text: Villanueva has spoken publicly about the importance of his Catholic faith in his life and work. In November 2013, he married Madelyn Muldoon in a small ceremony in her parents' backyard. He met her through her brother, Joe Muldoon, with whom he played football at Army, and the two began dating in the spring of 2012. On May 9, 2015, Alejandro and Madelyn had a larger ceremony at the Jesus the Divine Word Catholic Church in Huntingtown, Maryland.


title: Alejandro Villanueva (American football)

text: In the fall of 2015, Villanueva enrolled in Carnegie Mellon University's Tepper School of Business to earn a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree. After studying part-time for four years, one more than is typical for a student in Tepper's MBA program, Villanueva received his degree in 2019.


text: During the 2017 season, Villanueva taught JuJu Smith-Schuster, his 20-year-old teammate, how to drive using Villanueva's own Ford F-150 Limited.


text: Villanueva began a partnership with USAA in 2016 and appeared in one of the company's member's voices commercials. His wife and son also appear in it.


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: Tribhanga: Tedhi Medhi Crazy is a 2021 Indian trilingual family drama film written and directed by Renuka Shahane. It was co-produced by Ajay Devgn, Deepak Dhar, and Siddharth P. Malhotra under their production companies Ajay Devgn FFilms, Banijay Asia, and Alchemy Productions, respectively, in association with Parag Desai, Rishi Negi, and Sapna Malhotra. The film stars Kajol, Tanvi Azmi and Mithila Palkar, and revolves around a dysfunctional family of three women and their unconventional life choices.


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: Shahane got the idea for "Tribhanga" in 2014 and it was inspired by her relationship with her mother. Principal photography started in October 2019, and it was entirely shot in Mumbai by Baba Azmi. The music was composed by Sanjoy Chowdhury, and the film was edited by Jabeen Merchant. Released on 15 January 2021, the film marked Kajol's debut on Netflix. The critics judged the film as generally positive, with praises mostly directed towards Shahane's direction and the leads' performances.


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: The movie follows the journey of three generations of women who interact on a deeper level and find out disturbing details of their past when the eldest of the three, Nayan, falls into a coma and her daughter & granddaughter decide to contribute to her biography in making.


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: All 3 women are tormented by the men in their life or have faced certain troubles due to each other. Masha, Anu's daughter, reveals how, despite her mother's overprotective nature, she was bullied in school due to Anu's colorful reputation; as discussed multiple times in the movie, Anu too is estranged from her mother who is now comatose due to the same reason. By the end, all 3 women learn the importance of each of them in their life.


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: "Tribhanga" was originally supposed to be a small Marathi film but later turned into a Hindi Netflix original as Kajol and Siddharth P Malhotra got on board. The film was confirmed by director Renuka Shahane in late 2018, and on 10 October 2019 the cast, the crew and the basic plot were announced. Later in 2019, more of the cast announced their involvement in the film, including Vaibhav Tatwawaadi, Manav Gohil and Nishank Verma. Tribhanga is a dance pose in Odissi and its nature is said to represent that of the three leading women in the film, played by Azmi, Kajol and Palkar.


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: Principal photography commenced on 14 October 2019 and ended on 8 December 2019. The film was shot entirely in Mumbai.


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: "Tribhanga" was one of the most-awaited films of 2021. The first look of the film was released on 16 July 2020, and its teaser was released on 1 January 2021. The trailer was released three days later, and positively received by both audiences or critics. Moumita Bhattacharjee of Rediff.com found Kajol's "breakdown or outburst scenes in every [scenes]" to be "something to watch out for", adding, "She goes all out without restraining herself and that enhances the tension perfectly." It was opened on 15 January on Netflix, marking Kajol's digital debut. As the film was released on the platform, no accurate grossing estimation has been made. However, "The Indian Express" reported that "Tribhanga" was successful to attract an audience.


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: "Tribhanga" received a rating of 86 percent on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes based on seven reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 out of 10. Sonia Chopra of Sify praised the film, "A layered and heart-warming story encompassing three generations of women. Also commendable is how beautifully it portrays real women and humanizes mothers with all their flaws, mistakes, strengths and weaknesses." She was appreciative of the leads' performance, especially Kajol, saying that "... she folds in humour, strength, and empathy in every moment", and described Tanvi Azmi as "masterful". Renuka Vyavahare of "The Times of India" rated the film two-and-a-half stars and stated, "The idea behind the movie is inspirational but ideas aren’t enough unless they make for a riveting viewing experience." Writing for "The Hindu", Debasree Purkayastha found Azmi "holds your attention" and felt Palkar was "pleasantly present in the limited screen-time she has". Priyanka Roy of "The Telegraph" was critical of Palkar, deeming her has "very little to play with, her Masha hardly rising above the character brief on paper".


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: Shilajit Mitra from "The New Indian Express" called Kajol the "best part" of "Tribhanga", saying that "a typically impetuous actor letting it fly in her digital debut". "Hindustan Times"' reviewer Soumya Srivastava observed of her: "After watching [the film], one thing is for certain: you may be able to take Kajol out of Bollywood, but you can never take the Bollywood out of her. Channelling pre-makeover Anjali from "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai" (1998) at all times, Kajol makes sure to give her 150% to every scene, even if it requires a far more modest tempo." According to Stutee Ghosh of "The Quint", both the actress and Azmi were "the strongest performers [that] have a stunning hold and it's difficult to focus on anyone else when they are in the frame". The critic and author Bhawana Somaaya rated the film three and a half out of five stars, and took note of its "detailed writing, engaging narrative, pace and performances". Writing for "The News Minute", Geetika Mantri gave the same rating and believed that the film "deserves praise for showcasing multidimensional women characters and the ways that they can support each other".


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: Shubhra Gupta of "The Indian Express" wrote that Kajol "sparking energy and becomes sure and steady, proving that the right plot and treatment is everything". She added that "Tribhanga" "is the clear-eyed, unsentimental treatment of relationships, which can often be so cloyingly exaggerated in mainstream cinema". In another "New Indian Express" review, Avinash Ramachandran praised Shahane for "paints a striking, yet poignant picture of the pressures of motherhood on women who want to live their lives on their own terms". News18's Vaishali Jain said that it "scores 100 on 100 on the relatability factor". Sumitra Nair of "The Week" noted the performances, finding Kajol to be "a tad over the top" and added that "her abrasiveness seems justified as the second half of the film unfolds". The critic also praised Azmi, who she described as "the real winner", however, she felt that Palkar was not "given enough screen time to bring out her acting chops". She concluded: "Regrets and unspoken words are sentiments several storytellers and directors have explored. But, Renuka Sahane’s take is non-melodramatic. The movie may be a tough cookie to chew overall, but definitely deserves a one time watch."


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: In the words of Rishita Roy Chowdhury of "India Today", "[Renuka] has done a worthwhile job ... even though the narrative could have flowed a little better. The story is well-balanced and comes a full circle. With good cinematography, "Tribhanga" compels us to re-evaluate our own relationships with our mothers." Writing for "Firstpost", the critic Anna M. M. Vetticad (who gave the film a rating of three-and-a-half-out-of-five stars) called it "an entertaining, thoughtful, well-acted female bonding flick, as unconventional as the three women whose stories it tells". She considered Kajol's role to be "[has] more importance" than Azmi's and Palkar's, "from the first shot to the last and all the way in between." In a review published by "Film Companion", Rahul Desai argued that Kajol "seems to still be stuck in big-screen mode, verbalising her character traits (feisty, unapologetic, aggressive) instead of internalizing them", and spoke of how the actress "mistakes sound for noise and conversation for dialogue, with her face often reacting to a background score rather than a person". Biswadeep Ghosh of "National Herald" commented that the film was "flawless".


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: Nandini Ramnath from Scroll.in opined that Shahane "plays the role of peacemaker and bridge-builder, forcing three divergent positions to point in the same direction". A review written by "The Tribune" Gurnaaz Kaur referred to "Tribhanga" as "heart-rending, soul-stirring and profound". It further lauded Azmi for delivered "an amazing performance, so calm and mature, comfortable in her own skin", but criticized Kajol for being "foul-mouthed [and] temperamental" in the film's initial scenes. R. M. Vijayakar of "India-West" appreciated the latter, "Kajol is magnificent as the rude, blunt, expletive-spewing actress and dancer who is faced with the prospect of understanding her mother and herself." Saibal Chatterjee saw her "provides the frisson that the understated Tribhanga needs to keep trundling along at an even pace". Sukanya Verma stated that the first fifteen minutes of the film were "devoted to Kajol cursing like a sailor", saying that she "snaps at anyone who dares come in her way. It's the sort of bratty behaviour and difficult reputation the actress was reportedly known for in her heyday." Sameer Salunkhe of "Cine Blitz" asserted that Azmi was "gracefully and achingly inspiring".


