title: History of Paris

text: The cultural life of Paris resumed, this time centered on the cafés of Saint-Germain-des-Prés: the Café de Flore, the Brasserie Lipp and Les Deux Magots, where the philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre and writer Simone de Beauvoir held court, and the nightclubs La Rose Rouge and Le Tabou. The fashionable musical styles were bebop and jazz, led by Sidney Bechet and trumpet player Boris Vian. The new Museum of Modern Art of Paris opened in June 1947 in the old Palais de Tokyo of the 1937 Universal Exposition. Paris designers, led by Christian Dior, made Paris once again the capital of high fashion.


title: History of Paris

text: Paris had not had an elected mayor since the French Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte and his successors had personally chosen a prefect to run the city. The law was changed on 31 December 1975 under President Valery Giscard d'Estaing. The first mayoral election in 1977 was won by Jacques Chirac, the former prime minister. Chirac served as mayor of Paris for eighteen years, until 1995, when he was elected president of the French Republic. He was succeeded as mayor by another candidate of the right, Jean Tiberi.


title: History of Paris

text: Each President of the Fifth Republic desired to make his mark on Paris, and each initiated a plan of "Grands Travaux" ("Great Works"). The first President of the Fifth Republic, Charles De Gaulle, constructed a new central produce market at Rungis to replace the picturesque but antiquated market of Les Halles. But the most visible and appreciated improvement made by de Gaulle was the Malraux Law, drafted by writer and Minister of Culture André Malraux. The façades of the Cathedral of Notre Dame and other landmarks of Paris were cleaned of centuries of soot and grime and returned to their original colours.


title: History of Paris

text: The major project of President Georges Pompidou was the Centre Georges Pompidou in the Beaubourg area of the 4th arrondissement: it is an ultramodern showcase of the contemporary arts, whose pipes, escalators ducts and other internal workings were exposed outside of the building. Pompidou's successor, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, converted the Gare d'Orsay railway station into the Musée d'Orsay for art of the 19th century; it was opened in 1977. He also replaced the old slaughterhouses at the Parc de la Villette with a new museum of science and technology, the Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie (1986).


title: History of Paris

text: President François Mitterrand had fourteen years in power, enough time to complete more projects than any president since Napoleon III. His "Grands Travaux" included the Arab World Institute, a new site for the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BNF); a new opera house, the Opéra Bastille, opened in 1989 to celebrate the bicentennial of the French Revolution; a new Ministry of Finance in Bercy (the old Ministry had been housed in a wing of the Louvre), also opened in 1989. The Grande Arche in La Défense was also finished in 1989, a massive hollow cube-shaped building 112 metres high that completed the long perspective from the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel through the Place de la Concorde and the Champs Élysées. The most famous project of all, the "Grand Louvre", included the expulsion of the Ministry of Finance, the reconstruction of large parts of the museum, an underground gallery, and the addition of a glass pyramid by I.M. Pei in the courtyard.


title: History of Paris

text: In the post-war era, Paris experienced its largest development since the end of the "Belle Époque" in 1914. The suburbs began to expand considerably, with the construction of large social estates known as "cités" and the beginning of La Défense, the business district. A comprehensive express subway network, the RER, was built to complement the Métro and serve the distant suburbs. A network of roads was developed in the suburbs centred on the Périphérique expressway encircling the city, which was completed in 1973.


title: History of Paris

text: Beginning in the 1970s, several suburbs ("banlieues") of Paris, (especially those in the north and east) experienced deindustrialisation, as factories closed or moved farther out. The once-thriving residential "cités" became ghettos for African and Arab immigrants and zones with high unemployment. At the same time, some neighbourhoods within the city of Paris and the western and southern suburbs successfully shifted their economic base from traditional manufacturing to high-value-added services and high-tech manufacturing, giving these neighbourhoods the highest per-capita incomes in France and among the highest in Europe. The resulting widening economic gap between these two areas led to periodic clashes between young residents of the northeast housing projects and the police.


title: History of Paris

text: In the first part of the 21st century, the vitality of the Paris economy made it an important financial centre and influential global city. The Paris region, including the business centre of La Défense just outside the city limits, had a 2012 GDP of €612 billion (US$760 billion). In 2011 its GDP ranked second among the regions of Europe and its per-capita GDP was the 4th highest in Europe. In 2013 it hosted the world headquarters of 29 Fortune Global 500 companies, mostly in banking, finance, insurance and business services.


title: History of Paris

text: Tourism was an important part of the Paris economy. In 2013, the city of Paris welcomed 29.3 million tourists, the largest number of whom came from the United States, followed by the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany and Spain. There were 550,000 visitors from Japan, a decrease from previous years, while there was a growth of 20 percent in the number of visitors from China (186,000) and the Middle East (326,000).


title: History of Paris

text: The Paris region received 32.3 million visitors in 2013. As a destination for upscale European shopping, Paris was especially important. In 2014, visitors to Paris spent $17 billion (€13.58 billion), the third-highest sum globally after London and New York.


title: History of Paris

text: Fashion and luxury goods also made an important contribution to the Paris economy. In 2014 Paris was the home of the world's largest cosmetics company, L'Oréal, and three of the five top global makers of luxury fashion accessories; Louis Vuitton, Hermès and Cartier.


title: History of Paris

text: According to one study produced in 2009, Paris was the third most economically powerful city in the world among the 35 major cities in the study, ranking behind London and New York. The study ranked Paris first in terms of quality of life, and accessibility; third in cultural life, sixth in terms of economy, and seventh in research and development. Another study in 2012 grouped Paris with New York, London, and Tokyo as the four leading global cities. This study concluded that Paris ranked as the third global city for accountancy and management consultancy, network connectivity, and airline connections, and was fifth in terms of insurance.


title: History of Paris

text: In March 2001, Bertrand Delanoë became the first Socialist mayor of Paris and the first openly gay mayor of the city. The socialists and their allies dominated city politics for the next thirteen years: Delanoë was re-elected in 2007, and on 5 April 2014, Anne Hidalgo, another socialist, was elected mayor. The two mayors made social issues and the environment a priority. In 2007, in an effort to reduce car traffic in the city, Mayor Delanoë introduced the Vélib', a system that rents bicycles at low cost for the use of local residents and visitors. To discourage automobile traffic, the city administration increased parking fees and added new restrictions on driving in the city. Between 2008 and 2013, the city converted a section of the highway along the Seine between the Pont de l'Alma and the Musée d'Orsay into a public park called the Promenade des Berges de la Seine.


title: History of Paris

text: In 2013 the Louvre was the most-visited art museum in the world, and the Centre Georges Pompidou was the most-visited museum of modern art.


title: History of Paris

text: A new national museum, The Musée du quai Branly, opened in 2006. It was the presidential grand project of Jacques Chirac, designed by architect Jean Nouvel to showcase the indigenous art of Africa, Oceania, Asia and the Americas.


title: History of Paris

text: A new private museum, the Contemporary Art museum of the Louis Vuitton Foundation, designed by architect Frank Gehry, opened in October 2014 in the Bois de Boulogne.


title: History of Paris

text: On 14 January 2015, President Hollande inaugurated a new symphony hall, the Philharmonie de Paris, also designed by architect Jean Nouvel. The hall opened with a performance by the Orchestre de Paris of the Requiem of Gabriel Fauré, played to honour the victims of the Charlie Hebdo shooting that took place in the city a week earlier. It is located in the Parc de la Villette in the 19th arrondissement. The new concert hall cost 386 million Euros and was completed in seven years, two years longer than planned, and at three times the original planned cost. The architect did not attend the opening, protesting that the opening was rushed, the hall was not finished, and that the acoustics had not been properly tested, though journalists at the opening reported that the sound quality was perfectly clear. The architecture critic of "The Guardian" wrote that the building looked like a space ship that had crashed in France.


title: History of Paris

text: On 15 April 2019, the roof of the Notre-Dame de Paris caught fire, severely damaging the bell towers and resulting in the total collapse of the central spire and roof.


title: History of Paris

text: While Paris and the Paris region have some of the wealthiest neighbourhoods in France, it also has some of the poorest, particularly in the suburbs to the north and east, where many residents are immigrants or children of immigrants from the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa. Between 27 October and 14 November 2005, in what became known as the 2005 French riots, young residents of low-income housing projects in Clichy-sous-Bois, a Paris suburb, rioted, after two young men fleeing the police were accidentally electrocuted. The riots gradually spread to other suburbs and then across France, as rioters burned schools, day-care centres and other government buildings and almost nine thousand cars. The riots caused an estimated 200 million Euros in property damage, and led to almost three thousand arrests. On 14 November 2005, as the riots ended, President Jacques Chirac blamed the rioters for a lack of respect for the law and French values, but also condemned inequalities in French society and "the poison of racism".


title: History of Paris

text: On 7 January 2015, two Muslim extremists, both French citizens raised in the Paris region, attacked the Paris headquarters of "Charlie Hebdo", a controversial satirical magazine that had poked ridicule at Mohammed, in what became known as the Charlie Hebdo shooting. They killed ten civilians, including five prominent cartoonists and the director of the magazine and two police officers. On 8–9 January, a third terrorist killed five more. Collectively known as the January 2015 Île-de-France attacks, these were the deadliest terrorist attacks in Paris since 1961. On 11 January, an estimated 1.5 million persons marched in Paris to show solidarity against terrorism and in defense of freedom of speech.


title: History of Paris

text: The attacks intensified the decades-old debate in the Paris press about immigration, integration and freedom of speech. "The New York Times" summarised the ongoing debate:


title: History of Paris

text: On 13 November 2015, there were simultaneous terrorist attacks in Paris conducted by three coordinated teams of terrorists. They sprayed several sidewalk cafes with machine-gun fire, set off bombs near the Stade de France, and killed 89 persons at the Bataclan theater, where a concert by the Eagles of Death Metal rock band had begun. The combined attacks killed 130 persons and injured more than 350. Seven terrorists killed themselves by setting off explosive vests. On the morning of November 18, three suspected terrorists, including Abdelhamid Abaaoud, the alleged mastermind of the attacks, were killed in a shootout with police in the Paris suburb of Saint-Denis. French president François Hollande declared that France was in a nationwide state of emergency, reestablished controls at the borders, and brought fifteen hundred soldiers into Paris. Schools, universities and other public institutions in Paris were closed for several days. It was the single most deadly terrorist attack in French history.


