title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: Having made a career of seducing rich older women, Maximo marries a wealthy woman more than twice his age. 25 years later, spoiled, out of shape and bored from waking up next to his now 80-year-old wife, he gets the surprise of his life when she dumps him for a younger McLaren car salesman.


title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: Forced out of his mansion and desperate for a place to stay, he contacts Rick, another pampered gigolo. He crashes in the upscale playhouse of the woman's granddaughter, which does not go over very well. He soon moves in with his estranged sister, Sara, and her nerdy son, Hugo, in their small apartment. During this time, two things occur:


title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: Eventually, Maximo becomes a gigolo for the woman Rick used to live with, and he patches up the relationship with his sister and nephew.


title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: On June 5, 2015, it was announced that Eugenio Derbez and Benjamin Odell's Santa Monica-based production shingle 3Pas Studios and Televisa/Lionsgate joint venture Pantelion Films had bought an untitled original comedy script from Chris Spain and Jon Zack, with Lionsgate releasing under its first look deal. On October 26, 2015, Ken Marino was attached to direct the film, starring Derbez. On April 28, 2016, Rob Lowe, Kristen Bell, Raquel Welch and Rob Riggle joined the film's cast along with others including Renée Taylor, Rob Huebel, Michaela Watkins and Linda Lavin. On May 11, 2016, Mckenna Grace joined the cast.


title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: The first trailer was released on December 21, 2016. The film was released on April 28, 2017 by Lionsgate's Pantelion Films.


title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: "How to Be a Latin Lover" has grossed $32.1 million in the United States and Canada and $30.4 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $62.6 million, against a production budget of $10–13 million.


title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: In North America, the film was released alongside "The Circle", "Sleight" and "", and was projected to gross about $7 million from 1,118 theaters in its opening weekend. The film ended up grossing $3.9 million on its first day and $12.3 million over the weekend, finishing second at the box office behind "The Fate of the Furious". 89% of the opening weekend audience was Hispanic. The film grossed $5.1 million in its second weekend (a drop of 58%) and $3.9 million in its third (dropping just 25%), finishing 4th and 7th, respectively.


title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 39% based on 31 reviews, with an average rating of 4.8/10. The website's consensus reads, ""How to be a Latin Lover" inspires a few laughs from its talented ensemble, but it raises the question: Is bad representation better than no representation?" On Metacritic the film has a score 54 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.


title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: Joe Leydon of "Variety" wrote: "There are some very funny bits and pieces scattered amid the proceedings, along with a few darkly comical gags that appear to belong in a different movie, but are more than welcome here."


title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: "How to be a Latin Lover" was released on Digital HD on August 1, 2017, and was released two weeks later on Blu-ray and DVD on August 15, 2017.


title: How to Be a Latin Lover

text: A French remake entitled "" ("Just a Gigolo" in French-speaking markets) was released in April 2019. The film was directed by Olivier Baroux, co-written by Baroux and Kad Merad, and stars Merad, Anne Charrier, Pascal Elbé and Thierry Lhermitte among others.


title: Chicago P.D. (season 6)

text: The sixth season of "Chicago P.D.", an American police drama television series with executive producer Dick Wolf, and producers Derek Haas, Michael Brandt, and Rick Eid, was ordered on May 9, 2018. The season premiered on September 26, 2018. The season concluded on May 22, 2019, and contained 22 episodes. This is the last season where Jon Seda plays Antonio Dawson.


title: Chicago P.D. (season 6)

