title: Gun Control Act of 1968

text: Congress adopted most of our recommendations. But this bill—as big as this bill is—still falls short, because we just could not get the Congress to carry out the requests we made of them. I asked for the national registration of all guns and the licensing of those who carry those guns. For the fact of life is that there are over 160 million guns in this country—more firearms than families. If guns are to be kept out of the hands of the criminal, out of the hands of the insane, and out of the hands of the irresponsible, then we just must have licensing. If the criminal with a gun is to be tracked down quickly, then we must have registration in this country. The voices that blocked these safeguards were not the voices of an aroused nation. They were the voices of a powerful lobby, a gun lobby, that has prevailed for the moment in an election year.


title: Gun Control Act of 1968

text: At the time of its passage in 1968, NRA executive vice president Franklin Orth wrote in "American Rifleman" that "the measure as a whole appears to be one that the sportsmen of America can live with".


title: Gun Control Act of 1968

text: In the May 1993 issue of "Guns & Ammo" magazine, Jews for the Preservation of Firearms Ownership (JPFO) compared the GCA to Nazi gun laws.


title: Gun Control Act of 1968

text: In a 2011 article noting the death of former U.S. Senator James A. McClure, the NRA called provisions of the GCA "draconian". McClure was cosponsor of the Firearm Owners Protection Act (FOPA) of 1986, also called the McClure-Volkmer Act.


title: Gun Control Act of 1968

text: Political scientist Robert Spitzer wrote in 2011 that the Gun Control Act of 1968 "provides an ideal case study to highlight the political processes affecting a direct effort to regulate firearms". He also stated in his book that President Johnson's proposal called for national registration of all guns as well as licensing for all gun carriers, but his influence over the enacted law was small. House Rules Committee chair William Colmer only released H.R. 17735 to the floor after Judiciary Committee chair Emanuel Celler promised to oppose efforts to add licensing and registration provisions.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: The Caterpillar D11T is a large bulldozer, manufactured by Caterpillar Inc. in East Peoria, Illinois, and mainly used in the mining industry. Primarily designed as a bulldozer, it is also used for push-loading scrapers, and ripping rock overburden.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: The D11N was introduced in February 1986 to replace the D10. The D11N had some major improvements over the D10: it includes a bigger track and blade, and a longer track by . The U blade was just under long and high. This increased the blade capacity to . The D11N's weight was . It was powered by a , 3508 V-8 diesel engine. The D11N's improvements made it over 10 percent more productive than the D10. In 1987 a hydraulically powered impact ripper was added to the D11N which raised the weight up to . This would become known as the D11N Impact Ripper.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: The D11R and D11R Carrydozer were introduced in Las Vegas, Nevada, at MINExpo International in 1996. Both were and that would be increased to later in 1997. Other improvements made to the D11R were fingertip controls and electronic clutch and brakes. The finger tip controls (FTC) allowed the D11R to be steered with small fingertip clutches on the left hand side. The D11R now weighed . The Carrydozer version has a special blade with a curvature that allowed 57 cy ( 43.6 m³) to be pushed. This blade design was introduced by Komatsu on their D575 A-2 dozers in 1995 as the Superdozer version. The deeper curvature of the Carrydozer/Superdozer blades literally carry the dirt moved, and the weight of the load increases pressure on the undercarriage and is thereby increasing the traction of the bulldozer. The increased weight on the undercarriage means also higher contact pressure between rollers and track links, which can increase wear significantly. These higher undercarriage costs must be considered when opting for a Carrydozer version. Komatsu developed a lengthened Superdozer undercarriage with two additional rollers per side to reduce wear, a step that Caterpillar avoided for their Carrydozer machines. The Carrydozer had the structure strengthened considerably for the extra weight and much bigger blade that it carried up front, also, the ripper was fitted with an additional counterweight block. Both D11R and D11R CD received a new Caterpillar 3508B EUI electronically controlled unit injector diesel engine with electronic controls at . The Carrydozer's weight is just over at . According to Caterpillar, by the year 2000 over 3,000 D11s had been produced at their plant in East Peoria.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: The current D11T was introduced in early 2008 and is also . It comes as a regular bulldozer and a carrydozer like the previous model. As with the D11R, the D11T Carrydozer can push while the regular D11T can push of earth. A new D11T was on display at the Caterpillar display at Minexpo during the 22 to 24 September 2008 expo in Las Vegas, Nevada.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: The D11T and D11T CD are both powered by the CAT C32 engine with ACERT technology. The D11R and the D11T differ in the configuration and layout of their operator controls; several levers have been changed into electronic switches, and several controls have been moved for increased visibility. Another difference is that the D11T has its exhaust mufflers closer to the front of the cab, similar to the D10T. They stand taller than the ones on the D11N/D11R.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: In November of 2018, a number of enhancements were introduced and announced for the current D11T/D11T CD machines.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: These machines are so big that they must be partially dismantled for shipment to most sites. Some are shipped in the United States by railroad flatcars with the blade, push arms and ripper frame removed. Others are dismantled into several units for transport by multiple semi-trailer trucks.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: There is also a special "Coal U-Blade", capable of carrying 74.9 cubic metres (98.0 cu yd). These are only attached to bulldozers that work solely on coal.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: D11s are primarily used for moving large quantities of material (dirt, rock, aggregate, soil etc.) short distances in relatively confined places. For example, they are often used in quarries. The D11 is most commonly found in use in large scale forestry, mining, and quarry operations.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: D11s can be adapted for agricultural and rock ripping by fitting a ripper, a long claw-like device on the back of the tractor. Rippers can come singly (single shank) or in groups of two or more (multi shank rippers). Usually, a single shank is preferred for heavy ripping.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: Ripping rock allows the ground surface rock to be broken into small, easy to handle and transport rubble which can then be removed so that grading can take place.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: Agricultural ripping allows rocky or very hard earth to be broken up so that otherwise inarable land can be used for agriculture. For example, much of the best land in the California wine country consists of old lava flows. Ripping shatters the igneous rock, allowing the growth of wine grapes. Hard earth can also be ripped and decompacted to allow the planting of orchards which otherwise could not grow on the land.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: The Caterpillar D11 can be distinguished from the Komatsu D475 by the elevated drive sprocket, or "High Drive" system, which results in a triangular, rather than oval, shaped track.


