title: 2021–22 Coppa Italia

text: The round of 16 matches were played between the eight winners from the second round and clubs seeded 1–8 in 2020–21 Serie A.


title: Al Bowlly

text: Albert Allick Bowlly (7 January 1898 – 17 April 1941) was a Mozambican-born South African–British vocalist and jazz guitarist, who was popular during the 1930s in Britain. He recorded more than 1,000 songs.


title: Al Bowlly

text: His most popular songs include "Midnight, the Stars and You", "Goodnight, Sweetheart", "Close Your Eyes", "The Very Thought of You", "Guilty", "Heartaches" and "Love Is the Sweetest Thing". He also recorded the only English version of "Dark Eyes" by Adalgiso Ferraris, as "Black Eyes", with the words of Albert Mellor.


title: Al Bowlly

text: He was born in 1898 in Lourenço Marques (today Maputo) in the Portuguese colony of Mozambique. His father, Alick Pauli was Greek by nationality. By religion he was Greek Orthodox. While Al's mother, born Miriam Ayoub-NeeJame, was Lebanese and Catholic by religion. They met en route to Australia and moved to South Africa. Bowlly was brought up in Johannesburg.


title: Al Bowlly

text: After a series of odd jobs in South Africa, including barber and jockey, he sang in a dance band led by Edgar Adeler on a tour of South Africa, Rhodesia, India and the Dutch East Indies during the mid-1920s. He was fired from the band in Soerabaja, Dutch East Indies.


title: Al Bowlly

text: Jimmy Liquime hired him to sing with the band in India and Singapore. In 1927 Bowlly made his first record, a cover version of "Blue Skies" by Irving Berlin that was recorded with Adeler in Berlin, Germany. During the next year, he worked in London, with the orchestra of Fred Elizalde.


title: Al Bowlly

text: The onset of the Great Depression in 1929 resulted in Bowlly losing his job; he returned to several months of busking to survive. In the 1930s, he signed two contracts – one in May 1931 with Roy Fox, singing in his live band for the Monseigneur Restaurant, a stylish restaurant on Piccadilly in London, the other a record contract with bandleader Ray Noble in November 1930.


title: Al Bowlly

text: During the next four years, he recorded over 500 songs. By 1933, Lew Stone had ousted Fox as the Monseigneur's bandleader and Bowlly was singing Stone's arrangements with Stone's band. After much radio exposure and a successful British tour with Stone, Bowlly was inundated with demands for appearances and gigs – including undertaking a solo British tour – but continued to make most of his recordings with Noble. There was considerable competition between Noble and Stone for Bowlly's time. For much of the year, Bowlly spent the day in the recording studio with Noble's band, rehearsing and recording, then the evening with Stone's band at the Monseigneur. Many of these recordings with Noble were issued in the United States by Victor, which meant that by the time Noble and Bowlly came to America, their reputation had preceded them.


title: Al Bowlly

text: Bowlly performed in England with his band, the Radio City Rhythm Makers. By 1937, the band had broken up when vocal problems were traced to a wart in his throat, briefly causing him to lose his voice. Separated from his wife and with his band dissolved, he borrowed money from friends and travelled to New York City for surgery.


title: Al Bowlly

text: His absence from the UK in the early 1930s damaged his popularity with British audiences, despite his association with pianist Monia Liter as his accompanist. His career began to suffer as a result of problems with his voice, which affected the frequency of his recordings. He played a few small parts in films, but the parts were often cut and scenes that were shown were brief. Noble was offered a role in Hollywood, although the offer excluded Bowlly because a singer had already been hired. Bowlly moved back to London with his wife Marjie in January 1937.


title: Al Bowlly

text: With diminished success in Britain, he toured regional theatres and recorded as often as possible to make a living, moving from orchestra to orchestra, working with Sydney Lipton, Geraldo and Ken "Snakehips" Johnson. In 1940, there was a revival of interest in his career when he worked in a duo with Jimmy Messene in "Radio Stars with Two Guitars" on the London stage. It was his last venture before his death in April 1941. The partnership was uneasy; Messene was an alcoholic and he was occasionally unable to perform. Bowlly recorded his last song two weeks before his death. It was a duet with Messene of Irving Berlin's satirical song about Hitler, "When That Man Is Dead and Gone".


title: Al Bowlly

text: In December 1931, Bowlly married Constance Freda Roberts (died 1934) in St Martin's Register Office, London; the couple separated after a fortnight and sought a divorce. He remarried in December 1934 to Marjie Fairless; this marriage lasted until his death.


title: Al Bowlly

text: On 16 April 1941, Bowlly and Messene had given a performance at the Rex Cinema in Oxford Street, High Wycombe. Both were offered an overnight stay in town, but Bowlly took the last train home to his flat at 32 Duke Street, Duke's Court, St James, London. He was killed by a Luftwaffe parachute mine that detonated outside his flat at ten past three in the morning. His body appeared unmarked. Although the explosion had not disfigured him, it had blown his bedroom door off its hinges, and the impact against his head was fatal. He was buried with other bombing victims in a mass grave at Hanwell Cemetery, Uxbridge Road, Hanwell, where his name is given as Albert Alex Bowlly.


title: Al Bowlly

text: A blue plaque commemorating Bowlly was installed in November 2013 by English Heritage at Charing Cross Mansion, 26 Charing Cross Road, described as "his home at the pinnacle of his career".


title: Al Bowlly

text: Al Bowlly's cover songs have been widely included in other forms of media. One musician noted the public's opinion that if Bowlly did not die in the war, he would have been "bigger than Bing Crosby," and that "he had a better voice."


title: Al Bowlly

text: He was mentioned and his songs were used throughout the first few seasons of the British comedy TV show "Goodnight Sweetheart".


title: Al Bowlly

text: Bowlly's rendition of "Midnight, the Stars and You" has been particularly used and referenced throughout varied films, appearing in "The Shining", "Toy Story 4", and "Ready Player One". Some commentators specifically highlight its use in "The Shining"s ending scene, with "HeadStuff"s Luka Vukos calling it "haunting" and "Screen Rant" praising it as "one of the most unforgettable final shots in movie history." The song has also been used in the 2013 video game "" and sampled by musician Leyland Kirby on the Caretaker's "Shining"-inspired album "Selected Memories from the Haunted Ballroom".


title: Al Bowlly

text: From 2016 to 2019, Al Bowlly's cover of "Heartaches" would be sampled multiple times on the Caretaker's series of albums named "Everywhere at the End of Time". Along with other big band songs, Kirby applied distortion and reverb effects to "Heartaches" as the series progressed to explore the advancement of Alzheimer's disease through six stages. Most notably, the song was sampled on "Stage 1"s opening track "It's Just a Burning Memory", which takes its title from the song's lyrics.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: Lunenburg is a port town on the South Shore of Nova Scotia, Canada. Founded in 1753, the town was one of the first British attempts to settle Protestants in Nova Scotia.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: The economy was traditionally based on the offshore fishery and today Lunenburg is the site of Canada's largest secondary fish-processing plant. The town flourished in the late 1800s, and much of the historic architecture dates from that period.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: In 1995 UNESCO designated it a World Heritage Site. UNESCO considers the site the best example of planned British colonial settlement in North America, as it retains its original layout and appearance of the 1800s, including local wooden vernacular architecture. UNESCO considers the town in need of protection because the future of its traditional economic underpinnings, the Atlantic fishery, is now very uncertain.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: Lunenburg was named in 1753 after the Duke of Braunschweig-Lüneburg who had become King George II of Great Britain. The Acadian inhabitants of the site had called it Mirliguèche, a French spelling of a Mi'kmaq name of uncertain meaning. An earlier Mi'kmaq name was āseedĭk, meaning clam-land.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: The Mi'kmaq lived in a territory from the present site of Lunenburg to Mahone Bay. As many as 300 inhabited the site in the warm summer months. French colonists, who became known as Acadians, settled in the area around the 1620s. The Acadians and Mi’kmaq co-existed peacefully and some intermarried, creating networks of trade and kinship. In 1688, 10 Acadians and 11 Mi’kmaq were resident with dwellings and a small area of cultivated land. By 1745 there were eight families.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: When Edward Cornwallis, newly appointed Governor of Nova Scotia, visited in 1749, he reported several Mi’kmaq and Acadian families living together at Mirliguèche in comfortable houses and said they "appeared to be doing well."