text: On April 19, 2019, NBC announced that Jon Seda would again depart the series at the end of the sixth season due to creative reasons.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: Kim Jae-gyu (Hangul: 김재규, April 9, 1924 – May 24, 1980) was a South Korean politician, army lieutenant general and the director of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency. He assassinated South Korean President Park Chung-hee—who had been one of his closest friends—on October 26, 1979, and was subsequently executed by hanging on May 24, 1980.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: He remains a controversial figure with many contradictions: he is regarded by some as a patriot who ended Park's 18-year military dictatorship, and by others as a traitor who killed his long-time benefactor out of personal grievance. For many years, the latter was the prevailing view, but later revelations in the early 2000s about Kim's relationship with some leaders of the democracy movement prompted a re-evaluation in some circles.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: Kim was born in Gumi, North Gyeongsang, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea. He is the 27th generation descendant of Kim Moon-gi (김문기;金文起) who was the civil minister (문신;文臣), the loyalist (충신;忠臣) of King Danjong, and the one of Samjungsin (삼중신;三重臣) during the Joseon period. He graduated from Gyeongbuk University in 1945 and became a middle school teacher until the newly independent South Korean government established its military and created the Korea Military Academy, then called Joseon Defense Academy. He graduated from the Joseon Defense Academy in December 1946, the same year as Park Chung-hee, and from Army College in 1952. He served as a regimental commander in 1954 and as vice-president of the Army College in 1957, where Kim Gye-won was the president at the time. Later Kim Gye-won became Chief Presidential Secretary to President Park and was present at the scene of assassination. In 1961, when Park Chung-hee staged a military coup to seize power, Kim did not participate in the coup and was suspected of being a counterrevolutionary. He was temporarily detained until he was released on Park's order. He served Park's military dictatorship from then until his assassination of Park in 1979.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: During Park's dictatorship, Kim was appointed as the commander of 6th Division in 1963. When there was a widespread demonstration against the Korean-Japanese treaty in 1964, which Park pursued in secret and was widely regarded to be disadvantageous to Korean fishermen, Kim's Division was dispatched to Seoul to subdue student demonstrations. Kim's handling of the situation was said to have earned Park's trust and favor. On the other hand, it is also said that Kim refused to involve the Army in arrest of civilians and left the task to the police while instead ordering his troop to occupy itself with clean-up of streets and university campus. Afterward, he commanded Sixth Military District in 1966, Army Security Command in 1968 and the Third Army Group in 1971. While he was the commander of Army Security Command, a military organ whose chief function was to safeguard the dictatorship, Park ran for a third term in the 1971 presidential election. Kim persuaded Park to promise to voters that it would be his last term. He also opposed the formation of Hanahoe, a secret organization formed by Chun Doo-hwan and other young officers who took personal oaths of loyalty to Park and the group itself above all else, and criticized it as a private army. Eventually, Hanahoe staged a military coup under Chun's leadership after Park's assassination to seize power and drove out older generation of military generals.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: While Kim was the commander of the Third Army Group in Kang-won Province, Park declared national emergency and martial law, dismissed the National Assembly and prohibited all political activities in October 1972. The purpose was to ratify the Yushin Constitution of 1972, which (a) abolished direct vote for presidential election and replaced it with indirect voting system involving delegates, (b) allotted one third of the National Assembly seats to the president, (c) gave the president the authority to issue emergency decrees and suspend the Constitution, (d) gave the president the authority to appoint all judges and dismiss the National Assembly and (e) repealed a term limit to presidency. In the 1971 election, Park had nearly lost to opposition leader Kim Dae-jung despite spending ten percent of the national budget on his reelection campaign. The Yushin Constitution was designed to guarantee his dictatorship for life. Indeed, Park was later re-elected as the president by a unanimous vote of approximately 2,000 delegates, who all became delegates themselves with Park's approval. According to Kim's subordinate officers at Third Army Group, Kim did not hide his displeasure at learning of the Yushin Constitution.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: After his arrest, Kim wrote in Chinese calligraphy that it took seven years to accomplish his resolution, suggesting that the Yushin Constitution turned him against Park. In his trial, he claimed that he planned to detain Park if the latter were to visit the Third Army Group base on his annual tour of army groups and force his resignation. According to Third Army Group operations chief of staff Oh Soo-choon, who was also Kim's brother-in-law, Kim installed fences around a small building in the base and set it up so that it would prevent exit from within rather than entry from outside.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: More significantly, Kim appears to have had a close relationship with Jang Jun-ha, widely respected leader of the democracy movement as a former Liberation Army officer, opposition lawmaker, and publisher of the monthly journal "World of Ideology". According to Jang Ho-kweon, Jang's eldest son and current publisher of the journal, Jang told him that Kim was a patriotic soldier whom he would one day work together with for democracy. In 1979, Kim claimed to his lawyer that his first attempt to assassinate Park was on September 14, 1974 when he was appointed to be Construction Minister. A newsreel of this event shows something protruding in Kim's pocket when he shook hands with Park. According to the Reverend Yi Hae-hak, who was imprisoned with Jang Jun-ha when Jang was sentenced to fifteen years for creating a petition campaign against the Yushin Constitution, Jang knew of Kim's plan to assassinate Park and was very disappointed when it did not take place, uttering to himself, "Is it that great to be a minister?". After Jang died under suspicious circumstances while climbing a mountain in 1975, Kim secretly provided financial assistance to Jang's family. When Kim later became KCIA director in 1976, he told Jang's son with deep regret that Jang's death was not accidental as officially announced, but that the regime was involved.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: According to Cardinal Kim Sou-hwan, another leading figure in democracy movement, Kim (then KCIA deputy director) came to see him whenever there was political crisis. In 1975, he asked Cardinal Kim to speak with President Park to come up with the "third way," that is, to somehow amend the Yushin Constitution in a way that was acceptable to Park. According to Cardinal Kim, Kim compared President Park to "a sick patient" who needed weak medicine initially. Kim believed that the Catholic cardinal was the only person who could speak frankly to Park without repercussion and was disappointed when the talk was essentially fruitless. Kim's association with two key figures of democracy movement - Jang Jun-ha and Cardinal Kim Sou-hwan - led some to reconsider Kim's motive in assassinating Park.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: As Construction Minister (1974–1976), Kim promoted the entry of Korean construction companies into Saudi Arabia, increasing South Korean export to the Middle East twentyfold from $45 million in 1973 to $900 million in 1976 and thus making Saudi Arabia the fourth most important overseas market, which helped South Korea weather the 1973 oil crisis.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: On February 4, 1976, Kim was summoned by Park and was appointed as the director of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA), one of the most powerful and feared positions under Park's dictatorship. The KCIA was created in 1961 to coordinate both international and domestic intelligence activities including those of the military with primary aim of combating communism and North Korea. Since then, it was also used to suppress any domestic opposition to Park's regime using its broad powers to wiretap, arrest, and detain suspects without a court order. The KCIA was responsible for widespread violations of human rights in South Korea, engaging in torture, political murder, and kidnapping. It was also heavily involved in behind-the-scene political maneuverings to weaken the opposition parties using bribery, blackmail, threats, arrest, and/or torture of opposition lawmakers. Later Kim claimed that he did not want the position but thought that it would give him the best chance to persuade President Park and reform the Yushin system.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: Kim's tenure as the KCIA director has many contradictions. On one hand, Kim asked Park to lift the Ninth Emergency Decree at least three times, which punished any criticism of the Yushin Constitution with a prison term of at least one year, until it was finally replaced with the Tenth Emergency Decree, which relaxed many restrictions of the Ninth Decree. He also released many activists and students who had been arrested under the Ninth Decree. Declassified U.S. diplomatic cables revealed that Kim was considered an unusual KCIA director who often spoke of democracy, and one of the more approachable figures who often carried Washington's messages on human rights to Park.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: On the other hand, Kim was responsible for KCIA activities that took place during his tenure including the assassination of former KCIA director Kim Hyong-uk, political sabotage of the opposing New Democratic Party (NDP)'s internal election and the violent arrest of female workers of a wig company YH Trade. Nearly 200 women who worked for YH Trade held a sit-in demonstrations at the NDP headquarters when 2,000 policemen stormed the NDP headquarters on August 11, 1979. In the process, one female worker fell to her death and 52 people including 10 workers, 30 NDP members, and 12 journalists were injured, some requiring hospitalization. Furthermore, KCIA Deputy Director Kim Jeong-Seop and Kim Gye-won testified in their trial after Park's assassination that Kim pursued the firm action in YH case over the objection of subordinates and that Kim wanted stronger measures than the Ninth Decree allowed. However, their claims are not thought to be credible since some other testimonies are demonstrably untrue and they needed to distance themselves from Kim.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: The last year of Park's rule was particularly turbulent with increasing opposition from the NDP, which was emboldened after winning the 1978 election by 1.1% despite Park's complete control of media, money, and all institutions of the government. Because of the Yushin Constitution, which allowed Park to appoint one third of National Assembly seats, Park's Democratic Republican Party (DRP) remained in power. In May 1979, Kim Young-sam was elected as the chairman of the NDP, despite intense behind-the-scene maneuverings by KCIA to back Yi Chul-seung, a more pliable candidate. Under Kim Young-sam's leadership, the NDP took the hardline policy of never compromising or cooperating with Park until the repeal of Yushin Constitution and took on direct confrontation in many issues, especially the aforementioned YH Trade case. After the violent arrest, Kim Young-sam warned that Park's murderous regime would soon collapse in the most wretched manner. Park was determined to remove Kim from the political scene like imprisoned Kim Dae-joong. In September 1979, the KCIA worked behind the scene to entice three NDP members to challenge Kim's election as NDP chairmanship in the court on technicality, and the court obliged by ordering the suspension of Kim's NDP chairmanship.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: The political tension intensified further when Kim Young-sam gave an interview with "New York Times" reporter Henry Stokes, in which he called on the United States to make a choice between the military dictatorship and the Korean people and stop supporting Park's regime. Park ordered Kim Young-sam's expulsion from the National Assembly, which Kim Jae-gyu feared to be a disastrous path. On October 3, 1979, Kim Jae-gyu met Kim Young-sam, hoping to find a way to avoid such development. Having asked a reluctant Kim Young-sam to come to the KCIA "for the sake of the country", Kim Jae-gyu warned that Park's hostility toward him reached the point where it might not end with just expulsion or arrest and literally begged Kim Young-sam to just say that there was miscommunication with the interview. According to Kim Young-sam, when he refused, Kim Jae-gyu appealed that it would bring misfortune to the country, to Kim Young-sam and to Park. Indeed, Kim Young-sam's expulsion from the National Assembly the next day led all 66 NDP lawmakers to submit their resignation to the National Assembly en masse and the United States to recall its ambassador back to the United States in protest. Uprisings broke out in Kim Young-sam's hometown in Busan on October 16, the second largest city in South Korea, resulting in arson of 30 police stations over several days. It was the largest demonstration since the days of President Syngman Rhee and spread to nearby Masan on October 19 and other cities, with students and citizens calling for repeal of the Yushin Constitution. Kim Jae-gyu went to Busan to investigate the situation and found that the demonstrations were not riots by some college students, but more like a "popular uprising joined by regular citizens" to resist the regime. He warned Park that the uprisings would spread to five other largest cities including Seoul. Park said that he himself would give an order to fire upon demonstrators if the situation got worse.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: Kim's position, already under stress of the series of political crises of 1979, was further complicated by his rivalry with Cha Ji-cheol, chief of the Presidential Security Service, as well as a worsening relationship with Park. The rivalry stemmed largely from Cha's increasing encroachment into KCIA turf and arrogant behavior that belittled Kim Jae-gyu in public. Almost universally disliked and feared, Cha served Park in close proximity since 1974 and became his favorite and most trusted adviser in the process. Cha appropriated tanks, helicopters and troops from the Army so that the presidential security apparatus had a division-level firepower under Cha's direct command. Furthermore, he began to engage in political maneuverings with Park's blessing, which resulted in frequent clash with the KCIA. In the NDP's election for its chairman in 1979, KCIA backed Yi Chul-seung to prevent the election of hardliner Kim Young-sam, but Cha Ji-chul interfered in KCIA's political sabotage with its own behind-scene maneuverings. When Kim Young-sam was elected as the NDP chairman, Cha laid the blame on KCIA, which infuriated Kim. Later Cha pushed for Kim Young-sam's expulsion from the National Assembly, which Kim Jae-gyu feared to be a disastrous development. Cha easily bested his opponent as his hardline approach was favored by Park, and he blamed worsening development on Kim Jae-gyu's weak leadership of KCIA at every opportunity. As Cha came to control the scheduling of Park's meetings and briefings and thus access to the president, KCIA briefings, which were usually the first business in the morning, were pushed down to afternoons. By October, there were wide rumors that Kim Jae-gyu would be soon replaced as KCIA director.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: On the day of assassination, Park and his entourage visited ribbon-cutting ceremonies for a dam in Sap-gyeo-cheon and a KBS TV transmitting station in Dang-jin. Kim Jae-gyu was expected to accompany him since the TV station was under KCIA jurisdiction, but Cha blocked him from riding in the same helicopter with President Park. Kim angrily excused himself from the trip.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: After the trip, Park instructed KCIA to prepare for one of his numerous banquets — on average ten per month according to KCIA Chief Agent Park Seon-ho, one of the conspirators — at a KCIA safe house in Gungjeong-dong, Jongno-gu, Seoul. It was to be attended by Park, Kim Jae-gyu, Cha, Chief Presidential Secretary Kim Gye-won, and two young women - rising singer Shim Soo-bong and a college student named Shin Jae-soon. When Kim Jae-gyu was notified of the banquet, he called Korean Army Chief of Staff Jeong Seung-hwa 15 minutes later to invite him to the KCIA safe house and arranged to have him dine with KCIA Deputy Director Kim Jeong-seop in a nearby KCIA building in the same compound. Just before the dinner, Kim Jae-gyu told Chief Presidential Secretary Kim Gye-won that he would get rid of Cha. It is not clear whether Kim Gye-won misheard or misunderstood Kim Jae-gyu or he ignored his words.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: During the dinner, volatile political issues including demonstrations in Busan and the opposition leader Kim Young-sam were discussed with Park, with Chief Cha taking a hardline and Kim Jae-gyu calling for moderate measures, while Chief Presidential Secretary Kim was trying to steer the topic of discussion to small talk. Park rebuked Kim Jae-gyu for not being repressive enough in dealing with protesters and Kim Young-sam, whom Park said should be arrested. Each time the discussion drifted to other subjects, Cha continued to bring up the inability of KCIA to end the crisis and suggested that demonstrators and opposition lawmakers should be "mowed down with tanks." The rebukes from Park and especially Cha riled up Kim Jae-gyu. Kim Jae-gyu left the dining room to convene with his closest subordinates - former Marine colonel and KCIA Chief Agent Park Seon-ho and Army colonel and Kim Jae-gyu's secretary Park Heung-ju (no relations) - and said to them: "The chief of staff and deputy director are here as well. Today is the day." Asked if Park was included as a target, Kim Jae-gyu said yes. Kim Jae-gyu reentered the room with a semi-automatic Walther PPK pistol, shot Cha in the arm and then Park in the left chest. He attempted to fire again on Cha, but the gun jammed. Cha fled to a bathroom adjacent to the dining room. Kim Jae-gyu came back with his subordinate's gun and again shot Cha, this time in the abdomen, and Park in the head, even though he was dead by then. Upon hearing the initial shots, Park Seon-ho held two bodyguards in the waiting room at gunpoint and ordered them to put their hands up in hope of preventing further bloodshed, especially since he was a friend of one of the bodyguards. When the other bodyguard attempted to reach for a gun, Park shot them both to death. At the same time, Colonel Park Heung-ju and two other KCIA agents stormed the kitchen and killed the remaining bodyguards. In the end, Park, Cha, three presidential bodyguards and a presidential chauffeur all died.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: After killing Park, Kim Jae-gyu asked Chief Presidential Secretary Kim to secure the safe house and ran to the nearby KCIA building where Army Chief of Staff Jeong Seung-hwa was waiting. Jeong heard the shootings and was discussing them with KCIA Deputy Director Kim Jeong-seop when Kim Jae-gyu came in breathless to tell them that an emergency situation had occurred. In the car, Kim Jae-gyu advised Jeong that Park had died, but without explaining how. Kim Jae-gyu hoped that Jeong and Chief Presidential Secretary Kim would support him in the coup as both were appointed to their positions on his recommendation and Chief Presidential Secretary Kim was especially close with him. The car initially headed to KCIA Headquarters in Namsan district but eventually went to Army Headquarters in Yongsan district, since the Army would have to be involved in declaring emergency martial law. Many historians believe that Kim Jae-gyu made a critical mistake in not going to KCIA HQ, where he would have been in control. However, his failure to gain Jeong's support sealed the fate of the conspirators.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: Meanwhile, Chief Presidential Secretary Kim took Park's body to the Army hospital and ordered doctors to save him at all costs (without revealing Park's identity), and went to Prime Minister Choi Kyu-hah to reveal what happened that night. When Chief of Staff Jeong learned of what happened from Chief Presidential Secretary Kim, he ordered Major General Chun Doo-hwan, commander of Security Command to arrest Kim Jae-gyu and investigate the incident. Kim Jae-gyu was arrested after he was lured to a secluded area outside Army HQ on the pretext of meeting with Army Chief of Staff. Eventually, everyone involved in the assassination was arrested, tortured and later executed. Kim himself was hanged on May 24. In the process, Chun Doo-hwan emerged as a new political force by investigating and subordinating KCIA under his Security Command and later by arresting Jeong Seung-hwa, who had become the chief martial law administrator and Chief Secretary Kim on suspicion of conspiring with Director Kim, when Chun Doo-hwan seized power in the Coup d'état of December Twelfth 1979.