title: Causal inference

text: Causal inference is the process of determining the independent, actual effect of a particular phenomenon that is a component of a larger system. The main difference between causal inference and inference of association is that causal inference analyzes the response of an effect variable when a cause of the effect variable is changed. The science of why things occur is called etiology. Causal inference is said to provide the evidence of causality theorized by causal reasoning.


title: Causal inference

text: Causal inference is widely studied across all sciences. Several innovations in the development and implementation of methodology designed to determine causality have proliferated in recent decades. Causal inference remains especially difficult where experimentation is difficult or impossible, which is common throughout most sciences.


title: Causal inference

text: The approaches to causal inference are broadly applicable across all types of scientific disciplines, and many methods of causal inference that were designed for certain disciplines have found use in other disciplines. This article outlines the basic process behind causal inference and details some of the more conventional tests used across different disciplines; however, this should not be mistaken as a suggestion that these methods apply only to those disciplines, merely that they are the most commonly used in that discipline.


title: Causal inference

text: Causal inference is difficult to perform and there is significant debate amongst scientists about the proper way to determine causality. Despite other innovations, there remain concerns of misattribution by scientists of correlative results as causal, of the usage of incorrect methodologies by scientists, and of deliberate manipulation by scientists of analytical results in order to obtain statistically significant estimates. Particular concern is raised in the use of regression models, especially linear regression models.


title: Causal inference

text: Causal inference is conducted via the study of systems where the measure of one variable is suspected to affect the measure of another. Causal inference is conducted with regard to the scientific method. The first step of causal inference is to formulate a falsifiable null hypothesis, which is subsequently tested with statistical methods. Frequentist statistical inference is the use of statistical methods to determine the probability that the data occur under the null hypothesis by chance; Bayesian inference is used to determine the effect of an independent variable. Statistical inference is generally used to determine the difference between variations in the original data that are random variation or the effect of a well-specified causal mechanism. Notably, correlation does not imply causation, so the study of causality is as concerned with the study of potential causal mechanisms as it is with variation amongst the data. A frequently sought after standard of causal inference is an experiment wherein treatment is randomly assigned but all other confounding factors are held constant. Most of the efforts in causal inference are in the attempt to replicate experimental conditions.


title: Causal inference

text: Epidemiological studies employ different epidemiological methods of collecting and measuring evidence of risk factors and effect and different ways of measuring association between the two. Results of a 2020 review of methods for causal inference found that using existing literature for clinical training programs can be challenging. This is because published articles often assume an advanced technical background, they may be written from multiple statistical, epidemiological, computer science, or philosophical perspectives, methodological approaches continue to expand rapidly, and many aspects of causal inference receive limited coverage.


title: Causal inference

text: Common frameworks for causal inference include the causal pie model (component-cause), Pearl's structural causal model (causal diagram + do-calculus), structural equation modeling, and Rubin causal model (potential-outcome), which are often used in areas such as social sciences and epidemiology.


title: Causal inference

text: Experimental verification of causal mechanisms is possible using experimental methods. The main motivation behind an experiment is to hold other experimental variables constant while purposefully manipulating the variable of interest. If the experiment produces statistically significant effects as a result of only the treatment variable being manipulated, there is grounds to believe that a causal effect can be assigned to the treatment variable, assuming that other standards for experimental design have been met.


title: Causal inference

text: Quasi-experimental verification of causal mechanisms is conducted when traditional experimental methods are unavailable. This may be the result of prohibitive costs of conducting an experiment, or the inherent infeasibility of conducting an experiment, especially experiments that are concerned with large systems such as economies of electoral systems, or for treatments that are considered to present a danger to the well-being of test subjects. Quasi-experiments may also occur where information is withheld for legal reasons.


title: Causal inference

text: Epidemiology studies patterns of health and disease in defined populations of living beings in order to infer causes and effects. An association between an exposure to a putative risk factor and a disease may be suggestive of, but is not equivalent to causality because correlation does not imply causation. Historically, Koch's postulates have been used since the 19th century to decide if a microorganism was the cause of a disease. In the 20th century the Bradford Hill criteria, described in 1965 have been used to assess causality of variables outside microbiology, although even these criteria are not exclusive ways to determine causality.


title: Causal inference

text: In molecular epidemiology the phenomena studied are on a molecular biology level, including genetics, where biomarkers are evidence of cause or effects.


title: Causal inference

text: A recent trend is to identify evidence for influence of the exposure on molecular pathology within diseased tissue or cells, in the emerging interdisciplinary field of molecular pathological epidemiology (MPE). Linking the exposure to molecular pathologic signatures of the disease can help to assess causality. Considering the inherent nature of heterogeneity of a given disease, the unique disease principle, disease phenotyping and subtyping are trends in biomedical and public health sciences, exemplified as personalized medicine and precision medicine.


title: Causal inference

text: Determination of cause and effect from joint observational data for two time-independent variables, say X and Y, has been tackled using asymmetry between evidence for some model in the directions, X → Y and Y → X. The primary approaches are based on Algorithmic information theory models and noise models.


title: Causal inference

text: On an intuitive level, the idea is that the factorization of the joint distribution P(Cause, Effect) into P(Cause)*P(Effect | Cause) typically yields models of lower total complexity than the factorization into P(Effect)*P(Cause | Effect). Although the notion of "complexity" is intuitively appealing, it is not obvious how it should be precisely defined. A different family of methods attempt to discover causal "footprints" from large amounts of labeled data, and allow the prediction of more flexible causal relations.


title: Causal inference

text: The social sciences in general have moved increasingly toward including quantitative frameworks for assessing causality. Much of this has been described as a means of providing greater rigor to social science methodology. Political science was significantly influenced by the publication of Designing Social Inquiry, by Gary King, Robert Keohane, and Sidney Verba, in 1994. King, Keohane, and Verba recommend that researchers apply both quantitative and qualitative methods and adopt the language of statistical inference to be clearer about their subjects of interest and units of analysis. Proponents of quantitative methods have also increasingly adopted the potential outcomes framework, developed by Donald Rubin, as a standard for inferring causality.


title: Causal inference

text: While much of the emphasis remains on statistical inference in the potential outcomes framework, social science methodologists have developed new tools to conduct causal inference with both qualitative and quantitative methods, sometimes called a "mixed methods" approach. Advocates of diverse methodological approaches argue that different methodologies are better suited to different subjects of study. Sociologist Herbert Smith and Political Scientists James Mahoney and Gary Goertz have cited the observation of Paul Holland, a statistician and author of the 1986 article "Statistics and Causal Inference", that statistical inference is most appropriate for assessing the "effects of causes" rather than the "causes of effects". Qualitative methodologists have argued that formalized models of causation, including process tracing and fuzzy set theory, provide opportunities to infer causation through the identification of critical factors within case studies or through a process of comparison among several case studies. These methodologies are also valuable for subjects in which a limited number of potential observations or the presence of confounding variables would limit the applicability of statistical inference.


title: Causal inference

text: In the economic sciences and political sciences causal inference is often difficult, owing to the real world complexity of economic and political realities and the inability to recreate many large-scale phenomena within controlled experiments. Causal inference in the economic and political sciences continues to see improvement in methodology and rigor, due to the increased level of technology available to social scientists, the increase in the number of social scientists and research, and improvements to causal inference methodologies throughout social sciences.


title: Causal inference

text: Despite the difficulties inherent in determining causality in economic systems, several widely employed methods exist throughout those fields.


title: Causal inference

text: Economists and political scientists can use theory (often studied in theory-driven econometrics) to estimate the magnitude of supposedly causal relationships in cases where they believe a causal relationship exists. Theorists can presuppose a mechanism believed to be causal and describe the effects using data analysis to justify their proposed theory. For example, theorists can use logic to construct a model, such as theorizing that rain causes fluctuations in economic productivity but that the converse is not true. However, using purely theoretical claims that do not offer any predictive insights has been called "pre-scientific" because there is no ability to predict the impact of the supposed causal properties. It is worth reiterating that regression analysis in the social science does not inherently imply causality, as many phenomena may correlate in the short run or in particular datasets but demonstrate no correlation in other time periods or other datasets. Thus, the attribution of causality to correlative properties is premature absent a well defined and reasoned causal mechanism.


title: Causal inference

text: The instrumental variables (IV) technique is a method of determining causality that involves the elimination of a correlation between one of a model's explanatory variables and the model's error term. This method presumes that if a model's error term moves similarly with the variation of another variable, then the model's error term is probably an effect of variation in that explanatory variable. The elimination of this correlation through the introduction of a new instrumental variable thus reduces the error present in the model as a whole.


title: Causal inference

text: Model specification is the act of selecting a model to be used in data analysis. Social scientists (and, indeed, all scientists) must determine the correct model to use because different models are good at estimating different relationships.


title: Causal inference

text: Model specification can be useful in determining causality that is slow to emerge, where the effects of an action in one period are only felt in a later period. It is worth remembering that correlations only measure whether two variables have similar variance, not whether they affect one another in a particular direction; thus, one cannot determine the direction of a causal relation based on correlations only. Because causal acts are believed to precede causal effects, social scientists can use a model that looks specifically for the effect of one variable on another over a period of time. This leads to using the variables representing phenomena happening earlier as treatment effects, where econometric tests are used to look for later changes in data that are attributed to the effect of such treatment effects, where a meaningful difference in results following a meaningful difference in treatment effects may indicate causality between the treatment effects and the measured effects (e.g., Granger-causality tests). Such studies are examples of time-series analysis.


title: Causal inference

text: Other variables, or regressors in regression analysis, are either included or not included across various implementations of the same model to ensure that different sources of variation can be studied more separately from one another. This is a form of sensitivity analysis: it is the study of how sensitive an implementation of a model is to the addition of one or more new variables.