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: Britain and France carried their military conflicts in Europe in the 1700s to the New World. Under the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, France ceded the part of Acadia today known as peninsular Nova Scotia to Britain. To guard against Mi'kmaq, Acadian and French colonial attacks, the British erected Fort George in 1749 at Citadel Hill Halifax and founded the town of Halifax.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: The British sought to settle the lands with loyal subjects, and recruited more than 1,400 Foreign Protestants, mostly artisans and farmers, from Europe in July 1753 to populate the site. The British had failed to provide promised land in Halifax to many of these settlers and they had become frustrated, causing problems for the British. The resettlement thus served the additional purpose of removing many of the Foreign Protestants from Halifax. Led by Charles Lawrence, the settlers were accompanied by about 160 soldiers. They assembled prefabricated blockhouses and constructed a palisade along the neck of land where the village was laid out. The settlers spent the summer building shelters for the winter and, not having been able to conduct any fishing or farming, had to be provisioned from Halifax. When the settlers became dissatisfied with the distribution of provisions and due to general distrust and frustration from mistreatment by the British, they rose in armed rebellion in The Lunenburg Rebellion and briefly declared a republic, only to be put down by troops led by Colonel Robert Monckton. Others defected to the Acadian side. In 1754 the town had a sawmill and a store.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: In 1755, after the expulsion of the Acadians, the British needed to repopulate vacated lands. It offered generous land grants to colonists from New England, which was experiencing a severe shortage in land. Today these immigrants are referred to as the New England Planters. Lunenburg was raided in 1756 by a mixed group of Mi'kmaq and Maliseet raiders, devastating the town. The attacks continued on the British with the Lunenburg Campaign of 1758. Hostilities with Mi'kmaq ended around 1760.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: During the American Revolution, privateers from the rebelling colonies raided Lunenburg, including the 1782 raid, devastating the town once again. The town was fortified at the beginning of the War of 1812. The British officials authorised the privateer "Lunenburg," operated by Lunenburg residents, to raid American shipping.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: Over the following years, port activities transitioned from coastal trade and local mixed fisheries, to offshore fisheries. During the Prohibition in the United States between 1920 and 1933, Lunenburg was a base for rum-running to the US.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: The Lunenburg Cure was the term for a style of dried and salted cod that the city exported to markets in the Caribbean. Today a large hammered copper cod weather vane is mounted on the spire of St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: The Smith & Rhuland shipyard built many boats, including "Bluenose" (1921), "Flora Alberta" (1941), "Sherman Zwicker" (1942), "Bluenose II" (1963), "Bounty" (1961), and the replica HMS "Surprise" (1970). In 1967 the yard was taken over by Scotia Trawler Equipment Limited. After the end of World War II, shipbuilders switched from producing schooners to trawlers, aided by migrant labour from Newfoundland.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: Lunenburg is in a natural harbour at the western side of Mahone Bay, about southwest of Downtown Halifax.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: The area is built largely on Cambrian to Ordovician sedimentary deposits. The last glacial period transformed the landscape. Glaciers abraded and plucked at the bedrock during their advances across the country, creating various deposits that vary in thickness, including drumlins, which are a key feature of Lunenburg County.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: The coastline in the area is heavily indented, and the town is on an isthmus on the Fairhaven Peninsula, with harbours on both the front and back sides.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: The climate of Lunenburg is moderate, owing to its coastal location which helps to limit extremes in temperatures. This means it is slightly milder in winter and slightly cooler in summer than most areas at similar latitudes. Lunenburg enjoys warm, breezy summers with temperatures in the low to mid 20s °C (70s °F). It is seldom hot and humid. Winters are cold and frequently wet. Heavy winter snowfall can occur, but Lunenburg's snowpack is usually short lived due to frequent winter rains and regular freeze-thaw cycles. Thick fog and damp conditions can occur at any time of year, but especially in spring. Seasonal lag due to cooler ocean temperatures means that spring conditions arrive in Lunenburg late in the season, often not until mid May. On the whole, Lunenburg precipitation is high from November to May, with July, August and September enjoying the warmest and driest conditions. Fall is typically bright, clear and cool.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: The original planned town was built on a steep south-facing hillside. It was laid out with compact lots in a rectangular grid pattern of narrow streets without regard to the topography. It is now known as the Old Town, and is the part of town which is protected by UNESCO. It is also the site of the old harbour. About 40 buildings in this area are on the Canadian Register of Historic Places including:


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: In 2005 the province of Nova Scotia bought 17 waterfront buildings from Clearwater Foods, the owner of the High Liner Foods brand, to ensure their preservation. Ownership was transferred to the Lunenburg Waterfront Association. Shipbuilding infrastructure worth $1.5 million was added to the Lunenburg waterfront as part of the Bluenose II restoration project, which started in 2010.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: The Fisheries Museum of the Atlantic, part of the Nova Scotia Museum, includes a small fleet of vessels, including Bluenose II.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: Parts of the waterfront are still used by business. The shipyard ABCO Industries was founded in 1947 on the site of the World War II Norwegian military training facility Camp Norway, and now builds welded aluminum vessels. Lunenburg Shipyard is owned and operated by Lunenburg Industrial Foundry & Engineering. It offers a dry dock, manufacturing and machining, a carpentry shop, and a foundry capable of pouring 272 kg castings. There are wharves for commercial inshore fishing.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: In the 1800s Lunenburg prospered through shipping, trade, fishing, farming, shipbuilding, and outgrew its original boundaries. The town was extended into the east and west of the Old Town into what is now known as the New Town. This area includes about a dozen buildings on the Canadian Register of Historic Places.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: Government in Nova Scotia has only two tiers: provincial and municipal. The province is divided into 50 municipalities, of which Lunenburg is one. The town is also within Lunenburg County, which was created for court sessional purposes in the 1860s and today has no government of its own, but the borders of which are coincident with certain provincial and federal electoral districts such as the Lunenburg Provincial Electoral District, and census districts. The county also covers the same terrain as the Municipality of the District of Lunenburg which surrounds, but does not include, Bridgewater, Lunenburg, and Mahone Bay, as they are incorporated separately and not part of the district municipality.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: According to the 2016 census the most common National Occupational Classification was sales and services, with 24 per cent of jobs. By the North American Industry Classification System about half of all jobs were in health care and social assistance, accommodation and food services, manufacturing, and retail. High Liner Foods runs Canada's largest secondary fish-processing plant in the town.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: The town's architecture and picturesque location make it attractive to the film industry. The dramatic and climactic wedding scenes of the award winning Canadian movie "Cloudburst" starring Olympia Dukakis were filmed in Lunenburg. Other films set in New England and filmed partly in Lunenburg include "The Covenant" and "Dolores Claiborne". The 2010 Japanese movie "Hanamizuki" was partly set and filmed in Lunenburg and the science fiction television show "Haven" was partly filmed there though it is set in the United States. The 2012 film "The Disappeared", the 2020 television series "Locke & Key", and the fourth season of the 2017 television series "The Sinner" were filmed in Lunenburg.""


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Lunenburg had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.


title: Lunenburg, Nova Scotia

text: In 2016, the majority of the population is English-speaking Canadian Protestants. At 58, the median age is higher than the provincial median of 46. Household incomes are similar to provincial averages.


title: Shin-ichiro Miki

text: Miki is known for his distinctively smooth voice and often calm delivery in the roles he has landed. He often gets cast as handsome young men in anime, perhaps the most notable being Youji Kudou – Balinese ("Weiß Kreuz") and Kojirō ("James") ("Pokémon"). Other famous roles include Takumi Fujiwara ("Initial D" anime, video game and mostly "Arcade Stage" series from "Arcade Stage 4" to "Arcade Stage 8 Infinity"), Kisuke Urahara ("Bleach"), Akira Yuki ("Virtua Fighter"), Lockon Stratos ("Mobile Suit Gundam 00"), Tatsuma Sakamoto ("Gintama"), Teppei Iwaki ("Area no Kishi"), Aikurō Mikisugi ("Kill la Kill"), (""), Kagetora Aida ("Kuroko's Basketball"), Roy Mustang (""), Zamasu ("Dragon Ball Super"), Bob Makihara ("Tenejō Tenge"), Keisuke Yuuki ("Fushigi Yuugi") and Deishū Kaiki ("Monogatari Series")


title: Shin-ichiro Miki

text: Miki is also a singer among the four-man band Weiß, along with Takehito Koyasu, Tomokazu Seki and Hiro Yūki, the four main voice actors of "Weiß Kreuz". Miki is also very active in BL dramas. He won Best Actor in supporting roles in the 4th Seiyu Awards.


title: Shin-ichiro Miki

text: As well as voicing Kojirō, Miki (alongside Mika Kanai, Satomi Kōrogi, Unshō Ishizuka and many other Japanese voice actors) also appears in the Japanese and English language versions of "Pokémon", where he voiced many of the titular creatures such as Misty's Staryu, Brock's Zubat/Golbat/Crobat and Ash's Charizard.


title: Rover 75

text: The Rover 75 is an executive car manufactured initially by the Rover Group and later by MG Rover, under the Rover marque and available over a single generation with front-wheel drive in either saloon/sedan or station wagon/estate configurations. Later variants included an extended-wheelbase model, and a rear-wheel drive variant with a V8 engine. In 2001, MG Rover launched a badge engineered variant, the MG ZT. A coupe concept was built, but did not receive further development.


title: Rover 75

text: Rover 75s were manufactured by the Rover Group at Cowley, Oxfordshire, for one year. After owner BMW sold Rover, the 75 was manufactured by the new MG Rover Group at their Longbridge site in Birmingham.


title: Rover 75

text: The Rover 75 debuted at the Birmingham Motor Show, with deliveries commencing in February 1999. As the last Rover executive sedan/saloon, production of all models ended in 2005 when MG Rover Group entered receivership.


title: Rover 75

text: The Rover 75 started life as part of a group of three new designs for the company under the guidance of Richard Woolley; a large saloon codenamed "Flagship", a smaller vehicle (with the codename of "Eric"), and the 75. Of these only the 75 concept progressed. The initial aim was to reskin the Rover 600 (launched in April 1993) but following the BMW takeover in 1994, it was quickly decided that this platform would not be reused but replaced by an entirely new model, scheduled for launch in the late 1990s.


title: Rover 75

text: Work on the new model, codenamed "R40", progressed with little operational interference from BMW; the styling received an enthusiastic response from the management and both companies believed the classical look would be the ideal direction for Rover. Advanced design processes included 3D virtual reality assembly simulations.


title: Rover 75

text: The Rover 75 debuted at the Birmingham Motor Show on 20 October 1998 and went on sale until 17 June 1999 having been extensively tested by the motoring press.


title: Rover 75

text: The 75 featured a range of petrol and diesel engines from 1.8- to 2.5-litre sizes. Petrol engines provided were Rover's 4-cylinder K series in 1.8-litre guise and the quad cam KV6, offered in either short-stroke 2.0 or revised 2.5-litre formats. The 2.0-litre was later dropped on introduction of the 1.8-litre turbo for emissions purposes.


title: Rover 75

text: A diesel engine was provided through BMW Group channels. Engineered by Rover Group and Steyr engineers for transverse mounting, the 4-cylinder M47R (M47 Rail) differed from M47D20 engines found in the E46 3 Series and E39 5 Series by featuring a direct injection common-rail system, different turbocharger and more sophisticated systems for temperature management.


title: Rover 75

text: Transmissions on all models were either the Getrag 283 5-speed manual, supplied from the company's new facility in Bari, Italy, or the JATCO 5-speed automatic unit — one of the first transverse engine deployments made with this feature.