title: Kim Jae-gyu

text: On May 26, 2020 Kim's family filed a retrial request with the Seoul High Court seeking a retrial for Kim on the basis that the original investigation and trial were illegal and that Kim had been tortured.


title: Polish profanity

text: The Polish language, like most others, has swear words and profanity. Some words are not always seen as very insulting, however, there are others that are considered by some greatly offensive and rude. Words that might be considered most derogatory, based on multiple sources, are not necessarily a general and have not been decided upon in a more definite manner.


title: Polish profanity

text: There are different types of swearing (as coined by Steven Pinker): abusive, cathartic, dysphemistic, emphatic and idiomatic.


title: Polish profanity

text: The Polish language uses all types of swearing mentioned. Research has shown that "Polish people hear profanity more often in a public space than in a private space". 65% of surveyed adults said they have sworn due to emotions and only 21% claimed they never swore.


title: Polish profanity

text: The CBOS (; The Center for Public Opinion Research) has done surveys to examine the use of profanity. In the research report, it was pointed out that information given about the private sector might not be accurate, as it is a protected and idealized space, meaning that the subjects of the survey could be downplaying or changing their answers providing a false report.


title: Polish profanity

text: Linguist Jerzy Bralczyk calculated that there are only five basic vulgarisms in Polish. These are "cock" (chuj), "cunt", (pizda) "fuck" (pierdolić, jebać) and "whore/shit/fuck" (kurwa). The rest are combinations of these five, derived words and phraseological relationships. New vulgarisms appear when new word configurations are created or their semantic context changes. The dictionary of real Polish gives four words in 350 configurations, including the word "shit" in 47 functions.


title: Polish profanity

text: Numerous studies have been done to examine the way that profanity is used in everyday life situations as well as online. No studies give a definite answer as to whether vulgarity is more common online or not and has proved to be a difficult topic to study as it can change with time as well. One such study looked at different internet forums: one that was an open discussion, a closed discussion, and a social networking site. An open discussion allowed for the most anonymity while the other two conditions required some form of the users identifying themselves. The study found that users often used vulgar expressions criticized other users arguments in the discussions, attacked the users directly or used that language to insult a larger group. At times it is also just used as a way for users to express their general frustrations.


title: Polish profanity

text: It is said that profanity started being used in songs around the late 1970s and into the 1980s in Poland. It was a response to the state of the country at the time. The youth used vulgar expressions to show their frustrations. Though songs that used such language would not be presented in the mass media, works with profanities more often circulated within communities. This censorship caused for more creative ways of expressing frustrations which lead to a faster development of Polish rock in the 1980s, which became quite popular and influential. Nowadays profanity is also used in more mainstream media at times. Polish pop music does not appear to have as much use of profanity as Polish rap music does. Movies of different genres also use profanity at times.


title: Polish profanity

text: A number of words in the Polish lexicon have been borrowed from foreign languages and used with similar meanings. There are several profane words or expressions that have been borrowed from other languages. One such word would be MILF. Borrowed from the English language, it means exactly what it does in its original context. The use of the abbreviation "WTF", as in "what the fuck" can also be used in Polish profanity. The noun "swołocz" is a borrowing from the Russian "сволочь". Some profanities have been borrowed from German and transcribed phonetically according to their pronunciation, e.g. "szajs" was derived from the German "Scheiße" which carries the same meaning as the Polish word. The appearance of this word in the Polish lexicon could be attributed to the historical partition of Poland where the country was occupied by its neighbors which tended to suppress the use of Polish language and enforce the use of theirs.


title: Awadhi language

text: Awadhi (; ), also known as Audhi (), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in northern India and Nepal. It is primarily spoken in the Awadh region of present-day Uttar Pradesh, India. The name "Awadh" is connected to Ayodhya, the ancient city, which is regarded as the homeland of the Hindu god Rama. See also, the Oudh state which was settled in North India during the Mughal rule. It was, along with Braj Bhasha, used widely as a literary vehicle before being displaced by Hindustani in the 19th century.


title: Awadhi language

text: Linguistically, Awadhi is a language at par with Hindustani. However, it is regarded by the state to be a dialect of the Central Indo-Aryan (Hindi) languages, and the area where Awadhi is spoken to be a part of the Hindi-language area owing to their cultural proximity. As a result, Modern Standard Hindi, rather than Awadhi, is used for school instructions as well as administrative and official purposes; and its literature falls within the scope of Hindi literature.


title: Awadhi language

text: Alternative names of Awadhi include "Baiswāri" (after the subregion of Baiswara), as well as the sometimes ambiguous "Pūrbī", literally meaning "eastern", and "Kōsalī" (named after the ancient Kosala Kingdom).


title: Awadhi language

text: Awadhi is predominantly spoken in the Awadh region encompassing central Uttar Pradesh, along with the lower part of the Ganga-Yamuna doab. In the west, it is bounded by Western Hindi, specifically Kannauji and Bundeli, while in the east, Bhojpuri from the Bihari group of Eastern Indo-Aryan languages is spoken. In the north, it is bounded by the country of Nepal and in the south by Bagheli, which shares a great resemblance with Awadhi.


title: Awadhi language

text: In eastern parts the awadhi changes it's form and there is a special term for the dialect called "Eastern Standard Awadhi" (this region making boundary with bhojpuri speaking districts of Purvanchal) This part include districts of


title: Awadhi language

text: A language influenced by Awadhi (as well as other languages) is also spoken as a "lingua franca" for Indians in Fiji and is referred to as Fijian Hindi. According to "Ethnologue", it is a type of Awadhi influenced by Bhojpuri and is also classified as Eastern-Hindi. Another language influenced by Awadhi (and Bhojpuri) is Caribbean Hindustani, spoken by Indians in the Caribbean countries of Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, and Guyana. The "Hindustani" that is spoken in South Africa and the Bhojpuri spoken in Mauritius is also partly influenced by Awadhi. These forms of Awadhi are also spoken by the diaspora in North America, Europe, and Oceania.


title: Awadhi language

text: Awadhi is an Indo-European language and belongs to the Indo-Aryan sub-group of the Indo-Iranian language family. Within the Indo-Aryan dialect continuum, it falls under the East-Central zone of languages and is often recognised as Eastern-Hindi. It's generally believed that an older form of Ardhamagadhi, which agreed partly with Sauraseni and partly with Magadhi Prakrit, could be the basis of Awadhi.


title: Awadhi language

text: The closest relative of Awadhi is the Bagheli language as genealogically both descend from the same 'Half-Magadhi'. Most early Indian linguists regarded Bagheli merely as 'the southern form of Awadhi', but recent studies accept Bagheli as a separate dialect at par with Awadhi and not merely a sub-dialect of it.


title: Awadhi language

text: Awadhi possesses both voiced and voiceless vowels. The voiced vowels are: /ə/, /ʌ/, /aː/, /ɪ/, /iː/, /ʊ/, /uː/, /e/, /eː/, /o/, /oː/. The voiceless vowels, also described as "whispered vowels" are: /i̥/, /ʊ̥/, /e̥/.


title: Awadhi language

text: Awadhi has many features that separate it from the neighbouring Western Hindi and Bihari vernaculars. In Awadhi, nouns are generally both short and long, whereas Western Hindi has generally short while Bihari generally employs longer and long forms. The gender is rigorously maintained in Western Hindi, Awadhi is a little loose yet largely preserved, while Bihari is highly attenuated. Regarding postpositions, Awadhi is distinguished from Western Hindi by the absence of agentive postposition in the former, agreeing with Bihari dialects. The accusative-dative postposition in Awadhi is /kaː/ or /kə/ while Western Hindi has /koː/ or /kɔː/ and Bihari has /keː/. The locative postposition in both Bihari and Western Hindi is /mẽː/ while Awadhi has /maː/. The pronouns in Awadhi have /toːɾ-/, /moːɾ-/ as personal genitives while /teːɾ-/, /meːɾ-/ are used in Western Hindi. The oblique of /ɦəmaːɾ/ is /ɦəmɾeː/ in Awadhi while it is /ɦəmaːɾeː/ in Western Hindi and /ɦəmrən'kæ/ in Bihari.


title: Awadhi language

text: Another defining characteristic of Awadhi is the affix /-ɪs/ as in /dɪɦɪs/, /maːɾɪs/ etc. The neighbouring Bhojpuri has the distinctive (i) /laː/ enclitic in present tense (ii) /-l/ in past tense (iii) dative postposition /-laː/ which separates it from the Awadhi language.


title: Awadhi language

text: In this period, Awadhi became the vehicle for epic poetry in northern India. Its literature is mainly divided into: bhaktīkāvya (devotional poetry) and premākhyān (romantic tales).


title: Awadhi language

text: The most important work, probably in any modern Indo-Aryan language, came from the poet-saint Tulsidas in the form of "Ramcharitmanas" (1575 C.E.) or "The Lake of the Deeds of Rama", written in doha-chaupai metre. Its plot is mostly derivative, either from the original "Rāmāyaṇa" by Valmiki or from the "Adhyātma Rāmāyaṇa", both of which are in Sanskrit. Mahatma Gandhi had acclaimed the "Ramcharitmanas" as "the greatest book of all devotional literature" while western observers have christened it as "the Bible of Northern India". It is sometimes synonymously referred as 'Tulsidas Ramayana' or simply 'the Ramayana'.


