliva called the stage layouts "bland" and all the same, which "does a disservice to [the periods'] admittedly interesting themes". The cutscenes were praised as "bright and colorful" by "GameRevolution"s Alex Osborn and "cartoony, charming, and funny to watch" by Carmichael. Staff from "Edge" also praised the cutscenes, although found fault with "noticeable artifacting" encountered when the subtitles were off.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: The story, voice acting, and humor were well-received. Matt Helgeson of "Game Informer" opined "Thieves in Time" had one of the best stories of a platform game. In addition to getting hooked the characters, Moriarty praised it as a rare video game to keep the player constantly laughing, citing examples of Murray's third-person narration of himself and Bentley's pokes at Sly's sense of humor. Barker enjoyed the return of the detailed character development and silliness of previous entries. Like Moriarty, he lauded the comedy as exceptional in comparison to others of its kind, reasoning that it emphasizes "fun puns and genuinely calamitous scenarios" over "shouting, screaming, and tired memes". McShea appreciated the diversity of Sly's ancestors for contributing to the game's comedy, despite being non-evolving archetypes. He called Salim the funniest of them, also highlighting Tennessee's disparity between the modest way he acts towards women and his self-bloating when he's not with them. Carmichael appreciated how much the voice-acted dialogue contributed to the missions, but argued Bentley and Murray provided too much advice for the player to solve problems on their own. Even "Edge", who found the script not funny, acknowledged that the unexpected twists in the gameplay and plot meant "even the most groansome gags and lame puns add to the freewheeling, ramshackle charm". A detractor of the comedy and dialogue was Osborn, who found it "forced and played out" and had a hard time watching "any more of the nonsensical stupidity that would spew from [the characters'] mouths".


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: Critics spotlighted the depth and length, reporting that it would take 20 hours to beat the campaign and hours more to explore every part of the stages for optional collectables. "Hardcore Gamer"s Steve Hannley suspected the environments were the largest in the series. McShea called the gameplay's scavenging, particularly for collectables not required by the task, its best element. The freedom of maneuverability was enjoyed by reviewers, including McShea. However, he also suggested the game focused too much on freedom of movement over difficulty, especially in the early sections. The game was also criticized for continuing the platform control of jumping then pressing the circle button. It was called "archaic" by Moriarty and "clunky" by Osborn, who also noted that the button indicator was sometimes in hard-to-notice edges of the screen.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: The bosses were highlighted for their difficulty, to the enjoyment of Carmichael and McShea but to the frustration of Pearson. However, they were also negatively cited for their over-dependence on patterns, Carmichael finding the last boss to be anti-climatic due to this. McShea was the most critical toward the combat sections apart from the bosses, finding the situations "forced" and the sense of impact and peril small. The Murray sections were considered the worst by McShea, noting that they involved nothing more than repeatedly punching. Murray's sections were also disliked by Pearson for the same reason, who also criticized Bentley's sections. More positively, the character-specific sections besides Sly were noted by Hegelson to add diversity to the gameplay.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: The mini-games garnered mixed responses. McShea wrote that they were short enough to not overstay their welcome, and their disparate genres added to the game's diversity. Steve Hannley highlight how the different styles of each character-specific section meshed without being jarring. The "Edge" staff also appreciated the diversity and wackiness of the mini-games' situations, but found them "rarely exciting". Barker claimed that "there's something admirable about a title that includes a fully functioning table-tennis mini-game just because it can", and found Bob's Winter Olympics-esque mini-game to be one of the title's funniest moments. He was, however, irritated by the repetition of genres, and was critical of mini-games that utilized the motion detection on the DualShock 3. Bramwell disliked the mini-games as "quirky but unoriginal".


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: The incorporation of the Cross-Buy program was enthusiastically received by critics, who recommended Sony to utilize it for future projects. Bramwell did so with the advice to make the saving automatic. However, there were critiques towards the towards the use of the Vita. Moriarty considered the handle console port's graphics significantly inferior to the PlayStation 3 counterpart, reasoning that it was "far more at home" on the household system in all manners. Bramwell noted the framerate went from 60fps to 30fps on the Vita. Carmichael disliked the requirement of the Vita for a viewfinder for masks and clues, which served a similar function of the binocucom on the screen of the prior PlayStation 2 entries. The loading screens were considered by some critics to be the worst aspect, and frequently condemned as long and common. "Edge" reported the problem being the worst on the Vita, and the magazine's staff and Pearson claimed these plus the mini-games deterred the narrative pacing.