title: Rover 75

text: Disk brakes at all four wheels were augmented by a Bosch 5.7 4-channel ABS system and electronic brake force distribution. The parking brake was a cable operated drum integral within the rear discs.


title: Rover 75

text: Suspension was via front MacPherson struts, anchored by alloy lower L-arms and widely spaced mounting points. The rear suspension was a version of BMW's Z-Axle arrangement used on the 1988 Z1 sports car.


title: Rover 75

text: Assembly originally took place at Cowley but in 2000, following the sale of the company by BMW to Phoenix Venture Holdings, production was moved to Longbridge in Birmingham, England. 2001 saw the introduction of the Rover 75 Tourer (developed alongside the saloon but never authorised for production by BMW), swiftly followed by the MG ZT and MG ZT-T, more sporting interpretations of the model, differentiated by modified, sporting chassis settings and colour and trim derivatives. Between 2000 and 2003, there were few changes to the range: the most significant was the replacement of the 2-litre V6 engine by a low-pressure-turbocharged version of the 1.8-litre 4-cylinder engine. The introduction of the 'greener' 1.8-litre turbo greatly benefited British company car drivers who are taxed on carbon dioxide emissions. A customisation programme, "Monogram", was launched, allowing buyers to order their car in a wider range of exterior paint colours and finishes, different interior trims and with optional extras installed during production. Rather surprisingly, it was offered for sale in Mexico, making it the first Rover to be sold in the Americas since the Sterling.


title: Rover 75

text: From June 2002 a factory-approved dual-fuel petrol/liquid petroleum gas conversion was available in the UK on 1.8 and 2.5-litre models. The LPG conversion was an after-market undertaking approved by MG Rover. Developed by EcoGas Systems Ltd and Landi Renzo S.R.L. in conjunction with MG Rover Powertrain Limited, the conversion was ordered from Rover dealerships, the cars retaining the three-year factory warranty. The retail price of the conversion was £2,195, but in an effort to encourage LPG use for transport, for ecological reasons, the UK Government offered a Powershift Rebate of some 60% of the conversion cost. When running on LPG the Rover 75 suffers only a slight reduction in performance compared to running on petrol; LPG fuel consumption is also slightly higher than when running on petrol but this is more than offset by the greatly reduced cost of the fuel.


title: Rover 75

text: Rover released the station wagon/estate bodystyle of the 75, called Tourer, in July 2001. The tailgate featured an optional opening rear glass section. The load space was up to 1,480 mm wide and 2,060 mm long. With the seats up there was 400 to 680 litres of cargo space, and with the seats folded down (in a 60:40 ratio complete with centre load-through hatch) there is 1,222 litres available.


title: Rover 75

text: Self-levelling rear suspension and an integral load restraint system were optional for the Tourer. Up to 100 kg can be loaded onto the roof, and the rear sill has a height of 544 mm. Four hinged chrome lashing eyes are fitted to the floor, and oddment stowage compartments and two recessed hooks are located in the side walls.


title: Rover 75

text: A stretched version of the Rover 75 — initially called Vanden Plas (later simply "Limousine") was introduced in 2002. Developed in conjunction with vehicle builder S. MacNeillie & Son Limited in Walsall, England, the model was stretched by 200 mm in the rear floor pan and altering the rear doors. Available only in Connoisseur specification, production moved to Longbridge after an initial short run by MacNeillie.


title: Rover 75

text: The 75 was a ministerial car in the British Government, Tony Blair having access to one while he was Prime Minister. Alistair Darling was seen in a long wheelbase Rover 75.


title: Rover 75

text: Rover announced a V8 model at the Geneva Motor Show in 2004. This was the second iteration of the rear-wheel-drive platform developed from the front-wheel-drive Rover 75 platform by MG Rover, following the MG ZT 260 introduced in 2003, and was the first V8-engined Rover since the demise of the Rover SD1 in 1986. The platform was extensively re-engineered for Ford's 4.6 litre Modular V8 and rear-wheel-drive, including a stiffened tunnel and bespoke rear suspension.


title: Rover 75

text: As with the ZT 260, the 75 V8 was built on the standard production line, removed to allow the necessary structural modifications and installation of the V8 drivetrain, then returned to the line for final trim. Instead of the MG ZT 260's Tremec TR-3650 manual gearbox, the Rover 75 V8 featured Ford's 4R75W 4-speed automatic transmission. Other features included non-standard heating and ventilation, revised brakes and suspension, quad exhaust pipes, special badging, and a "premium" front bumper featuring a deeper grille. 166 were produced in both saloon and tourer body styles, compared with 717 MG ZT 260s, for a total of 883 V8 cars.


title: Rover 75

text: A heavily modified MG ZT-T V8, known as the X-15 broke the speed record for a non-production estate car on Bonneville Salt Flats in September 2003, achieving . The engine was bored out to 6 litres producing , but remained normally aspirated.


title: Rover 75

text: In the northern hemisphere spring of 2004, Rover introduced a facelifted 75 featuring an entirely new front grille and bumper with one-piece headlights with halogen projectors. The rear also featured a new bumper with a revised chrome boot handle. The "premium" grille usually reserved for V8 and long-wheelbase models, was also applied to the limited edition CDTi Sport model in Portugal. This version, with blacked-out trim and 17-inch alloy wheels, was otherwise a Connoisseur SE spec, celebrating Rover's centenary in Portugal.


title: Rover 75

text: Classic SE, Club and Club SE trim levels were dropped, and on Connoisseur trim light oak wood took the place of the original walnut, which remained standard fitment on the entry-level Classic trim. Rover also added a new trim to the range called Contemporary which featured revised fittings such as larger alloy wheels, body colour exterior accents, black oak wood trim and sports seats as well as an altered equipment. The instrumentation and its back-lighting were revised, the console texture finish was revised and the seat bolsters revised. Access to the rear seats was improved and leg-room increased.


title: Rover 75

text: The Rover 75 (and MG ZT derivative) were powered by a combination of Rover's own petrol and LPG K-Series and KV6 engines as well as Ford's Modular V8 and BMW's M47 diesel engine. The latter was designated M47"R" to identify the unit as a Rover special.


title: Rover 75

text: Each engine fitted to the Rover and MG flagships were analysed and given a score between 0 (cleanest) to 100 (dirtiest) by Next Green Car.


title: Rover 75

text: The Rover 75 was designed with reinforced footwells, underfloor box beams, side impact bars and a "ring of steel" around each door opening to prevent jamming in case of an impact. Driver and front passenger head and side airbags are fitted as standard, with side head "windowbags" available as an option until 2005 when they became standard equipment. If the window airbags had been standard equipment at the time of its Euro NCAP crash test in 2001, it would have scored the full five stars for the adult occupant impact rating. Also fitted are disc brakes all round, anti-lock brakes (ABS), electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD) with a traction control system (TCS) available as an option on 2.0 engines and above. On models fitted with Rover's Hi-Line infotainment system, a speed warning indicator was also included. Additionally, electronic stability control (ESC) was due to be made standard fitment on the 75 from the 2006 model year onwards.


title: Rover 75

text: All seats have anti-submarine ramps and three-point inertia reel seat belts with pre-tensioners, while the front seats get additional load limiters and automatic belt height adjustment as standard. In certain markets a seat belt reminder for the driver was fitted. Each seat has an adjustable head restraint with the front ones pivoting on SE models. Thatcham's NCWR organisation (New Car Whiplash Ratings) tested the Rover 75 and awarded it the following scores:


title: Rover 75

text: A perimetric (and optional volumetric) alarm, engine immobiliser and remote-control central locking with deadbolts are standard equipment on the 75. Alloy wheels are fitted with locking wheel nuts. Automatic locking when driving off is standard, but can be disabled by a dealer. On the inside is a master locking switch and the boot can only be opened by remote control or an interior button. A battery back-up sounder and tracking device called Trackstar were available as options.


title: Rover 75

text: The 75 was tested by Thatcham's New Vehicle Security Ratings (NVSR) organisation and achieved the following ratings:


title: Rover 75

text: Initial sales of the Rover 75 failed to match the BMW 3 Series and Audi A4 in the British car sales charts during 1999. The public unveiling of the car at the Birmingham Motor Show drew favourable reactions, but was unfortunately overshadowed by a press conference afterwards by BMW chairman, Bernd Pischetsrieder, containing criticism of the UK Government's attitude to financial assistance in the redevelopment of the Rover Longbridge factory (where the new Mini and R30 were to have been produced), and effectively suggesting that Rover was in crisis. Press reaction interpreted this as saying that BMW were unhappy with continuing financial losses and were intending to close Rover down. This undoubtedly scared off many prospective buyers, despite the very positive reaction to the car itself. Indeed, it did (and still does) hold up very well with the Jaguar S-Type that was unveiled at the same show. Rover's brand image also hurt the 75 against competitors despite its positive reception.


title: Rover 75

text: Sales picked up substantially during 2000, and it was Britain's fifth-most popular new car in the month of April of that year. It was still selling reasonably well at the time of MG Rover's bankruptcy in April 2005, and a small number of unsold 75s were still in stock as of early-2007, as Nanjing Automobile was preparing to reopen Longbridge.


title: Rover 75

text: Based on the combination of safety, performance and maintainability, the Rover 75 was found in 2011 to be the cheapest car to insure in the United Kingdom across all age groups.


title: Rover 75

text: Production of the Rover 75 and MG ZT ended when MG Rover Group went into administration in April 2005. The Rover 75 design was purchased by Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (SAIC) in early 2005, although the new MG Rover Group owner, Nanjing Automobile Corporation (NAC) acquired the tooling for the car. Both companies launched revised versions of the 75/ZT in China. SAIC's model was named the Roewe 750 (following the purchase of the Rover brand by Ford, the Roewe marque was created by SAIC for use worldwide) and NAC's the MG 7.


title: Rover 75

text: The Roewe brand and Roewe 750 were launched at the Beijing Motor Show in November 2006. The 750 is based on the long-wheelbase 75 platform, and engineering was completed by Ricardo 2010.