title: Causal inference

text: A chief motivating concern in the use of sensitivity analysis is the pursuit of discovering confounding variables. Confounding variables are variables that have a large impact on the results of a statistical test but are not the variable that causal inference is trying to study. Confounding variables may cause a regressor to appear to be significant in one implementation, but not in another.


title: Causal inference

text: Another reason for the use of sensitivity analysis is to detect multicollinearity. Multicollinearity is the phenomenon where the correlation between two variables is very high. A high level of correlation between two variables can dramatically affect the outcome of a statistical analysis, where small variations in highly correlated data can flip the effect of a variable from a positive direction to a negative direction, or vice versa. This is an inherent property of variance testing. Determining multicollinearity is useful in sensitivity analysis because the elimination of highly correlated variables in different model implementations can prevent the dramatic changes in results that result from the inclusion of such variables.


title: Causal inference

text: However, there are limits to sensitivity analysis' ability to prevent the deleterious effects of multicollinearity, especially in the social sciences, where systems are complex. Because it is theoretically impossible to include or even measure all of the confounding factors in a sufficiently complex system, econometric models are susceptible to the common-cause fallacy, where causal effects are incorrectly attributed to the wrong variable because the correct variable was not captured in the original data. This is an example of the failure to account for a lurking variable.


title: Causal inference

text: Recently, improved methodology in design-based econometrics has popularized the use of both natural experiments and quasi-experimental research designs to study the causal mechanisms that such experiments are believed to identify.


title: Causal inference

text: Despite the advancements in the development of methodologies used to determine causality, significant weaknesses in determining causality remain. These weaknesses can be attributed both to the inherent difficulty of determining causal relations in complex systems but also to cases of scientific malpractice.


title: Causal inference

text: Separate from the difficulties of causal inference, the perception that large numbers of scholars in the social sciences engage in non-scientific methodology exists among some large groups of social scientists. Criticism of economists and social scientists as passing off descriptive studies as causal studies are rife within those fields.


title: Causal inference

text: In the sciences, especially in the social sciences, there is concern among scholars that scientific malpractice is widespread. As scientific study is a broad topic, there are theoretically limitless ways to have a causal inference undermined through no fault of a researcher. Nonetheless, there remain concerns among scientists that large numbers of researchers do not perform basic duties or practice sufficiently diverse methods in causal inference.


title: Causal inference

text: One prominent example of common non-causal methodology is the erroneous assumption of correlative properties as causal properties. There is no inherent causality in phenomena that correlate. Regression models are designed to measure variance within data relative to a theoretical model: there is nothing to suggest that data that presents high levels of covariance have any meaningful relationship (absent a proposed causal mechanism with predictive properties or a random assignment of treatment). The use of flawed methodology has been claimed to be widespread, with common examples of such malpractice being the overuse of correlative models, especially the overuse of regression models and particularly linear regression models. The presupposition that two correlated phenomena are inherently related is a logical fallacy known as spurious correlation. Some social scientists claim that widespread use of methodology that attributes causality to spurious correlations have been detrimental to the integrity of the social sciences, although improvements stemming from better methodologies have been noted.


title: Causal inference

text: A potential effect of scientific studies that erroneously conflate correlation with causality is an increase in the number of scientific findings whose results are not reproducible by third parties. Such non-reproducibility is a logical consequence of findings that correlation only temporarily being overgeneralized into mechanisms that have no inherent relationship, where new data does not contain the previous, idiosyncratic correlations of the original data. Debates over the effect of malpractice versus the effect of the inherent difficulties of searching for causality are ongoing. Critics of widely practiced methodologies argue that researchers have engaged statistical manipulation in to publish articles that supposedly demonstrate evidence of causality but are actually examples of spurious correlation being touted as evidence of causality: such endeavors may be referred to as P hacking. To prevent this, some have advocated that researchers preregister their research designs prior to conducting to their studies so that they do not inadvertently overemphasize a nonreproducible finding that was not the initial subject of inquiry but was found to be statistically significant during data analysis.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: The 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix (officially known as the Formula 1 Azerbaijan Grand Prix 2021) was a Formula One motor race held on 6 June 2021 at the Baku City Circuit in Baku, Azerbaijan. The race, the sixth round of the 2021 Formula One World Championship, marked the fourth running of the Azerbaijan Grand Prix, and the fifth time the country had hosted a Grand Prix, having also held the 2016 European Grand Prix.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: Both championship contenders, Lewis Hamilton and Max Verstappen, experienced problems during the 51-lap race; Verstappen retired due to a high-speed tyre blowout, while Hamilton made a severe error at the resultant restart. Their troubles cleared the way for Sergio Pérez, Verstappen's teammate, to win his second Grand Prix, following his victory at the 2020 Sakhir Grand Prix. Sebastian Vettel took second place for his only podium with Aston Martin, and the final podium finish of his career, while Pierre Gasly claimed third place for AlphaTauri. After the race, tyre supplier Pirelli launched an investigation into the tyre failures which ended the races of Verstappen and Lance Stroll.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: The drivers and teams were the same as the season entry list with no additional stand-in drivers for the race. Tyre supplier Pirelli brought the C3, C4, and C5 tyre compounds (designated hard, medium, and soft, respectively) for teams to use at the event.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: The race was held at the Baku City Circuit in Baku, Azerbaijan, and was contested over 51 laps. Mercedes and Red Bull were considered favourites to win the race.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: Having won the previous race at Monaco, Max Verstappen, of Red Bull, entered the round holding a four-point lead in the World Driver's Championship ahead of rival Lewis Hamilton, who was driving for Mercedes. Red Bull also held a one-point lead over Mercedes in the World Constructors' Championship.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: The first practice session started at 12:30 local time (UTC+4) on 4 June, with second practice session starting at 16:00 on the same day, with a third practice session due to start at 13:00 local time on 5 June, with a three sessions lasting one hour. The first session ended with the Red Bull Racing of Max Verstappen fastest ahead of the Ferrari duo of Charles Leclerc and Carlos Sainz Jr. Mercedes had a low key session with Lewis Hamilton and Valtteri Bottas in seventh fastest and tenth fastest respectively. Sergio Pérez was fastest in the second session ahead of Red Bull teammate Verstappen and Sainz. Leclerc finished 4th having caused a virtual safety car after hitting the barrier at turn 15. Nicholas Latifi caused a red flag after his Williams car's engine failed. The Mercedes pair Hamilton and Bottas once again struggled finishing 11th and 15th fastest respectively.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: Qualifying started at 16:00 local time on 5 June. Lance Stroll and Antonio Giovinazzi (both in Q1), Daniel Ricciardo (Q2), Yuki Tsunoda, and Carlos Sainz Jr. (both Q3) all had accidents resulting in four red flags over the course of qualifying, tying it with the 2016 Hungarian Grand Prix as a record for the most red flags in a qualifying session. George Russell changed his drivetrain before heading out for a flying lap, the Q1 red flags giving his pit crew extra time in the garage to make for a flying lap. Charles Leclerc took pole position for the second consecutive event from Lewis Hamilton and Max Verstappen.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: After qualifying, Lando Norris said he was left "gutted" after he was handed a three-place grid penalty as well as three-penalty points on his FIA Super Licence for failing to correctly follow the red flag procedures. Leclerc was surprised to be on pole and said he thought his pole lap was "quite shit". Hamilton hailed his second place on the grid a "monumental effort", while championship leader Max Verstappen was frustrated with third on the grid after what he described as "a stupid qualifying". Fernando Alonso, who qualified ninth, gave outspoken criticism of the fact that drivers who cause red flags are not punished, deeming it "unfair" that drivers who cause red flags are allowed to keep their grid positions. Valtteri Bottas was mystified with his qualifying performance after finishing down in tenth, eight positions behind teammate Hamilton, saying "something is wrong" with his car.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: Before the start of the race, a moment of silence was held in memory's of the deceased former FIA chief Max Mosley and long-time McLaren shareholder Mansour Ojjeh. The race started at 16:00 local time on 6 June and was contested over 51 laps. The start did not produce many overtakes, as Leclerc retained first place of Hamilton and Verstappen. The main change in the order was Sergio Pérez overtaking Carlos Sainz Jr. and Pierre Gasly to move from sixth to fourth place. Behind them, Fernando Alonso climbed to seventh place and Sebastian Vettel to ninth, having started eighth and eleventh, respectively. At the end of lap 3, Hamilton passed Leclerc on the start–finish straight to take the lead, making the top ten order Hamilton, Leclerc, Verstappen, Pérez, Gasly, Sainz, Alonso, Yuki Tsunoda, Vettel, and Valtteri Bottas. Esteban Ocon retired at the end of the lap 3 with a turbocharger failure. Three laps later, Verstappen passed Leclerc for second place. Pérez also overtook Leclerc on the following lap, dropping Leclerc to fourth place.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: On lap 8, Alonso became the first driver to make a pit stop for fresh tyres, and Leclerc followed suit one lap later. On lap 11, Sainz outbraked himself into the turn 8 chicane, dropping him from 6th to 15th and finding himself having to reverse out of a very narrow run off onto the racing line. Hamilton was the first driver from the top three to make a pit stop. In an otherwise tidy stop, his exit from the pit box was delayed due to Gasly driving the pit lane behind him, costing him about two seconds. The following lap, Verstappen made his stop, giving Pérez a temporary lead. Pérez then stopped the lap after, but the wheelgun of the rear-right mechanic failed; the spare was used and the stop was completed. Following the stops, both Red Bulls jumped Hamilton, dropping him to fourth place, with Vettel, yet to make a pit stop, temporarily in the lead. Vettel stayed out for another four laps, maintaining speed before finally coming to the pit lane and exiting the pits in seventh place, over-cutting Tsunoda with his new tyres, seven laps fresher than the tyres of Gasly, Hamilton, and all the runners in front of him.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: The order settled over the next fifteen laps with Hamilton unsuccessfully trying to pass Pérez for second place. On lap 30, Aston Martin's Lance Stroll, who was the sole driver to have started the race on the hardest tyre compound and not to have made a pit stop yet, suffered a left-rear tyre failure when exiting turn 20 onto the main straight, causing him to lose control and crash into the left-hand barriers, resulting in his retirement and the safety car being deployed for a few laps. Stroll's stricken car had ended up on the pit lane entry and the pit lane was closed until it had been cleared. When the pit lane opened, the field had been brought together behind the safety car and none of the front runners elected to make a pit stop. The only ones who took a fresh set of tyres during the safety car period were Fernando Alonso, Antonio Giovinazzi, George Russell, and Nikita Mazepin. The safety car period ended after four laps and normal racing resumed on the start of lap 36. The top three remained unchanged, with Vettel passing Leclerc on the resumption of racing for fifth place. At the end of the lap, Vettel passed Gasly to climb into fourth place. The top five order settled for the next eight laps, with Hamilton unable to keep up with Pérez through the corners, whilst closing the gap again down the straights.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: Verstappen then set the race's fastest lap of 1:44.805 on lap 44. Two laps later, his Red Bull RB16B suffered a left-rear tyre failure on the main straight causing him to spin and crash into the barriers, coming to rest about 50m short of the finishing line. He retired from the race as a result and the safety car was deployed for a second time; this meant that Pérez was in the lead with Hamilton in second. The race director Michael Masi ordered the cars to pass through the pit lane to bypass the accident scene. Williams' Nicholas Latifi was told to "stay out" by his engineer, which he interpreted as an instruction not to enter the pit lane; in fact, the cars were required to drive through the pit lane, and "stay out" had merely been an instruction not to stop for tyres while doing so. This failure to follow the race director's instructions cost him a post-race penalty of 30 seconds being added to his race time, which was converted from a 10-second stop-and-go penalty. A number of messages were exchanged between Masi and the teams during the red flag period; most notably, McLaren's Paul James complained that Tsunoda did not slow down sufficiently for the initial double-yellows, to which Masi replied that none of the drivers had sufficiently slowed and that all of them would be addressed post-race. Two laps after Verstappen's accident, the race was red-flagged and suspended. On the formation lap to the grid for the restart, George Russell's Williams ground to a halt in the pit lane and retired with gearbox issues.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: After a delay of 34 minutes, the race was restarted on lap 50 with a standing start, using the race order at the moment of the suspension of the race. Pérez had a slow start from the lead and Hamilton tried to pass on the inside of turn 1 but had inadvertently selected the wrong brake mode and was unable to brake sufficiently, causing him to lock up at high speed and forcing him onto the escape road; Hamilton dropped to last as a result. A scrap ensued between Gasly and Leclerc, with the former prevailing having exchanged positions twice down the main straight on the penultimate lap. Pérez then led the race to the end, ahead of Vettel and Gasly, with Leclerc, Norris, Alonso, Tsunoda, Sainz, Daniel Ricciardo, and Kimi Räikkönen completing the top ten. Mick Schumacher had been passed by his teammate Mazepin at the restart but regained his position just before crossing the finish line to end the race.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: Pérez won his second Formula One race, his first win for Red Bull, and the first Red Bull race win by a driver other than Verstappen since the 2018 Monaco Grand Prix, which was won by Ricciardo. Vettel's podium was his first for Aston Martin, while Räikkönen took his first point of the season in tenth place. Both Mercedes drivers failed to score points despite finishing the race for the first time since the 2012 United States Grand Prix. In Hamilton's worst finish for over twelve years, it also marked the first time since the 2013 Spanish Grand Prix that he finished a race outside the points.