title: Awadhi language

text: Tulsidas's compositions "Hanuman Chalisa", "Pārvatī Maṅgala" and "Jānakī Maṅgala" are also written in Awadhi.


title: Awadhi language

text: The first Hindi vernacular adaptation of the 'Dasam Skandha' of the "Bhagavata Purana", the "Haricharit" by Lalachdas, who hailed from Hastigram (present-day Hathgaon near Rae Bareilly), was concluded in 1530 C.E. It circulated widely for a long time and scores of manuscript copies of the text have been found as far as eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Malwa and Gujarat, all written in the Kaithi script.


title: Awadhi language

text: "Satyavatī" (ca. 1501) of Ishvaradas (of Delhi) under the reign of Sikander Lodi and "Avadhabilāsa" (1700 C.E.) of Laladas were also written in Awadhi.


title: Awadhi language

text: Awadhi appeared as a major component in the works of "Bhakti" saints like Kabir, who used a language often described as being a "pancmel khicṛī" or "a hotch-potch" of several vernaculars. The language of Kabir's major work "Bijak" is primarily Awadhi.


title: Awadhi language

text: Awadhi also emerged as the favourite literary language of the Eastern Sufis from the last quarter of the 14th century onwards. It became the language of "premākhyāns", romantic tales built on the pattern of Persian "masnavi", steeped in Sufi mysticism but set in a purely Indian background, with a large number of motifs directly borrowed from Indian lore. The first of such "premākhyān" in the Awadhi language was Candāyan (1379 C.E.) of Maulana Da'ud. The tradition was carried forward by Jayasi, whose masterpiece, the Padmāvat (1540 C.E.) was composed under the reign of the famous ruler Sher Shah Suri. The Padmavat travelled far and wide, from Arakan to the Deccan, and was eagerly copied and retold in Persian and other languages.


title: Awadhi language

text: The Awadhi romance Mirigāvatī (ca.1503) or "The Magic Doe", was written by Shaikh 'Qutban' Suhravardi, who was an expert and storyteller attached to the court-in-exile of Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur. Another romance named Madhumālatī or "Night Flowering Jasmine" by poet Sayyid Manjhan Rajgiri was written in 1545 C.E.


title: Awadhi language

text: The most significant contributions to the Awadhi literature in the modern period have come from writers like Ramai Kaka (1915-1982 C.E.), Balbhadra Prasad Dikshit better known as ‘Padhees’(1898-1943 C.E.) and Vanshidhar Shukla (1904-1980 C.E.).


title: Awadhi language

text: ‘Krishnayan’ (1942 C.E.) is a major Awadhi epic-poem that Dwarka Prasad Mishra wrote in imprisonment during the Freedom Movement of India.


title: Awadhi language

text: The 1961 film "Gunga Jumna" features Awadhi being spoken by the characters in a neutralised form. In the 2001 film "Lagaan", a neutralised form of Awadhi language was used to make it understandable to audiences. The 2009 film "Dev.D" features an Awadhi song, "Paayaliya", composed by Amit Trivedi. In the television series "Yudh", Amitabh Bachchan spoke parts of his dialogue in Awadhi, which received critical acclaim from the "Hindustan Times". Awadhi is also spoken by the residents of Ayodhya and other minor characters in Ramanand Sagar's 1987 television series "Ramayan". It is believed that the tune and lyrics of the song "Rang Barse Bhige Chunar Wali", from the movie "Silsila" starring Amitabh Bachchan and Rekha, are taken from a Rajasthani and Haryanvi folk bhajan about Meera. However the lyrics are slightly altered into the Awadhi dialect of Hindi to mould the song into appropriate context of the movie script. The Awadhi folk song "Mere Angne Mein Tumhara Kya Kaam Hai" has become popular in Bollywood with a neutralized version of it being in the 1981 film "Laawaris" starring Amitabh Bachchan, as well as being in the 1970 film "Bombay Talkie" and the 1975 film "Maze Le Lo", it was also released as a single by Neha Kakkar in 2020. Another Awadhi folk song that became popular through Bollywood was "Holi Khele Raghuveera", which was neutralized and sung by Amitabh Bachchan and put into the 2003 film "Baghban" starring Amitabh Bachchan and Hema Malini. The hit 1994 Bollywood hit film "Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!" is based on an Awadhi film from 1982 "Nadiya Ke Paar", which itself is partly based on the novel "Kohbar Ki Shart" by Keshav Prasad Mishra.


title: Awadhi language

text: The genres of folklore sung in Awadh include Sohar, Sariya, Byaah, Suhag, Gaari, Nakta, Banraa (Banna-Banni), Alha, Sawan, Jhula, Hori, Barahmasa, and Kajri.


title: Awadhi language

text: The Awadhi language comes with its dialectal variations. For instance, in western regions, the auxiliary /hʌiː/ is used, while in central and eastern parts /ʌhʌiː/ is used.


title: Awadhi language

text: The following examples were taken from Baburam Saxena's "Evolution of Awadhi", and alternative versions are also provided to show dialectal variations.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Journey to the End of the Night (, 1932) is the first novel by Louis-Ferdinand Céline. This semi-autobiographical work follows the adventures of Ferdinand Bardamu in the World War I, colonial Africa, the United States and the poor suburbs of Paris where he works as a doctor.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: The novel won the "Prix Renaudot" in 1932 but divided critics due to the author's pessimistic depiction of the human condition and his innovative writing style based on working class speech, slang and neologisms. It is now widely considered to be one of the greatest novels of the twentieth century.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Céline began writing "Journey to the End of the Night", his first novel, in 1929 while he was working as a doctor in a public clinic in the working class Paris suburb of Clichy. The novel draws on his experience in the French cavalry during World War One, his time in colonial Africa as an employee of a French forestry company, his 1925 visit to the United States as a health officer with the League of Nations, and his experiences as a doctor in Paris. He completed the novel in late 1931 and submitted it to two small publishers and the major publisher Gallimard, before it was accepted by a fourth publisher, Denoël et Steele, which had recently had a success with Eugène Dabit's "L'Hôtel du Nord". "Journey to the End of the Night" was published in October 1932.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: The title stems from the first stanza of a song attributed by the author to the "Swiss Guards (1793)", and whose French translation is the epigraph of Céline's book: «"Notre vie est un voyage / Dans l'Hiver et dans la Nuit / Nous cherchons notre passage / Dans le Ciel où rien ne luit"» (Our life is a journey / Through Winter and Night; / We look for our way / In a sky without light). (In reality, the Swiss Guards were abolished in France in 1792. The text is from the poem "Die Nachtreise" (1792) by Karl Ludwig Giesecke. The poem was later set to music by Friedrich Wilke, and was associated with the French invasion of Russia, in which some Swiss regiments were deployed.)


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Ferdinand Bardamu is a young Parisian medical student who, in a fit of enthusiasm, voluntarily enlists in the French army on the outbreak of World War One. During his first engagement with the enemy he decides that the war doesn’t make any sense and he needs to clear out. Alone on a nocturnal reconnaissance mission, he meets a French reservist named Léon Robinson who wants to be captured by the Germans so he can sit out the war in the relative safety of a prisoner of war camp. Bardamu and Robinson make their way to a French town but there are no Germans there to surrender to. Disappointed, they go their separate ways.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Bardamu is wounded in action and receives the "médaille militaire". On convalescent leave in Paris, he meets an American volunteer nurse named Lola with whom he has an affair. They visit an amusement park where Bardamu suffers a nervous breakdown at the shooting gallery. He tells Lola that he rejects the war because he doesn't want to die for nothing. Lola tells him he is a coward and leaves him.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Bardamu begins a relationship with Musyne, a violinist. However, she soon leaves him for a succession of rich Argentinians who have profited from the war. He is transferred to a hospital which specialises in electrical therapy and patriotic psychiatry. He is eventually pronounced psychologically unfit for service and discharged from the military.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Bardamu travels to French colonial Africa where he is put in charge of a trading post in the jungle interior. Here he becomes friends with Alcide, his colleague in the French administration. Bardamu finds that the trading post is only a dilapidated hut, and the man he is relieving is Robinson. Robinson tells him that the company cheats its employees and the natives so it is sensible to cheat the company. Robinson sneaks away during the night. After a few weeks, Bardamu catches a fever and sets fire to the trading post in his delirium.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Fearing punishment for defrauding the company, Bardamu decides to flee to the coast. Natives from the nearby village carry Bardamu, who is still delirious, to a Spanish colony where a priest sells him to a ship owner as a galley slave.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: The ship sails to New York where Bardamu is put into quarantine until his fever subsides. He talks his way into a job with the quarantine authority and is sent into Manhattan on an errand. He goes in search of Lola and eventually tracks her down. She is now rich and eager to be rid of him. She gives him a hundred dollars and he leaves for Detroit in search of work.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: He is employed on the assembly line at Ford Motor Company but finds the work exhausting and dehumanising. He falls in love with a prostitute named Molly who wants him to settle down in America with her but he confesses his mania for escaping from whatever situation he is in. He runs into Robinson and is surprised to learn that he has failed to make anything of himself in America. He decides to return to France and finish his medical training.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Back in Paris, Bardamu completes his medical studies and starts a practice in the bleak (fictitious) suburb of La Garenne-Rancy. The residents are mostly too poor to pay him and he mainly deals with the consequences of botched abortions and takes on hopeless cases which other doctors won't touch. His patients include Madame Henrouille and her husband whose mother, Grandma Henrouille, lives in a shed behind their house. They want her committed to a mental asylum but Bardamu refuses to help them. They hire Robinson to kill her but the booby trap he prepares for her explodes in his face, blinding him.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: In an attempt to hush the scandal, the Henrouilles arrange for Robinson and Grandma Henrouille to manage a mummy exhibit in the crypt of a church in Toulouse. The old woman turns the exhibit into a profitable venture. Robinson, whose eyesight is gradually improving, becomes engaged to a woman named Madelon who sells candles at the church and has been caring for him. Robinson and Madelon plan to murder Grandma Henrouille and take over the exhibit. One night Robinson pushes the old woman down the steep staircase to the crypt, killing her.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Meanwhile, Bardamu finds a job in a lunatic asylum on the outskirts of Paris. The director of the asylum, Dr. Baryton, starts taking English lessons from Bardamu. Moved by the Elizabethan poets and the tragic history of Monmouth the pretender, Baryton loses all interest in psychiatry and leaves for England, putting Bardamu in charge of the asylum. In Baryton's clinic Bardamu has a new affair with Sophie, a nurse from Slovakia.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Robinson meets Bardamu and explains that he has left Madelon and their lucrative job at the crypt because he doesn't want her and her love. Bardamu allows him to stay at the asylum and gives him a menial job. Madelon tracks Robinson down and threatens to turn him in to the police if he doesn't marry her. Sophie, suggests that she and Bardamu should go on a double date with Robinson and Madelon in order to reconcile them. The four go to a carnival but during the taxi ride back to the asylum Robinson tells Madelon that he doesn't want to be with her because love disgusts him. They have a violent argument and Madelon shoots Robinson and flees. Robinson dies and Bardamu reflects that he hasn't yet been able to find an idea bigger than death.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: "Journey to the End of the Night" reflects a pessimistic view of the human condition in which suffering, old age and death are the only eternal truths. Life is miserable for the poor, futile for the rich, and hopes for human progress and happiness are illusory.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Céline's biographer Patrick McCarthy argues that hate is a central theme of the novel. Célinian man suffers from an original sin of malicious hatred, but there is no God to redeem him. Hate gives the characters "a concrete, if illusory, reason for their unhappiness." Moreover: "The characteristic trait of Célinian hatred is that it is gratuitous: one does not dislike because the object of dislike has harmed one; one hates because one has to"