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: Writing for "Filmfare" magazine, Devesh Sharma gave "Tribhanga" three out of five stars and impressed with Azmi, writing that her role Nayan was "shown to be brutally honest" and she "puts lots of candour in her performance, neither hiding the flaws nor needlessly putting an extra polish on her character's strengths". Conversely, Sharma negatively received Palkar, who he found "doesn’t have much to do and is underutilised in the film". Ritika Handoo of Zee News, who rated it two and a half out of five stars, gave a mixed reviews for the film. She felt Kajol "can light up a scene as few stars do, with her zeal to enthral", but added, "[She] reveals both the tendencies and, since the drama is largely defined by her screen presence, the film ends up a peculiar mix of the brilliant and the banal." Vinayak Chakravorty, who wrote a review for the Indo-Asian News Service, elaborated: "The film's intention is undoubtedly noble, but the execution is not without flaws. The overall style is far too melodramatic to allow any sort of nuanced exploration of relationships. The narrative is marked by intermittent loud treatment (suitably matched by an otherwise brilliant Kajol's screechy outbursts in such scenes)."


title: Tribhanga (film)

text: Shefali Jha of "International Business Times" described "Tribhanga" as "a delightful film", and stated that it was "warm, fussy, emotional and most importantly, relatable". Still, she deemed Kajol "out-of-place", bemoaning that she "was trying too hard to fit in, to deliver. To be believed, to be relatable. And the more she did that, the more she drifted away from Anuradha." Writing for the same website, Samarpita Das commended the film for "takes a special kind of talent to expose that religion, traditional values, are not the root cause for hatred but lack of attention towards the need of the child". The Pakistani newspaper "Dawn" critic Mohammad Kamran commented, "The emotion and the sense of conviction the characters in this Netflix movie go though is hardly palpable." He criticized it for not showing any dance scenes, despite Kajol's role Anu is a Odissi dancer, and believed that "probably because Kajol is not practiced enough; the most we see are a series of still frames where the actress fakes a few poses." In "The Free Press Journal", Shubha Shetty hailed that Azmi had delivered "a wonderfully sensitive performance in a character that’s well etched".


title: European Union energy label

text: EU Directive 92/75/EC established an energy consumption labelling scheme. The directive was implemented by several other directives thus most white goods, light bulb packaging and cars must have an EU Energy Label clearly displayed when offered for sale or rent. The energy efficiency of the appliance is rated in terms of a set of energy efficiency classes from A to G on the label, A being the most energy efficient, G the least efficient. The labels also give other useful information to the customer as they choose between various models. The information should also be given in catalogues and included by internet retailers on their websites.


title: European Union energy label

text: In an attempt to keep up with advances in energy efficiency, A+, A++ and A+++ grades were later introduced for various products; since 2010, a new type of label exists that makes use of pictograms rather than words, to allow manufacturers to use a single label for products sold in different countries.


title: European Union energy label

text: Directive 92/75/EC was replaced by Directive 2010/30/EU, and was again replaced by Regulation 2017/1369/EU from 1 August 2017. Updated labelling requirements entered into force in 2021, the exact date depends on the relevant delegated regulation (e.g. dishwasher's labels change 1 March 2021).


title: European Union energy label

text: It reintroduced a simpler classification, using only the letters from A to G. The rescaling will also lead to better differentiation among products that, under the current label classification, all appear in the same top categories. It means, for example, that a fridge that currently has the A+++ label could become a C category, even though the fridge is just as energy efficient as before. The main principle is that the A category will be empty at first, and B and C categories scarcely populated, to pave way for new, more energy efficient products to be invented and developed.


title: European Union energy label

text: For refrigerating appliances, such as refrigerators, freezers, wine-storage appliances, and combined appliances, the labelling is specified in terms of an energy efficiency index EEI, which is an indication of the annual power consumption relative to a reference consumption that is based on the storage volume and the type of appliance (refrigerator or freezer). The boundary between the A and A classes is 44 up to 1 July 2014, and 42 after that date.


title: European Union energy label

text: For cold appliances (and this product alone), for models that are more economical than those of category A, categories A+, A++ and A+++ have been assigned.


title: European Union energy label

text: Up to 2010, the energy efficiency scale for washing machines is calculated based on a cotton cycle at 60 °C (140 °F) with a maximum declared load. This load is typically 6 kg. The energy efficiency index is in kW·h per kilogram of washing, assuming a cold-water supply at 15 °C.


title: European Union energy label

text: The washing performance is measured according to European harmonised standard EN 60456 and is based on a 60 °C cycle on fabric samples with stains of oil, blood, chocolate, sebum, and red wine, using a standardised detergent and compared against a reference washing machine. The amount of stain removal is then translated into a washing performance index.


title: European Union energy label

text: The spin-drying efficiency class is based on the remaining moisture content (RMC), which is the mass of water divided by the dry mass of cotton fabrics. It is based on a weighted average of full-load and partial-load cycles.


title: European Union energy label

text: A new energy label, introduced in 2010, is based on the energy efficiency index (EEI), and has energy classes in the range A+++ to D. The EEI is a measure of the annual electricity consumption, and includes energy consumed during power-off and standby modes, and the energy consumed in 220 washing cycles. For the washing cycles, a weighted mix consisting of 42% full-load cycles at 60 °C, 29% partial-load cycles at 60 °C, and 29% partial-load cycles at 40 °C. The washing performance is not mentioned any more, since all washing machines must reach class A anyway. For a 6-kg machine, an EEI of 100 is equivalent to 334 kWh per year, or 1.52 kWh per cycle.


title: European Union energy label

text: For tumble dryers the energy efficiency scale is calculated using the cotton drying cycle with a maximum declared load. The energy efficiency index is in kW·h per kilogram of load. Different scales apply for condenser and vented dryers.


title: European Union energy label

text: For condenser dryers, a weighted condensation efficiency class is calculated using the average condensation efficiency for standard cotton cycle at both full and partial load.


title: European Union energy label

text: For combined washer dryers the energy efficiency scale is calculated using the cotton drying cycle with a maximum declared load. The energy efficiency index is in kW·h per kilogram of load. Different scales apply for condenser and vented dryers.


title: European Union energy label

text: The energy efficiency of a dishwasher is calculated according to the number of place settings. For the most common size of appliance, the 12 place setting machine the following classes apply up to 2010.


title: European Union energy label

text: After 2010, a new system is used, based on an energy efficiency index (EEI), which is based on the annual power usage, based on stand-by power consumption and 280 cleaning cycles, relative to the standard power usage for that type of dishwasher. For a 12-place-setting dishwasher, an EEI of 100 corresponds to 462 kWh per year.


title: European Union energy label

text: For air conditioners, the directive applies only to units under 12 kW. Every label contains the following information:


title: European Union energy label

text: Every label of light sources, including light bulbs (halogen, compact fluorescent, etc.) or LED modules/lamps, contains the following information:


title: European Union energy label

text: Where the energy efficiency category is given by this table:<ref name="EU energy labelling of light sources, Regulation 2019/2015"></ref>


title: European Union energy label

text: Where formula_3 is the declared useful luminous flux (in lm), formula_4 is the declared on-mode power consumption (in watts), and formula_5 is a factor between 0.926 and 1.176 depending on the light source being or not directional and being or not powered from mains.


title: European Union energy label

text: Every label of light bulbs and tubes (including incandescent light bulbs, fluorescent lamps, LED lamps) contains the following information:


title: European Union energy label

text: According to the light bulb's electrical consumption relative to a standard (GLS or incandescent), the lightbulb is in one of the following classes:


title: European Union energy label

text: Since 2012 A+ and A++ classes are added and are introduced different classes for directional lamps and non-directional lamps.


title: European Union energy label

text: Directional lamps are defined as "having at least 80% light output within a solid angle of π sr (corresponding to a cone with angle of 120°)".


title: European Union energy label

text: Since September 2009, household light bulbs must be class A, with the exception of clear (transparent) lamps. For the latter category, lamps must be class C or better, with a transition period up to September 2012, and class B after September 2016.


title: European Union energy label

text: Incandescent and fluorescent lamps with and without an integrated ballast can be divided into energy efficiency classes. The division of lamps into such classes was made in EU Directive 98/11/EC on 27 January 1998, and includes lamps that are not marketed for use in the home. Light sources with an output of more than 6,500 lm and those that are not operated on line voltage are excluded. The energy efficiency class is determined as follows (Φ is the luminous flux in lm and "P" is the power consumption of the lamp in W):


title: European Union energy label

text: The classification in the energy efficiency class B-G is based on the percentage (Energy Efficiency Index) at the reference power


title: European Union energy label

text: The energy class is based on the Energy Efficiency Index (EEI), which is the power consumption relative to a reference power consumption. The reference power consumption of a normal television with screen area "A" is


title: European Union energy label

text: Since the switch to digital terrestrial transmissions all new televisions sold in Europe have both analogue and digital tuners so the reference power was increased to 24 Watts as set out in the directive the formula is as follows


title: European Union energy label

text: For example, a television with a diagonal of 82 cm (32 in) has a screen area "A" = 28.7 dm and a reference power consumption of 144 W. The energy classes are as in the table below.


title: European Union energy label

text: The annual on-mode energy consumption "E" in kWh is calculated as "E" = 1460 [h/a] × P [W] / 1000, or simplified "E" = 1,460 × P.


title: European Union energy label

text: In televisions with automatic brightness control, the on-mode power consumption is reduced by 5% if the following conditions are fulfilled when the television is placed on the market:


title: European Union energy label

text: the luminance of the television in the home-mode or the on-mode condition as set by the supplier, is automatically reduced between an ambient light intensity of at least 20 lux and 0 lux;


title: European Union energy label

text: the automatic brightness control is activated in the home-mode condition or the on-mode condition of the television as set by the supplier.


title: European Union energy label

text: For motor-vehicle it isn't electrical efficiency that is indicated but carbon dioxide emissions in grams per kilometre travelled.


title: European Union energy label

text: European tyre labels came into force in November 2012. The tyre labelling will show three tyre performance attributes; rolling resistance, wet grip and external rolling noise. The tyre label apply to:


title: European Union energy label

text: A trial of estimated financial energy cost of refrigerators alongside EU energy-efficiency class (EEEC) labels online found that the approach of labels involves a trade-off between financial considerations and higher cost requirements in effort or time for the product-selection from the many available options – which are often unlabelled and don't have any EEEC-requirement for being bought, used or sold within the EU. Moreover, in this one trial the labeling was ineffective in shifting purchases towards more sustainable options.


title: Slaughterhouse Rulez

text: Slaughterhouse Rulez is a 2018 comedy horror film directed by Crispian Mills. Written by Mills and Henry Fitzherbert, the film's cast features Asa Butterfield, Finn Cole, Hermione Corfield, Michael Sheen, with Nick Frost and Simon Pegg.