title: 2021 Azerbaijan Grand Prix

text: With the tyre failures on the rear for both Stroll and Verstappen, Pirelli lodged an investigation over the durability of the selected tyre compounds, their initial findings suggesting the tyre problems were linked to debris. Masi was expected to reiterate the importance of yellow flag conditions to drivers prior to the 2021 French Grand Prix after the complaints lodged by McLaren during the race. Drivers, including Leclerc, said they would query the decision to delay the deployment of the safety car following Verstappen's crash late in the race. Masi defended his decision to restart the race with two laps remaining from a standing start, saying there was no reason not to resume racing. When asked why Verstappen's accident warranted a red flag but Stroll's similar accident only warranted a safety car, Masi stated that he wished to resume racing after Verstappen's accident had been cleared, but there were insufficient laps remaining and insufficient time to clear Verstappen's accident under safety car conditions.


title: Pachuco

text: Pachucos are male members of a counterculture associated with zoot suit fashion, jazz and swing music, a distinct dialect known as "caló", and self-empowerment in rejecting assimilation into Anglo-American society that emerged in El Paso, Texas in the late 1930s. The pachuco counterculture flourished among Chicano boys and men in the 1940s as a symbol of rebellion, especially in Los Angeles. It spread to women who became known as pachucas and were perceived as unruly, masculine, and un-American. Some pachucos adopted strong attitudes of social defiance, engaging in behavior seen as deviant by white/Anglo-American society, such as marijuana smoking, gang activity, and a turbulent night life. Although concentrated among a relatively small group of Mexican Americans, the pachuco counterculture became iconic among Chicanos and a predecessor for the cholo subculture which emerged among Chicano youth in the 1980s.


title: Pachuco

text: Pachucos emerged in El Paso, Texas, among a group of Chicano youth who were influenced by African American culture and urban 'hep cats,' although it may have roots in Pachuca, Hidalgo, Mexico, where loose-fitting clothing was popular among men. It later spread throughout the Southwest into Los Angeles, where it developed further. In the border areas of California and Texas, a distinct youth culture known as "pachuquismo" developed in the 1940s and has been credited as an influence to "Chicanismo". Pachuco zoot suiters were influenced by Black zoot suiters in the jazz and swing music scene on the east coast. In LA, Chicano zoot suiters developed their own cultural identity, "with their hair done in big pompadours, and 'draped' in tailor-made suits ... They spoke caló, their own language, a cool jive of half-English, half-Spanish rhythms ... Out of the zoot-suiter experience came lowrider cars and culture, clothes, music, tag names, and, again, its own graffiti language."


title: Pachuco

text: Pachucos were perceived as alien to both Mexican and Anglo-American culture–a distinctly "Chicano" figure. In Mexico, the pachuco was understood "as a caricature of the American," while in the United States he was perceived as so-called "proof of Mexican degeneracy." Mexican critics such as Octavio Paz denounced the pachuco as a man who had "lost his whole inheritance: language, religion, customs, belief." In response, Chicanos heavily criticized Paz and embraced the oppositional position of the pachuco as an embodied representation of resistance to Anglo-American cultural hegemony. To Chicanos, the pachuco had acquired and emanated self-empowerment and agency through a "stylized power" of rebellious resistance and spectacular excess.


title: Pachuco

text: The word "pachuco" is uncertain, but one theory connects it to the city of El Paso, Texas, which was sometimes referred to as "Chuco Town" or "El Chuco." People migrating to El Paso from Ciudad Juarez would say, in Spanish, that they were going ""pa' El Chuco."" Some say "pa El Chuco" comes from the words "Shoe Co.", a shoe company that was located in El Paso in the 1940s during the war. The majority of Mexican migrants would cross the border in order to work for this famous shoe company in El Paso. Throughout the years the term "pa El Chuco" was used when Mexican immigrants were heading to El Paso looking for a job. In order to cross the American border with success the migrants would have to dress nice and look nice other wise they would get rejected at the border. These migrants became known as pachucos.


title: Pachuco

text: "Pachuco" could also have derived from the name of the city of Pachuca, Hidalgo, Mexico, as the majority of Mexican migration to the United States came from the Central Plateau region, of which Hidalgo is a part.


title: Pachuco

text: Another theory says that the “word” derives from "pocho", a derogatory term for a Mexican born in the United States who has lost touch with the Mexican culture. The word is also said to mean "punk" or "troublemaker." Yet another theory is put forth by author Laura L. Cummings who postulates a possible indigenous origin of the term.


title: Pachuco

text: Connections have also been found between "Pachucos" and mixed civilians who lived near the Mexican–American border during the turn of the century, and between "Pachucos" and the poor soldiers who fought in the Mexican Revolution in the armies of Pancho Villa.


title: Pachuco

text: Pachucos called their slang Caló (sometimes called "pachuquismo"), a unique argot that drew on the original Spanish Gypsy Caló, Mexican Spanish, the New Mexican dialect of Spanish, and American English, employing words and phrases creatively applied. To a large extent, Caló went mainstream and is one of the last surviving vestige of the Pachuco, often used in the lexicon of some urban Latin Americans in the United States to this day. The influence of Valdés is responsible for the assimilation of several Caló terms into Mexican slang.


title: Pachuco

text: Pachuco style was a dominating trend among Mexican-American youth in the 1930s-40s. Pachucos became known for their distinguished look, dialogue, and actions. Pachucos dressed in recognizable Zoot suits, and often styled their hair into ducktails. Things like decorative chains and tattoos were also sometimes part of the pachuco look. The unique speech of pachucos was a very important element of their defined style. Consisting of creative phrases and some English words, Caló was a very popular form of speech among pachucos. Pachucos were seen as gangsters in the eyes of conservative Americans with ethnic prejudices.


title: Pachuco

text: It is known that German Valdés” Tin Tan” lived in Cd Juarez Chihuahua Mexico, where the word Pachuco emerged from.


title: Pachuco

text: The Mexican Nobel laureate Octavio Paz writes in the essay, "The "Pachuco" and Other Extremes" that the Pachuco phenomenon paralleled the zazou subculture in World War II-era Paris in style of clothing, music favored (jazz, swing, and jump blues), and attitudes. Although there was no known link between the two subcultures, they both are most certainly derivative localized blends of American pop culture in the United States.


title: Pachuco

text: While he was not the first Mexican comedian to perform as a Mexican American zoot suiter, Mexican comedian and film actor German Valdés better-known by his artistic name "Tin-Tan" is Mexico's most famous and celebrated pachuco.