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: War is another major theme. According to Merlin Thomas, Céline presents the horror and stupidity of war as an implacable force which "turns the ordinary individual into an animal intent only on survival". It is the poor who always suffer most. Bardamu sees war as simply a means for the rich to cull the poor.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Céline also explores the theme of survival in a hostile world. Although Célinian man can't escape his fate, according to McCarthy: "he has some control over his death. He need not be arbitrarily slaughtered in battle and he need not blind himself with divertissements. He can choose to face death, a more painful but more dignified process."


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Thomas points out that Bardamu learns that although the poor and weak cannot avoid their fate, they can choose defiance. "If you are weak, then you will derive strength from stripping those you fear of all the prestige they pretend to possess.…[T]he attitude of defiance just outlined is an element of hope and personal salvation."


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: Bardamu also finds some consolation in contemplating human beauty and rare instances of human kindness. Bardamu admires Molly not just for her physical beauty but for her simple generosity. When Alcide volunteers for another stint in colonial Africa in order to pay for the education of his orphaned niece, Bardamu thinks he is acting foolishly, but admires his good intentions.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: In "Journey to the End of the Night", Céline developed a unique literary language based on the spoken French of the working class, medical and nautical jargon, neologisms, obscenities, and the specialised slang of soldiers, sailors and the criminal underworld. Reviewing the novel in 1932, a critic for "Les Nouvelles littéraires" praised its "extraordinary language, the height of the natural and the artificial" while the critic for "Le Populaire de Paris" condemned it as mere vulgarity and obscenity.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: The novel is a first-person narrative. Thomas describes the narrative voice as clinical and detached – the voice of the experienced doctor observing the world through the eyes of his youthful alter ego Bardamu. The clinical tone is frequently associated with sardonic commentary and black humour derived from the futile efforts of characters to control their environment and escape their fate. As McCarthy notes: "It is not just that all men must die, but that each moment of their lives is rendered futile. Everything they do is ridiculous."


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: The clinical and detached narrative voice occasionally gives way to an hallucinatory delirium. Sometimes this is associated with a fever or psychological stress, sometimes it occurs without apparent cause. Vitoux states: "Delirium is the second state of existence that distances dull, prosaic reality, and an excess of which makes the writer (like his hero) incomparably clear-sighted in the very depths of his misery, enabling him to distinguish the true poetic and convulsive realities contained in life and death."


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: "Journey to the End of the Night" was published in October 1932 to widespread critical attention. The novel attracted admirers and detractors across the political spectrum, with some praising its anarchist, anticolonialist and antimilitarist themes while one critic condemned it as "the cynical, jeering confessions of a man without courage or nobility." The novel was the favourite for the "Prix Goncourt" of 1932. When the prize was awarded to Guy Mazeline', "Les Loups", the resulting scandal increased publicity for Céline's novel which sold 50,000 copies in the following two months. The novel was awarded the "Prix Renaudot" in 1932.


title: Journey to the End of the Night

text: "Journey to the End of the Night" is now considered to be one of the great works of European literature. In 2003 the novel appeared on The Guardian's list of "100 Greatest Novels of All Time". In 1999 it was ranked sixth on Le Monde’s list of 100 novels of the twentieth century.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: Sabiha Gökçen (; 22 March 1913 – 22 March 2001) was a Turkish aviator. During her flight career, she flew around 8,000 hours and participated in 32 different military operations. She was the world's first female fighter pilot, aged 23. As an orphan, she was one of the nine children adopted by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: She is recognized as the first female combat pilot by "The Guinness Book of World Records" (in fact she was the first female fighter pilot, as the first female combat pilot was Marie Marvingt in 1915) and was selected as the only female pilot for the poster of ""The 20 Greatest Aviators in History"" published by the United States Air Force in 1996.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: According to official Turkish sources and interviews with Sabiha Gökçen, she was the daughter of Mustafa Izzet Bey and Hayriye Hanım, both of whom were of Bosniak ancestry. During Atatürk's visit to Bursa in 1925, Sabiha, who was only twelve years old, asked for permission to talk with Atatürk and expressed her wish to study at a boarding school. After hearing her story and about her miserable living conditions, Atatürk decided to adopt her and asked her brother for permission to take her to the Çankaya Presidential Residence in Ankara, where Sabiha would live with Atatürk's other adoptive daughters, Zehra, Afet and Rukiye. Gökçen attended the Çankaya Primary School in Ankara and the Üsküdar American Academy in Istanbul.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: In February 2004 an article in the newspaper "Agos", headlined "The Secret of Sabiha Hatun", contained an interview with Hripsime Sebilciyan, a former resident of Gaziantep, who claimed to be Gökçen's niece and that Gökçen herself was of Armenian ancestry. Sebilciyan claimed that Gökçen's birth name was Hatun Sebilciyan and that she was adopted by Atatürk from an orphanage in Cibin in Urfa Province. Sebilcyan said that Gökçen had four brothers: Sarkis, Boğos, Haçik and Hovhannes, and a sister, Diruhi (Hripsime's mother). According to Turkish-Armenian linguist Pars Tuğlacı, who knew Gökçen personally and deemed Sebilciyan's story to be false, Gökçen was born to an Armenian family from Bursa and was left in an orphanage there when her family was deported during the Armenian genocide. Tuğlacı also claimed that Gökçen later found out about her Armenian roots when members of her family contacted her from Beirut and that she visited her Armenian relatives there.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: However, these claims are disputed by Turkish sources and interviews with Gökçen, as well as by her adopted sister Ülkü Adatepe, who reiterated that Gökçen and both of Sabiha's parents were of Bosniak ancestry.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: After the introduction of the Surname Law, Atatürk gave her the family name Gökçen on 19 December 1934. 'Gök' means sky in Turkish and Gökçen means 'belonging or relating to the sky'. However, she was not an aviator at that time, and it was only six months later that Sabiha developed a passion for flying.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: Atatürk attached great importance to aviation and for that purpose oversaw the foundation of the Turkish Aeronautical Association in 1925. He took Sabiha along with him to the opening ceremony of "Türkkuşu" ("Turkish Bird") "Flight School" on 5 May 1935. During the airshow of gliders and parachutists invited from foreign countries, she got very excited. As Atatürk asked her whether she would also want to become a skydiver, she nodded, "yes indeed, I am ready right now". Atatürk instructed Fuat Bulca, the head of the school, to enroll her as the first female trainee. She was meant to become a skydiver, but she was much more interested in flying, so she earned her pilot's licence. Gökçen was sent to Russia, together with seven male students, for an advanced course in glider and powered aircraft piloting. However, when she was in Moscow, she learned the news that her sister Zehra had died, and with collapsed morale, she immediately returned to Turkey, isolating herself from social activities for some time.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: After a while, at Atatürk's insistence, Gökçen began working again. At Eskişehir Aviation School, she received special flight training from Savmi Uçan and Muhittin Bey. She began flying a motorized aircraft for the first time on February 25, 1936.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: Gökçen, due to the success in flight training, Ataturk himself said: "You've made me very happy ... Now I can explain what I have planned for you ... Perhaps you'll be the first woman military pilot in the world ... For the world's first military woman pilot to be of Turkish descent would be a proud event, you can imagine, right? Now I will act immediately and send you to Tayyare School in Eskişehir. You will receive a special education there""."