title: Rover 75

text: Shortly before the collapse of Rover, Brilliance who had a deal with BMW like Rover was looking to expand their product line with a big saloon so they went to Rover to use the 75. As a demo, Rover exported 24 Brilliance B8s to China that were sold through dealerships although the cars were only meant to be prototypes. Because the deal never happened, they are still the only 24 Brilliance B8s.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: The Crown Heights riot was a race riot that took place from August 19 to August 21, 1991, in the Crown Heights section of Brooklyn, New York City. Black residents attacked orthodox Jewish residents, damaged their homes, and looted businesses. The riots began on August 19, 1991, after two children of Guyanese immigrants were accidentally struck by a car running a red light while following the motorcade of Rebbe Menachem Mendel Schneerson, the leader of Chabad, a Jewish religious movement. One child died and the second was severely injured.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: In the immediate aftermath of the fatal accident, Black youths attacked several Jews on the street, seriously injuring several and fatally injuring an Orthodox Jewish student from Australia. Over the next three days, the rioters looted stores and attacked Jewish homes. Two weeks after the riot, a non-Jewish man was killed by a group of Black men; some believed that the victim had been mistaken for a Jew. The riots were a major issue in the 1993 mayoral race, contributing to the defeat of Mayor David Dinkins, an African American. Opponents of Dinkins said that he failed to contain the riots, with many calling the riot a "pogrom" to emphasize what they said was the role of the New York City government in the riots.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Ultimately, Black and Jewish leaders developed an outreach program between their communities to help calm and possibly improve racial relations in Crown Heights over the next decade.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: At approximately 8:20 pm on Monday, August 19, 1991, Yosef Lifsh, 22, was driving a station wagon with three passengers west on President Street, part of the three-car motorcade of Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, leader of the Chabad Lubavitch Hasidic movement. The procession was led by an unmarked police car with two officers, with its rooftop light flashing.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: The police car and Schneerson's automobile crossed Utica Avenue on a green light and proceeded along President Street at a normal speed, but Lifsh's vehicle had fallen behind. Not wishing to lose sight of Schneerson's car, Lifsh crossed Utica Avenue on a red light. There was no indication of the exact speed of his vehicle. Lifsh's vehicle struck a car being driven on Utica Avenue, veered onto the sidewalk, knocked a 600-pound (275 kg) stone building pillar down and pinned two children against an iron grate covering the window of a first-floor apartment in a four-story brick building (). Seven-year-old Gavin Cato, the son of Guyanese immigrants, who was working on his bicycle chain while on the sidewalk near his apartment on President Street, died instantly. His seven-year-old cousin Angela Cato, who was playing nearby, survived but was severely injured.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Lifsh believed he had the right of way to proceed through the intersection because of the police escort. Lifsh said he deliberately steered his car away from adults on the sidewalk, toward the wall, a distance of about , in order to stop the car. Lifsh later said that the car did not come to a full stop when it hit the building, but slid to the left along the wall and hit the children.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Accounts differ as to the next sequence of events. After the collision, Lifsh said that the first thing he did was to try to lift the car in order to free the two children beneath it. Members of the EMS unit, who arrived on the scene about three minutes after the accident, said that Lifsh was being beaten and pulled out of the station wagon by three or four men. A volunteer ambulance from the Hatzolah ambulance corps arrived on the scene at about 8:23 pm, followed by police and a City ambulance. The latter took Gavin Cato to Kings County Hospital, arriving at 8:32 pm; Cato was pronounced dead shortly thereafter. Volunteers from a second Hatzolah ambulance helped Angela Cato, until a second City ambulance arrived and took her to the same hospital.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Two attending police officers, as well as a technician from the City ambulance, directed the Hatzolah driver to remove Lifsh from the scene for his safety, while Gavin Cato was being removed from beneath the station wagon. According to "The New York Times", more than 250 neighborhood residents, mostly black teenagers, many of whom were shouting "Jews! Jews! Jews!", jeered the driver of the car and turned their anger on the police.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Some members of the community were outraged because Lifsh was taken from the scene by a private ambulance service while city emergency workers were still trying to free the children who were pinned under the car. Some believed that Gavin Cato died because the Hatzolah ambulance crew was unwilling to help non-Jews. There was a rumor at the time that Lifsh was intoxicated. A breath alcohol test administered by police within 70 minutes of the accident indicated this was not the case. Other rumors circulating shortly after the accident included: Lifsh was on a cell phone, Lifsh did not have a valid driver's license, and that police prevented people, including Gavin Cato's father, from assisting in the rescue of the children.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Later that evening, as the crowds and rumors grew, people threw bottles and rocks. Someone reportedly shouted, "Let's go to Kingston Avenue and get a Jew!" A number of black youths set off westward toward Kingston Avenue ( away from Utica Avenue), a street of predominantly Jewish residents several blocks away, vandalizing cars, and throwing rocks and bottles as they went.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: After the death of Gavin Cato, members of the black community believed that the decision to remove Lifsh from the scene first was racially motivated. They also said that this was one example of a perceived system of preferential treatment afforded to Jews in Crown Heights. The preferential treatment was reported to include biased actions by law enforcement and uneven allocations of government resources, amongst others. Many members of the black community were concerned that the number of Jews in the community had increased and that they were buying all of the property in the crowded area.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: An interview with Rabbi Shmuel Butman, published in 1991, mentions a police directive to Hatzolah to transport Lifsh, along with Jews already injured by rioters, without transporting either of the Cato children. "We did exactly what the police officers wisely advised us." Based on protesters' statements and actions during the rioting, Butman said, "We were always hoping that after World War II no Jew would ever be killed just for being Jewish, but this is what happened in the city of New York." In his eulogy at the funeral, the Rev. Al Sharpton referred to "diamond dealers" (a Jewish business) and said, "It's an accident to allow an apartheid ambulance service in the middle of Crown Heights."


title: Crown Heights riot

text: A writer for "City Journal" criticized the news media for downplaying the role of antisemitism in the riots, noting various antisemitic displays, such as a banner displayed at the funeral of Cato that said, "Hitler did not do the job". Edward S. Shapiro, a historian at Seton Hall University, later described the riot as "the most serious anti-Semitic incident in American history" and published a book about it in 2006. He notes that there are many interpretations of what happened:


title: Crown Heights riot

text: About three hours after the riots began, early on the morning of August 20, a group of approximately 20 young black men surrounded Yankel Rosenbaum, a 29-year-old Jewish University of Melbourne student in the United States conducting research for his doctorate. They stabbed him several times in the back and beat him severely, fracturing his skull. Before being taken to the hospital, Rosenbaum identified 16-year-old Lemrick Nelson Jr. as his assailant in a line-up shown to him by the police. Rosenbaum died later that night because the doctor didn't notice a stab wound in his chest. Nelson was charged with murder as an adult; he was acquitted at trial.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Following that trial, Australian attorney Norman Rosenbaum became an advocate for his late brother, inspiring protests that included a shutdown of the Brooklyn Bridge and a demonstration at Gracie Mansion, the mayor's official residence.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Nelson later was convicted in federal court of violating Rosenbaum's civil rights and was sentenced to 10 years in prison. Nelson eventually admitted that he had stabbed Rosenbaum.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: For three days following the accident, numerous African Americans and Caribbean Americans of the neighborhood, joined by growing numbers of non-residents, rioted in Crown Heights. In the rioting of the ensuing three days, according to Edward Shapiro, many of the rioters "did not even live in Crown Heights."


title: Crown Heights riot

text: During the riots, Jews were injured, stores were looted, and cars and homes were damaged. The rioters identified Jewish homes by the mezuzot affixed to the front doors.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: An additional 350 police officers were added to the regular duty roster on August 20 and were assigned to Crown Heights in an attempt to quell the rioting. After episodes of rock- and bottle-throwing involving hundreds of blacks and Jews, and after groups of blacks marched through Crown Heights chanting "No Justice, No Peace!", "Death to the Jews!", and "Whose streets? Our streets!", an additional 1,200 police officers were sent to confront rioters in Crown Heights.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: On the third day of the disturbances, Al Sharpton and Sonny Carson led a march. The marchers proceeded through Crown Heights carrying antisemitic signs and burning an Israeli flag. Rioters threw bricks and bottles at police; shots were fired at police and police cars were pelted and overturned, including the Police Commissioner's car.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Riots escalated to the extent that a detachment of 200 police officers was overwhelmed and had to retreat for their safety. On August 22, over 1,800 police officers, including mounted and motorcycle units, had been dispatched to stop the attacks on people and property.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: By the time the three days of rioting ended, 152 police officers and 38 civilians were injured, 27 vehicles were destroyed, seven stores were looted or burned, and 225 cases of robbery and burglary were committed. At least 129 arrests were made during the riots, including 122 blacks and seven whites. Property damage was estimated at one million dollars.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: On September 5, two weeks after the riot had been controlled, Anthony Graziosi, an Italian sales representative with a white beard dressed in dark business attire, was driving in the neighborhood. As he stopped at a traffic light at 11 pm, six blocks away from where Yankel Rosenbaum had been murdered, a group of four black men surrounded his car and one of them shot and killed him. It was alleged by Graziosi's family and their attorney, as well as Senator Al D'Amato, Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, State Attorney General Robert Abrams, former Mayor Ed Koch, and a number of advocacy organizations, that Graziosi's resemblance to a Hasidic Jew precipitated his murder. The New York Police Department, Mayor Dinkins, newspaper columnist Mike McAlary, and the U.S. Justice Department did not agree. The murder was not treated as a hate crime.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: A grand jury composed of 10 black, 8 white, and 5 Hispanic jurors found no cause to indict Lifsh. Brooklyn District Attorney Charles J. Hynes explained that under New York law, the single act of "losing control of a car" is not criminal negligence, even if death or injury resulted. Lifsh waived immunity and testified before the grand jury. About an hour after hearing Lifsh's testimony, the grand jury voted not to indict him. Subsequently, Lifsh moved to Israel, where his family lives, because he claimed his life was threatened. In Israel, Lifsh settled in the Lubavitch village of Kfar Chabad.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Afterwards, Hynes fought unsuccessfully for the public release of the testimony that the grand jury had heard. His lawsuit was dismissed, and the judge noted that more than three-quarters of the witnesses who had been contacted refused to waive their right to privacy. The judge also expressed concern for the witnesses' safety.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: The Crown Heights riot contributed to the defeat of David Dinkins in his second mayoral bid. He was attacked by many political adversaries in his reelection bid, including vocal proponents of "black nationalism, back-to-Africa, economic radicalism, and racial exclusiveness."