title: Pachuco

text: Pachuco culture in America was at its height during World War II. The Wartime Productions Board in 1942 thought it necessary to cut back on fabric consumption, so they enacted regulations on the amount of fabric used for suits. This enactment targeted Pachucos in particular because of the excess fabric used in their zoot suits. Pachucos boldly chose not to follow these regulations, demonstrating rebellious attitudes and pride in their culture. Pachucos continued to flaunt zoot suits, now attained through bootleg tailors. As a result, these flashy zoot suits were seen as unpatriotic by other Americans. This controversial series of events helped shape Pachuco culture, and zoot suits became a symbol of cultural pride among Mexican-Americans. It didn't all end well, however, as this also led to rising tension between Pachucos and other Americans, playing a part in the start of the 1944 Zoot Suit Riots.


title: Pachuco

text: The pachuco subculture declined in the 1960s, evolving into the Chicano style. This style preserved some of the pachuco slang while adding a strong political element characteristic of the late 1960s American life.


title: Pachuco

text: In the early 1970s, a recession and the increasingly violent nature of gang life resulted in an abandonment of anything that suggested dandyism. Accordingly, Mexican-American gangs adopted a uniform of T-shirts and khakis derived from prison uniforms, and the pachuco style died out. However, the zoot suit remains a popular choice of formal wear for urban and rural Latino youths in heavily ethnic Mexican neighborhoods. It is typically worn at a prom, in weddings, parties or in some cases, at informal Latino university commencement ceremonies.


title: Pachuco

text: The "Pachuca," the female counterpart of the Pachuco, had an aesthetic sensibility as strong as the male zoot suiter. The Pachuca's hairstyle tended to be a high "coif" or bouffant, with the hair put up in some way (a more pronounced version of the typical hair style of the time) by ratting their hair or affixing hair rats. Their makeup was heavy, particularly using a red colored lipstick. The preferred colors of clothing were black and gray. Some pachucas wore the traditionally male zoot suit, albeit with modifications to fit the female form. Sometimes, she donned the standard heavy gold pocket chain. Another variation involved a sweater or coat - often a variant on the male zoot-suit finger-tip jacket - over knee-length skirts, plus fishnet stockings or bobby socks and platform shoes. Extravagant dresses were and are also common among pachucas. Like the entire culture, the fashion aesthetic revolved around the concept of "see and be seen."


title: Pachuco

text: The term "" is used in Costa Rica to define Costa Rican slang. It nevertheless differs from the Mexican slang.


title: Pachuco

text: In Costa Rica the term "pachuco" refers to someone who has common habits and who is often very rude. In Costa Rica the word pachuco refers to a person who has manners that are socially unacceptable and often uses shocking language when speaking. Pachuco is also a pejorative name given to certain colloquial words and expressions. Some consider pachuco and its pachuquismos to be Costa Rica's second language.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: Kadena Air Base's history dates back to just before the Battle of Okinawa in April 1945, when a local construction firm completed a small airfield named Yara Hikojo near the village of Kadena. The airfield, used by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force, was one of the first targets of the Tenth United States Army 7th Infantry Division. The United States seized it from the Japanese during the battle.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: What the Americans captured was a strip of badly-damaged coral runway. "The initial work at Kadena was accomplished by the 1901st Aviation Engineer Battalion 7th U.S. Infantry Division and Naval Construction Battalion Maintenance Unit CBMU 624 on 4 April", by nightfall the same day, the runway could accept emergency landings. Eight days later, and after some of coral were added, the airfield was declared operational and put into immediate service by artillery spotting aircraft. Additional construction was performed by the 807th Engineering Aviation Battalion to improve the airfield for USAAF fighter and bomber use with fuel tank farms, a new bituminous runway, and a runway for bomber aircraft, by August.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: Kadena airfield was initially under the control of Seventh Air Force, however on 16 July 1945, Headquarters Eighth Air Force was transferred, without personnel, equipment, or combat elements to the town of Sakugawa, near Kadena from RAF High Wycombe England. Upon reassignment, its headquarters element absorbed the command staff of the inactivated XX Bomber Command. Kadena was used by the headquarters staff for administrative flying requirements.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: Upon its reassignment to the Pacific Theater, Eighth Air Force was assigned to the U.S. Army Strategic Air Forces with a mission to train new B-29 Superfortress bomber groups arriving from the United States for combat missions against Japan. In the planned invasion of Japan, the mission of Eighth Air Force would be to conduct strategic bombing raids from Okinawa. However, the atomic bombings of Japan led to the Japanese surrender before Eighth Air Force saw action in the Pacific theater.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: The surrender of Japanese forces in the Ryukyu Islands came on 7 September. General Joseph Stilwell accepted the surrender in an area that would later become Kadena's Stearley Heights housing area.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: On 7 June 1946, Headquarters Eighth Air Force moved without personnel or equipment to MacDill AAF, Florida. It was replaced by the 1st Air Division which directed fighter reconnaissance, and bomber organizations and provided air defense for the Ryukyu Islands until December 1948.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: The Korean War emphasized the need for maintaining a naval presence on Okinawa. On 15 February 1951, the U.S. Naval Facility, Naha, was activated and later became commissioned on 18 April. Commander Fleet Activities, Ryukyus was commissioned on 8 March 1957. On 15 May 1972, upon reversion of Okinawa to Japanese administration, the two organizations were combined to form Commander Fleet Activities, Okinawa. With the relocations of Commander Fleet Activities, Okinawa to Kadena Air Base on 7 May 1975, the title then became Commander Fleet Activities, Okinawa/US Naval Air Facility, Kadena.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: Twentieth Air Force was inactivated in March 1955. Fifth Air Force became the command and control organization for Kadena. Known major postwar USAAF/USAF units assigned to Kadena have been:


title: Kadena Air Base

text: At the end of the Eisenhower presidency, around 1,700 nuclear weapons were deployed on shore in the Pacific, 800 of which were at Kadena Air Base.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: On 1 November 1954, the 18th Fighter-Bomber Wing arrived from Osan Air Base, South Korea. Under changing designations, the wing has been the main USAF flying force at Kadena for over 50 years. The wing has maintained assigned aircraft, crews, and supporting personnel in readiness to respond to orders from Fifth Air Force and Pacific Air Forces. The wing initially was flying three squadrons of North American F-86 Sabre: the 12th, 44th and 67th Fighter Squadrons. The wing flew tactical fighter sorties from Okinawa, and made frequent deployments to South Korea, Japan, Formosa, and the Philippines. In 1957, the wing upgraded to the F-100 Super Sabre and the designation was changed to the 18th Tactical Fighter Wing. In 1960, a tactical reconnaissance mission was added to the wing with the arrival of the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo and the 15th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: Beginning in 1961, the 18th TFW was sending its tactical squadrons frequently to South Vietnam and Thailand, initially with its RF-101 reconnaissance jets, and beginning in 1964 with its tactical fighter forces supporting USAF combat missions in the Vietnam War. In 1963, the F-105 Thunderchief replaced the Super Sabres. During the Temporary duty assignment (TDY) deployments to Southeast Asia, the 12th TFS lost four aircraft, the 44th TFS lost one F-105D, and the 67th TFS lost nine aircraft, including three on the first day of Operation Rolling Thunder. The deployments to Southeast Asia continued until the end of United States involvement in the conflict.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: The RF-4C Phantom II replaced the RF-101 in the reconnaissance role in 1967. An electronic warfare capability was added to the wing in late 1968 with the attachment of the 19th Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron from Shaw AFB South Carolina flying the EB-66 Destroyer. The B-66s remained until 1970, flying daily over the skies of Southeast Asia.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: During the 1968 Pueblo crisis, the 18th deployed between January and June to Osan AB, South Korea following the North Korean seizure of the vessel. Frequent deployments to South Korea have been performed ever since to maintain the air defense alert mission there.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: In 1972, the 1st Special Operations Squadron was assigned, bringing their specialized C/MC-130 Hercules aircraft to the wing. The squadron was reassigned in 1978. The reconnaissance mission ended in 1989 with the retirement of the RF-4Cs, and the inactivation of the 15th TRS.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: The F/RF-4C Phantom II replaced the F-105s in 1971, and a further upgrade to the F-15 Eagle was made in 1979.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: On 6 November 1972, the 18th Tactical Fighter Wing dispatched the McDonnell Douglas F-4C / D Phantom II fighter jets of the 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron and the 67th Tactical Fighter Squadron to the Ching Chuan Kang Air Base, Taiwan until 31 May 1975. Assist Taiwan ’s air defense against threats from China.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: The designation of the wing changed on 1 October 1991 to the 18th Wing with the implementation of the Objective Wing concept. With the objective wing, the mission of the 18th expanded to the Composite Air Wing concept of multiple different wing missions with different aircraft. The mission of the 18th was expanded to include aerial refueling with KC-135 Stratotanker tanker aircraft; and surveillance, warning, command and control E-3 Sentry, and communications. Added airlift mission in June 1992 with the C-12 Huron, transporting mission critical personnel, high-priority cargo and distinguished visitors. In February 1993, the 18th Wing gained responsibility for coordinating rescue operations in the Western Pacific and Indian Ocean.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: In November 2006, the U.S. Army's 1st Battalion, 1st Air Defense Artillery Regiment, a Patriot PAC-III unit, deployed to Kadena from Fort Bliss Texas. Originally assigned to 31st ADA Brigade of Fort Bliss, they were reassigned to the 94th AAMDC, USINDOPACOM. The move was part of the BRAC consolidation of U.S. Army bases and security agreements between the U.S. and Japan. The battalion's mission is to defend the base against tactical ballistic missiles from North Korea. The deployment was controversial on Okinawa, being greeted with protests.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: Other U.S. allies who had expressed intention with the approval of both the Japanese government and the United States Air Force to host units in the air base to further impose united cooperation against regional threats; North Korea, Russian Siberia, Russian Far East and the growing influence of China in the Asia Pacific.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: In early September 2018, Australian Defence Minister Christopher Pyne and New Zealand's Deputy Prime Minister Winston Peters stated that it was in their interest to aid both Japan and the United States against North Korea with patrol aircraft. These units would provide additional capability to prevent North Korean vessels conducting illegal trading out at sea in violation of UN sanctions. The Royal Australian Air Force deployed two AP-3C aircraft, along with a P-3K2 Orion from the RNZAF. RAAF P-8 Poseidons have subsequently been periodically deployed to Kadena as part of Operation Argos. RNZAF Orions also periodically operate from Kadena, with four such deployments having been made as of April 2021.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: The 18th Wing is the host unit at Kadena AB. In addition, the base hosts associate units from five other Air Force major commands, the United States Navy, and other Department of Defense agencies and direct reporting units. Associate units operate more than 20 permanently assigned, forward-based or deployed aircraft from the base on a daily basis.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: The 18th Wing is the Air Force's largest and most diverse combat wing. The Wing is broken down into five groups: the 18th Operations Group, the 18th Maintenance Group, the 18th Mission Support Group, the 18th Civil Engineer Group, and the 18th Medical Group. Kadena's fleet of F-15C/D Eagles (the 44th and 67th Fighter Squadrons); KC-135R/T Stratotankers (the 909th Air Refueling Squadron); E-3 Sentry|E-3B/C Sentries (the 961st Airborne Air Control Squadron); and HH-60 Pave Hawks (the 33d Rescue Squadron).