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: Despite "Thieves in Time" ending on a cliffhanger, the "Sly Cooper" series has been stagnant since then. On November 14, 2014, following messages from "Sly Cooper" fans, Sanzaru Games released a statement on Facebook that they were not developing a future game. Although the developer did not state a rationale, Caty McCarthy of "USgamer" inductively-reasoned that low sales and the industry's focus of hyper-realistic video games that took advantage of console power at the expense of cartoon-y products may have motivated Sony to not continue the series. Additionally, a film adaptation with a released teaser trailer and projected for a 2016 release, as well as an announced animated series, never entered production. When McCarthy asked Sanzaru development director Omar Woodley, who joined the company after "Thieves in Time", about a potential future entry, he responded, "You never know what's on the horizon. Some of these projects come in of our own initiative trying to drive them, others are publishers outside Sony, Microsoft, Nintendo, and they come to us with an idea and we come together on cohesion of a vision. But you never know what you'll embark on next."


title: Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time

text: In August 2021, rumors of "Sly Cooper 5" being developed began to surface. Although, it has been noted that neither Sanzaru Games nor Sucker Punch Productions are the team behind the sequel.


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: Sybil is a 1973 book by Flora Rheta Schreiber about the treatment of Sybil Dorsett (a pseudonym for Shirley Ardell Mason) for dissociative identity disorder (then referred to as "multiple personality disorder") by her psychoanalyst, Cornelia B. Wilbur.


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: The book was made into two television movies of the same name, once in 1976 and again in 2007. There have also been books published after the fact, challenging the facts of Sybil's therapy sessions. A few examples of these are "SYBIL in her own words, Sybil Exposed", and "After Sybil".


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: Mason is given the pseudonym "Sybil" by her therapist to protect her privacy. In 1998, Sigmund Freud historian Peter J. Swales discovered Sybil's true identity. Originally in treatment for social anxiety and memory loss, after extended therapy involving amobarbital and hypnosis interviews, Sybil manifests sixteen personalities. Wilbur encouraged Sybil's various selves to communicate and reveal information about her life. Wilbur writes that Sybil's multiple personality disorder was a result of the severe physical and sexual abuse she allegedly suffered at the hands of her mother, Hattie.


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: The book begins with a list of Sybil's "alters", together with the year in which each appeared to have dissociated from the central personality. The names of these selves were also changed to ensure privacy.


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: The book's narrative describes Sybil's selves gradually becoming co-conscious, able to communicate and share responsibilities, and having musical compositions and art published under their various names. Wilbur attempts to integrate Sybil's various selves, first convincing them via hypnosis that they are all the same age, then encouraging them to merge. At the book's end, a new, optimistic self-called "The Blonde" emerges, preceding Sybil's final integration into a single, whole individual with full knowledge of her past and present life.


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: The book had an initial print run of 400,000. The book is believed by Mark Pendergrast and Joan Acocella to have established the template for the later upsurge in the diagnoses of dissociative identity disorders.


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: Audiotapes of recorded conversations between Schreiber and Wilbur were examined by Herbert Spiegel and later by academic Robert W. Rieber of John Jay College of Criminal Justice. Both concluded that Wilbur suggested multiple personalities to her client, whom they saw as a simple "hysteric". Their purported proof of this claim is a session tape in which Wilbur is heard describing to Mason the personalities she has already seen Mason exhibit. Spiegel and Rieber also claim that Wilbur and Schreiber fabricated most of the book. Many details of the real case were changed or removed to protect Mason's privacy.


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: Critics of Spiegel and Rieber's "revelation" ask why they waited until after Schreiber, Wilbur, and Mason were all dead before revealing the tapes, which Spiegel supposedly had in his possession all along. A review of Rieber's book "Bifurcation of the Self" by Mark Lawrence states that Rieber repeatedly distorted the evidence and left out a number of important facts about Mason's case, in order to advance his case against the validity of the diagnosis.