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: As girls were not being accepted by the Turkish War Academies in those years, Gökçen was provided, on Atatürk's orders, with a personalized uniform, and attended a special education programme of eleven months at the "Tayyare Mektebi" (Aviation School) in Eskişehir in the academic year 1936-1937. After receiving her flight patents (diploma) she trained to become a war pilot at the 1st Airplane Regiment in Eskişehir for six months.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: She improved her skills by flying bomber and fighter planes at the 1st Aircraft Regiment in Eskişehir Airbase and gained experience after participating in the Aegean and Thrace exercises in 1937. In that same year, she took part in military operations during the Dersim rebellion and became the first Turkish female air force combat pilot. Turkish planes flew numerous sorties against the rebels during the rebellion. A report of the General Staff mentioned the "serious damage" that had been caused by her 50 kg bomb upon a group of rebels. Nuri Dersimi claimed that the Turkish air force bombed the district with poisonous gas in 1938. In an interview she gave to Halit Kıvanç in 1956, Sabiha Gökçen stated: "They gave us the order 'Shoot every living thing you see', we were firebombing even the goats which were the food of the rebels". She was awarded with a commendation for her actions during the operation. She was also awarded the Turkish Aeronautical Association's first ""Murassa" (Jeweled) Medal" for her superior performance in this operation.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: In 1938, she carried out a five-day flight around the Balkan countries to great acclaim. In the same year, she was appointed chief trainer of the Türkkuşu Flight School of the Turkish Aeronautical Association, where she served until 1954 as a flight instructor and became a member of the association's executive board. She trained four female aviators: Edibe Subaşı, Yıldız Uçman, Sahavet Karapas and Nezihe Viranyalı. Gökçen flew around the world for a period of 28 years until 1964. Her book entitled "A Life Along the Path of Atatürk" was published in 1981 by the Turkish Aeronautical Association to commemorate Atatürk's 100th birthday.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: The question of Gökçen's ethnic origin made headlines and sparked controversy in 2004, when Hrant Dink, Turkish-Armenian journalist, published an interview with a person claiming to be Gökçen's niece that claimed that Gökçen was of Armenian origin. Many contested the matter, including her adopted sister, Ülkü Adatepe, who stated that Gökçen was of Bosniak ancestry. The notion that Gökçen could have been Armenian caused controversy in the country; the Turkish General Staff released a statement saying that the debate "mocked national values" and was "not conducive to social peace". Hrant Dink, the journalist who wrote the article, came under criticism, most notably from newspaper columnists and Turkish nationalist groups. A US consul dispatch leaked by WikiLeaks and penned by an official from the consulate in Istanbul observed that the entire affair "exposed an ugly streak of racism in Turkish society." It is also believed that the affair was one of the reasons that led to Hrant Dink's assassination in Istanbul in January 2007.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: Sabiha Gökçen International Airport in Istanbul is named after her. It opened on 8 January 2001, ten weeks before her death.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: She was selected as the only female pilot for the poster of ""The 20 Greatest Aviators in History"" published by the United States Air Force in 1996.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: That year, she was also honored at the Air Command and Staff College's Gathering of Eagles at Maxwell Air Force Base. The program encourages the study of aviation history by emphasizing the contributions of aviation pioneers.


title: Sabiha Gökçen

text: She was the subject of a Google Doodle honouring her birthday, which was displayed in Turkey on 22 March 2009.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: Lindsay Ann Czarniak (born ) is an American sports anchor and reporter. She currently works for Fox Sports as a sideline reporter for NFL games. After spending six years with WRC-TV, the NBC owned-and-operated station in Washington, D.C., Czarniak joined ESPN as a "SportsCenter" anchor in August 2011 and left ESPN in 2017.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: She has also been a pit reporter and studio host for TNT's NASCAR Sprint Cup Series coverage and a former co-host and reporter for the syndicated "The George Michael Sports Machine". Czarniak served as a host and sportsdesk reporter for NBC Sports coverage of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: Lindsay Czarniak was born in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Her father, Chet Czarniak, spent 17 years working in a local newspaper's sports department. Growing up a sports fan, she played lacrosse and field hockey at Centreville High School. In 2000, she graduated from James Madison University with a major in online journalism. She was a member of the sorority Sigma Kappa.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: Czarniak started out as an intern for WUSA in Washington, D.C. while still a college student. Her broadcasting career began as a CNN production assistant. Her first on-air role as a news reporter occurred while working for WAWS in Jacksonville, Florida. She also worked for WTEV-TV (also in Jacksonville), WTVJ in Miami, Florida, and the Speed Channel.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: In June 2005, Czarniak returned to the D.C. area and joined WRC-TV after she had received a phone call from George Michael to work as a sports anchor and reporter. She officially became the co-host of "The George Michael Sports Machine" in September 2006. In her first major assignment as a reporter, Czarniak traveled to Turin, Italy to relay coverage of the 2006 Winter Olympics for NBC Sports. She has also served as a pit reporter in NASCAR Nationwide Series races at the Martinsville Speedway and at the IRP Busch race.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: In March 2007, George Michael stepped down as WRC-TV's sports anchor. Czarniak and her colleague, Dan Hellie, then became the co-sports anchors. She was also tapped as a pit reporter for TNT's six-race Sprint Cup Series schedule from Pocono to Chicago. She remained with TNT for the same schedule in 2008.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: Following the murder of free safety Sean Taylor in November 2007, Czarniak was the first sports reporter to interview team players of the Washington Redskins.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: Czarniak made a guest appearance on the edition of May 22, 2008 of "The Tony Kornheiser Show", occupying the "chick chair." On that show, she told a humorous anecdote of being arrested for expired license plates by the DC Police on her way to a News 4 interview, which turned out to be an important public service warning for those who visit Washington, D.C.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: On July 17, 2008, Czarniak was honored at the Reading Phillies at Bowie Baysox doubleheader where she threw the first pitch. Czarniak also signed autographs during a meet and greet session throughout the games. Initially, Lindsay Czarniak Day was set to take place on July 21, but was changed due to a scheduling conflict. Fans at either the July 17 and the July 21 games received Lindsay Czarniak bobble heads.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: On July 29, Czarniak posted one of several blogs just before leaving for her 2008 Summer Olympics duties in Beijing, China. She was a sportsdesk reporter for NBC. She also sent in blogs to the Olympics section of WRC-TV's website. Another one of her duties was hosting a half-hour show on Oxygen called "Gymnastics on Oxygen". It was largely based around gymnastics and other Olympic competitions targeted toward women. It aired weekdays at 7:30 pm ET.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: On June 23, 2011, it was announced that Czarniak would leave WRC-TV to work at ESPN. On July 13, 2011, Czarniak made her final broadcast as a sports reporter at WRC-TV. On August 19, 2011, Czarniak made her "SportsCenter" debut covering the evening's preseason football games. In December 2012, she took the place of Jay Harris as co-host of the 6 pm "SportsCenter" after Harris moved to the 11 pm SportsCenter.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: On April 24, 2013, ESPN/ABC revealed that Czarniak would be replacing Brent Musburger as the host of ABC's coverage of the 2013 Indianapolis 500. She became the first woman to ever host the telecast. She succeeded Musburger as well as previous hosts and broadcast legends Jim McKay, Keith Jackson, Paul Page, and Al Michaels. In August 2017, her contract with ESPN expired.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: On February 12, 2018, Joe Gibbs Racing announced that Czarniak would be joining their professional stock car racing team. She would be producing digital content during the Daytona 500 along with features on each of the team's four Monster Energy Cup Series racers. Later that summer, she became one of the four presenters of the Netflix reality competition show "Hyperdrive", which would be released in August 2019.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: On February 5, 2019, Czarniak signed with Fox Sports as a studio host for their NASCAR coverage, and as a sideline reporter for Fox’s NFL coverage.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: Czarniak's parents are Chet and Terri. Chet worked for the sports department at a Washington, D.C.-based newspaper for 17 years before becoming the current managing editor of usatoday.com. Terri is a former principal at Rose Hill Elementary School, a Fairfax County public school, in Alexandria, Virginia. Czarniak's brother, Andrew, is a 2005 graduate of the United States Coast Guard Academy. He is currently serving in the U.S. Coast Guard.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: Czarniak appeared in the 2000 independent action film "Aquarius", in which she played a character named Mist. In 2009, Czarniak made a cameo appearance in the indie film "Ghosts Don't Exist" from executive producer Chris Cooley.