title: Crown Heights riot

text: On November 17, 1992, New York Governor Mario Cuomo gave the Director of Criminal Justice Services, Richard H. Girgenti, the authority to investigate the rioting and the Nelson trial. The "Girgenti Report" was compiled by over 40 lawyers and investigators. The 656-page document, dated July 1993, is available through a website of the Washington, DC-based Police Foundation, which prefaces the report with a disclaimer that the "review does not seek to put blame on any entity for what happened..."


title: Crown Heights riot

text: The report was extremely critical of Police Commissioner Lee Brown. The report also criticized Mayor Dinkins for poor handling of the riots. However, the report found no evidence to support the most severe charge against Dinkins and Brown: that they had purposely delayed the police response in order to allow rioters to "vent" their rage.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: The first night of the riot, Dinkins, along with Police Commissioner Brown, both African Americans, went to Crown Heights to talk to the community to dispel the rumors about the circumstances surrounding the accident. They had no appreciable influence on the rioters, most of whom were young black men.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: In a 16-minute speech on the Thanksgiving holiday following the riot, Dinkins rebutted allegations that he had prevented police from protecting citizens in Crown Heights. The Jewish community believed Dinkins failed to contain the riot and failed to exercise his responsibility, to their detriment.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: The Crown Heights riot was an important issue that was raised repeatedly on the campaign trail in the 1993 mayoral election. According to Edward S. Shapiro, politicians opposed to Mayor Dinkins used the word "pogrom" to characterize the riot in order to discredit the mayor's response to the riot, writing "the controversy over how to define the Crown Heights riot was not merely an issue of semantics."


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Rudy Giuliani, who would be elected as the next mayor of New York, referred to the Crown Heights riot as a "pogrom" on July 1, 1993, in a speech at Bay Ridge, Brooklyn: "You can use whatever word you want, but in fact for three days people were beaten up, people were sent to the hospital because they were Jewish. There's no question that not enough was done about it by the city of New York. One definition of pogrom is violence where the state doesn't do enough to prevent it." Other political opponents to Dinkins used the term, including Ed Koch, who had been defeated by Dinkins in the 1989 Democratic mayoralty primary, and Andrew Stein, a candidate in the 1993 Democratic mayoral primary. The term had been used previously in 1991 by journalists such as A. M. Rosenthal in "The New York Times" and Eric Breindel in the "New York Post", and politicians such as New York City Councilman Noach Dear and later by Judah Gribetz, president of the JCRC of New York. By September 1991, it had become routine within Jewish circles to describe the riot as a pogrom. Some Jews continued to use this term for the riot a decade later, as shown by articles in publications such as "Jewish Week", "The Jerusalem Post", "The Forward" and "The Jewish Press"; others went further and called it "America's Kristallnacht".


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Use of the word was rejected by Dinkins and his supporters, primarily on the basis that a pogrom by definition is state-sponsored. Dinkins said "To suggest that this is [a pogrom] is not to contribute to the resolution of the problem but to exacerbate tensions and problems that are there." Dinkins was personally offended by the use of "pogrom" since it insinuated that the riot was state-sanctioned and that he personally was an antisemite. "I am incensed by it... [it is] patently untrue and unfair."


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Michael Stanislawski, Professor of Jewish History at Columbia University, wrote in 1992 that it was "historically inaccurate" to couple "pogrom" with Crown Heights, because the word denoted organized violence against Jews "having some sort of governmental involvement." Journalists also disagreed with the use of the term, including Joyce Purnick in "The New York Times", Earl Caldwell in the "New York Daily News", and an article in "The City Sun". Rev. Al Sharpton said that Giuliani was engaged in "race-baiting" by using the word "pogrom." Henry Siegman and Marc D. Stern of the American Jewish Congress also publicly rejected use of the term to refer to the riot.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: In 2011, shortly before the twentieth anniversary of the riots, an editorial in "The Jewish Week" wrote: "A divisive debate over the meaning of pogrom, lasting for more than two years, could have easily been ended if the mayor simply said to the victims of Crown Heights, yes, I understand why you experienced it as a pogrom."


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Prior to the riots, Eastern Parkway divided the Black community in northern Crown Heights and the Jewish community in southern Crown Heights. Efforts aimed at the improvement of the relations between Black people and Jews in Crown Heights began almost immediately following the rioting. Brooklyn Borough President Howard Golden summoned the leaders of each of the ethnic communities to Borough Hall within days after the riots ended, creating what became known as the Crown Heights Coalition. The Coalition, led by Edison O. Jackson, then President of Medgar Evers College, and Rabbi Shea Hecht, chairman of the Board of the National Committee for Furtherance of Jewish Education (NCFJE), operated for ten years as an inter-group forum in which to air neighborhood concerns and work out issues. Golden used the Coalition to initiate interracial projects designed to promote dialogue. One project involved sending a Jewish leader and a Black leader together in a pair to public intermediate and high schools in the area to answer questions from the children about each other's cultures.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: A week after the riots, Hatzolah helped repair an ambulance of a Black-owned volunteer service. The following year, the Brooklyn Children's Museum held an exhibit on the contributions made by Black people and Jews in New York. In 1993, the Rev. Jesse Jackson was active in promoting improved Black-Jewish relations. In 1993, a series of neighborhood basketball games were scheduled between the two groups, including a scrimmage held as part of the halftime entertainment of a New York Knicks vs. Philadelphia 76ers professional basketball game. Also that year, Rabbi Israel Shemtov, whose anti-crime patrol had long been perceived by many Black residents as biased against them, rushed to the aid of a Black woman who had been shot on the street in Crown Heights, putting her in his car and taking her to the hospital. The Crown Heights Mediation Center was established in 1998 to help resolve local differences, also a direct outcome of the Coalition.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: On August 19, 2001, a street fair was held in memory of Cato and Rosenbaum, and their relatives met and exchanged mementos in hopes of healing in Crown Heights. Again in 2016, family members Carmel Cato and Norman Rosenbaum planned to meet together to commemorate their loss.


title: Crown Heights riot

text: Twenty years after the riot, a Manhattan synagogue invited Sharpton to participate in a panel discussion marking the anniversary. Norman Rosenbaum, brother of the murdered Yankel Rosenbaum, was outraged, saying inviting Sharpton to speak was "an absolute disgrace" and that his "vile rhetoric incited the rioting." He added that Sharpton "did absolutely nothing then to improve black-Jewish relations — and nothing since." Sharpton expressed regret for some aspects of his involvement. He insisted that his marches were peaceful, although his language and tone "sometimes exacerbated tensions."


title: Crown Heights riot

text: In a 2019 speech to a Reform Jewish gathering, Sharpton said that he could have "done more to heal rather than harm". He recalled receiving a call from Coretta Scott King at the time, during which she told him "sometimes you are tempted to speak to the applause of the crowd rather than the heights of the cause, and you will say cheap things to get cheap applause rather than do high things to raise the nation higher".


title: Crown Heights riot

text: To this day, the demographic trends of Crown Heights remain largely the same as in 1991. Jews did not flee from Crown Heights, and the Lubavitch population of Crown Heights increased after the riot, leading to an expansion of the area in which they reside.


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: United States Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) is the largest United States Army command. It provides expeditionary, regionally engaged, campaign-capable land forces to combatant commanders. Headquartered at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, FORSCOM consists of more than 750,000 active Army, U.S. Army Reserve, and Army National Guard soldiers. FORSCOM was created on 1 July 1973 from the former Continental Army Command (CONARC), who in turn supplanted Army Field Forces and Army Ground Forces.


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: The mission is: "Forces Command trains and prepares a combat ready, globally responsive Total Force in order to build and sustain readiness to meet Combatant Command requirements."


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: The vision is to: "[produce] combat ready and globally responsive Total Army Forces that are well led, disciplined, trained, and expeditionary…ready now to deploy and win in Large Scale Combat Operations against near-peer threats."


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: The Command is focused on the transformation of the Army into a more deployable and maneuverable lethal force. This shift to a modular force design increases the number of units available to support regional combatant commanders.


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: The capabilities of the new brigade-level formations – armor, infantry, airborne, air assault and Stryker – ensure greater flexibility and enhance FORSCOM's ability to deploy trained and ready forces quickly.


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: FORSCOM has major units located at 15 installations, including the National Training Center at Fort Irwin, California and the Joint Readiness Training Center at Fort Polk, Louisiana.


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: Following the recommendations of the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission, the Command moved from Fort McPherson, Georgia to a new headquarters facility at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, in June 2011. The Command hosted a "Casing of the Colors" ceremony on 24 June 2011 at Fort McPherson, and an "Uncasing of Colors" on 1 Aug. 2011 at Fort Bragg.


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: During the Cold War, Forces Command supervised a number of armies each responsible for areas of the continental United States: First Army, Fourth Army, Fifth Army, and Sixth Army, at various times. Their responsibilities varied over time, but from the 1980s to the mid-1990s covered Reserve Component training supervision. FORSCOM currently commands U.S. Army Reserve Command, and First Army.


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: FORSCOM also commands three Army corps: III Armored Corps at Fort Hood, Texas; V Corps at Fort Knox, Kentucky; and XVIII Airborne Corps at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. Together the three corps include nine divisions, one cavalry regiment, 37 support brigades of various types, and a range of other corps combat, combat support and combat service support units.


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: First U.S. Army is responsible for training, mobilization and deployment support to Reserve Component and National Guard units in FORSCOM. They also execute FORSCOM missions within their geographic areas of responsibility. First U.S. Army at Rock Island Army Arsenal, Ill., reports to FORSCOM. It is responsible for the training, mobilization and deployment support for reserve component units in FORSCOM. It executes missions within the continental United States and Puerto Rico.