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: Patrick Suraci, author of "SYBIL in her own words", personally acquainted with Shirley Mason and still in touch with members of her family, criticizes Spiegel for what he terms unethical behavior in withholding the tapes. Spiegel also claimed to have made films of himself hypnotizing Mason, supposedly proving that Wilbur had "implanted false memories" in her mind, but when Suraci asked to see the films, Spiegel said he had lost them.


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: In 2011, journalist Debbie Nathan published a detailed exposé, "Sybil Exposed", in which she claims that Wilbur, Mason and Schreiber knowingly perpetrated a fraud in order to create a "Sybil, Inc." business, selling T-shirts, stickers, board games and other paraphernalia. Much of Nathan's book repeats material already covered in the original "Sybil", including a 1958 letter in which Mason spoke about making up the "alters" for attention and excitement. In "Sybil", this letter was interpreted as an attempt to put difficult, painful therapy on hold. Nathan claims Schreiber became aware of Mason and her alleged past, writing "Sybil" based on stories coaxed from her during therapy, and that this case created an "industry" of repressed memory.


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: In 2013, artist-journalist Nancy Preston published "After Sybil", a personal memoir which includes facsimile reproductions of Mason's personal letters to her, along with color plates of her paintings. According to Preston, Mason taught art at Ohio's Rio Grande College, where Preston was a student. The two became close friends and corresponded until a few days before Mason's death. In the letters, Mason confirmed that she had had multiple personalities.


title: Sybil (Schreiber book)

text: In computer security, a Sybil attack is one wherein a reputation system is subverted by creating multiple identities.


title: White Fragility

text: White Fragility: Why It's So Hard for White People to Talk About Racism is a 2018 book written by Robin DiAngelo about race relations in the United States. An academic with experience in diversity training, DiAngelo coined the term "white fragility" in 2011 to describe any defensive instincts or reactions that a white person experiences when questioned about race or made to consider their own race. In "White Fragility", DiAngelo views racism in the United States as systemic and often perpetuated subconsciously by individuals. She recommends against viewing racism as committed intentionally by "bad people".


title: White Fragility

text: Published on June 26, 2018, the book entered the "New York Times" Bestseller List that month, remaining on the list for well over a year and experiencing a resurgence in demand during the George Floyd protests beginning in May 2020. As of the July 26, 2020 edition, the book was in its 97th week on the list in the Paperback Nonfiction category, where it is ranked number one. Critically, the book received generally positive reviews following its publication. It received more mixed reviews in the aftermath of the George Floyd protests two years later. Some reviewers lauded the book for being thoughtful and instructive, but characterized it as diagnostic rather than solution-oriented. Other reviewers criticized the book for making false claims about race and racism in America, for putting whites in a situation where anything they say is used against them, for infantilizing black people, and for doing nothing to promote racial justice or combat systemic racism.


title: White Fragility

text: Author Robin DiAngelo is a white American academic. She worked for 20 years in providing diversity training for businesses. Identifying as "progressive" at the time, she found her view on race changing as she began working with people of color and experienced hostility from white people when talking about race during the training. After five years in the job, she began studying for a PhD in multicultural education at the University of Washington. DiAngelo became a tenured professor at Westfield State University, working in the areas of critical discourse analysis and whiteness studies. "White Fragility" draws heavily on her experiences in her diversity training job. The book is aimed at a white audience.


title: White Fragility

text: DiAngelo coined the term "white fragility" in 2011, to describe defensive behavior by a white person when their conception of racism is questioned. "White Fragility" is DiAngelo's third book, following "What Does It Mean to Be White?: Developing White Racial Literacy" (2012). "White Fragility" was published on June 26, 2018 by Beacon Press. To accompany the book, Beacon Press's website offers: a Reading Guide by DiAngelo and Özlem Sensoy; a Discussion Guide for Educators by Valeria Brown; and a Discussion Guide for Unitarian Universalist Association meetings by Gail Forsyth-Vail. The book was published in early 2019 in the United Kingdom by Penguin Books.