title: Slaughterhouse Rulez

text: "Slaughterhouse Rulez" was released on 31 October 2018 in the United Kingdom and on 17 May 2019 in the United States.


title: Slaughterhouse Rulez

text: After his father dies, Donald Wallace (Finn Cole), a teenager from a working-class family, enrolls in an exclusive public school called Slaughterhouse, where he struggles to fit in. The school houses a few secrets, such as the recent suicide of a pupil last term, mysterious disappearances, an overzealous house prefect who descends from a long line of war criminals, and an enigmatic new sinkhole, caused by the Headmaster’s (Michael Sheen) money-making scheme: fracking. Aggressive subterranean creatures emerge from the sinkhole and start attacking members of the faculty. Wallace then rallies a group of pupils to fight the monsters. The film ends with the monsters' defeat, the explosion of the school, and the remaining students walking away. Meanwhile, the Headmaster's dog, and Meredith, who survived the attack, witness the school's destruction.


title: Slaughterhouse Rulez

text: This is the first film from Stolen Picture, a film and TV production company formed by Simon Pegg and Nick Frost. The film was produced by Catalyst Global Media and Sony Pictures International, and was shot at Stowe School, Windsor Great Park, and Chislehurst Caves, among other locations.


title: Slaughterhouse Rulez

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads: "An uneven blend of horror and comedy that fails to satisfy on either front, "Slaughterhouse Rulez" aims for B-movie fun but doesn't make the grade."


title: Slaughterhouse Rulez

text: On Metacritic the film has a score of 39% based on reviews from 6 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews."


title: Spivak pronoun

text: The Spivak pronouns are a set of gender-neutral pronouns in English promulgated on the virtual community "LambdaMOO" based on pronouns used in a book by American mathematician Michael Spivak. Though not in widespread use, they have been employed in writing for gender-neutral language by those who wish to avoid the standard terms "he/she" or singular they.


title: Spivak pronoun

text: Three variants of the Spivak pronouns are in use, Rogers (1890), Elverson (1975), and LambdaMOO (1991), highlighted in the declension table below.


title: Spivak pronoun

text: The original "ey" has been argued to be preferable to "e", because the latter would be pronounced the same as "he" in those contexts where "he, him, his" loses its h sound.


title: Spivak pronoun

text: The precise history of the Spivak pronouns is unclear, since they appear to have been independently created multiple times, each time likely without knowledge of the previous.


title: Spivak pronoun

text: The first recorded use of the pronouns was in a January 1890 editorial by one James Rogers, who derives "e", "es", and "em" from "he" and "them" in response to the proposed "thon". Coincidentally, Scottish author David Lindsay used similar forms "ae" and "aer" in his novel "A Voyage to Arcturus", referring, however, to non-terrestrial sapients "unmistakably of a third positive sex".


title: Spivak pronoun

text: In 1975, Christine M. Elverson of Skokie, Illinois, won a contest by the Chicago Association of Business Communicators to find replacements for "she and he", "him and her", and "his and hers". Her "transgender pronouns" "ey", "em", and "eir" were formed by dropping the "th" from "they", "them", and "their". (See 'em.) The article that first reported the pronouns treated them as something of a joke, concluding with the line, "A contestant from California entered the word 'uh' because 'if it isn't a he or a she, it's uh, something else.' So much of eir humor."


title: Spivak pronoun

text: Writing in 1977, poet, playwright, and linguist Lillian Carlton submitted a letter to the journal "American Speech" reporting (and arguing against) the invention by "an American professor" (likely Dr. Donald MacKay) of pronouns based on "the long sound of the vowel e i". Although her primary argument against the proposed word is her assertion that English "already [has] a perfectly good... word that refers to either sex", namely "one", she also raises the observations that "spoken fast, it comes uncomfortably close to the illiterate hisself... [Furthermore], "ee" sounds too much like "he" and would therefore be confusing." Similar arguments, along with the desire to distance themselves from the male-centric singular "he" and derivatives, are still a primary factor in the proliferation of constructed pronouns.


title: Spivak pronoun

text: Also in 1977, Jeffery J. Smith, Emeritus Professor of Philosophy and Humanities at Stanford University, writing under the pen name "Tintajl jefry", proposed "Em" as "a personal noun-pronoun which in itself gives no indication of sex, age, or number, though these may be shown by its context." He proposes a vast number of possible uses for "em", including but not limited to the replacement of "the formal Dear, because em is a thou word, a term of respect for all people, bar none... Dear Em Doe is redundant. Em Doe is enough, and, since it is brief; it makes room for given names: Em John Doe, Em Mary and John Doe, or, better, Em Doe John, Em Doe John and Mary."


title: Spivak pronoun

text: The May 1980 issue of "American Psychologist" reported on another study by MacKay, testing rates at which subjects miscomprehended the gender of a subject in textbook paragraphs when written with "he" meaning "he or she" compared with three epicene pronoun sets: "E", "E", "Es", "Eself"; "e", "e", "es", "eself"; and "tey", "tem", "ter", "temself".


title: Spivak pronoun

text: In 1983, a mathematician-educator, Michael Spivak, wrote an AMS-TeX manual, "The Joy of TEX: A Gourmet Guide to Typesetting with the AMS-TEX Macro Package " (1986), using "E", "Em", and "Eir". His set was similar to Elverson's, but capitalized like one of MacKay's sets.


title: Spivak pronoun

text: In May 1991, a MOO programmer, Roger Crew, added "spivak" as a gender setting for players on LambdaMOO, causing the game to refer to such players with the pronouns "e", "em", "eir", "eirs", "emself". The setting was added along with several other "fake genders" in order to test changes to the software's pronoun code, and was left in place as a novelty. To Crew's surprise, the Spivak setting caught on among the game's players, while the other gender settings were mostly ignored.


title: Spivak pronoun

text: Other writers applied Elverson's original "th"-dropping rule and revived "ey", such as Eric Klein in his legal code for a planned micronation called Oceania. John Williams's "Gender-neutral Pronoun FAQ" (2004) promoted the original Elverson set (via Klein) as preferable to other major contenders popular on Usenet (singular "they", "sie"/"hir"/"hir"/"hirs"/"hirself", and "zie"/"zir"/"zir"/"zirs"/"zirself").


title: Spivak pronoun

text: Spivak is one of the allowable genders on many MUDs (multi-user dungeon) and MOOs (MUD object-oriented). Others might include some selection of: masculine, feminine, neuter, either, both, "splat", plural, egotistical, royal, and 2nd. The selected gender determines how the game engine refers to a player.


title: Spivak pronoun

text: On LambdaMOO, they became standard practice for help texts ("The user may choose any description e likes"), referring to people of unknown gender ("Who was that guest yesterday, eir typing was terrible"), referring to people whose gender was known but without disclosing it ("Yes I've met Squiggle. E was nice."), or of course characters declaring themselves to be of gender Spivak. In recent years (2000 onwards), this usage has been declining.


title: Spivak pronoun

text: Nomic games, especially on the Internet, often use Spivak pronouns in their rulesets, as a way to refer to indefinite players.


title: Spivak pronoun

text: The visual novel series "Magical Diary" uses Spivak pronouns in spell descriptions to refer to the caster, and explains them in an event as a part of magical culture necessitated by interaction with nonhuman species.


title: Spivak pronoun

text: In online anonymous situations, Spivak and other gender neutral pronouns can be motivated by avoiding gendered speech that would make divisions in the social group more likely and the group possibly less productive or enjoyable. This contact with genderless pronouns in virtual communities is sometimes a person's first experience and experimentation with presenting their gender in a genderqueer or transgender manner.


title: Electron mass

text: The electron mass (symbol: "m") is the mass of a stationary electron, also known as the invariant mass of the electron. It is one of the fundamental constants of physics. It has a value of about or about , which has an energy-equivalent of about or about


title: Electron mass

text: The term "rest mass" is sometimes used because in special relativity the mass of an object can be said to increase in a frame of reference that is moving relative to that object (or if the object is moving in a given frame of reference). Most practical measurements are carried out on moving electrons. If the electron is moving at a relativistic velocity, any measurement must use the correct expression for mass. Such correction becomes substantial for electrons accelerated by voltages of over .


title: Electron mass

text: For example, the relativistic expression for the total energy, "E", of an electron moving at speed formula_1 is


title: Electron mass

text: where the Lorentz factor is formula_3. In this expression "m" is the "rest mass", or more simply just the "mass" of the electron. This quantity "m" is frame invariant and velocity independent. However, some texts group the Lorentz factor with the mass factor to define a new quantity called the "relativistic mass", .


title: Electron mass

text: Since the electron mass determines a number of observed effects in atomic physics, there are potentially many ways to determine its mass from an experiment, if the values of other physical constants are already considered known.


title: Electron mass

text: Historically, the mass of the electron was determined directly from combining two measurements. The mass-to-charge ratio of the electron was first estimated by Arthur Schuster in 1890 by measuring the deflection of "cathode rays" due to a known magnetic field in a cathode ray tube. Seven years later J. J. Thomson showed that cathode rays consist of streams of particles, to be called electrons, and made more precise measurements of their mass-to-charge ratio again using a cathode ray tube.


title: Electron mass

text: The second measurement was of the charge of the electron. This was determined with a precision of better than 1% by Robert A. Millikan in his oil drop experiment in 1909. Together with the mass-to-charge ratio, the electron mass was determined with reasonable precision. The value of mass that was found for the electron was initially met with surprise by physicists, since it was so small (less than 0.1%) compared to the known mass of a hydrogen atom.


title: Electron mass

text: The electron rest mass can be calculated from the Rydberg constant "R" and the fine-structure constant "α" obtained through spectroscopic measurements. Using the definition of the Rydberg constant:


title: Electron mass

text: where "c" is the speed of light and "h" is the Planck constant. The relative uncertainty, 5 in the 2006 CODATA recommended value, is due entirely to the uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant. With the re-definition of kilogram in 2019, there is no uncertainty by definition left in Planck constant anymore.