title: Kadena Air Base

text: The 353d Special Operations Group is an element of the Air Force Special Operations Command, Hurlburt Field, Florida. The 750 Airmen of the group are organized into the 1st Special Operations Squadron, the 17th Special Operations Squadron, a maintenance squadron, the 320th Special Tactics Squadron, and an operations support squadron. The flying squadrons operate the MC-130J Commando II, MC-130H Combat Talon II.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: This 733d Air Mobility Squadron manage all passengers and cargo traveling by air in and out of Kadena. This Air Mobility Command unit supports about 650 aircraft arrivals and departures every month, moving more than 12,000 passengers and nearly 3,000 tons of cargo.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: Air Combat Command's 82d Reconnaissance Squadron maintains aircraft; prepares combat-ready aircrews; and analyzes, processes, and disseminates intelligence data launch in support of RC-135V/W Rivet Joint, RC-135U Combat Sent and WC-135 Constant Phoenix missions flown in the Pacific Theater.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: This Air Intelligence Agency squadron conducts information operations by providing tailored combat intelligence and assessing the security of friendly command, control, communication and computer systems to enhance warfighting survivability, situation awareness and targeting.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: The U.S. Army's 1st Battalion, 1st Air Defense Artillery Regiment, assigned to the 94th AAMDC is a Patriot PAC-3 battalion. It consists of four Patriot missile batteries (Alpha through Delta), a maintenance company (Echo) and a headquarters battery (HHB).


title: Kadena Air Base

text: The Air Force Housing Management Office (HMO) manages Military Family Housing (MFH) for all service members assigned to Okinawa. Kadena Air Base contains nearly 4,000 family housing units, in apartment, townhouse, and single family home styles.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: Units marked GSU are Geographically Separate Units, which although based at Kadena, are subordinate to a parent unit based at another location.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: The mission of NAVCOMM Det Okinawa is to provide communications support for the Seventh Fleet and supporting units, U.S. Naval Forces Japan, U.S. Naval Forces Korea, Defense Information Systems Agency and the Japanese Maritime Self Defense Force. The detachment has four work centers:


title: Kadena Air Base

text: In June 2013, the government of Japan discovered 22 barrels buried on former base property that tests showed had previously contained dioxins and herbicides. Tests on the surrounding soils found dioxin levels at 8.4 times and groundwater at 280 times the legal limit. The land in question is a soccer field bordering the base's Bob Hope Primary School and Amelia Earhart Intermediate School. Angry parents accused base officials, under base commanders Brigadier General Matt H. Molloy and Brigadier General James B. Hecker, of failing to notify them of the toxins near the school and not investigating into the matter. The parents established a Facebook group on 10 January 2014 titled, "Bob Hope/AEIS – Protect Our Kids." After the issue was reported in the "Japan Times" and "Stars and Stripes", USAF officials tested the soil and water at the schools and said that no excessive toxic substances were found.


title: Kadena Air Base

text: Soil on the base tested positive for very high levels of polychlorinated biphenylchemicals (PCBs), in the thousands of parts per million, much higher than most other contamination sites in the world, according to a report issued in 1987 after an investigation prompted by a small unrelated spill of transformer oil.


title: Cotton swab

text: Cotton swabs (American English) or cotton buds (British English) are handheld items that consist of one or two small wads of cotton wrapped around one or both ends of a short rod made of wood, rolled paper, or plastic. They are most commonly used for ear cleaning, although this is not recommended by physicians. Other uses for cotton swabs include first aid, cosmetics application, cleaning, infant care and crafts. Some countries have banned the plastic-stemmed versions in favor of biodegradable alternatives over concerns about marine pollution.


title: Cotton swab

text: The first mass-produced cotton swab was developed in 1923 by Polish-American Leo Gerstenzang after he watched his wife attach wads of cotton to toothpicks to clean their infant's ears. His product was originally named "Baby Gays" in recognition of them being intended for infants before being renamed "Q-tips Baby Gays", with the "Q" standing for "quality". The product eventually became known as "Q-tips", which went on to become the most widely sold brand name of cotton swabs in North America. The term "Q-tip" is often used as a genericized trademark for a cotton swab in the United States and Canada. The Q-tips brand is owned by Unilever and had over $200 million in US sales in 2014. "Johnson's buds" are made by Johnson & Johnson.


title: Cotton swab

text: However, according to the United States Patent Case (C-10,415) "Q-Tips, Inc. v. Johnson & Johnson, 108 F. Supp. 845 (D.N.J. 1952)", it would appear that the first commercial producer of cotton tipped applicators was a Mrs. Hazel Tietjen Forbis, who manufactured them in her home. She also owned a patent on the article, numbered 1,652,108, dated December 6, 1927, and sold the product under the appellation Baby Nose-Gay. In 1925, Leo Gerstenzang Co., Inc. purchased an assignment of the product patent from Mrs. Forbis. On January 2, 1937, Q-Tips, Inc's president, Mr. Leo Gerstenzang, and his wife Mrs. Ziuta Gerstenzang formed a partnership and purchased from Mrs Forbis "All merchandise, machinery and fixtures now contained in the premises 132 W. 36th Street and used by said Q-Tips, Inc., for the manufacture of Q-Tips or medicated swabs together with the accounts receivable of said Q-Tips, Inc." The contract recited that Q-Tips, Inc was the owner of patents covering the manufacture of applicators.


title: Cotton swab

text: Originally, when cotton tipped applicators were made by Mrs. Forbis, they were sold under the name of Baby Nose-Gays. In 1925, after The Leo Gerstenzang Co., Inc. purchased an assignment of the product patent from Mrs. Forbis, the packages of applicators were labelled Baby-Gays. In 1926, the legend was changed to read "Q-Tips Baby Gays", and in 1927 an application was made to register the mark "Q-Tips Baby Gays". Sometime after 1926, the words "Baby Gays" were dropped and the concern began to develop "Q-Tips" as its identifying mark, applying for registration of it on September 14, 1933. Packages were made up using blue paper with pictures of double tipped applicators upon them, features which have been the basis for the Q Tips packaged sign since that time. The design of the crossed applicators was made by dropping them and then photographing the resulting pattern. The "Q" in Q-Tips was used so that the name in its entirety would sound like "cute tips" when spoken. It would appear that when the mark "Q-Tips" was originated, the product to which it applied was known as a medical swab or a swab, but that thereafter the term "applicator" or "cotton-tipped applicator" gained currency.


title: Cotton swab

text: The traditional cotton swab has a single tip on a wooden handle, and these are still often used, especially in medical settings. They are usually relatively long, about . These often are packaged sterile, one or two to a paper or plastic sleeve. The advantage of the paper sleeve and the wooden handle is that the package can be autoclaved to be sterilized (plastic sleeves or handles would melt in the autoclave).


title: Cotton swab

text: Cotton swabs manufactured for home use are usually shorter, about long, and usually double-tipped. The handles were first made of wood, then made of rolled paper, which is still most common (although tubular plastic is also used). They are often sold in large quantities, 100 or more to a container.


title: Cotton swab

text: Plastic swab stems exist in a wide variety of colors, such as blue, pink or green. However, the cotton itself is traditionally white.


title: Cotton swab

text: The most common use for cotton swabs is to clean the ear canal by removing earwax. Cotton swabs are also commonly used for applying and removing makeup, as well as for household uses such as cleaning and arts and crafts. They are also handy for touching up nail polish that gets on the surrounding skin.


title: Cotton swab

text: Medical-type swabs are often used to take microbiological cultures. Pharmaceutical grade cotton swabs are necessary for medical applications. These medical grade swabs are rubbed onto or into the infected area, then wiped across the culture medium, such as an agar plate, where bacteria from the swab may grow. They are also used to take DNA samples, most commonly by scraping cells from the inner cheek in the case of humans. They can be used to apply medicines to a targeted area, to selectively remove substances from a targeted area, or to apply cleaning substances like Betadine. They are also used as an applicator for various cosmetics, ointments, and other substances.


title: Cotton swab

text: A related area is the use of swabs for microbiological environmental monitoring. Once taken, the swab can be streaked onto an agar plate, or the contents of the tip removed by agitation or dilution into the broth. The broth can either then be filtered or incubated and examined for microbial growth.


title: Cotton swab

text: The use of cotton swabs in the ear canal has no associated medical benefits and poses definite medical risks. Cerumen (ear wax) is a naturally occurring, normally extruded, product of the external auditory canal that protects the skin inside the ear, serves beneficial lubrication and cleaning functions, and provides some protection from bacteria, fungi, insects, and water.


title: Cotton swab

text: Attempts to remove cerumen with cotton swabs may result in cerumen impaction, a buildup or blockage of cerumen in the ear canal, which can cause pain, hearing problems, ringing in the ear, or dizziness, and may require medical treatment to resolve. The use of cotton swabs in the ear canal is one of the most common causes of perforated eardrum, a condition which sometimes requires surgery to correct.