title: White Fragility

text: DiAngelo describes white fragility to be a defensive response by a white person when their whiteness is highlighted or mentioned, or their racial worldview is challenged, whether this response is conscious or otherwise. She gives examples including a white man accusing someone of "playing the race card" or a white woman crying to avoid conflict. DiAngelo proposes that white people are used to viewing themselves as "raceless" or the "default" race, and as such are insulated from feelings of racial discomfort. She describes racism as systematic rather than overt and conscious, arguing that racial segregation has shaped the United States. She points to research that has shown that children as young as four years old show a strong and consistent pro-white bias and an especially strong prejudice against black males.


title: White Fragility

text: DiAngelo says that people associate racism with extremists such as neo-Nazis or self-identified white supremacists, who they label as "bad people", and conclude that because they are a "good person" that they cannot be racist. She criticizes white liberals, arguing that white people who identify as "progressive" view themselves as "woke" to avoid questioning any issue of racism in themselves. She terms these reactions "aversive racism" and writes that it prevents people from addressing unconscious racist bias, which she believes everyone has. Contrastingly, she uses the term "avowed racists" to refer to those who she believes are intentionally perpetrating racism.


title: White Fragility

text: The author writes that "color blindness", the idea that one should not notice or think about a person's race, is unhelpful as it prevents people from understanding how race does matter in the current world. She criticizes individualism, the American Dream and the philosophical concept of objectivity. Instead, she promotes utilitarianism. The book describes the lynching of Emmett Till in 1955, a child who was accused of harassing a white woman. It also uses as an example Jackie Robinson, the first African-American to play in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the modern era (1901- ). DiAngelo says that a stereotype of black men as violent and dangerous is untrue and used to justify continuing racist brutality.


title: White Fragility

text: "White Fragility" became a "New York Times" bestseller for more than a year. In September 2019, "Slate" noted that ""White Fragility" has yet to leave the New York Times bestseller list since its debut in June 2018, making it the fastest-selling book in the history of Beacon Press." In June 2020, during the George Floyd protests, it reached no. 1 on the New York Times list. The July 26, 2020 edition of the list marked the book's 97th week in the Paperback Nonfiction category, where it was ranked number 1.


title: White Fragility

text: The "Los Angeles Review of Books" review by David Roediger reviewed the book very positively and praised DiAngelo's "keen perception, long experience, and deep commitment" and said the book is "uncommonly honest about the duration and extent of entrenched injustice and provocative on the especially destructive role of progressive whites at critical junctures." He concluded that the book "reads better as evidence of where we are mired than as a how-to guide on where we are on the cusp of going."


title: White Fragility

text: The "Publishers Weekly" review called it "a thoughtful, instructive, and comprehensive book on challenging racism" and "impressive in its scope and complexity". The "New Statesman" review described it as "a clear-sighted, methodical guide seeking to help readers 'navigate the roiling racial waters of daily life', though stops short of prescribing any concrete solutions." It asserted that DiAngelo's "overarching aim is not for her readers to feel guilty about their white identity. Rather it is to encourage them to understand that there will be no change if they are just 'really nice… smile at people of colour… go to lunch together on occasion'."


title: White Fragility

text: For "The New Yorker" in 2018, staff writer Katy Waldman wrote about "White Fragility" that "[t]he book is more diagnostic than solutions-oriented, and the guidelines it offers toward the end—listen, don't center yourself, get educated, think about your responses and what role they play—won't shock any nervous systems. The value in "White Fragility" lies in its methodical, irrefutable exposure of racism in thought and action, and its call for humility and vigilance."


title: White Fragility

text: Nosheen Iqbal wrote in "The Guardian" that "DiAngelo's book is a radical statement at a time when the debate is so polarised."


title: White Fragility

text: In an August 2019 article for "The New Yorker", the columnist Kelefa Sanneh characterized DiAngelo as "perhaps the country's most visible expert in anti-bias training, a practice that is also an industry, and from all appearances a prospering one". He suggested that DiAngelo "reduces all of humanity to two categories: white and other" and that she presents people of color as "sages, speaking truths that white people must cherish, and not challenge." Sanneh was also critical of what he saw as DiAngelo's tendency to be "endlessly deferential—for her, racism is basically whatever any person of color thinks it is". He also observes that there is an enormous "difference in scale between the historical injustices [DiAngelo] invokes and the contemporary slights she addresses".