title: Electron mass

text: The electron relative atomic mass can be measured directly in a Penning trap. It can also be inferred from the spectra of antiprotonic helium atoms (helium atoms where one of the electrons has been replaced by an antiproton) or from measurements of the electron "g"-factor in the hydrogenic ions C or O.


title: Electron mass

text: The electron relative atomic mass is an adjusted parameter in the CODATA set of fundamental physical constants, while the electron rest mass in kilograms is calculated from the values of the Planck constant, the fine-structure constant and the Rydberg constant, as detailed above.


title: Electron mass

text: where "M" is the molar mass constant (defined in SI) and "A"(e) is a directly measured quantity, the relative atomic mass of the electron.


title: Electron mass

text: Note that "m" is defined in terms of "A"(e), and not the other way round, and so the name "electron mass in atomic mass units" for "A"(e) involves a circular definition (at least in terms of practical measurements).


title: Electron mass

text: The electron relative atomic mass also enters into the calculation of all other relative atomic masses. By convention, relative atomic masses are quoted for neutral atoms, but the actual measurements are made on positive ions, either in a mass spectrometer or a Penning trap. Hence the mass of the electrons must be added back on to the measured values before tabulation. A correction must also be made for the mass equivalent of the binding energy "E". Taking the simplest case of complete ionization of all electrons, for a nuclide X of atomic number "Z",


title: Electron mass

text: As relative atomic masses are measured as ratios of masses, the corrections must be applied to both ions: the uncertainties in the corrections are negligible, as illustrated below for hydrogen 1 and oxygen 16.


title: Electron mass

text: The principle can be shown by the determination of the electron relative atomic mass by Farnham "et al." at the University of Washington (1995). It involves the measurement of the frequencies of the cyclotron radiation emitted by electrons and by C ions in a Penning trap. The ratio of the two frequencies is equal to six times the inverse ratio of the masses of the two particles (the heavier the particle, the lower the frequency of the cyclotron radiation; the higher the charge on the particle, the higher the frequency):


title: Electron mass

text: As the relative atomic mass of C ions is very nearly 12, the ratio of frequencies can be used to calculate a first approximation to "A"(e), . This approximate value is then used to calculate a first approximation to "A"(C), knowing that "E"(C)/"m""c" (from the sum of the six ionization energies of carbon) is : . This value is then used to calculate a new approximation to "A"(e), and the process repeated until the values no longer vary (given the relative uncertainty of the measurement, 2.1): this happens by the fourth cycle of iterations for these results, giving for these data.


title: One China

text: After the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) defeated the Kuomintang (KMT) in the Chinese Civil War and the subsequent retreat of the ROC to Taiwan, the CCP established the PRC in mainland China while the ROC ruled over Taiwan and several outlying islands. During this time, both governments continued to claim legitimacy as the government of all of China. Initially, international recognition of the two was split, but most countries began to recognize the PRC over the ROC in the 70s, including the United States in 1979. The language in the United States' One China policy first arose in its joint 1972 Communiqué with the PRC.


title: One China

text: Under ROC President Lee Teng-hui in the 1990s, the Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China were passed which effectively transformed Taiwan from a one-party state into a democracy, and limited civil and political rights to citizens in the "free area" (the area under its actual control, consisting mostly of Taiwan), but did not alter language regarding territorial claims or national territory. Subsequently, views on the One China principle in the ROC have been largely split along party lines: Pan-Blue coalition parties (including the KMT), which favor One China with respective interpretations, while Pan-Green coalition parties (including the Democratic Progressive Party) reject it. Meanwhile, the PRC has maintained its One China principle.


title: One China

text: The Dutch established a colony on Taiwan in 1624 based in present-day Tainan. Shortly after, the Spanish established a colony in Northern Taiwan in 1626, but were driven out by the Dutch in 1642. It was during this time that large-scale Chinese migration from nearby Fujian Province began. The Dutch colony was later conquered by Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga), a Ming-loyalist, in 1662 as the Kingdom of Tungning, before being incorporated by the Qing dynasty in 1683 as part of Fujian Province. In 1887, it was officially made a separate Fujian-Taiwan Province. Taiwan remained a province for eight years until it was ceded to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895 following the First Sino-Japanese War.


title: One China

text: While Taiwan remained under Japanese control, the Qing dynasty was ousted and the First and Second Republic of China (ROC) were established from the Beiyang regime to the Kuomintang (KMT) from 1928. After the conclusion of World War II in 1945, the Republic of China was given control of Taiwan. In 1949, after losing control of most of mainland China following the Chinese Civil War, and before the post-war peace treaties had come into effect, the ROC government under the KMT withdrew to Taiwan, and Chiang Kai-shek declared martial law.


title: One China

text: An argument has been made that Japan formally renounced all territorial rights to Taiwan in 1952 in the San Francisco Peace Treaty, but neither in that treaty nor in the peace treaty signed between Japan and China was the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan awarded to the Republic of China. The treaties left the status of Taiwan—as ruled by the ROC or PRC—deliberately vague, and the question of legitimate sovereignty over China is why China was not included in the San Francisco Peace Treaty. This argument is not accepted by those who view the sovereignty of Taiwan as having been legitimately returned to the Republic of China at the end of the war. Some argue that the ROC is a government in exile, while others maintain it is a rump state.


title: One China

text: The ROC continued to claim itself as the rightful ruler of the entirety of China under the single-party KMT regime, and the PRC made a symmetric claim. In 1971, the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758 replaced the ROC's seat in the United Nations with the PRC. From April 30, 1991, the ROC officially recognized the PRC thus abandoning the Hallstein Doctrine, while maintaining the claim of an exclusive mandate as the legitimate ruler of China. The ROC transformed into a free and democratic state in the 1990s following decades of martial law with the passage of the Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China. Afterwards, the legal and political status of Taiwan has become more contentious, with increasing public expressions in favor of Taiwan independence, which were formerly outlawed.


title: One China

text: Within Taiwan, there is a distinction between the positions of the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP).


title: One China

text: The Kuomintang holds the "One-China principle" and maintains its claim that under the ROC Constitution (passed by the Kuomintang government in 1947 in Nanjing) the ROC has sovereignty over most of China, including, by their interpretation, both mainland China and Taiwan. After the Chinese Communist Party expelled the ROC in the Chinese Civil War from most of Chinese territory in 1949 and founded the PRC, the ROC's Chinese Nationalist government, which still held Taiwan, continued to claim legitimacy as the government of all of China. Under former President Lee Teng-hui, additional articles were appended to the ROC constitution in 1991 so that it applied effectively only to the Taiwan Area. The Kuomintang proclaims a modified form of the "One-China" principle known as the "1992 Consensus". Under this "consensus", both governments "agree" that there is only one single sovereign state encompassing both mainland China and Taiwan, but disagree about which of the two governments is the legitimate government of this state. Former ROC President Ma Ying-jeou had re-asserted claims on mainland China as late as 8 October 2008.


title: One China

text: The Democratic Progressive Party rejects the One China principle, and its official present currently is that Taiwan is an independent and sovereign country whose territory consists of Taiwan and its surrounding smaller islands and whose sovereignty derives only from the ROC citizens living in Taiwan (similar philosophy of self-determination), based on the 1999 "Resolution on Taiwan's Future". It considers Taiwan as an independent nation under the name of Republic of China, making a formal declaration of independence unnecessary. Though calls for drafting a new constitution and a declaration of a Republic of Taiwan was written into the party charter in 1991, the 1999 resolution has practically superseded the earlier charter. Supporters of the Taiwan independence movement also oppose the One China principle.


title: One China

text: One interpretation, which was adopted during the Cold War, is that either the PRC or the ROC is the sole rightful government of all China and that the other government is illegitimate. While much of the western bloc maintained relations with the ROC until the 1970s under this policy, much of the eastern bloc maintained relations with the PRC. While the government of the ROC considered itself the remaining holdout of the legitimate government of a country overrun by what it thought of as Communist rebels, the PRC claimed to have succeeded the ROC in the Chinese Civil War. Though the ROC no longer portrays itself as the sole legitimate government of China, the position of the PRC remained unchanged until the early 2000s, when the PRC began to soften its position on this issue to promote Chinese unification.


title: One China

text: The revised position of the PRC was made clear in the Anti-Secession Law of 2005, which although stating that there is one China whose sovereignty is indivisible, does not explicitly identify this China with the PRC. Almost all PRC laws have a suffix "of the People's Republic of China" (prefix in Chinese grammar) in their official names, but the Anti-Secession Law is an exception. Beijing has made no major statements after 2004 which identify one China with the PRC and has shifted its definition of one China slightly to encompass a concept called the '1992 Consensus': both sides of the Taiwan strait recognize there is only one China—both mainland China and Taiwan belong to the same China but agree to differ on the definition of which China.


title: One China

text: One interpretation of one China is that only one geographical region of China exists, which was split between two Chinese governments during the Chinese Civil War. This is largely the position of current supporters of Chinese unification in Mainland China, who believe that "one China" should eventually unite under a single government. Starting in 2005, this position has become close enough to the position of the PRC, allowing high-level dialogue between the CCP and the Pan-Blue Coalition of the ROC.


title: One China

text: In practice, official sources and state-owned media never refer to the "ROC government", and seldom to the "government of Taiwan". Instead, the government in Taiwan is referred to as the "Taiwan authorities". The PRC does not accept or stamp Republic of China passports. Instead, a Taiwan resident visiting Mainland China must use a Taiwan Compatriot Entry Permit. Hong Kong grants visa-free entry to holders of a Permit; while holders of a ROC passport must apply for a Pre-arrival Registration. Macau grants visa-free entry to holders of both the permit and the passport.