title: Caterpillar D11

text: A bigger machine, the Acco super bulldozer, was built by Italian firm ACCO, with twin Caterpillar diesel engines giving a combined power of , and weighing , in the 1980s, but this was a custom built model.


Through the Past, Darkly (Big Hits Vol. 2) is the second compilation album by the English rock band the Rolling Stones, released in September 1969 by Decca Records in the UK and London Records/ABKCO Records in the US.


title: Through the Past, Darkly (Big Hits Vol. 2)

text: According to Bruce Eder of AllMusic, the album resulted from "three coinciding events – the need to acknowledge the death of the band’s founder Brian Jones (whose epitaph graces the inside cover) in July 1969; the need to get 'Honky Tonk Women,' then a huge hit single, onto an LP; and to fill the ten-month gap since the release of "Beggars Banquet" and get an album with built-in appeal into stores ahead of the Stones' first American tour in three years."


text: Because the Stones' first "Big Hits" compilation had been released in separate formats, with the "Aftermath"-era material appearing only on its UK edition, the American edition of "Big Hits Vol. 2" included hit singles from the "Aftermath" period.


text: The British track listing included the more obscure "You Better Move On", from The Rolling Stones' self-titled 1964 debut EP and "Sittin' on a Fence", an "Aftermath" outtake originally released in 1967 on the US-compiled "Flowers" album. In addition to those songs, many tracks, notably single-only releases, were collected for the first time on a UK Rolling Stones album: "Let's Spend the Night Together", "Ruby Tuesday", "We Love You", "Dandelion", and "Honky Tonk Women".


text: The name of the album is a play on a line from the KJV translation of 1 Corinthians 13: "For now we see through a glass, darkly, but then face to face..."


text: The LP was packaged in an eight-sided die-cut gatefold sleeve, featuring an epitaph for Jones: "When this you see, remember me and bear me in your mind. Let all the world say what they may, speak of me as you find." Album cover design John Kosh


text: Released on 12 September 1969, both versions of "Through the Past, Darkly (Big Hits Vol. 2)" proved to be popular releases, reaching #2 in the UK and US with enduring sales.


text: In August 2002 the US edition of "Through the Past, Darkly (Big Hits Vol. 2)" was reissued in a new remastered CD and SACD digipak by ABKCO Records.


text: The British version was again made available to the public as part of a limited edition vinyl box set, titled "The Rolling Stones 1964–1969", in November 2010. It was also re-released digitally at the same time.


text: It was released in 2011 by Universal Music Enterprises in a Japanese only SHM-SACD version. For Record Store Day 2019 ABKCO Records released the record on orange vinyl, with a gatefold cover in the octagonal-shape of the original issue.