title: White Fragility

text: In a 2020 op-ed for "The New York Times", journalist and political correspondent Jamelle Bouie argued that the recent emphasis on exploring white fragility siphoned crucial energy from white people inwardly, towards their own behavior, instead of funneling resources and time into exploring wealth inequality and other harmful consequences of white supremacy.


title: White Fragility

text: Also writing in "The Guardian", Kenan Malik countered in 2020 that the book is "psychobabble" which counter-productively shifts the focus from structural change to individual bias, thus "leaving the real issues untouched."


title: White Fragility

text: Reviewing Sanneh's comments, professor Lauren Michele Jackson "consider[s] DiAngelo's inclusion of seemingly incongruous grievances a strength. Etiquette is never beside the point. As DiAngelo has said, neither "White Fragility" nor her workshops intend to convert the gleefully racist; she speaks to the well-intended whose banal blusters make racial stress routine." However, Jackson found the lack of cited scholars of color troubling: "I couldn't help but notice the relative dearth of contemporary black studies scholarship cited in "White Fragility"."


title: White Fragility

text: Carlos Lozada, "The Washington Post's" nonfiction book critic, raised a point about circular reasoning: "any alternative perspective or counterargument is defeated by the concept itself. Either white people admit their inherent and unending racism and vow to work on their white fragility, in which case DiAngelo was correct in her assessment, or they resist such categorizations or question the interpretation of a particular incident, in which case they are only proving her point."


title: White Fragility

text: In a January 2020 article for "The New Republic", J.C. Pan situates DiAngelo's work among "other white anti-racist educators" such as Tim Wise and Peggy McIntosh who provide "therapeutic rather than policy-based" approaches. Pan writes that "the major shortcoming of "White Fragility" is that it offers almost nothing in the way of concrete political action." Justin Lee makes a similar argument in an essay in "The Independent", which views the book as part of a discourse which does not in fact promote racial justice but rather protects class privilege.


title: White Fragility

text: After the George Floyd protests, the book received some negative reviews. Journalist and author Matt Taibbi strongly criticized the book as having a corporate vision of racism, labeling the book "pseudo-intellectual horseshit" that is likely to have pernicious effects for race relations. In his view, the book divisively fetishises race and places it at the centre of people's identities, while denying the significance of individual personalities and moral choices and the universal human experience.


title: White Fragility

text: Linguist John McWhorter, writing in "The Atlantic", called the book "a racist tract", saying it infantilized and condescended towards black people. He also stated the book was "replete with claims that are either plain wrong or bizarrely disconnected from reality". As examples, he cited DiAngelo's claim that white baseball fans believe that Jackie Robinson was the first Black person qualified to be a Major League player and her claim that in the American higher-education system no one ever talks about racism. He argued that the book contradicts itself about white racial identity and leaves white people with no way to avoid being racist. He further criticized the book for not explaining why or how its instructions will help to accomplish social change.


title: White Fragility

text: Writing in the "Boston Review", political science professor Peter Dreier also criticizes DiAngelo's interpretation of the Jackie Robinson story. "Contrary to DiAngelo’s retelling," Dreier writes, "Robinson's success did not render 'whites, white privilege, and racist institutions invisible.'" He further writes that "In "White Fragility" DiAngelo examines racism as a web of deeply-ingrained attitudes rather than as a system of power—what is often called institutional or systemic racism. Perhaps this is because discussing the redistribution of power, wealth, and income might not sit comfortably with DiAngelo's corporate clients."