title: One China

text: The United Front, which consists of the eight other political parties in the PRC subordinate to the CCP, has adhered to the One-China policy and opposes Taiwan independence. Among the parties that accepted it are the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang (a splinter left-wing party that broke away from the main Kuomintang) and the Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League.


title: One China

text: The only official statement of the ROC on its interpretation of the One-China principle dates back to 1 August 1992. At that time, the National Unification Council of the ROC expressed the ROC's interpretation of the principle as:


title: One China

text: However, political consensus and public opinion in Taiwan has evolved since 1992, and the National Unification Council was suspended and ceased to function in 2006. There is significant difference between each faction's recognition for and understanding of the One-China principle. The Pan-Blue Coalition parties, led by the Kuomintang, generally accept the One-China principle. In particular, former president Ma Ying-jeou stated in 2006 when he was the Kuomintang chairman that "One China is the Republic of China". The Pan-Green Coalition parties, led by the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), do not accept the policy and view Taiwan as a country separate from China. Former DPP president Chen Shui-bian regards acceptance of the "One China" principle as capitulation to the PRC, and views it as nothing more than a topic for discussion, in opposition to the PRC's insistence that the "One China" principle is a prerequisite for any negotiation. President Tsai Ing-wen rejected the 1992 Consensus categorically in 2019.


title: One China

text: When the Republic of China established diplomatic relations with Kiribati in 2003 the ROC officially declared that Kiribati could continue to have diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China. Despite the declaration, however, all countries maintaining official ties with Taipei continue to recognize the ROC as the sole legitimate government of China.


title: One China

text: The ROC does not recognize or stamp PRC passports. Instead, mainland Chinese residents visiting Taiwan and other territory under ROC jurisdiction must use an Exit and Entry Permit issued by the ROC authorities.


title: One China

text: Not formally recognizing the ROC is a requirement for any political entity to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, in effect forcing other governments to choose between Beijing and Taipei. At times, the PRC has used financial incentives to entice smaller countries to recognize it over the ROC, and both the ROC and PRC have accused each other of dollar diplomacy. Most countries that recognize Beijing circumvent the diplomatic language by establishing trade and cultural missions that represent their interests on Taiwanese soil, while the ROC government represents its interests abroad with reciprocal missions.


title: One China

text: The PRC has, in the past, attempted to get nations to recognize that "the Government of the People's Republic of China is the sole legal government of China ... and Taiwan is an inalienable part of the territory of the People's Republic of China." However, many nations are unwilling to make this particular statement and there was often a protracted effort to find language acceptable to both sides, for example that they "respect", "acknowledge", "understand", or "take note of" the PRC's One China principle (but do not say they "recognize" it). This strategic ambiguity in the language used provides the basis for countries to have formal ties with People's Republic of China and maintain unofficial ties to the Republic of China.


title: One China

text: Names such as "Chinese Taipei" (e.g. in the Olympics) or "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu" (e.g. in the World Trade Organization) are sometimes used in some international arenas since "Taiwan" suggests that Taiwan is a separate country and "Republic of China" suggests that there are two Chinas, and thus both violate the One-China principle.


title: One China

text: The United States' One-China policy was first stated in the Shanghai Communiqué of 1972: "the United States acknowledges that Chinese on either side of the Taiwan Strait maintain there is but one China and that Taiwan is a part of China. The United States does not challenge that position." The United States has not expressed an explicitly immutable statement regarding whether it believes Taiwan is independent or not. Instead, Washington simply states that they understand the PRC's claims on Taiwan as its own. In fact, many scholars agree that U.S. One-China policy was not intended to please the PRC government, but as a way for Washington to conduct international relations in the region, which Beijing fails to state. A more recent study suggests that this wording reflected the Nixon administration's desire to shift responsibility for resolving the dispute to the "people most directly involved" – that is, China and Taiwan. At the same time, the United States would avoid "prejudic[ing] the ultimate outcome" by refusing to explicitly support the claims of one side or the other.


title: One China

text: At the height of the Sino-Soviet split and Sino-Vietnamese conflict, and at the start of the reform and opening of the PRC, the United States strategically switched diplomatic recognition from the Republic of China (ROC) to the People's Republic of China (PRC) on 1 January 1979 under the administration of Jimmy Carter. Congress quickly responded by passing the Taiwan Relations Act that defined relations with the ROC, but stopped short of full recognition. It also required the United States to provide Taiwan with arms sufficient to maintain its self-defense, but did not commit to defending Taiwan in the event of an invasion.


title: One China

text: In 1982, President Ronald Reagan also saw that the Six Assurances were adopted, the fifth being that the United States would not formally recognize Chinese sovereignty over Taiwan. Still, United States policy has remained ambiguous. In the House International Relations Committee on 21 April 2004, the Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, James A. Kelly, was asked by Rep. Grace Napolitano (D-CA) whether the United States government's commitment to Taiwan's democracy conflicted with the so-called One-China policy. He stated "In my testimony, I made the point "our One China," and I didn't really define it, and I'm not sure I very easily could define it. I can tell you what it is not. It is not the One-China policy or the One-China principle that Beijing suggests, and it may not be the definition that some would have in Taiwan. But it does convey a meaning of solidarity of a kind among the people on both sides of the straits that has been our policy for a very long time."


title: One China

text: The position of the United States, as clarified in the "China/Taiwan: Evolution of the "One China" Policy" report of the Congressional Research Service (date: 9 July 2007) is summed up in five points:


title: One China

text: On 2 December 2016, US President-elect Donald Trump and ROC President Tsai Ing-wen conducted a short phone call regarding "the close economic, political and security ties between Taiwan and the US". On 6 December, a few days after the call, Trump said that the US is not necessarily bound by its "one China" policy. On 9 February 2017, in a lengthy phone call, US President Donald Trump and PRC Paramount leader Xi Jinping discussed numerous topics and President Trump agreed, at the request of Xi Jinping, to honor the "one China" policy.


title: One China

text: On May 23, 2022, U.S. President Joe Biden announced the United States would intervene militarily if China were to unilaterally invade Taiwan. Speaking in Japan, President Biden stated, “That’s the commitment we made,” an apparent reference to the Taiwan Relations Act, which ensures military support for Taiwan, although the Act does not specifically guarantee direct military action by the United States in Taiwan. President Biden emphasized that Russia's military invasion of Ukraine created an “even stronger” burden to protect Taiwan. China criticized Biden's statement as part of a "hypocritical and futile" pattern of encouragement to "'Taiwan independence' forces." Biden later stated that his remarks did not represent a change from the status quo and the U.S. position of strategic ambiguity. Secretary of State Antony Blinken also delivered a speech in which he stated that U.S. policy regarding the island had not changed, and the State Department updated its fact sheet to reinstate a line stating "we do not support Taiwan independence."


title: One China

text: Japan has recognized the People's Republic of China "as the sole legal Government of China" since 1975 but has maintained an ambiguous stance regarding the PRC's sovereignty claim over the island of Taiwan.


title: One China

text: In 1949, the Soviet Union recognized the People's Republic of China as the only lawful government of China. The ROC on Taiwan had cancelled the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance treaty in response. The Soviet Union voted to admit the PRC into the UN in 1971.


title: One China

text: As with the past leaderships, the Russian government has accepted its support for the One-China policy that Taiwan is "an inalienable part of China, and opposes any forms of independence." as stated in Article 5 of the 2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship. This was reaffirmed in January 2022 when Russian and PRC leaders Vladimir Putin and Xi Jinping discussed the situation in the midst of the ongoing crisis in Ukraine and again in July 2022 by Russian foreign minister Sergei Lavrov as Nancy Pelosi begins to visit Taiwan.


title: One China

text: The Philippines like many countries maintains a One China Policy. However it maintains economic and cultural relations with the Republic of China or Taiwan despite officially recognizing the People's Republic of China as the sole legitimate government of China since 1975. Lito Banayo, chair of the Manila Economic and Cultural Office in Taiwan remarked that the country's One China Policy only proscribes the Philippines to enter into political and military agreements with the ROC.


title: One China

text: The acknowledgment of the One-China principle is also a prerequisite by the People's Republic of China government for any cross-strait dialogue be held with groups from Taiwan. The PRC's One-China policy rejects formulas which call for "two Chinas" or "one China, one Taiwan" and has stated that efforts to divide the sovereignty of China could be met with military force.


title: One China

text: The PRC has explicitly stated that it is flexible about the meaning "one China", and that "one China" may not necessarily be synonymous with the PRC, and has offered to talk with parties on Taiwan and the government on Taiwan on the basis of the Consensus of 1992 which states that there is one China, but that there are different interpretations of that one China. For example, in Premier Zhu Rongji's statements prior to the 2000 Presidential Election in Taiwan, he stated that as long as any ruling power in Taiwan accepts the One-China principle, they can negotiate and discuss anything freely.


title: One China

text: However, the One-China principle would apparently require that Taiwan formally give up any possibility of Taiwanese independence, and would preclude any "one nation, two states" formula similar to ones used in German "Ostpolitik" or in Korean reunification. Chen Shui-bian, president of the Republic of China between 2000 and 2008 repeatedly rejected the demands to accept the One-China principle and instead called for talks to discuss One China itself. With the January and March 2008 elections in Taiwan, and the election of Ma Ying-jeou as the President of the ROC, who was inaugurated on 20 May, a new era of better relations between both sides of the Taiwan Strait was established. KMT officials visited Mainland China, and the Chinese ARATS met in Beijing with its Taiwanese counterpart, the Straits Exchange Foundation. Direct charter flights were therefore established.