title: Lindsay Czarniak

text: Czarniak married WRC-TV reporter and weekend anchor Craig Melvin on October 15, 2011 in Washington. He is currently the host of "Today" and a cohost of "Today Third Hour". Czarniak gave birth to their first son in March 2014. On June 16, 2016, Czarniak announced that she was pregnant again on "SportsCenter" before that night's Game 6 of the 2016 NBA Finals in Cleveland. She gave birth to her second child, a daughter, in November 2016.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: The Bandra Kurla Complex is a business and residential district in the city of Mumbai, India. It is a prominent upscale commercial hub which commands some of the highest property rates in the country. According to MMRDA, the complex is the first of a series of "growth centres" created to "arrest further concentration" of offices and commercial activities in eastern parts of Mumbai. It has aided to decongest the CBD (Central Business District) in South Mumbai while seeding new areas of planned commercial real estate in the metropolitan region.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: BKC houses a number of commercial buildings including Jammu & Kashmir Bank National Business Centre, National Stock Exchange, SEBI, SIDBI, ONGC, Punjab National Bank, Twitter India, NABARD Head Office, IL&FS, Amazon.com, Spotify, Asian Heart Institute, Dow Chemicals, ICICI Bank, Citibank, Dena Bank, Bank of Baroda, State Bank of India, Bank of India, Kotak Mahindra Bank, Bharat Diamond Bourse, Unit Trust of India, Dhirubhai Ambani International School, American School of Bombay, Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, Jio world centre, Fortune 2000 and Jio World Garden.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: It also is home to the Mumbai Cricket Association's cricket ground, the Consulate General of the United States, Mumbai and the British Deputy High Commission, Rustomjee Seasons, Ten BKC, Kalpataru Magnus, Kalpataru Sparkle, Rustomjee Oriana.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: It covers 370 hectares of once low-lying land on either side of the Mithi river, Vakola Nalla and Mahim Creek. The area had poor surface drainage and was severely affected by pollution in the Mahim Creek. One of the important features of the channelisation of Mithi river and Vakola nalla was to improve water carrying capacity and reduce pollution. Mithi River for about 4.5 km of its length from Mahim Causeway to C.S.T. Road Bridge and its tributary Vakola Nalla, for 2.5 km of its length, have been channelised for an average 60 m and 40 m bed widths respectively, thereby improving the hydraulic features of these two important water courses in the BKC area.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: The commercial development in BKC includes private and government offices (state and central), banks, wholesale establishments, etc. and will provide ultimately about 2,000,000 jobs in the area. The MMRDA has so far developed 19 hectares of marshy land in the 'E' Block where a number of office buildings have been constructed. These buildings together provide an office space of 174,000 square metres with a potential to accommodate 17,400 jobs. An Urban Plaza and Park named 'CITY PARK' has been developed on an area of about 22,500 square metres in this block.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: In recent years, BKC overtook Bombay Central to become the third most-prominent business district in Maharashtra, after Mumbai's Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade. However, a lack of public transportation options in the area (including rail, metro, etc.), in addition to the soft marshland on which BKC is based, have challenged the further development of the area, such as the construction of skyscrapers and high-rises. Despite this, it is expected by 2030 that BKC and Parel will be more prominent commercial hubs than Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: Besides the development in 'E' Block, the focus of development of activities has also moved to the adjoining 'G' Block where a new International Finance and Business Center is planned.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: The main objective of International Finance and Business Centre (IFBC) planning is to create new office locations. In order to ensure some life in the area even after offer office hours, a mix of activities has also been envisaged.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: The basic consideration of the IFBC plan is accessibility to the area. The considerations of accessibility and orientation have shaped the overall master plan of IFBC. It is a part of the 'G' Block of Bandra Kurla Complex, which is located between Bandra and Kurla, both of which are major railway stations and have railway terminals (Bandra Terminus and Lokmanya Tilak Terminus, respectively) in their vicinity on the Western and Central lines respectively, of the Mumbai Suburban Railway.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: In addition to the suburban railway, the upcoming Line II of Phase 1 of the Mumbai Metro project will pass through the IFBC and will have 4 stations near and within BKC (i.e., MMRDA, Income Tax Office, Bharat Nagar and Complex Road), other than Bandra (Metro) and Kurla (Metro) stations.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: Other than the above rail links, BKC can also be accessed through the Western Express Highway, a major expressway in Mumbai, via the Kalanagar Junction and BKC Road, which passes through the IFBC. And also there is link road to connect Eastern express highway.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: In 2019, the west side of BKC in the inside area started operation of a new flyover. It is called Chunabhatti-BKC flyover or just simply BKC Connector as it connects with the Eastern Express Highway. The bridge provides proximal access to Sewri-Chembur Road and vehicles can climb on the Eastern Freeway from Daya Shankar Chowk turning right from the link road or get to BKC just north from Sion all the way therefore more most business people working in the area or living in the area and commuting to South Bombay for work getting faster journeys and less travel time. The road is allowed and cars and few bus routes sometimes provide service on the overpass and trucks, 2 and 3 wheelers are restricted on this road. The bridge passes over Mithi River and over Mumbai Suburban Railway's Central and Harbour line tracks and it acts as a bypass to areas like Kalanagar and Dharavi and the route is expected to reduce traffic congestion on the existing link roads.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: About 42 per cent of the land area of the plan is earmarked for commercial use and 14 per cent for housing. One of the important features of the area is preservation of large open spaces surrounding various public centers. This is expected to be the focal point of activities and a major attraction of the area. A large utility complex is proposed to be developed. It will provide space for various public and commercial utilities, small offices for professionals, car parks, bus stands and taxi stands. Parking demand expected in the area is about 15,000. To provide for such parking requirement, two level basement parking is permitted for all buildings. Public parking is also proposed in the form of multi-storied and underground garages.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: In order to provide space in terms of open grounds for arranging various exhibitions, events etc., open plots have been made available on rent. These open plots collectively known as 'MMRDA Grounds' host most of the city's Trade Exhibitions, Music Concerts, Award Nights and Religious and Political Rallies. International Artists that have performed at the MMRDA grounds include Akon, 50 Cent, Beyoncé, Guns N' Roses, INXS, Iron Maiden, Michael Learns to Rock, Pitbull, Roger Waters, Bryan Adams, Scorpions, Mark Knopfler and Shakira.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: The Global Citizen Festival was hosted at the MMRDA Grounds on 19 November 2016, headlined by Coldplay and Demi Lovato. The lineup also included Aamir Khan, Jay-Z and A.R. Rahman, among others.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: A number of offices and residential buildings and three schools have been constructed and occupied. Construction of other buildings is in an advanced stage of completion. Most of the infrastructure services work including water supply, sewerage, telephone, gas, storm water, and electricity is completed. CNG and Petrol Pump outlet are operational. Mahim Nature Park is development in ‘H’ block of the complex.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: Currently MMRDA has invited bids for allotment of 5 commercial plots, 3 residential plots and 2 plots for hotel purpose.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: Mumbai Metro lines 2 and 3 will be in this area, which would be also integrated with Mumbai–Ahmedabad high-speed rail corridor's Mumbai Terminal.


title: Bandra Kurla Complex

text: Bandra Kurla Complex Ground is a cricket ground. The ground normally hosts charity matches and some local matches. It is also home to the Mumbai Cricket Association. In 2009, India under-19s also practiced with Mike Young, an Australian fielding coach for the 2010 World Cup in New Zealand. The ground has also hosted women's ODI and T20I matches including two matches of World Cup 2013.


title: Original six frigates of the United States Navy

text: The United States Congress authorized the original six frigates of the United States Navy with the Naval Act of 1794 on March 27, 1794, at a total cost of $688,888.82 (). These ships were built during the formative years of the United States Navy, on the recommendation of designer Joshua Humphreys for a fleet of frigates powerful enough to engage any frigates of the French or British navies yet fast enough to evade any ship of the line.


text: After the Revolutionary War, a heavily indebted United States disbanded the Continental Navy, and in August 1785, lacking funds for ship repairs, sold its last remaining warship, the . But almost simultaneously troubles began in the Mediterranean when Algiers seized two American merchant ships and held their crews for ransom. Minister to France Thomas Jefferson suggested an American naval force to protect American shipping in the Mediterranean, but his recommendations were initially met with indifference, as were the recommendations of John Jay, who proposed building five 40-gun warships. Shortly afterward, Portugal began blockading Algerian ships from entering the Atlantic Ocean, thus providing temporary protection for American merchant ships.


text: Piracy against American merchant shipping had not been a problem when under the protection of the British Empire prior to the Revolution, but after the Revolutionary War the "Barbary States" of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis felt they could harass American merchant ships without penalty. Additionally, once the French Revolution started, Britain and France each began interdicting American merchant ships suspected of trading with the other. Lacking a proper navy, the American government could do little to prevent such seizures.


text: The formation of a naval force had been a topic of debate in the new American republic for years. Opponents argued that building a navy would only lead to calls for a navy department, and the staff to operate it. This would further lead to more appropriations of funds, which would eventually spiral out of control, giving birth to a "self-feeding entity". Those opposed to a navy felt that payment of tribute to the Barbary States and economic sanctions against Britain were a better alternative.


text: In 1793, Portugal reached a peace agreement with Algeria, ending its blockade of the Mediterranean, thus allowing Algerian ships back into the Atlantic Ocean. By late in the year, eleven American merchant ships had been captured. This, combined with the actions of Britain, finally led President Washington to request Congress to authorize a navy.


text: On January 2, 1794, by a narrow margin of 46–44, the House of Representatives voted to authorize building a navy and formed a committee to determine the size, cost, and type of ships to be built. Secretary of War Henry Knox submitted proposals to the committee outlining the design and cost of warships. To appease the strong opposition to the upcoming bill, the Federalist Party inserted a clause into the bill that would bring an abrupt halt to the construction of the ships should the United States reach a peace agreement with Algiers.


text: The bill was presented to the House on March 10 and passed as the Naval Act of 1794 by a margin of 50–39, and without division in the Senate on March 19. President Washington signed the Act on March 27. It provided for acquisition, by purchase or otherwise, of four ships to carry forty-four guns each, and two ships to carry thirty-six guns each. It also provided pay and sustenance for naval officers, sailors and marines, and outlined how each ship should be manned in order to operate them. The Act appropriated $688,888.82 () to finance the work.


text: With the formation of a Department of the Navy still several years away, responsibility for design and construction fell to the Department of War, headed by Secretary Henry Knox. As early as 1790 Knox had consulted various authorities regarding ship design. Discussions of the designs were carried out in person at meetings in Philadelphia. Little is known about these discussions due to a lack of written correspondence, making determination of the actual designers involved difficult to assemble. Secretary Knox reached out to ship architects and builders in Philadelphia, which was the largest seaport in North America at the time and possibly the largest freshwater port in the world. This meant that many discussions of ship design took place in Knox's office, resulting in few if any records of these discussions being available to historians. Joshua Humphreys is generally credited as the designer of the six frigates, but Revolutionary War ship captains John Foster Williams and John Barry and shipbuilders Josiah Fox and James Hackett also were consulted.


text: The final design plans submitted to President Washington for approval called for building new frigates rather than purchasing merchant ships and converting them into warships, an option under the Naval Act. The designers realized that the fledgling United States could not match the European states in the number of ships afloat. Nevertheless, this gave the Americans the distinct advantage in that their ship design was not constrained by access to timber nor limited crew. This allowed the designers to plan for enormous ships given their role. They had the ability to overpower other frigates, but were capable of a speed to escape from a ship of the line. The design was unusual for the time, being deep, long on keel and narrow of beam (width); mounting very heavy guns; incorporating a diagonal scantling (rib) scheme aimed at limiting hogging; while giving the ships extremely heavy planking. This gave the hull greater strength than the hulls of other navies' frigates. Knox advised President Washington that the cost of new construction would likely exceed the appropriations of the Naval Act. Despite this, Washington accepted and approved the plans the same day they were submitted, April 15, 1794.


text: Joshua Humphreys was appointed Master Constructor of the ships. An experienced draftsman, Josiah Fox, was hired into the War Department to put plans to paper. However, Fox disagreed with the large dimensions of the design and, according to Humphreys, attempted to downsize the measurements while producing his drafts. This incensed Humphreys enough that Fox was soon assigned to the mold loft with William Doughty.


text: After or simultaneously with the creation of the drawings, a builder's half model was assembled from which measurements were taken to create molds of the timbers. In a process known as "molding", the dimensions of the framing pieces were chalked onto the floor of a mold loft where a template was formed using strips of light wood. Once the molds were transported to the timber crews, the templates were used to select the part of a tree that closely matched the template. From there the timber was felled and roughed out close to the required dimensions, then numbered for identification and loaded onto a ship for transport. An additional set of more detailed molds was required for each frigate for the construction crews to follow.


text: Secretary Knox suggested to President Washington that six different construction sites be used, one for each ship, rather than building at one particular shipyard. Separate locations enabled the allotted funds to stimulate each local economy, and Washington approved the sites on April 15, 1794. At each site, a civilian naval constructor was hired to direct the work. Navy captains were appointed as superintendents, one for each of the six frigates as follows:


text: Humphreys wished to use the most durable materials available for construction, primarily white pine, longleaf pine, white oak, and, most importantly, southern live oak. Live oak was used for framing as it was a strong, dense, and long-lasting wood weighing up to 75 lb per cubic foot (1,200 kg/m) when freshly cut. The live oak tree grows primarily in coastal areas of the United States from Virginia to Texas, with the most suitable timber found in the coastal areas of Georgia near St. Simons. This desire for live oak was the primary cause of delays in the frigates' construction. Appropriated funds from the Naval Act were not available until June 1794. Shipbuilder John T. Morgan was hired by the War Department to procure the live oak and supervise the cutting and crews. Morgan wrote to Humphreys in August reporting that it had hardly ceased raining since his arrival and "the whole country is almost under water". Captain John Barry was sent to check up on progress in early October; he found Morgan and several persons sick with malaria. Timber cutting finally began when the crews arrived on the 22nd. The earliest delivery of timber occurred in Philadelphia on December 18, but another load of live oak destined for New York was lost when its cargo ship sank. Delays continued to plague the timber cutting and delivery operations throughout 1795. By December of that year all six keels had been laid down, though the frigates were still unframed and far from finished.