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: Petro Poroshenko, the President of Ukraine, had pressed for early parliamentary elections since his victory in the presidential election in May. The July breakup of the ruling coalition gave him the right to dissolve the parliament, so on 25 August 2014 he announced the early election.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The voting was not provided in the annexed Autonomous Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol. The voting also did not reach significant parts of Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts because of the ongoing war in Donbas. Because of this, 27 out of the 450 seats in the 8th Verkhovna Rada remained unfilled.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: This election can be called a realignment. Ruling from 2010 to 2014, and taking one of the top 2 spots in elections since 2006, the Party of Regions did not participate in this election, while its informal successor Opposition Bloc showed only a modest result with 9.43% of the vote. For the first time since Ukrainian independence, the Communist Party of Ukraine gained no parliamentary representation. Four newly created parties got the highest support in this election: Petro Poroshenko Bloc (formed in July 2014 by Poroshenko's supporters), People's Front (split from Fatherland in August 2014), Self Reliance (registered in 2012) and Opposition Bloc (formed in September 2014 by a group of the former Party of Regions members).


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: Since the parallel voting system was used, the allocation of seats is not proportional. For example, the winner in party-list voting (22.12%) People's Front got second faction with 82 seats, while Petro Poroshenko Bloc took 123 seats with 21.82% of votes.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The work of the new parliament started on 27 November 2014. On the same day, five factions formed the "European Ukraine" coalition: Petro Poroshenko Bloc, People's Front, Self Reliance, Radical Party and Fatherland. On 2 December the second Yatsenyuk government was approved.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: According to the election law of November 2011, elections to the Verkhovna Rada must take place at least every five years. That law came into effect with the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election. If the Rada had sat for the maximum allotted time, the next parliamentary election would have occurred on 29 October 2017. Despite this, the president-elect Petro Poroshenko said that he wanted to hold early parliamentary elections following his victory in the presidential election on 25 May 2014. At 26 June session of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, Poroshenko said that he hoped to hold parliamentary elections in October 2014, portraying this as "the most democratic way".


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The parliamentary coalition that supported the Yatsenyuk Government, formed in the aftermath of the 2014 Ukrainian revolution and of the Euromaidan movement, was dissolved on 24 July. If no new coalition formed within thirty days, President Poroshenko would become entitled to dissolve the Rada and to call early parliamentary elections. On the same day as the dissolution, the Sovereign European Ukraine faction submitted a bill to the Rada that called for elections to take place on 28 September 2014.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: In an interview with Ukrainian television channels on 14 August, Poroshenko justified early elections because the Rada refused to recognise the self-proclaimed breakaway Donetsk and Lugansk People's Republics as terrorist organisations. The two republics, situated in the eastern Ukrainian region of the Donbas, originated in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts of Ukraine respectively, and have been fighting Ukrainian government forces in the war in Donbas. President Poroshenko said: "I don't know how to work with a parliament in which a huge number [of deputies], whole factions, make up 'the fifth column' controlled from abroad [referring to Russia]. And this danger is only increasing". He also said that new elections "are the best and the most efficient form of lustration of not only the parliament but also the political forces".


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: Poroshenko announced on 25 August that he had called for elections to the Rada to take place on 26 October 2014. In his accompanying television address, he portrayed the elections as necessary to "purify the Rada of the mainstay of [former president] Viktor Yanukovych". These deputies, Poroshenko said, "clearly do not represent the people who elected them". Poroshenko also painted these Rada deputies as responsible for "the [January 2014] Dictatorship laws that took the lives of the Heavenly Hundred". Poroshenko also stated that many of the (then) current MPs were "direct sponsors and accomplices or at least sympathizers of the militants/separatists".