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: A major subordinate command is the United States Army Reserve Command (USARC), also headquartered in the same building as FORSCOM at Fort Bragg, N.C. It commands all United States Army Reserve units in the continental United States, except those assigned to Special Operations Command. The Army Reserve strength stands at about 179,000 soldiers.


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: The Army National Guard provides Forces Command a balanced force of eight National Guard combat divisions, 15 brigades, and extensive combat support and combat service support units.


title: United States Army Forces Command

text: The current FORSCOM Army National Guard strength is approximately 351,000 soldiers. Mobilizing the Army National Guard into active federal service would bring the total strength of FORSCOM to nearly two-thirds of the Army's combat ground forces.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: Sojourner is a robotic Mars rover that landed in the Ares Vallis channel in the Chryse Planitia region of the Oxia Palus quadrangle on July 4, 1997. "Sojourner" was operational on Mars for 92 sols (95 Earth days). It was the first wheeled vehicle to rove on a planet other than Earth and formed part of the "Mars Pathfinder" mission.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The rover was equipped with front and rear cameras, and hardware that was used to conduct several scientific experiments. It was designed for a mission lasting 7 sols, with a possible extension to 30 sols, and was active for 83 sols (85 Earth days). The rover communicated with Earth through the "Pathfinder" base station, which had its last successful communication session with Earth at 3:23 a.m. PDT on September 27, 1997. The last signal from the rover was received on the morning of October 7, 1997.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: "Sojourner" traveled just over by the time communication was lost. Its final confirmed command was to remain stationary until October 5, 1997, (sol 91) and then drive around the lander; there is no indication it was able to do so. The "Sojourner" mission formally ended on March 10, 1998, after all further options were exhausted.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: "Sojourner" was an experimental vehicle whose main mission was to test in the Martian environment technical solutions that were developed by engineers of the NASA research laboratories. It was necessary to verify whether the design strategy followed had resulted in the construction of a vehicle suitable for the environment it would encounter, despite the limited knowledge of it. Careful analysis of the operations on Mars would make it possible to develop solutions to critical problems identified and to introduce improvements for subsequent planetary exploration missions. One of the mission's main aims was to prove the development of "faster, better and cheaper" spacecraft was possible. Development took three years and cost under $150 million for the lander, and $25 million for the rover; development was faster and less costly than all previous missions.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: These objectives required careful selection of the landing site to balance the technical requests with the scientific ones. A large plain was needed for the probe to land and rocky terrain to verify the rover's systems. The choice fell on Ares Vallis in Chryse Planitia, which is characterized by alluvial-looking rock formations. Scholars believed the analysis of the rocks, which lie in what appears to be the outlet of a huge drainage channel, could have confirmed the past presence of liquid water on the surface of Mars and provide details of the surrounding areas, from which the rocks were eroded.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: "Sojourner" was developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). It is a six-wheeled, long, wide and high vehicle. In the mission's cruise phase, it occupied an high space and has a mass of . It was supported by a lander, a tetrahedron-shaped structure with a mass of , and had a camera, scientific instrumentation, three petals of solar panels, a meteorology mast, and of equipment that was required to maintain communications between the rover and the lander. Hardware included a steerable, high-gain X-band antenna that could send approximately 5.5 kilobits per second into a Deep Space Network antenna, gallium-arsenide solar arrays that generated 1.1 kW⋅h/day and were capable of providing enough power to transmit for 2–4 hours per sol and maintain 128 megabytes of dynamic memory through the night.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: One of the lander's main tasks was to support the rover by imaging its operations and sending data from the rover to Earth. The lander had rechargeable batteries and over of solar cells on its petals. The lander contained a stereoscopic camera with spatial filters on an expandable pole called Imager for Mars Pathfinder (IMP), and the Atmospheric Structure Instrument/Meteorology Package (ASI/MET) which acted as a Mars meteorological station, collecting data about pressure, temperature, and winds. The MET structure included three windsocks mounted at three heights on a pole, the topmost at about and generally registered winds from the west. To provide continuous data, the IMP imaged the windsocks once every daylight hour. These measurements allowed the eolian processes at the landing site, including the particle threshold and the aerodynamic surface roughness, to be measured.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The square eyes of the IMP camera are separated by to provide stereoscopic vision and ranging performance to support rover operations. The dual optical paths are folded by two sets of mirrors to bring the light to a single charge-coupled device (CCD). To minimize moving parts, the IMP is electronically shuttered; half of the CCD is masked and used as a readout zone for the electronic shutter. The optics had an effective pixel resolution of one milliradian per pixel which gives per pixel at a range of . The camera cylinder is mounted on gimbals that provide rotation freedom of 360° in azimuth and −67° to +90° in elevation. This assembly is supported by an extendible mast that was designed and built by AEC Able Engineering. The mast holds the camera at approximately above the Martian surface and extends "Pathfinder"s horizon to on a featureless plane.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: "Sojourner" had solar panels and a non-rechargeable lithium-thionyl chloride (LiSOCl) battery that could provide 150 watt-hours and allowed limited nocturnal operations. Once the batteries were depleted, the rover could only operate during the day. The batteries also allowed the rover's health to be checked while enclosed in the cruise stage while "en route" to Mars. The rover had of solar cells, which could produce a maximum of about 15 watts on Mars, depending on conditions. The cells were GaAs/Ge (Gallium Arsenide/Germanium) with approximately 18 percent efficiency. They could survive temperatures down to about . After about its 40th sol on Mars, the lander's battery no longer held a charge so it was decided to shut off the rover before sunset and wake it up at sunrise.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The rover's wheels were made of aluminum and were in diameter and wide. They had serrated, stainless steel tracks that could generate a pressure of in optimal conditions on soft ground. No such need arose during the operational phase. Each wheel was driven by its own independent motor. The first and third wheels were used for steering. A six-wheel-steering configuration was considered, but this was too heavy. As the rover rotated on itself, it drew a wide circle.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The wheels were connected to the frame through specially developed suspension to ensure all six were in contact with the ground, even on rough terrain. JPL's Don Bickler developed the wheels, which were referred to as "Rocker-bogie", for the experimental "Rocky" vehicles, of which the "Sojourner" is the eighth version. They consisted of two elements; "Bogie" connected the front wheel with the central one and "Rocker" connected the rear wheel with the other two. The system did not include springs or other elastic elements, which could have increased the pressure exerted by each wheel. This system allowed the overcoming of obstacles up to high but theoretically would have allowed the rover to overcome obstacles of , or about 30% of the rover's length. The suspension system was also given the ability to collapse on itself so the rover would occupy in the cruising configuration.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The locomotion system was found to be suitable for the environment of Mars—being very stable, and allowing forward and backward movements with similar ease—and was adopted with appropriate precautions in the subsequent "Spirit" and "Opportunity" rover missions.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: In the ten-year development phase that led to the realization of "Sojourner", alternative solutions that could take advantage of the long experience gained at JPL in the development of vehicles for the Moon and Mars were examined. The use of four or more legs was excluded for three reasons: a low number of legs would limit the rover's movements and the freedom of action, and increasing the number would lead to a significant increase in complexity. Proceeding in this configuration would also require knowledge of the space in front—the ground corresponding to the next step—leading to further difficulties. The choice of a wheeled vehicle solved most of the stability problems, led to a reduction in weight, and improved efficiency and control compared to the previous solution. The simplest configuration was a four-wheel system that, however, encounters difficulties in overcoming obstacles. Better solutions were the use of six or eight wheels with the rear ones able to push, allowing the obstacle to be overcome. The lighter, simpler, six-wheeled option was preferred.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The rover could travel from the lander—the approximate limit of its communication range— and had a maximum speed of .


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: "Sojourner"'s central processing unit (CPU) was an Intel 80C85 with a 2 MHz clock, addressing 64 kilobytes (Kb) of memory, and running a cyclic executive. It had four memory stores; 64 Kb of RAM made by IBM for the main processor, 16 Kb of radiation-hardened PROM made by Harris, 176 Kb of non-volatile storage made by Seeq Technology, and 512 Kb of temporary data storage made by Micron. The electronics were housed inside the rover's warm electronics box (WEB). The WEB is a box-like structure formed from fiberglass facesheets bonded to aluminum spars. The gaps between facesheets were filled with blocks of aerogel that worked as thermal insulation. The aerogel used on the "Sojourner" had a density of approximately 20 mg/cc. This insulator was designed to trap heat generated by rover's electronics; this trapped heat soaked at night through the passive insulation maintaining the electronics in the WEB at between , while externally the rover experienced a temperature range between .