title: Cotton swab

text: A 2004 study found that the "[u]se of a cotton-tip applicator to clean the ear seems to be the leading cause of otitis externa in children and should be avoided." Instead, wiping wax away from the ear with a washcloth after a shower almost completely cleans the outer one-third of the ear canal, where earwax is made. In the US between 1990 and 2010, an estimated 263,338 children went to hospital emergency rooms for cotton swab injuries, accounting for an estimated annual hospitalization of 13,167 children.


title: Cotton swab

text: Plastic cotton swabs are often incorrectly flushed down the toilet, increasing the risk of marine pollution. Some manufacturers and retailers have stopped the production and sale of plastic swabs and are only selling biodegradable paper versions.


title: Cotton swab

text: The European Union instated a ban on the use of plastic-stemmed cotton swabs in 2021. Italy had previously instated a ban in 2019 and Monaco in 2020. England, Scotland, Wales, and the Isle of Man each instated a ban between 2019 and 2021.


title: Aiguillette

text: An aiguillette (, from "aiguille", "needle"), also spelled ', ' or , is a cord with metal tips or lace tags, or the decorative tip itself.


title: Aiguillette

text: Functional or purely decorative fasteners of silk cord with metal tips were popular in the 16th and early 17th centuries, sometimes of gold set with gemstones or enameled, are generally called "aiglets", "aglets" or "points".


title: Aiguillette

text: In modern usage, an "aiguillette" is an ornamental braided cord with decorative metal tips worn on uniforms or as part of other costumes such as academic dress, where it will denote an honour. This usage of "aiguillette" derives from lacing used to fasten plate armor together. As such, a knot or loop arrangement was used which sometimes hung from the shoulder.


title: Aiguillette

text: These aiguillettes should not be confused with lanyards, which are cords also worn from the shoulder (or around the neck), but do not have the pointed aiguillette tips and are usually of fibre rather than gold or silver wire, and often not braided.


title: Aiguillette

text: Portraits of the 16th and 17th centuries show that aiglets or metal tips could be functional or purely decorative, though many were used to "close" seams and slashes that are not always apparent on dark garments in portraits. They were made in matched sets, might be of silver, silver-gilt, or gold, and were worn in masses.


title: Aiguillette

text: A 1547 inventory of Henry VIII of England's wardrobe includes one coat with 12 pairs of aiglets, and 11 gowns with a total of 367 pairs. The "Day Book of the Wardrobe of Robes" of Elizabeth I records items received into storage, including details of buttons and aiglets lost from the Queen's clothing. This entry suggests the huge numbers of matching aiglets fashionable forty years later:


title: Aiguillette

text: Lost the 2 of February ... [1582] 1 bunsh of small gold tagges or aglettes from a gowne of black satten at Sittingbourne parcell [part] of uppon the same gowne 193 bunshes


title: Aiguillette

text: Elizabeth's aiglets were variously enameled with white, red, black, blue, and purple details or set with diamonds, garnets, rubies and pearls. In Scotland, they were known as "horns", Mary, Queen of Scots had pairs of gold horns enamelled in red and white and set with pearls. Those of Anne of Denmark in the early years of the 17th century were larger, shaped in triangles and pyramids. One set of 24 were made three-sided, with "27 diamonds in the sides and one in the top", for a total of 642 diamonds in the set.


title: Aiguillette

text: The modern aiguillette derives from the laces used to secure plates of armor together—the breast- and back-plates would be attached on one side with short loops of cord acting as a hinge, and on the other by a longer and more ornate tied one, to support the arm defences. The ensuing knots would hang down the shoulder. (As with combat boots, the longer the lace, the less the need to undo the entire lace.) As armour became more ornamental and less practical, so too did the ties. This would also explain the aiguillettes of varying levels of complexity in the uniforms of the Household Cavalry (see picture above), as opposed to other "unarmored" troops.


title: Aiguillette

text: A version that says that aiguillettes originated in aides-de-camp and adjutants wearing a pencil at the end of a cord hanging from the shoulder has no historical base.


title: Aiguillette

text: Aiguillettes are worn on the right shoulder by armed forces officers serving in specific positions, such as aide-de-camp to the President, the Minister of Defense, each service's chief of staff and unit commanding officers, and by military attachés to Argentinian embassies abroad. The color of the aiguillette may be golden, silver or tan, depending the nature of the assignment.


title: Aiguillette

text: Olive green aiguillettes are worn with the combat uniform in very special circumstances, such as ceremonies and inspections. Otherwise, aiguillettes are not worn with the combat uniform. A special red aiguillette is worn by the adjutants to the commanding officers of the Horse Grenadiers Regiment (the presidential guard) and the Military Academy. Also, a red aiguillette is worn on the left shoulder by the senior NCO of each Army unit. A thinner, yellow aiguillette is worn on the right shoulder by NCOs who have completed the instructor course.


title: Aiguillette

text: Aiguillettes distinguish officers of Flag, General and Air rank in specific command appointments, military attachés and aides-de-camp. Most senior officers and aides-de-camp to the Governor-General or state governors wear the aiguillette on the right shoulder, whilst military attachés and staff aides-de-camp wear the aiguillette on the left. Royal aiguillettes are of plain gold, naval aiguillettes are of blue and gold, army aiguillettes are of red and gold, air force aiguillettes of light blue and gold.


title: Aiguillette

text: The Governor-General of Australia, as the Commander in Chief of the Australian Defence Force, is entitled to wear a uniform on which an aiguillette made of platinum is worn.


title: Aiguillette

text: Aiguillettes with shoulder boards are worn by military aides-de-camp to the Governor General. The aiguillette is gold with brass tags and worn on the right shoulder. Aides-de-camp to the provincial lieutenant governors wear the same gold-pattern aiguillette on the right shoulder, but do not wear shoulder boards. Aiguillettes are worn on the left shoulder by aides-de-camp to generals, flag officers and diplomats. Aides-de-camp assigned to the Sovereign or officers holding a royal appointment wear the aiguillette on the right shoulder. Obsolete-style gold-braid aiguillettes mixed with army crimson, navy blue, or air force blue may also still be worn by aides-de-camp to lieutenant governors, flag and general officers and diplomats who still have them.


title: Aiguillette

text: The aiguillettes are worn only with the dress uniform. There are several types of aiguillettes in the French military:


title: Aiguillette

text: Aiguillettes should not be confused with "fourragères", which can be worn in the same way on the left shoulder in parade dress.


title: Aiguillette

text: In Ghana, aiguillettes form part of the ceremonial uniforms of commissioned officers in the army and other security services including the police, prisons service, fire service, and customs and immigration. Senior police officers wear white aiguillettes with dark-blue uniforms, prison officers also wear yellow aiguillettes over the official ceremonial number one uniform while customs and immigration officials wear red aiguillettes with olive-green outfits. When worn, the aiguillettes denote on-duty status.


title: Aiguillette

text: Aiguillettes are worn by the aides-de-camp to the President and Taoiseach. The President's ADC wears it on the right shoulder, the Taoiseach's ADC on the left.


title: Aiguillette

text: Gold aiguillettes are also worn by officers in the Defence Forces with their mess dress uniform. They are worn on the left hand shoulder.


title: Aiguillette

text: In the Israeli Police, policemen mainly wear a black aiguillette, and Israeli Border Police policemen wear a dark green aiguillette.


title: Aiguillette

text: Aiguillettes are worn by honor guard personnel. A single silver aiguillette is worn on enlisted cut uniforms of minor detachments. A single gold aiguillette is worn on officer cut uniforms of minor detachments. A double gold aiguillette is worn on officer cut uniforms of major detachments. All personnel of major detachments wear officer cut uniforms. Demobilized soldiers also often decorate their uniforms with makeshift aiguillettes.


title: Aiguillette

text: Aiguillettes are worn on the right shoulder by officers of certain appointments only. They include the:


title: Aiguillette

text: Aiguillettes are also worn on the left shoulder by musicians of the Singapore Armed Forces Band and the Singapore Police Force Band.


title: Aiguillette

text: Musicians of the Singapore Armed Forces Band wears a red and gold aiguillette while Director of Musics of the Singapore Armed Forces Band wear a full gold aiguillette.


title: Aiguillette

text: Student musicians from both the National Cadet Corps Command Band and National Police Cadet Corps Band similarly wear aiguillettes mirroring the respective parent bodies.


title: Aiguillette

text: In Singapore, ADCs who are officers of the Singapore Armed Forces and the Singapore Civil Defence Force wear gold aiguillettes and police officers wear silver aiguillettes. Singapore Armed Forces ADCs wear a gold braid lanyard in lieu of an aiguillette when in No.3 and No.5(T).


title: Aiguillette

text: In Sri Lanka, full aiguillettes are worn by members of the personal staff of the President of Sri Lanka and General officers, flag officers and air officers, while half aiguillettes are worn by the Colonels and Lieutenant Colonels in ceremonial uniforms.


title: Aiguillette

text: In the Sri Lanka Police, the Inspector General of Police, wear gold aiguillettes on the right shoulder, while Senior gazetted police officers wear black aiguillettes on the left shoulder in both formal and ceremonial dress.


title: Aiguillette

text: The Swedish Defense Forces uses three types of aiguillettes. All aiguillettes come in gold or silver braid depending on the regiment of the wearer, Royal Guard regiments use silver due to historical reasons, all others gold.


title: Aiguillette

text: In Sweden there is a distinction between the aiguillettes mentioned above, and other cords used on uniforms in the Royal Swedish Navy and the Swedish Air Force.


title: Aiguillette

text: The aiguillette is worn on the right shoulder by military aides to the President and the Vice President. It is worn on the left shoulder by military assistants to the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Homeland Security, aides to the Service Secretaries (Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy & Secretary of the Air Force), aide to the NOAA Administrator, military attachés, General Staff Corps officers, and aides to flag officers. The cord colors are gold for the Army and silver for the Air Force, gold and blue for the Coast Guard, Navy and NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps, with one braid "per star" of the Flag Officer (one for RDML, two for RADM, three for VADM and four for ADM), and gold and red for the Marines, with the number of braids corresponding to the rank of the General Officer similar to the Navy use. The gold cord aiguillette is worn by the directors of the United States Marine Band, while the enlisted personnel wear aiguillettes of white cord.