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The Verkhovna Rada has 450 members, elected to a five-year term in parallel voting, with 225 members elected in single-member constituencies using FPTP system and 225 members elected by proportional representation (closed list) in a single nationwide constituency using the largest remainder method with 5% threshold. Parties are not allowed to form electoral blocs (in contrast to 1998-2007 elections). Attempts to return to proportional representation with open party lists and electoral blocs were failed.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The division into 225 electoral districts was the same as at the 2012 election. The voting was organized only in 198 of them.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The voting was impossible to provide on the territories that was not under government control. Particularly, because of Russian occupation of Crimea there was no voting in all 10 districts in Autonomous Republic of Crimea and 2 in Sevastopol. The voting in Donbas was provided partially. The democratic watchdog OPORA estimated that 4.6 million Ukrainians were unable to vote: 1.8 million in Crimea and the city of Sevastopol, 1.6 million in Donetsk Oblast and 1.2 million in Luhansk Oblast.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: About 1.8 million of eligible voters live in Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol, that is 5% of the whole number of voters in Ukraine. Ukrainian government lost control over the region in March 2014 during the Crimean crisis. Since that time no legitimate elections are provided there. In the 2014 legislative election Crimean voters had ability to vote in any other region for party-lists in the single nationwide constituency, but they were unable to vote for candidates in single-member constituencies.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: "Donbas" is an unofficial name of 2 the most eastern Ukrainian oblasts: Donetsk and Luhansk. About 5 million of eligible voters live there, that is 14% of the whole number of voters in Ukraine. After an active phase of war in Donbas in the summer 2014 and September ceasefire, roughly a half of the region remained to be controlled by separatists loyal to Yanukovych. On the day before the election, the CEC stated that there was no ability to provide voting in the captured areas. Thus, full-fledged voting was provided only in 8 districts of 32. Other 9 districts were split by the front line for controlled and not controlled areas, so voting was provided there only partly. In 2 of them only slight number of polling station was opened: in 53rd district only 9% of voters were able to vote and in 45th district only 2%. In spite of this, the elections in these single-member constituencies were recognized as successful, and the winners (Oleh Nedava and Yukhym Zvyahilsky) got mandates. To the other 15 districts ballots were not transferred at all.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: Instead of this election, on the captured territories separatists organized so-called "Donbas general elections" on 2 November, that were a violation of Minsk agreement and were not recognized by the world community.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: In the 225 electoral districts some 3,321 candidates participated, out of which 2,018 were independent candidates. 52 political parties nominated candidates. 147 candidates withdrew after the 1 October candidate registration deadline.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: In the election campaign the parties positions on foreign relations and the war in Donbas could be roughly divided into two groups. The first group consisted of pro-European parties that advocated to end the war in Donbas by use of force and consisted of Fatherland Party, Civic Position, Radical Party and People's Front (this party was ambiguous about use of force). Svoboda also wanted to end the war in Donbas by use of force. The party Petro Poroshenko Bloc was the only pro-European party that wanted to end the war in Donbas by a peaceful solution. The second group was Strong Ukraine and Opposition Bloc who were considered pro-Russian and they advocated to end the war in Donbas by a peaceful solution. The Communist Party of Ukraine (according to political scientist Tadeusz A. Olszański) "effectively supports the separatist rebellion".


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: On 26 September 2014 the Central Election Commission of Ukraine finished registering the nationwide party lists. A total of 29 parties participated in the election. Parties appeared on the ballot in the following order:


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: On 2 September Vitaliy Kovalchuk (the parliamentary leader) of UDAR stated that since his party and Petro Poroshenko Bloc had agreed to "joint participation in parliamentary elections" on 29 March 2014 the two parties were "in discussion" about "the format" for how to do so in these elections. On 15 September it became clear that 30% of the Petro Poroshenko Bloc election list would be filled by members of UDAR and that UDAR leader Vitali Klitschko is at the top of this list, Klitschko vowed not to resign as incumbent Mayor of Kyiv.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: 7 September party congress of Civil Position decided that the party would participate in the election on a partly list with members of Democratic Alliance.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: On 10 September, the Fatherland Party split because party leaders Yatsenyuk and Turchynov became founding members of the new party People's Front.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The biggest party in the previous 2012 parliamentary elections, Party of Regions, chose not to participate in the election because of a perceived lack of legitimacy (of the election), because not every resident of the Donbas could vote. Individual members of the Party of Regions would take part in the election as candidates of the party Opposition Bloc. According to Yuriy Boyko, who is heading the party's election list, Opposition Bloc does not represent parties, but consists only of individual politicians.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The counting of votes was significantly delayed: Central Electoral Commission announced that all ballots were counted on 10 November only. The announcement of the result for 38th electoral district was delayed until mid-November due to the results being challenged in court.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: In the 2014 election the number of participated voters was much less than in 2012 (16,052,228 down from 20,797,206). The main reason of this decrease was the impossibility to organize voting in some regions. Because of this, the official turnout was calculated by division by the number of people who live in areas where voting was provided only (according to the CEC, it was 30,921,218). So, the official voter turnout was 51.91%. In any case this percent is smaller than in 2012, when the turnout was 57.43%.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The turnout level had obvious geographical differences. The highest turnout (60-70%) was registered in western regions (except Zakarpattia and Chernivtsi Oblast), the level of turnout in central regions was average (54-58%) and in southern and eastern regions it was quite low (40-48%). The turnout in two oblasts of Donbas (or more exactly in the parts of these oblasts where the voting was provided) was 32% - the lowest in the country.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: Previously, the Donbas region displayed high turnout for every election. According to Tadeusz Olszański of Centre for Eastern Studies, The Party of Regions that had plenitude of the power over this region until the 2014 Ukrainian revolution artificially increased voter turnout there. The 2014 election was the end of this artificial increase. One more reason of low turnout in Donbas as well as in other south-eastern regions was a feeling among a significant part of the local population that no party represented their interests.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The elections were monitored by 2,321 accredited foreign observers, 304 of them on behalf of 21 states and 2,017 from 20 international organisations.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The Ukrainian democratic watchdog OPORA stated about the elections that they were legitimate, but that "the [election] campaign cannot be called fully free within the limits of the country" because of the fighting in the Donbas region. The NGO Committee of Voters of Ukraine asked the Central Election Commission of Ukraine to declare invalid the results of constituencies 45 and 102 because there "significant irregularities were numerous".