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The "Pathfinder" lander's computer was a Radiation Hardened IBM Risc 6000 Single Chip with a Rad6000 SC CPU, 128 megabytes (Mb) of RAM and 6 Mb of EEPROM memory, and its operating system was VxWorks.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The mission was jeopardised by a concurrent software bug in the lander that had been found in preflight testing but was deemed a glitch and given a low priority because it only occurred in certain unanticipated heavy-load conditions, and the focus was on verifying the entry and landing code. The problem, which was reproduced and corrected from Earth using a laboratory duplicate, was due to computer resets caused by priority inversion. No scientific or engineering data was lost after a computer reset but all of the following operations were interrupted until the next day. Resets occurred on July 5, 10, 11 and 14 during the mission before the software was patched on July 21 to enable priority inheritance.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: "Sojourner" communicated with its base station using a 9,600 baud radio modem, although error-checking protocols limited communications to a functional rate of 2,400 baud with a theoretical range of about . Under normal operation, it would periodically send a "heartbeat" message to the lander. If no response was given, the rover could autonomously return to the location at which the last heartbeat was received. If desired, the same strategy could be used to deliberately extend the rover's operational range beyond that of its radio transceiver, although the rover rarely traveled further than from "Pathfinder" during its mission. The Ultra high frequency (UHF) radio modems operated in half-duplex mode, meaning they could either send or receive data but not both at the same time. The data was communicated in bursts of 2 kB.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The rover had two monochrome cameras in front and a color camera at the rear. Each front camera had an array 484 pixels high by 768 wide. Both front cameras were coupled with five laser stripe projectors that enabled stereoscopic images to be taken along with measurements for hazard detection in the rover's path. The optics consisted of a window, lens, and field flattener. The window was made of sapphire while the lens objective and flattener were made of zinc selenide. A color camera with the same resolution was located on the back of the rover near the APXS, and rotated by 90°. It provided images of the APXS's target area and the rover's ground tracks. The sensor of this color camera was arranged so 12 of 16 pixels of a 4×4 pixel block were sensitive to green light; while 2 pixels were sensitive to red light and the other 2 were sensitive to infrared and blue light. The cameras used CCDs manufactured by Eastman Kodak Company; they were clocked out by CPU, and capable of auto-exposure, Block Truncation Coding (BTC) data compression, bad pixel/column handling, and image data packetizing. Because the rover's cameras had zinc-selenide lenses, which block light with a wavelength shorter than 500 nanometers (nm), no blue light actually reached the blue-and-infrared-sensitive pixels, which therefore recorded only infrared light. The rover was imaged on Mars by the base station's IMP camera system, which also helped determine where the rover should go.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: "Sojourner" operation was supported by "Rover Control Software" (RCS) that ran on a Silicon Graphics Onyx2 computer on Earth and allowed command sequences to be generated using a graphical interface. The rover driver would wear 3D goggles supplied with imagery from the base station and would move a virtual model with a specialized joystick. The control software allowed the rover and surrounding terrain to be viewed from any angle, supporting the study of terrain features, the placing of waypoints, and virtual flyovers. Darts were used as icons to show where the rover should go. Desired locations were added to a sequence and sent to the rover to perform. Typically, a long sequence of commands were composed and sent once a day. The rover drivers were Brian K. Cooper and Jack Morrison.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The Alpha Proton X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS) was designed to determine the chemical composition of Martian soil, rocks and dust by analyzing the return radiation in its alpha, proton, and X-ray components resulting from the sample's exposure to a radioactive source contained in the instrument. The instrument had a curium-244 source that emits alpha particles with an energy of 5.8 MeV and a half-life of 18.1 years. A portion of the incident radiation that impacted the analyzed sample's surface was reflected and the remainder interacted with the sample.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The principle of the APXS technique is based on the interaction of alpha particles from a radioisotope source with matter. There are three components of the return radiation; simple Rutherford backscattering, production of protons from reactions with the nucleus of light elements, and generation of X-rays upon recombination of atomic shell vacancies created by alpha particle bombardment by interaction with the electrons of the innermost orbitals. The instrument was designed to detect the energy of all three components of the return radiation, making it possible to identify the atoms present and their quantities in a few tens of micrometers below the surface of the analyzed sample. The detection process was rather slow; each measurement could take up to ten hours.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: Sensitivity and selectivity depends on a channel; alpha backscattering has high sensitivity for light elements like carbon and oxygen, proton emission is mainly sensitive to sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, sulfur, and X-ray emission is more sensitive to heavier elements sodium to iron and beyond. Combining all three measurements makes APXS sensitive to all elements with the exception of hydrogen that is present at concentration levels above a fraction of one percent. The instrument was designed for the failed Russian Mars-96 mission. The alpha particle and proton detectors were provided by the Chemistry Department of the Max Planck Institute and the X-ray detector wad developed by the University of Chicago.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: During each measurement, the front surface of the instrument had to be in contact with the sample. For this to be possible, the APXS was mounted on a robotic arm called the Alpha-Proton-X-ray Spectrometer Deployment Mechanism (ADM). The ADM was an anthropomorphic actuator that was equipped with a wrist that was capable of rotations of ±25°. The dual mobility of the rover and the ADM increased the potential of the instrument—the first of its kind to reach Mars.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The Wheel Abrasion Experiment (WAE) was designed to measure the abrasive action of Martian soil on thin layers of aluminum, nickel, and platinum, and thus deduce the grain size of the soil at the landing site. For this purpose, 15 layers—five of each metal—were mounted on one of the two central wheels with a thickness between 200 and 1000 ångström, and electrically isolated from the rest of the rover. By directing the wheel appropriately, sunlight was reflected towards a nearby photovoltaic sensor. The collected signal was analyzed to determine the desired information. For the abrasive action to be significant on the mission schedule, the rover was scheduled to stop at frequent intervals and, with the other five wheels braked, force the WAE wheel to rotate, causing increased wear. Following the WAE experiment on Mars, attempts were made to reproduce the effects observed in the laboratory.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The interpretation of the results proposed by Ferguson "et al". suggests the soil at the landing site is made up of fine-grained dust of limited hardness with a grain size of less than 40 µm. The instrument was developed, built and directed by the Lewis' Photovoltaics and Space Environments Branch of the Glenn Research Center.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The Materials Adherence Experiment (MAE) was designed by engineers at the Glenn Research Center to measure the daily accumulation of dust on the back of the rover and the reduction in the energy-conversion capacity of the photovoltaic panels. It consisted of two sensors.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The first was composed of a photovoltaic cell covered by transparent glass that could be removed on command. Near local midday, measurements of the cell's energy yield were made, both with the glass in place and removed. From the comparison, it was possible to deduce the reduction in cell yield caused by the dust. Results from the first cell were compared with those of a second photovoltaic cell that was exposed to the Martian environment. The second sensor used a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) to measure the weight-per-surface unit of the dust deposited on the sensor.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: During the mission, a daily rate equal to 0.28% of percentage reduction in the energy efficiency of the photovoltaic cells was recorded. This was independent of whether the rover was stationary or in motion. This suggests the dust settling on the rover was suspended in the atmosphere and was not raised by the rover's movements.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: Since it was established transmissions relating to driving the "Sojourner" occur once every sol, the rover was equipped with a computerized control system to guide its movements independently.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: A series of commands had been programmed, providing an appropriate strategy for overcoming obstacles. One of the primary commands was "Go to Waypoint". A local reference system, of which the lander was the origin, was envisaged. Coordinate directions were fixed at the moment of landing, taking the direction of north as a reference. During the communication session (once per sol), the rover received from Earth a command string containing the coordinates of the arrival point, which it would have to reach autonomously.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The algorithm implemented on the on-board computer attempted, as a first option, to reach the obstacle in a straight line from the starting position. Using a system of photographic objectives and laser emitters, the rover could identify obstacles along this path. The on-board computer was programmed to search for the signal produced by the lasers in the cameras' images. In the case of a flat surface and no obstacles, the position of this signal was unchanged with respect to the reference signal stored in the computer; any deviation from this position made it possible to identify the type of obstacle. The photographic scan was performed after each advance equal to the diameter of the wheels, , and before each turn.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: In the confirmed presence of an obstacle, the computer commanded the execution of a first strategy to avoid it. The rover, still by itself, rotated until the obstacle was no longer in sight. Then, after having advanced for half of its length, it recalculated a new straight path that would lead it to the point of arrival. At the end of the procedure, the computer had no memory of the existence of the obstacle. The steering angle of the wheels was controlled through potentiometers.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: In particularly uneven terrain, the procedure described above would have been prevented by the presence of a large number of obstacles. There was, therefore, a second procedure known as "thread the needle", which consisted of proceeding between two obstacles along the bisector between them, providing they were sufficiently spaced to allow the rover to pass. If the rover had encountered a clearing before reaching a predetermined distance, it would have had to rotate on itself to calculate a new straight trajectory to reach the target. Conversely, the rover would have had to go back and try a different trajectory. As a last resort, contact sensors were mounted on the front and rear surfaces of the rover.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: To facilitate the rover's direction, an appropriate on-the-spot rotation could be commanded from Earth. The command was "Turn" and was performed using a gyroscope. Three accelerometers measured the acceleration of gravity along three perpendicular directions, making it possible to measure the surface's slope. The rover was programmed to deviate from routes that would require a slope greater than 30°, though it was designed not to tip over when tilted at 45°. The distance traveled was determined by the number of revolutions of the wheels.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: "Marie Curie" is a flight spare for the "Sojourner". During the operational phase on Mars, the sequences of the most complex commands to be sent to "Sojourner" were verified on this identical rover at JPL. NASA planned to send "Marie Curie" on the canceled Mars Surveyor 2001 mission; it was suggested to send it in 2003, proposing "Marie Curie" to be deployed "using a robotic-arm attached to the lander". Rather than this, the Mars Exploration Rover program was launched in 2003. In 2015, JPL transferred "Marie Curie" to the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (NASM).