text: Construction of the frigates slowly continued until the 1796 announcement of the Treaty of Tripoli, which was witnessed by Algiers. In accordance with the clause in the Naval Act, construction of the frigates was to be discontinued. However, President Washington instead requested instructions from Congress on how to proceed. Several proposals circulated before a final decision was reached allowing Washington to complete two of the 44-gun and one of the 36-gun frigates. The three frigates nearest to completion, "United States", "Constellation" and "Constitution", were chosen. Construction of "Chesapeake", "Congress", and "President" was halted, and some of their construction materials were sold or placed in storage.


text: The earlier predictions of Henry Knox regarding costs of the frigates came to a head in early 1797. Of the original appropriation of $688,888.82, only about $24,000 remained. Secretary of War James McHenry requested of Congress an additional $200,000, but only $172,000 was appropriated. The additional funds were enough to finish the three frigates' construction, but did not allow them to be manned and put to sea. "United States" launched on May 10, "Constellation" on September 7, and "Constitution" on October 21. Meanwhile, interference with American shipping by France because of their disagreement over the Jay Treaty prompted Congress to debate authorizing completion and manning of the three frigates. Secretary McHenry reported that an additional $200,000 would be required for this stage of construction, touching off grumbling in Congress over the escalating costs. Nevertheless, on July 1, Congress approved the completion and appropriated the requested funds.


text: When the next session of Congress convened in November, Secretary McHenry again requested funds to complete the three frigates. Though upset over the escalating costs, Congress approved an additional $115,833, but simultaneously launched an investigation into possible waste or fraud in the frigate program. On March 22, 1798, McHenry turned over a report outlining several main reasons for cost escalations: problems procuring the live oak; the logistics of supplying six separate shipyards; and fires, yellow fever, and bad weather. Additional inquiries prior to McHenry's report revealed that the War Department used substandard bookkeeping practices, and that the authorized funds had to be released by the Treasury Department, resulting in delays, causing waste. These problems led to the formation of the Department of the Navy on April 30.


text: Simultaneously, relations with France soured even further when President John Adams informed Congress of the XYZ Affair. In response, on May 28, Congress authorized vessels of the United States to capture any armed French vessels lying off the coast of the United States. As "Constellation", "Constitution" and "United States" were still fitting out, the first U.S. Navy vessel to put to sea for this undeclared Quasi-War was the sloop with Richard Dale in command. Finally, on July 16, Congress appropriated $600,000 for completion of the remaining three frigates; "Congress" launched on August 15, 1799, "Chesapeake" on December 2, and "President" on April 10, 1800.


text: The 44-gun ships sometimes carried over 50 guns, and "Constitution" was known to carry 24-pounder guns in her main battery instead of the normal 18-pounders most frigates carried.


text: The Naval Act of 1794 had specified 36-gun frigates in addition to the 44s, but at some point the 36s were re-rated as 38s. Their "ratings" by number of guns were meant only as an approximation.


text: Ships of this era usually had no permanent battery of guns, as modern navy ships carry. The guns and cannons were designed to be completely portable, and often were exchanged between ships or shore as situations warranted. Each commanding officer generally outfitted armaments to his liking, taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo, complement of personnel on board, and planned routes to be sailed. Consequently, the armaments on ships would change many times during their careers, and records of the changes were not generally kept.


text: Commonly, twelve men and a powder-boy were required to operate each gun. If needed, some men were designated to take stations as boarders, to man the bilge pumps, or to fight fires. Guns were normally manned on the engaged side only; if a ship engaged two opponents, gun crews had to be divided. All of the guns were capable of using several different kinds of projectiles: round shot, chain or bar shot, grape shot, and heated shot. Each gun was mounted on a wooden gun carriage controlled by an arrangement of rope and tackle. The captain ordered the gun crews to either open fire together in a single broadside, or allowed each crew to fire at will as the target came close alongside. The gun captain pulled the lanyard to trip the flintlock which sent a spark into the pan. The ignited powder in the pan sent a flame through the priming tube to set off the powder charge in the gun and hurl its projectile at the enemy.


text: The marine detachment on board provided the naval infantry that manned the fighting tops, armed with muskets to fire down onto the decks of the enemy ship.


text: The frigates were originally designated by the letters A through F until March 1795, when Secretary of War, Timothy Pickering, prepared a list of ten suggested names for the ships (in addition to those later used, the list also included "Defender", "Fortitude", "Perseverance", "Protector", and "Liberty"). President Washington was responsible for selecting five of the names: "Constitution", "United States", "President", and "Congress", each of which represented a principle of the United States Constitution, together with "Constellation" which derived from the blazon of the Arms of the United States, ""13 stars, forming a constellation."" The sixth frigate, "Chesapeake", remained nameless until 1799, when Secretary of the Navy, Benjamin Stoddert, designated her a namesake of the Chesapeake Bay, ignoring the previous Constitutional naming protocol.


text: was built in Philadelphia, launched on May 10, 1797, and commissioned on July 11, 1797. On October 25, 1812, "United States" fought and captured the frigate . "United States" was decommissioned on February 24, 1849, and put in reserve at Norfolk, Virginia. In 1861, while still in reserve at Norfolk, the ship was seized and commissioned into the Confederate States Navy, which later scuttled the ship. In 1862, Union forces raised the scuttled ship and retained control until she was broken up in 1865.


text: was built in Baltimore and launched on September 7, 1797. On February 9, 1799, she fought and captured the French frigate "Insurgente". This was the first major victory by an American-designed and -built warship. In February 1800, "Constellation" fought the French frigate "Vengeance". Although "Vengeance" was not captured or sunk, she was so badly damaged that her captain intentionally grounded the ship to prevent her from sinking. "Constellation" was struck in 1853 and broken up. During construction of a new in 1854, it was claimed that it was a "repair" of the original ship (a common dodge of the time for political reasons) leading to uncertainty over which ship was preserved in Baltimore until it was proven in 1999 to be the second "Constellation".


text: , rated at 44 guns, launched from Edmund Hartt's shipyard in Boston on October 21, 1797, by naval constructor George Claghorn and Captain Samuel Nicholson. During the Quasi-War she captured the French merchant ship "Niger", and was later involved in battling the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War.


text: She is most well known for her actions during the War of 1812 against Britain, when she captured numerous merchant ships and defeated four British warships: , , , and . The battle with the "Guerriere" earned her the nickname of "Old Ironsides" and public adoration that has repeatedly saved her from scrapping. She continued to actively serve the nation as flagship in the Mediterranean and African squadrons and made a circumnavigation of the world in the 1840s. During the American Civil War she served as a training ship for the United States Naval Academy and carried artwork and industrial displays to the Paris Exposition of 1878. Retired from active service in 1881, she served as a receiving ship until designated a museum ship in 1907. In 1931 she made a three-year, 90-port tour of the nation, and in 1997 after a comprehensive restoration to her 1812 configuration she finally sailed again under her own power for her 200th birthday.


text: The oldest commissioned warship afloat in the world, "Constitution" is berthed at the Charlestown Navy Yard in Massachusetts and is used to promote understanding of the Navy's role in war and peace through educational outreach, historic demonstration, and active participation in public events. "Constitution" is open to visitors year-round, providing tours, with the USS "Constitution" Museum nearby.


text: was built at the Gosport Navy Yard, Virginia, and was launched on December 2, 1799. The "Chesapeake" was the only one of the six frigates to be disowned by Humphreys due to liberties taken by her Master Constructor Josiah Fox during construction relating to overall dimensions. The frigate that became was originally planned as a 44-gun ship, but when her construction began in 1798 Josiah Fox altered the original design plan, resulting in the ship's re-rating to 36 guns. Fox's reason for making the alteration is not clear, but may be attributed to construction materials that were diverted to complete . Additionally, Fox and Humphreys had earlier disagreed over the design of the six frigates, and Fox may have taken opportunities during construction to make alterations to his own liking. Regardless, the plan for the redesigned frigate was approved by Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert.


text: When construction finished on "Chesapeake", she had the smallest dimensions of all six frigates. A length of between perpendiculars and of beam contrasted with the other two 36-gun frigates, and "Constellation", which were built to in length and of beam.


text: On June 22, 1807, what has become known as the "Chesapeake"–"Leopard" affair occurred when the "Chesapeake" was fired upon by for refusing to comply with a demand to permit a search for deserters from the Royal Navy. After several quick broadsides from "Leopard", to which the "Chesapeake" replied with only one gun, the "Chesapeake" struck her colors. HMS "Leopard" refused the surrender, searched the "Chesapeake", captured four alleged deserters, and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia. "Chesapeake" was captured on June 1, 1813, by shortly after sailing from Boston, Massachusetts. Taken into Royal Navy service, she was later sold, and broken up at Portsmouth, England, in 1820 (with a good deal of her timbers being made into a watermill).


text: —rated at 38 guns—was launched on August 15, 1799, from Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, under the command of Captain James Sever. Beginning her maiden voyage on January 6, 1800, she headed for the East Indies, but soon after her masts were destroyed in a gale, forcing her return to port; repairs took six months. She sailed again on July 26 for the West Indies and made uneventful patrols through April 1801.


text: Under the command of John Rodgers, "Congress" sailed for the Mediterranean in June 1804 and performed services during the First Barbary War. She assumed blockade duties off Tripoli and participated in the capture of a xebec in October. In July 1805, she helped to blockade Tunisia, and in September of that year carried the Tunisian ambassador back to Washington, D.C. Afterward, she served as a classroom for midshipman training through 1807.