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The OSCE stated about the elections that they were "in line with international commitments, and were characterized by many positive aspects, including an impartial and efficient Central Election Commission, competitive contests that offered voters real choice, and general respect for fundamental freedoms". European Council President Herman Van Rompuy and European Commission President José Manuel Barroso called the elections "a victory of the people of Ukraine and of democracy". US President Barack Obama and his Secretary of State John Kerry also congratulated Ukraine "on successful parliamentary elections". The day after the election Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov stated "I think we will recognize this election because it is very important for us that Ukraine will finally have authorities that do not fight one another, do not drag Ukraine to the West or to the East, but that will deal with the real problems facing the country". He also hoped that the new Ukrainian government "will be constructive, will not seek to continue escalating confrontational tendencies in society, (in ties) with Russia". Lavrov's Deputy Foreign Minister Grigory Karasin stated "the election is valid in spite of the rather harsh and dirty election campaign". Karasin also "welcomed the success of parties supporting a peaceful resolution of the conflict in eastern Ukraine" and warned that "nationalistic and chauvinistic forces" in parliament could undermine peace efforts and were "extremely dangerous". Senator Vladimir Dzhabarov, acting chairman of the (Russian) Federation Council's International Affairs Committee, stated that "The contacts earlier established between the State Duma and the Federation Council on the one hand and the Verkhovna Rada on the other will hopefully be re-launched in some format" although he stated he could not imagine how these contacts would be developed since he believed "The new Ukrainian parliament has become more radical-minded". Dzhabarov claimed about the elections that "If such elections had been held in some other country, in Russia for instance, the West would have never recognized them as legitimate. Nevertheless, the West and Europe have recognized the Ukrainian elections as valid". Observers of the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation were positive about the elections and in particular welcomed that "administrative resources" were not used in the elections. Observers of the International Republican Institute also expressed this opinion and stated that its observers had witnessed only minor non-systemic irregularities that could not have affected the outcome of the election.


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: On 26 July 2015 mid-term election were held in constituency 205 located in Chernihiv. These were necessary after 2014 winner Valeriy Kulich had left parliament because of his appointment as Governor of Chernihiv Oblast. 91 candidates took part in the elections; eight of them for political parties, the others were self-nominated candidates. On election day the ballot paper stretched to about 1 meter. 36 candidates had withdrawn from participation in the elections. During the election campaign top candidates Hennadiy Korban and Serhiy Berezenko were repeatedly accused of bribing voters, the use of black PR and other violations (of the electoral legislation).


title: 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election

text: The election was won by Berezenko of Petro Poroshenko Bloc with 35.90% of the vote. Second most votes were won by Korban of UKROP who received 14.76%. The official voter turnout was set at 35.3%.