title: One China

text: One China was the formulation held by the ROC government before the 1990s, but it was asserted that the one China was the Republic of China rather than PRC. However, in 1991, President Lee Teng-hui indicated that he would not challenge the Communist authorities to rule mainland China. This is a significant point in the history of Cross-Strait relations in that a president of the ROC no longer claims administrative authority over mainland China. Henceforth, the Taiwan independence movement gained a political boost, and under Lee's administration the issue is no longer who rules mainland China, but who claims legitimacy over Taiwan and the surrounding islands. Over the course of the 1990s, President Lee appeared to drift away from the One-China formulation, leading many to believe that he was actually sympathetic to Taiwan independence. In 1999, Lee proposed a special state-to-state relations for mainland China–Taiwan relations which was received angrily by Beijing, which ended semi-official dialogue until June 2008, when ARATS and SEF met, and in which President Ma Ying-jeou reiterated the 1992 Consensus and the different interpretation on "One China".


title: One China

text: After the election of Chen Shui-bian in 2000, the policy of the ROC government was to propose negotiations without preconditions. While Chen did not explicitly reject Lee's two states theory, he did not explicitly endorse it either. Throughout 2001, there were unsuccessful attempts to find an acceptable formula for both sides, such as agreeing to "abide by the 1992 consensus". Chen, after assuming the Democratic Progressive Party chairmanship in July 2002, moved to a somewhat less ambiguous policy, and stated in early August 2002 that "it is clear that both sides of the straits are separate countries". This statement was strongly criticized by opposition Pan-Blue Coalition parties on Taiwan, which support a One-China principle, but oppose defining this "One China" as the PRC.


title: One China

text: The One-China policy became an issue during the 2004 ROC Presidential election. Chen Shui-bian abandoned his earlier ambiguity and publicly rejected the One-China principle claiming it would imply that Taiwan is part of the PRC. His opponent Lien Chan publicly supported a policy of "one China, different interpretations", as done in 1992. At the end of the 2004 election, Lien Chan and his running mate, James Soong, later announced that they would not put ultimate unification as the goal for their cross-strait policy and would not exclude the possibility of an independent Taiwan in the future. In an interview with Time Asia bureau prior to the 2004 presidential elections, Chen used the model of Germany and the European Union as examples of how countries may come together, and the Soviet Union as illustrating how a country may fragment.


title: One China

text: In March 2005, the PRC passed an Anti-Secession Law which authorized the use of force to prevent a "serious incident" that breaks the One-China policy, but which at the same time did not identify one China with the People's Republic and offered to pursue political solutions. At the same session of the PRC Congress, a large increase in military spending was also passed, leading blue team members to interpret those measures as forcing the ROC to adhere to the One-China policy or else the PRC would attack.


title: One China

text: In April and May 2005, Lien Chan and James Soong made separate trips to Mainland China, during which both explicitly supported the Consensus of 1992 and the concept of one China and in which both explicitly stated their parties' opposition to Taiwan independence. Although President Chen at one point supported the trips of Lien and Soong for defusing cross-strait tensions, he also attacked them for working with the "enemy" PRC. On 28 April 2008, Honorary Chairman Lien Chan of the then opposition Kuomintang visited Beijing and met with Hu Jintao for the fourth time since their historic encounter on 29 April 2005 in their respective capacity as party leaders of both the Chinese Communist Party and the KMT. Lien also met Chen Yunlin, director of the PRC's Taiwan Affairs Office of the State Council.


title: One China

text: On 28 May 2008, Kuomintang Chairman Wu Po-hsiung made a landmark visit to Beijing, and met and shook hands with the Communist General Secretary Hu Jintao, at the Great Hall of the People. He also visited the mausoleum of Sun Yat-sen. Hu Jintao called for resuming exchanges and talks, based on the 1992 Consensus, between mainland China's Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits (ARATS) and Taiwan's Strait Exchange Foundation (SEF), as early as possible, and practically solving problems concerning the two sides through talks on equal footing. Once the ARATS-SEF dialogue is resumed, priority should be given to issues including cross-Strait weekend chartered flights and approval for mainland China residents traveling to Taiwan, which are of the biggest concern to people on both sides of the Strait. "The KMT has won two important elections in Taiwan recently," Wu said, "which showed that the mainstream opinion of the Taiwan people identified with what the KMT stood for, and most of the Taiwan people agree that the two sides on the strait can achieve peaceful development and a win-win situation". Wu also told reporters that he had stressed to Hu that Taiwan needed an international presence. "The Taiwanese people need a sense of security, respect and a place in the international community", Wu said. Hu was also quoted as having promised to discuss feasible measures for Taiwan to take part in international activities, particularly its participation in World Health Organization activities.


title: Esri

text: Esri (; Environmental Systems Research Institute) is an American multinational geographic information system (GIS) software company. It is best known for its ArcGIS products. With a 43% market share, Esri is the world's leading supplier of GIS software, web GIS and geodatabase management applications. The company is headquartered in Redlands, California.


title: Esri

text: Founded as the Environmental Systems Research Institute in 1969 as a land-use consulting firm, Esri currently has 49 offices worldwide including 11 research and development centers in the United States, Europe, the Middle East and Africa and Asia Pacific. There are 10 regional U.S. offices and over 3,000 partners globally, with users in every country and a total of over a million active users in 350,000 organizations. These include Fortune 500 companies, most national governments, 20,000 cities, all 50 US States and 7,000+ universities. The firm has 4,000 total employees, and is privately held by its founders. In a 2016 Investor's Business Daily article, Esri's annual revenues were indicated to be $1.1 billion.


title: Esri

text: The company hosts an annual International User's Conference, which was first held on the Redlands campus in 1981 with 16 attendees. The 43rd User Conference was held in San Diego at the San Diego Convention Center. In 2022, 31,590 users from 142 countries attended either in person or digitally.


title: Esri

text: Esri uses the name ArcGIS to refer to its suite of GIS software products, which operate on desktop, server, and mobile platforms. ArcGIS also includes developer products and web services. In a general sense, the term GIS describes any information system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares and displays geographic information for informing decision making. The term GIS-Centric, however, has been specifically defined as the use of the Esri ArcGIS geodatabase as the asset and feature data repository central to computerized maintenance management systems (CMMS) as a part of enterprise asset management and analytical software systems. GIS-centric certification criteria have been specifically defined by NAGCS, the National Association of GIS-Centric Solutions.


title: Esri

text: As of January 2021, the company's desktop GIS suite is ArcGIS Desktop version 10.8.1 and ArcGIS Pro 2.7. ArcGIS Desktop consists of several integrated applications, including ArcMap, ArcCatalog, ArcToolbox, ArcScene, ArcGlobe, and ArcGIS Pro. The suite's main application today is ArcGIS Pro which is slowly replacing the former main components, ArcMap, ArcCatalog and ArcToolbox. Collectively these applications allow users to author, analyze, map, manage, share, and publish geographic information. ArcGIS Pro was introduced in early 2015 as a modern and fully 64-bit application with integrated 2D and 3D functionality. The product suite is available in three levels of licensing: Basic (formerly called ArcView), Standard (formerly called ArcEditor) and Advanced (formerly called ArcInfo). Basic provides a basic set of GIS capabilities suitable for many GIS applications. Standard, at added cost, allows more extensive data editing and manipulation, including server geodatabase editing. Advanced, at the high end, provides full, advanced analysis and data management capabilities, including geostatistical and topological analysis tools. Additionally, ArcGIS is compatible with following OGC standards: WFS, WCS, GFS and various others.


title: Esri

text: ArcGIS Desktop extensions are available, including Spatial Analyst for raster analysis, and 3D Analyst for terrain mapping and analysis. Other more specialized extensions are available from Esri and third parties.


title: Esri

text: Esri's original product, ARC/INFO, was a command line GIS product available initially on minicomputers, then on UNIX workstations. In 1992, a GUI GIS, ArcView GIS, was introduced. Over time, both products were offered in Windows versions, and ArcView also as a Macintosh product. The names ArcView and ArcInfo were used for a while to name different levels of licensing in ArcGIS Desktop, and less often refer to these original software products. The Windows version of ArcGIS is now the only ArcGIS Desktop platform that is undergoing new development for future product releases.


title: Esri

text: Server GIS products provide GIS functionality and data deployed from a central environment. ArcGIS Server is an Internet application service, used to extend the functionality of ArcGIS Desktop software to a browser based environment. It is available on Solaris and Linux as well as Windows. ArcSDE (Spatial Database Engine) is used as a Relational database management system connector for other Esri software to store and retrieve GIS data within a commercially available database: currently, it can be used with Oracle, PostgreSQL, DB2, Informix and Microsoft SQL Server databases. It supports its native SDE binary data format, Oracle Spatial, and ST_geometry.


title: Esri

text: ArcIMS (Internet Mapping Server) provides browser-based access to GIS. As of ArcGIS 10.1, ArcIMS has been deprecated in favor of ArcGIS Server, but there are still many instances of ArcIMS (10.0 and older) in production environments.


title: Esri

text: Other server-based products include Geoportal Server, ArcGIS Image Server and Tracking Server as well as several others.


title: Esri

text: Mobile GIS conflates GIS, GPS, location-based services, hand-held computing, and the growing availability of geographic data. ArcGIS technology can be deployed on a range of mobile systems from lightweight devices to PDAs, laptops, and Tablet PCs. The firm's products for this use include Collector for ArcGIS, Survey123 for ArcGIS, ArcGIS QuickCapture and more. Former products and applications in this category included ArcPad and ArcGIS for Mobile.


title: Esri

text: ArcGIS includes Internet capabilities in all Esri software products. The services, provided through ArcGIS Online at www.arcgis.com, include web APIs, hosted map and geoprocessing services, and a user sharing program. A variety of basemaps is a signature feature of ArcGIS Online. The Esri Community Maps program compiles detailed user basemap information into a common cartographic format called Topographic Basemap.


title: Esri

text: The Esri Technical Certification program was launched in January 2011. The program provides an exam based certification for Esri software. The core groups for the certification include Desktop, Developer, and Enterprise. Each subcategory under these groups have two certification levels, Associate and Professional.