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: To test robotic prototypes and applications under natural lighting conditions, JPL built a simulated Martian landscape called "Mars Yard". The test area measured and had a variety of terrain arrangements to support multiple test conditions. The soil was a combination of beach sand, decomposed granite, brick dust, and volcanic cinders. The rocks were several types of basalts, including fine-grained and vesicular in both red and black. Rock-size distributions were selected to match those seen on Mars and the soil characteristics matched those found in some Martian regions. Large rocks were not Mars-like in composition, being less dense and easier to move for testing. Other obstacles such as bricks and trenches were often used for specialized testing. Mars Yard was expanded in 1998 and then in 2007 to support other Mars rover missions.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The name "Sojourner" was chosen for the rover through a competition held in March 1994 by the Planetary Society in collaboration with JPL; it ran for one year and was open to students of 18 years and below from any country. Participants were invited to choose a "heroine to whom to dedicate the rover" and to write an essay about her accomplishments, and how these accomplishments could be applied to the Martian environment. The initiative was publicized in the United States through the January 1995 edition of the magazine "Science and Children" published by the National Science Teachers Association.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: Some 3,500 papers were received from countries including Canada, India, Israel, Japan, Mexico, Poland, Russia, and the United States, of which 1,700 were from students aged between 5 and 18. The winners were chosen on the basis of the quality and creativity of the work, the appropriateness of the name for a Martian rover, and the competitor's knowledge of the heroine and the probe mission. The winning paper was written by 12-year-old Valerie Ambroise of Bridgeport, Connecticut, who suggested dedicating the rover to Sojourner Truth, a Civil War era African-American abolitionist and women's rights advocate. The second place went to Deepti Rohatgi, 18, of Rockville, Maryland, who proposed Marie Curie, a Nobel Prize-winning Franco-Polish chemist. Third place went to Adam Sheedy, 16, of Round Rock, Texas, who chose Judith Resnik, a United States astronaut and Space Shuttle crew member who died in the 1986 "Challenger" disaster. The rover was also known as "Microrover Flight Experiment" abbreviated MFEX.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: "Sojourner" was launched on December 4, 1996, aboard a Delta II booster, and reached Mars on July 4, 1997. It operated in Ares Vallis channel in the Chryse Planitia of the Oxia Palus quadrangle, from July 5 to September 27, 1997, when the lander cut off communications with Earth. In the 83 sols of activity—twelve times the expected duration for the rover—"Sojourner" traveled , always remaining within of the lander. It collected 550 images, performed 16 analyzes through the APXS—nine of rocks and the remainder of the soil— and performed 11 Wheel Abrasion Experiments and 14 experiments on soil mechanics in cooperation with the lander.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The landing site for the rover was chosen in April 1994 at the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston. The landing site is an ancient flood plain called Ares Vallis, which is located in Mars' northern hemisphere and is one of the rockiest parts of Mars. It was chosen because it was thought to be a relatively safe surface on which to land and one that contains a wide variety of rocks that were deposited during a flood. This area was well-known, having been photographed by the "Viking" mission. After a successful landing, the lander was officially named "The Carl Sagan Memorial Station" in honor of the astronomer.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: "Mars Pathfinder" landed on July 4, 1997. The petals were deployed 87 minutes later with "Sojourner" rover and the solar panels attached on the inside. The rover exited the lander on the next day.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The rocks at the landing site were given names of cartoon characters. Among them were Pop Tart, Ender, mini-Matterhorn, Wedge, Baker's Bench, Scooby Doo, Yogi, Barnacle Bill, Pooh Bear, Piglet, the Lamb, the Shark, Ginger, Souffle, Casper, Moe, and Stimpy. A dune was called Mermaid Dune, and a pair of hills were named Twin Peaks.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The first analysis was carried out on the rock called "Barnacle Bill" during the third sol. The rock's composition was determined by the APXS spectrometer, which took 10 hours for a complete scan. The rock "Yogi" was analyzed on the 10th sol. It has been suggested the conformation of the land close to the rock, even visually at a lower level than the surrounding surface, was derived from the evaporation of floodwater.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: Both rocks turned out to be andesites; this finding surprised some scholars because andesites are formed by geological processes that require an interaction between materials of the crust and the mantle. A lack of information on the surrounding highlands made it impossible to grasp all of the implications of the discovery.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The rover was then directed to the next target and on the 14th sol, it analyzed the rock named "Scooby-Doo" and imaged the "Casper" rock. Both were deemed to be consolidated deposits. The rock called "Moe" showed evidence of wind erosion. Most of the rocks analyzed showed a high silicon content. In a region nicknamed "Rock Garden", the rover encountered crescent-moon-shaped dunes that are similar to dunes on earth.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The landing site is rich in varied rocks, some of which are clearly volcanic in origin, such as "Yogi"; others are conglomerates, the origins of which are the subject of several proposals. In one hypothesis, they formed in the presence of water in Mars' distant past. In support of this, high silicon contents would be detected. This could also be a consequence of sedimentation processes; rounded rocks of various sizes were discovered and the valley's shapes are compatible with a river channel environment. Smaller, more rounded stones may also have been generated during a surface impact event.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: When the mission's final results were described in a series of articles in the journal "Science" (December 5, 1997), it was believed the rock Yogi had a coating of dust but was similar to the rock Barnacle Bill. Calculations suggested both rocks mostly contain orthopyroxene (magnesium-iron silicate), feldspars (aluminum silicates of potassium, sodium, and calcium), and quartz (silicon dioxide) with smaller amounts of magnetite, ilmenite, iron sulfide, and calcium phosphate.


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: The development of the rover and its instruments as well as its guidance during operations on Mars were done by a group of engineers from NASA, collectively referred to as "The Rover Team". The key personnel were:


title: Sojourner (rover)

text: Some sections of this article were originally translated from the Italian Wikipedia article. For original, see .


title: Red Oaks

text: Red Oaks is an American comedy-drama streaming television series created by Joe Gangemi and Gregory Jacobs. The first season was released on Amazon Prime Video on October 9, 2015. On December 18, 2015, Amazon announced that the show would be returning for a second season in 2016. The second season was released on November 11, 2016. On January 30, 2017, Amazon announced that the series was renewed for a third and final season, which was released on October 20, 2017.


title: Red Oaks

text: David, a college student, begins working at Red Oaks, a Jewish country club in New Jersey during his summer break in 1985. The show follows David's life, with numerous subplots including his family, friends, and coworkers, and primarily revolves around the club. The show explores themes such as adolescence, relationships, socioeconomic mobility, and the pursuit of happiness in a mostly comedic fashion against the backdrop of the New York–New Jersey area in the 1980s.


title: Red Oaks

text: For his role as Nash, Ennis Esmer read with director David Gordon Green in both his regular voice and what "The New York Times" describes as "an invented accent he calls 'Indo Middle Eastern British'", while trying to get Green to laugh. Esmer used a vocal coach to improve the accent and continued using it while on the set.


title: Red Oaks

text: The main filming location is Edgewood Country Club in River Vale, New Jersey. Additional locations include Florence Park in Mamaroneck, New York, Willow Ridge Country Club in Westchester County, New York, and Paris, France.


title: Red Oaks

text: "Red Oaks" has received mostly positive reviews. On review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a score of 81%, an average rating of 7.8/10, based on 26 reviews. The website's consensus reads: ""Red Oaks" offers an affectionate nod to 1980s sex comedies that – largely thanks to a talented ensemble cast – finds fresh humor in its familiar premise." Metacritic gives the show a score of 70 out of 100, sampled from 21 reviews, signifying "generally favorable reviews".


title: Mike Caussin

text: Michael Caussin (born February 26, 1987) is a former American football tight end. He was signed by the Jacksonville Jaguars as an undrafted free agent in 2010. He played college football at James Madison.


title: Mike Caussin

text: Caussin was born in Springfield, Virginia. He attended West Springfield High School and has a younger brother, Jack. Following his high school graduation, Caussin attended James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia, majoring in kinesiology with a sports management concentration.


title: Mike Caussin

text: Caussin was signed by the Jacksonville Jaguars as an undrafted free agent in 2010. He was cut on September 4, 2010, but was signed to the Jaguars' practice squad on September 5, 2010.


title: Mike Caussin

text: The Buffalo Bills signed Caussin off the Jaguars' practice squad on December 1, 2010. On August 14, 2013, he was waived by the Bills. On the next day, he cleared waivers and was placed on the Bills' injured reserve list.


title: Mike Caussin

text: The Washington Redskins signed Caussin on July 21, 2014. He was placed on the injured reserve on August 24.


title: Mike Caussin

text: Caussin began dating actress and country singer Jana Kramer in August 2014, whom he met on Twitter. The couple became engaged on December 2, 2014, Kramer's 31st birthday. The two were married on May 22, 2015. On August 10, 2015, the couple revealed they were expecting their first child, a girl. Their daughter, Jolie Rae Caussin, was born on January 31, 2016, in Nashville. By August 2016, Kramer and Caussin had separated in the midst of Caussin's cheating and admission into rehab for sex addiction. They reconciled the following year and renewed their wedding vows in December 2017. In June 2018, Jana revealed they were expecting their second child, a boy. Their son, Jace Joseph Caussin, was born on November 29, 2018.


title: Mike Caussin

text: On April 20, 2021, Kramer filed for divorce from Caussin, citing "inappropriate marital conduct, irreconcilable differences and adultery". Two days after the pair split, a temporary restraining order was issued by the Williamson County, Tennessee court.


title: Mike Caussin

text: On May 20, 2021, it was reported that Kramer and Caussin reached an agreement with custody and child support. According to the documents, Kramer was awarded primary custody of Jolie and Jace. She will have the children 240 days out of the year, while Caussin will have them for the remaining 125 days. In addition, Kramer is to pay Caussin $3,200 per month in child support. The divorce was finalized on July 22, 2021.


title: Landmass

text: A landmass, or land mass, is a large region or area of land. The term is often used to refer to lands surrounded by an ocean or sea, such as a continent or a large island. In the field of geology, a landmass is a defined section of continental crust extending above sea level.


title: Landmass

text: Continents are often thought of as distinct landmasses and may include any islands that are part of the associated continental shelf. When multiple continents form a single contiguous land connection, the connected continents may be viewed as a single landmass. Earth's largest landmasses, from largest to smallest, are:


title: 2018 Turkish general election

text: General elections were held in Turkey on 24 June 2018. Presidential elections were held to elect the President of Turkey using a two-round system. Parliamentary elections took place to elect 600 Members of Parliament to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.


title: 2018 Turkish general election

text: The elections had originally been scheduled for 3 November 2019, until the Erdoğan government called for early elections on 18 April 2018.


title: 2018 Turkish general election

text: The ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) and Erdoğan had long supported a policy of turning Turkey into an executive presidency, replacing the existing parliamentary system of government. With the support of the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), the government was able to enact a referendum in Parliament, with the vote being set for 16 April 2017.


title: 2018 Turkish general election

text: The proposed constitutional changes would see parliamentary and presidential elections taking place on the same day every five years, with the initial vote being set for 3 November 2019. The number of seats in the Grand National Assembly was to be increased from 550 to 600, although the legislative powers of Parliament would be greatly reduced. Crucially, the office of the President of Turkey would be given powers to rule by decree, becoming both the country's head of state and head of government. Supporters of the changes claimed that the new system would make the system of government more efficient, while critics claimed that it would place too much power in the hands of the president and effectively render parliament powerless.