text: Reviewing for "Rolling Stone" in September 1969, Greil Marcus hailed "Through the Past, Darkly"s American edition as "an album of tremendous impact" and "one of the great party records", with all the songs fan-favorites and "loud, tough, flashy rock and roll". However, he lamented the absence of singles and early songs of the Stones that had not yet appeared on any US album, as well as the aspect of repetition in the song selection. Robert Christgau echoed this disappointment in "The Village Voice": "Some are repeated for a third time ('Ruby Tuesday,' 'Let's Spend the Night Together') while great B sides ('We Love You,' 'Who's Driving My Plane?,' 'Child of the Moon,' and 'You Can't Always Get What You Want,' which exists in a nine-minute version) remain uncollected. And whose fault is that?" More receptive was Rob Sheffield, who wrote years later in "The New Rolling Stone Album Guide" (2004) that the compilation had adequately summarised the Stones' "brief but tasty" psychedelic music period.


title: History of the metric system

text: The history of the metric system began during the Age of Enlightenment with measures of length and weight derived from nature, along with their decimal multiples and fractions. The system became the standard of France and Europe within half a century. Other measures with unity ratios were added, and the system went on to be adopted across the world.


title: History of the metric system

text: The first practical realisation of the metric system came in 1799, during the French Revolution, after the existing system of measures had become impractical for trade, and was replaced by a decimal system based on the kilogram and the metre. The basic units were taken from the natural world. The unit of length, the metre, was based on the dimensions of the Earth, and the unit of mass, the kilogram, was based on the mass of a volume of water of one litre (a cubic decimetre). Reference copies for both units were manufactured in platinum and remained the standards of measure for the next 90 years. After a period of reversion to the "mesures usuelles" due to unpopularity of the metric system, the metrication of France and much of Europe was complete by the 1850s.


title: History of the metric system

text: In the middle of the 19th century, James Clerk Maxwell conceived a coherent system where a small number of units of measure were defined as base units, and all other units of measure, called derived units, were defined in terms of the base units. Maxwell proposed three base units for length, mass and time. Advances in electromagnetism in the 19th century necessitated additional units to be defined, and multiple incompatible systems of such units came into use; none could be reconciled with the existing dimensional system. The impasse was resolved by Giovanni Giorgi, who in 1901 proved that a coherent system that incorporated electromagnetic units required a fourth base unit, of electromagnetism.


title: History of the metric system

text: The seminal 1875 Treaty of the Metre resulted in the fashioning and distribution of metre and kilogram artefacts, the standards of the future coherent system that became the SI, and the creation of an international body "Conférence générale des poids et mesures" or CGPM to oversee systems of weights and measures based on them.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1960, the CGPM launched the International System of Units (in French the "Système international d'unités" or SI) with six "base units": the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, degree Kelvin (subsequently renamed the "kelvin") and candela, plus 16 more units derived from the base units. A seventh base unit, the mole, and six other derived units were added later in the 20th century. During this period, the metre was redefined in terms of the speed of light, and the second was redefined based on the microwave frequency of a caesium atomic clock.


title: History of the metric system

text: Due to the instability of the international prototype of the kilogram, a series of initiatives were undertaken, starting in the late 20th century, to redefine the ampere, kilogram, mole and kelvin in terms of invariant constants of physics, ultimately resulting in the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, which finally eliminated the need for any physical reference artefacts—notably, this enabled the retirement of the standard kilogram.


title: History of the metric system

text: Foundational aspects of mathematics, together with an increased understanding of the natural world during the Enlightenment, set the stage for the emergence in the late 18th century of a system of measurement with rationally related units and rules for combining them.


title: History of the metric system

text: In the early ninth century, when much of what later became France was part of the Holy Roman Empire, units of measure had been standardised by the Emperor Charlemagne. He had introduced standard units of measure for length and for mass throughout his empire. As the empire disintegrated into separate nations, including France, these standards diverged. In England, Magna Carta (1215) had stipulated that "There shall be standard measures of wine, ale, and corn (the London quarter), throughout the kingdom. There shall also be a standard width of dyed cloth, russet, and haberject, namely two ells within the selvedges. Weights are to be standardised similarly."


title: History of the metric system

text: During the early medieval era, Roman numerals were used in Europe to represent numbers, but the Arabs represented numbers using the Hindu numeral system, a positional notation that used ten symbols. In about 1202, Fibonacci published his book "Liber Abaci" (Book of Calculation) which introduced the concept of positional notation into Europe. These symbols evolved into the numerals "0", "1", "2" etc. At that time, there was dispute regarding the difference between rational numbers and irrational numbers and there was no consistency in the way in which decimal fractions were represented.