title: Omega Force

text: Omega Force was founded in 1996 as the fourth Business Division of Koei, with the intention of widening the appeal of Koei's portfolio outside of their strategy and simulation games, such as "Romance of Three Kingdoms" and "Nobunaga's Ambition".


title: Omega Force

text: The studio was originally going to be named after the letter "Z", however this idea never came to fruition, as the letter "Z" can have different meanings outside of Japanese culture. Wanting to keep the last letter of the alphabet, they settled for "Omega" from the Greek alphabet. However, because of copyright concerns with the clock manufacturing company Omega SA, "Force" was added – a Japanese homophone for "fourth" – representing that they are the fourth business division.


title: Omega Force

text: "WinBack", released in 1999 for the Nintendo 64, pioneered the cover-based third-person shooter, inspiring games such as "Kill Switch", "Gears of War", and "". It also featured an early rendition of the laser sight mechanic, which would later be seen in games such as "Resident Evil 4". The cover system has since become a staple of the third-person shooter genre.


title: Omega Force

text: In 2018 Omega Force released the next entry in their key franchise "Dynasty Warriors", dubbed "Dynasty Warriors 9", moving the franchise from its arena-based combat to an open-world. Producers Masaki Furusawa and Akihiro Suzuki planned to overhaul the franchise's often criticized combat system.


title: Omega Force

text: Dynasty Warriors, known in Japan as , is the first and the largest "Warriors" sub-series. In Japanese, all games after "Dynasty Warriors 2" carry the title, but English localizations continue to use "Dynasty Warriors", putting all international releases a number ahead of their Japanese counterparts.


title: Omega Force

text: Samurai Warriors, known as is the series based loosely around the Sengoku ("Warring States") period of Japanese history.


title: Omega Force

text: Warriors Orochi, known as in Japan, is a series developed by Koei and Omega Force. It is a crossover of "Dynasty Warriors" and "Samurai Warriors".


title: Omega Force

text: Dynasty Warriors: Gundam, originally released in Japan as , is a series which based on the "Gundam" anime series. Games were developed by Omega Force and published by Bandai Namco Games.


title: Omega Force

text: Fist of the North Star: Ken's Rage, released in Japan as , is a series developed by Omega Force and published by Tecmo Koei. It is based on the manga franchise "Fist of the North Star" by Buronson and Tetsuo Hara.


title: Omega Force

text: One Piece: Pirate Warriors, also known in Japan as , is a series developed by Omega Force and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment. It is based on the "One Piece" manga and anime franchise by Eiichiro Oda.


title: Omega Force

text: Hyrule Warriors also known in Japan as is a series based on "The Legend of Zelda", developed by Omega Force and published by Koei Tecmo in Japan and by Nintendo in overseas.


title: Omega Force

text: Fire Emblem Warriors also known in Japan as is a series based on the "Fire Emblem" series, developed by Omega Force and published by Koei Tecmo in Japan and by Nintendo overseas.


title: Kunsthistorisches Museum

text: The Kunsthistorisches Museum ( "Museum of Art History", often referred to as the "Museum of Fine Arts") is an art museum in Vienna, Austria. Housed in its festive palatial building on the Vienna Ring Road, it is crowned with an octagonal dome. The term "Kunsthistorisches Museum" applies to both the institution and the main building. It is the largest art museum in the country and one of the most important museums worldwide.


title: Kunsthistorisches Museum

text: Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary opened the facility around 1891 at the same time as the Natural History Museum, Vienna which has a similar design and is directly across Maria-Theresien-Platz. The two buildings were constructed between 1871 and 1891 according to plans by Gottfried Semper and Baron Karl von Hasenauer. The emperor commissioned the two Ringstraße museums to create a suitable home for the Habsburgs' formidable art collection and to make it accessible to the general public. The buildings are rectangular in shape, with symmetrical Renaissance Revival façades of sandstone lined with large arched windows on the main levels and topped with an octagonal dome high. The interiors of the museums are lavishly decorated with marble, stucco ornamentation, gold-leaf, and murals. The grand stairway features paintings by Gustav Klimt, Ernst Klimt, Franz Matsch, Hans Makart and Mihály Munkácsy.


title: Kunsthistorisches Museum

text: The museum's primary collections are those of the Habsburgs, particularly from the portrait and armour collections of Ferdinand of Tirol, the collections of Emperor Rudolph II (the largest part of which is, however, scattered), and the collection of paintings of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm, of which his Italian paintings were first documented in the "Theatrum Pictorium".


title: Kunsthistorisches Museum

text: In 2010, an Austrian government panel recommended that the Kunsthistorisches Museum should restitute two altar panels by the 16th-century Dutch artist, Maerten van Heemskerck to the heirs of Richard Neumann, a Jewish art collector in Vienna plundered by the Nazis.


title: Kunsthistorisches Museum

text: In 2015, a dispute over a painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, "The Fight Between Carnival and Lent" (1559) erupted between Poland and Austria. Poland presented evidence that the painting had been seized by Charlotte von Wächter, the wife of Krakow's Nazi governor Otto von Wächter, during the German occupation of Poland. The Kunsthistorisches Museum, insisted that it had owned the painting since the 17th century, and that the artwork seized by von Wächter in 1939 "was a different painting".


title: Kunsthistorisches Museum

text: One of the museum's most important objects, the "Cellini Salt Cellar" sculpture by Benvenuto Cellini, was stolen on 11 May 2003 and recovered on 21 January 2006, in a box buried in a forest near the town of Zwettl. It was featured in an episode of "Museum Secrets" on the History Channel. It had been the greatest art theft in Austrian history.


title: Kunsthistorisches Museum

text: The museum is the subject of Johannes Holzhausen's documentary film "The Great Museum" (2014), filmed over two years in the run up to the re-opening of the newly renovated and expanded Kunstkammer rooms in 2013.


title: Kunsthistorisches Museum

text: From October 2018 through January 2019 the museum hosted the world's largest-ever exhibition of works by Pieter Bruegel the Elder called "Bruegel – Once in a Lifetime".


title: Exhibition

text: An exhibition, in the most general sense, is an organized presentation and display of a selection of items. In practice, exhibitions usually occur within a cultural or educational setting such as a museum, art gallery, park, library, exhibition hall, or World's fairs. Exhibitions can include many things such as art in both major museums and smaller galleries, interpretive exhibitions, natural history museums and history museums, and also varieties such as more commercially focused exhibitions and trade fairs.


title: Exhibition

text: In British English the word "exhibition" is used for a collection of items placed on display and the event as a whole, which in American English is usually an "exhibit". In both varieties of English each object being shown within an exhibition is an "exhibit". In common usage, "exhibitions" are considered temporary and usually scheduled to open and close on specific dates. While many exhibitions are shown in just one venue, some exhibitions are shown in multiple locations and are called travelling exhibitions, and some are online exhibitions. Exhibitions featuring especially fragile or valuable objects, or live animals—may be shown only during a formal presentation, under the close supervision of attendant or educator. Temporary exhibits that are transported from institution to institution are traveling exhibits.


title: Exhibition

text: Though exhibitions are common events, the concept of an exhibition is quite wide and encompasses many variables. Exhibitions range from an extraordinarily large event such as a World's fair exposition to small one-artist solo shows or a display of just one item. Often a team of specialists is required to assemble and execute an exhibition; these specialists vary depending on the type of said exhibit. Curators are sometimes involved as the people who select the items in an exhibition. Writers and editors are sometimes needed to write text, labels and accompanying printed material such as catalogs and books. Architects, exhibition designers, graphic designers and other designers may be needed to shape the exhibition space and give form to the editorial content. Organizing and holding exhibitions also requires effective event planning, management, and logistics.


title: Exhibition

text: The exhibition came fully into its own in the 19th century, but various temporary exhibitions had been held before that, especially the regular displays of mostly new art in major cities. The Paris Salon of the Académie des Beaux-Arts was the most famous of these, beginning in 1667, and open to the public from 1737. By the mid-18th century this and its equivalents in other countries had become crucial for developing and maintaining the reputation of contemporary artists. In London the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition has been held annually since 1769, and the British Institution ran temporary exhibitions from 1805 to 1867, typically twice a year, with one of new British painting and one of loans of old masters from the Royal Collection and the aristocratic collections of English country houses.


title: Exhibition

text: By the mid-19th century many of the new national museums of Europe were in place, and holding exhibitions of their own collections, or loaned collections, or a mixture of objects from both sourcers, which remains a typical mix today. The "Chronology of Temporary Exhibitions at the British Museum" goes back to 1838.


title: Exhibition

text: The tradition of the Universal exposition "world Expo" or "World's Fair" began with the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London; these are only held every few years. The Eiffel Tower in Paris was built for the Exposition Universelle (1889) and served as an entrance arch.


title: Exhibition

text: Modern exhibitions may be concerned with preservation, education and demonstration, early exhibitions were designed to attract public interest and curiosity. Before the widespread adoption of photography, the exhibition of a single object could attract large crowds. Visitors might even be overcome with Stendhal syndrome, feeling dizzy or overwhelmed by the intense sensory experience of an exhibit. Today, there is still tension between the design of exhibits for educational purposes or for the purpose of attracting and entertaining an audience, as a tourist attraction.


title: Exhibition

text: Art exhibitions include an array of artifacts from countless forms of human making: paintings, drawings, crafts, sculpture, video installations, sound installations, performances, interactive art. Art exhibitions may focus on one artist, one group, one genre, one theme or one collection; or may be organized by curators, selected by juries, or show any artwork submitted.


title: Exhibition

text: Fine arts exhibitions typically highlight works of art with generous space and lighting, supplying information through labels or audioguides designed to be unobtrusive to the art itself.