title: Aiguillette

text: A red aiguillette is worn on the left shoulder by United States Navy Recruit Division commanders, whereas a blue aiguillette is worn by Recruit Division commanders in training. Recruit Division commanders wearing these are referred colloquially as "red ropes" and "blue ropes" respectively. The U.S. Navy Ceremonial Guard in Washington, D.C. wears a blue aiguillette on summer white uniforms and a white one on winter blue uniforms. From 1983 until the issue of the campaign hat, Women Marine Drill Instructors wore a red aiguillette similar to the Navy.


title: Aiguillette

text: A blue aiguillette is worn on the left shoulder by military training leaders at technical training bases. Student airmen leaders at technical training bases (sometimes called "ropes" in reference to the aiguillette) also wear aiguillettes, with green representing the lowest level of student leadership, yellow representing the intermediate level of student leadership, and red representing the highest level of student leadership. Students wearing a white rope are commonly referred to as chapel guides, and are charged with providing social or moral support to their fellow airmen. Airmen who wear the black rope are experts in drill, choir, or ceremonies, and pride themselves on appearance and uniform wear. Airmen who wear a blue and white rope are members of the drum & bugle corps for their base. In the United States Air Force, honor guard members wear a silver aiguillette on the left shoulder.


title: Aiguillette

text: The aiguillette should not be confused with the fourragère, which is worn by soldiers and Marines who are assigned to units that were awarded certain decorations by the French and Belgian governments for valorous conduct in the First and Second World Wars.


title: Aiguillette

text: Nor should it be confused with the Schützenschnur, a multi-weapon marksmanship decoration awarded by Germany to qualifying soldiers of NATO countries serving in Germany.


title: Aiguillette

text: A similar, albeit thicker, device, the Infantry Blue Cord, is worn on the right shoulder by all enlisted soldiers and officers in the United States Army whose primary military occupational speciality is infantry.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: Jack Raymond Clarke (born 23 November 2000) is an English professional footballer who plays as a winger for Sunderland. He can also play as a striker. He represented England U20s at international level.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: After winning his division with under-8s junior side Heworth, Clarke joined Leeds United's academy in 2009, alongside Kane Rogerson and Niall Huggins. He graduated through their academy and, together with Huggins, signed a two-year scholarship with Leeds United in May 2017. After impressing for Leeds' under 23s, then head coach Thomas Christiansen revealed he was going to put Clarke in his first team squad for an EFL Cup fixture against Leicester City in November 2017. However, due to the club's not having a professional contract with him at the time, Christiansen did not want to alert other clubs. After interest from Premier League side Manchester City, on 24 November 2017 Clarke signed a professional contract at Leeds United.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: For the 2018–19 season Clarke was given the number 47 shirt and made his professional debut on 6 October 2018, coming on as a substitute in Leeds' 1–1 draw against Brentford at Elland Road. He scored his first goal for the club in the 56th minute of the league tie against Aston Villa at Villa Park on 23 December 2018, having come on as a half-time substitute for Jack Harrison. He made his first career start in the FA Cup third-round game against Queens Park Rangers, playing all 90 minutes in a 2–1 defeat. Clarke made his first league start for Leeds in a 2–0 win against Derby County on 11 January 2019, and received plaudits in the same match after assisting both goals and winning the man of the match award. During the second half of Leeds' 1–1 league tie at Middlesbrough on 9 February 2019, Clarke, who had been substituted at half-time, was stretchered off the substitutes bench in the second half and taken to hospital after collapsing. The ensuing 12 minutes of added time yielded the visitors' equaliser courtesy of Kalvin Phillips and Clarke was kept under supervision at James Cook University Hospital until the following day. After a spell out recovering with a virus believed to be behind the health scare, Marcelo Bielsa revealed that Clarke would return to training on 4 March. He returned to the first team on 16 March as a 77th-minute replacement for Luke Ayling and went on to make seven further appearances that season, albeit none of them as part of the starting lineup. He was one of three players nominated for the club's end of season awards for Young Player Of The Season alongside Tyler Roberts and Jamie Shackleton, with Clarke winning the award on 28 April 2019, at the club's annual ceremony. During the 2018–19 season, Clarke played 25 games in all competitions, scoring two goals, after Leeds finished the regular season in third place having dropped out of the automatic promotion places with three games left following a defeat to 10-man Wigan on 19 April. Leeds qualified for the playoffs versus sixth-placed Derby County, with Clarke coming on as a second-half substitute in the first leg of the playoffs (a 1–0 away win at Pride Park), and playing as a second-half substitute in the return leg as Leeds lost 2–4 in an encounter that saw Leeds down to 10 men after Gaetano Berardi was red-carded, the loss seeing Derby progress 4–3 on aggregate to the final against Aston Villa.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: On 2 July 2019, Clarke signed for Premier League side Tottenham Hotspur for an undisclosed fee until 2023. The fee was believed to be in the region of £10 million, with further add ons.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: As part of the deal taking him to Tottenham, on the same day, Clarke re-joined Leeds on loan for the entirety of the 2019–20 season. He made his second debut for the club on 13 August in the EFL Cup against Salford City, and featured in the second round against Stoke City.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: Clarke eventually made his first league appearance of the season on 23 November at Kenilworth Road, when he came on as a 71st-minute substitute in Leeds' 2–1 win against Luton Town for Tyler Roberts. On 27 December, Clarke's loan to Leeds was terminated early after he was recalled by parent club Tottenham by new manager José Mourinho, due to a lack of playing time at Elland Road, having made only three appearances during his brief return to the Whites. Leeds' manager Marcelo Bielsa commented, "I am very grateful with Clarke. He made his contribution in this part of the season, even if I didn't use him. In the last days, he improved his performance, but just when this process was going on Tottenham decided to ask Leeds for Clarke to come back."


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: He signed for Queens Park Rangers on a six-month loan deal on 16 January 2020 and made his debut for QPR two days later, coming on as a substitute against his former club Leeds in a match that ended in a 1–0 win for the Londoners.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: Clarke made his debut for Tottenham on 22 October 2020, coming off the bench as an 86th-minute substitute for Carlos Vinícius in the Europa League against LASK.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: On 14 January 2021 Clarke joined Stoke City on loan until the end of the 2020–21 season. Clarke played 14 times for Stoke before he suffered a season-ending achilles injury at the start of April.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: On 9 July 2022, he joined Sunderland on a permanent transfer for an undisclosed fee on a four-year deal.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: On 30 August 2019, Clarke received his first international call up as a member of the England U20s squad.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: He made his England U20s debut on 5 September 2019 in a 0-0 draw against Netherlands U20s. Clarke scored his first goal for the U20s with the late winner during a 1–0 victory in Switzerland on 9 September 2019.


title: Jack Clarke (footballer, born 2000)

text: Clarke is a versatile forward, who can play as a winger on either side. He can also play as a striker. He is known for his pace and his dribbling skills, as well as his ability to run at opposition defenders and take them on.


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Copper(II) chloride is the chemical compound with the chemical formula CuCl. The anhydrous form is yellowish brown but slowly absorbs moisture to form a blue-green dihydrate.


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Both the anhydrous and the dihydrate forms occur naturally as the very rare minerals tolbachite and eriochalcite, respectively.


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Anhydrous CuCl adopts a distorted cadmium iodide structure. In this motif, the copper centers are octahedral. Most copper(II) compounds exhibit distortions from idealized octahedral geometry due to the Jahn-Teller effect, which in this case describes the localization of one d-electron into a molecular orbital that is strongly antibonding with respect to a pair of chloride ligands. In CuCl·2HO, the copper again adopts a highly distorted octahedral geometry, the Cu(II) centers being surrounded by two water ligands and four chloride ligands, which bridge asymmetrically to other Cu centers.


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Copper(II) chloride is paramagnetic. Of historical interest, CuCl·2HO was used in the first electron paramagnetic resonance measurements by Yevgeny Zavoisky in 1944.


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Aqueous solution prepared from copper(II) chloride contain a range of copper(II) complexes depending on concentration, temperature, and the presence of additional chloride ions. These species include blue color of [Cu(HO)] and yellow or red color of the halide complexes of the formula [CuCl].


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Copper(II) chloride is a mild oxidant. It decomposes to copper(I) chloride and chlorine gas near 1000 °C:


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Copper(II) chloride (CuCl) reacts with several metals to produce copper metal or copper(I) chloride (CuCl) with oxidation of the other metal. To convert copper(II) chloride to copper(I) chloride, it can be convenient to reduce an aqueous solution with sulfur dioxide as the reductant:


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: CuCl reacts with HCl or other chloride sources to form complex ions: the red CuCl (it is a dimer in reality, CuCl, a couple of tetrahedrons that share an edge), and the green or yellow CuCl.


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Some of these complexes can be crystallized from aqueous solution, and they adopt a wide variety of structures.


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Copper(II) chloride also forms a variety of coordination complexes with ligands such as ammonia, pyridine and triphenylphosphine oxide:


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: However "soft" ligands such as phosphines (e.g., triphenylphosphine), iodide, and cyanide as well as some tertiary amines induce reduction to give copper(I) complexes.


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Copper(II) chloride is prepared commercially by the action of chlorination of copper. Copper at red heat (300-400°C) combines directly with chlorine gas, giving (molten) copper (II) chloride. The reaction is very exothermic.


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: It is also commercially practical to combine copper(II) oxide with an excess of ammonium chloride at similar temperatures, producing copper chloride, ammonia, and water:


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Although copper metal itself cannot be oxidised by hydrochloric acid, copper-containing bases such as the hydroxide, oxide, or copper(II) carbonate can react to form CuCl in an acid-base reaction.


title: Copper(II) chloride

text: Once prepared, a solution of CuCl may be purified by crystallization. A standard method takes the solution mixed in hot dilute hydrochloric acid, and causes the crystals to form by cooling in a Calcium chloride (CaCl)-ice bath.