title: Exhibition

text: Exhibitions may occur in series or periodically, as in the case with Biennales, triennials and quadrennials. The first art exhibition to be called a blockbuster was allegedly the 1960 Picasso show at Tate in London.


title: Exhibition

text: Interpretive exhibitions are exhibitions that require more context to explain the items being displayed. This is generally true of exhibitions devoted to scientific and historical themes, where text, dioramas, charts, maps and interactive displays may provide necessary explanation of background and concepts. Interpretive exhibitions generally require more text and more graphics than fine art exhibitions do.


title: Exhibition

text: The topics of interpretive graphics cover a wide range including archaeology, anthropology, ethnology, history, science, technology and natural history.


title: Exhibition

text: Commercial exhibitions, generally called trade fairs, trade shows or expos, are usually organized so that organizations in a specific interest or industry can showcase and demonstrate their latest products, service, study activities of rivals and examine recent trends and opportunities. Some trade fairs are open to the public, while others can only be attended by company representatives (members of the trade) and members of the press.


title: Exhibition

text: Changes in scholarly communication and the rise of the Internet have led to the creation of online exhibitions or digital exhibitions. These can include the digital viewing of physical exhibits; video tours of museums, art galleries and other cultural venues; and/or online exhibitions of "born digital" art, models or educational tools. The integration of information technology into museums and archives has also created opportunities for interactive and multimedia experiences inside cultural institutions. Many museums and galleries have extensive online resources that complement or enhance their physical exhibits. For example, the British Museum, the Louvre, the MET have put their collections online. Another example from 2009, "Public Poet, Private Man," an online exhibit on the work of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, was recognized as an outstanding digital exhibit by the Association of College and Research Libraries (ARCL).


title: Exhibition

text: Some museums are classified as virtual museums. They are exclusively digital and offer a wide range of online exhibitions, notably the International Museum of Women, Tucson LGBTQ Museum, Virtual Museum of Canada, Virtual Museum of Modern Nigerian Art, Museum With No Frontiers.


title: Machining

text: Machining is a process in which a material (often metal) is cut to a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. The processes that have this common theme are collectively called subtractive manufacturing, which utilizes machine tools, in contrast to "additive manufacturing" (3D printing), which uses controlled addition of material.


title: Machining

text: Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products, but it can also be used on other materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composite material. A person who specializes in machining is called a machinist. A room, building, or company where machining is done is called a machine shop. Much of modern-day machining is carried out by computer numerical control (CNC), in which computers are used to control the movement and operation of the mills, lathes, and other cutting machines. This increases efficiency, as the CNC machine runs unmanned therefore reducing labour costs for machine shops.


title: Machining

text: The precise meaning of the term "machining" has evolved over the past one and a half centuries as technology has advanced. In the 18th century, the word "machinist" simply meant a person who built or repaired machines. This person's work was done mostly by hand, using processes such as the carving of wood and the hand-forging and hand-filing of metal. At the time, millwrights and builders of new kinds of "engines" (meaning, more or less, machines of any kind), such as James Watt or John Wilkinson, would fit the definition. The noun "machine tool" and the verb "to machine" ("machined, machining") did not yet exist.


title: Machining

text: Around the middle of the 20th century, the latter words were coined as the concepts that they described evolved into widespread existence. Therefore, during the Machine Age, "machining" referred to (what we today might call) the "traditional" machining processes, such as turning, boring, drilling, milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planing, abrasive cutting, reaming, and tapping. In these "traditional" or "conventional" machining processes, machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, drill presses, or others, are used with a sharp cutting tool to remove material to achieve a desired geometry.


title: Machining

text: Since the advent of new technologies in the post–World War II era, such as electrical discharge machining, electrochemical machining, electron beam machining, photochemical machining, and ultrasonic machining, the retronym "conventional machining" can be used to differentiate those classic technologies from the newer ones. In current usage, the term "machining" without qualification usually implies the traditional machining processes.


title: Machining

text: In the decades of the 2000s and 2010s, as additive manufacturing (AM) evolved beyond its earlier laboratory and rapid prototyping contexts and began to become common throughout all phases of manufacturing, the term "subtractive manufacturing" became common retronymously in logical contrast with AM, covering essentially any removal processes also previously covered by the term "machining". The two terms are effectively synonymous, although the long-established usage of the term "machining" continues. This is comparable to the idea that evolved because of the proliferation of ways to contact someone (telephone, email, IM, SMS, and so on) but did not entirely replace the earlier terms such as "call", "talk to", or "write to".


title: Machining

text: The three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing, boring, broaching and sawing.


title: Machining

text: An unfinished workpiece requiring machining will need to have some material cut away to create a finished product. A finished product would be a workpiece that meets the specifications set out for that workpiece by engineering drawings or blueprints. For example, a workpiece may be required to have a specific outside diameter. A lathe is a machine tool that can be used to create that diameter by rotating a metal workpiece, so that a cutting tool can cut metal away, creating a smooth, round surface matching the required diameter and surface finish. A drill can be used to remove metal in the shape of a cylindrical hole. Other tools that may be used for various types of metal removal are milling machines, saws, and grinding machines. Many of these same techniques are used in woodworking.


title: Machining

text: As a commercial venture, machining is generally performed in a machine shop, which consists of one or more workrooms containing major machine tools. Although a machine shop can be a stand-alone operation, many businesses maintain internal machine shops which support specialized needs of the business.


title: Machining

text: Machining requires attention to many details for a workpiece to meet the specifications set out in the engineering drawings or blueprints. Beside the obvious problems related to correct dimensions, there is the problem of achieving the correct finish or surface smoothness on the workpiece. The inferior finish found on the machined surface of a workpiece may be caused by incorrect clamping, a dull tool, or inappropriate presentation of a tool. Frequently, this poor surface finish, known as chatter, is evident by an undulating or irregular finish, and the appearance of waves on the machined surfaces of the workpiece.


title: Machining

text: Machining is any process in which a cutting tool is used to remove small chips of material from the workpiece (the workpiece is often called the "work"). To perform the operation, relative motion is required between the tool and the work. This relative motion is achieved in most machining operation by means of a primary motion, called "cutting speed" and a secondary motion called "feed". The shape of the tool and its penetration into the work surface, combined with these motions, produce the desired shape of the resulting work surface.


title: Machining

text: There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of generating a certain part geometry and surface texture.


title: Machining

text: In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape. The primary motion is provided by rotating the workpiece, and the feed motion is achieved by moving the cutting tool slowly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.


title: Machining

text: Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that typically has two or four helical cutting edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into the workpiece to form the round hole.


title: Machining

text: In boring, a tool with a single bent pointed tip is advanced into a roughly made hole in a spinning workpiece to slightly enlarge the hole and improve its accuracy. It is a fine finishing operation used in the final stages of product manufacture.


title: Machining

text: Reaming is one of the sizing operations that removes a small amount of metal from a hole already drilled.


title: Machining

text: In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly relative to the material to generate a plane or straight surface. The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool's axis of rotation. The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are:


title: Machining

text: Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planing, broaching and sawing. Also, grinding and similar abrasive operations are often included within the category of machining.


title: Machining

text: A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder than the work material. The cutting edge serves to separate chip from the parent work material. Connected to the cutting edge are the two surfaces of the tool:


title: Machining

text: The rake face which directs the flow of newly formed chip, is oriented at a certain angle is called the rake angle "α". It is measured relative to the plane perpendicular to the work surface. The rake angle can be positive or negative. The flank of the tool provides a clearance between the tool and the newly formed work surface, thus protecting the surface from abrasion, which would degrade the finish. This angle between the work surface and the flank surface is called the relief angle. There are two basic types of cutting tools:


title: Machining

text: A single point tool has one cutting edge and is used for turning, boring and planing. During machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the workpart. The point is sometimes rounded to a certain radius, called the nose radius.


title: Machining

text: Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their motion relative to the workpart by rotating. Drilling and milling use rotating multiple-cutting-edge tools. Although the shapes of these tools are different from a single-point tool, many elements of tool geometry are similar.


title: Machining

text: Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a machining operation. The primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed. In addition, the tool must be moved laterally across the work. This is a much slower motion, called the feed. The remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool below the original work surface, called the depth of cut. Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the cutting conditions. They form the three dimensions of the machining process, and for certain operations, their product can be used to obtain the material removal rate for the process:


title: Machining

text: Machining operations usually divide into two categories, distinguished by purpose and cutting conditions:


title: Machining

text: Roughing cuts are used to remove large amount of material from the starting workpart as rapidly as possible, i.e. with a large Material Removal Rate (MRR), in order to produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving some material on the piece for a subsequent finishing operation.


title: Machining

text: Finishing cuts are used to complete the part and achieve the final dimension, tolerances, and surface finish. In production machining jobs, one or more roughing cuts are usually performed on the work, followed by one or two finishing cuts. Roughing operations are done at high feeds and depths – feeds of 0.4–1.25 mm/rev (0.015–0.050 in/rev) and depths of 2.5–20 mm (0.100–0.750 in) are typical, but actual values depend on the workpiece materials. Finishing operations are carried out at low feeds and depths – feeds of 0.0125–0.04 mm/rev (0.0005–0.0015 in/rev) and depths of 0.75–2.0 mm (0.030–0.075 in) are typical. Cutting speeds are lower in roughing than in finishing.


title: Machining

text: A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool and lubricate the cutting tool. Determining whether a cutting fluid should be used, and, if so, choosing the proper cutting fluid, is usually included within the scope of cutting condition.


title: Machining

text: Today other forms of metal cutting are becoming increasingly popular. An example of this is water jet cutting. Water jet cutting involves pressurized water in excess of 620 MPa (90 000 psi) and is able to cut metal and have a finished product. This process is called cold cutting, which eliminates the damage caused by a heat affected zone, as opposed to laser and plasma cutting.