title: History of the metric system

text: Simon Stevin is credited with introducing the decimal system into general use in Europe. In 1586, he published a small pamphlet called "De Thiende" ("the tenth") which historians credit as being the basis of modern notation for decimal fractions. Stevin felt that this innovation was so significant that he declared the universal introduction of decimal coinage, measures, and weights to be merely a question of time.


title: History of the metric system

text: Since the time of Charlemagne, the standard of length had been a measure of the body, that from fingertip to fingertip of the outstretched arms of a large man, from a family of body measures called "fathoms", originally used among other things, to measure depth of water. An artefact to represent the standard was cast in the most durable substance available in the Middle Ages, an iron bar . The problems of a non-reproducible artefact became apparent over the ages: it rusted, was stolen, beaten into a mortised wall until it bent, and was, at times, lost. When a new royal standard had to be cast, it was a different standard than the old one, so replicas of old ones and new ones came into existence and use. The artefact existed through the 18th century, and was called a "teise" or later, a "toise" (from Latin "tense": outstretched (arms)). This would lead to a search in the 18th century for a reproducible standard based on some invariant measure of the natural world.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1656, Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens invented the pendulum clock, with its pendulum marking the seconds. This gave rise to proposals to use its length as a standard unit. But it became apparent that the pendulum lengths of calibrated clocks in different locations varied (due to local variations in the acceleration due to gravity), and this was not a good solution. A more uniform standard was needed.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1670, Gabriel Mouton, a French abbot and astronomer, published the book "Observationes diametrorum solis et lunae apparentium" ("Observations of the apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon") in which he proposed a decimal system of measurement of length for use by scientists in international communication, to be based on the dimensions of the Earth. The "milliare" would be defined as a minute of arc along a meridian and would be divided into 10 centuria, the centuria into 10 decuria and so on, successive units being the virga, virgula, decima, centesima, and the millesima. Mouton used Riccioli's estimate that one degree of arc was 321,185 Bolognese feet, and his own experiments showed that a pendulum of length one virgula would beat 3959.2 times in half an hour. He believed that, with this information, scientists in a foreign country would be able to construct a copy of the virgula for their own use. Mouton's ideas attracted interest at the time; Picard in his work "Mesure de la Terre" (1671) and Huygens in his work "Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu pendulorum" ("Of oscillating clocks, or concerning the motion of pendulums", 1673) both proposing that a standard unit of length be tied to the beat frequency of a pendulum.


title: History of the metric system

text: Since at least the Middle Ages, the Earth had been perceived as eternal, unchanging, and of symmetrical shape (close to a sphere), so it was natural that some fractional measure of its surface should be proposed as a standard of length. But first, scientific information about the shape and size of the Earth had to be obtained.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1669, Jean Picard, a French astronomer, was the first person to measure the Earth accurately. In a survey spanning one degree of latitude, he erred by only 0.44% (Picard's arc measurement).


title: History of the metric system

text: In "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (1686), Isaac Newton gave a theoretical explanation for the "bulging equator", which also explained the differences found in the lengths of the "second pendulums", theories that were confirmed by the French Geodesic Mission to Peru undertaken by the French Academy of Sciences in 1735.


title: History of the metric system

text: By the mid-18th century, it had become apparent that it was necessary to standardise of weights and measures between nations who traded and exchanged scientific ideas with each other. Spain, for example, had aligned her units of measure with the royal units of France and Peter the Great aligned the Russian units of measure with those of England. In 1783, the British inventor James Watt, who was having difficulties in communicating with German scientists, called for the creation of a global decimal measurement system, proposing a system which used the density of water to link length and mass, and, in 1788, the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier commissioned a set of nine brass cylinders (a [French] pound and decimal subdivisions thereof) for his experimental work.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1790, a proposal floated by the French to Britain and the United States, to establish a uniform measure of length, a "metre" based on the period of a pendulum with a beat of one second, was defeated in the British Parliament and United States Congress. The underlying issue was failure to agree on the latitude for the definition, since gravitational acceleration, and, therefore, the length of the pendulum, varies (inter alia) with latitude: each party wanted a definition according to a major latitude passing through their own country. The direct consequences of the failure were the French unilateral development and deployment of the metric system and its spread by trade to the continent; the British adoption of the Imperial System of Measures throughout the realm in 1824; and the United States' retention of the British common system of measures in place at the time of the independence of the colonies. This was the position that continued for nearly the next 200 years.


title: History of the metric system

text: It has been estimated that, on the eve of the Revolution in 1789, the eight hundred or so units of measure in use in France had up to a quarter of a million different definitions because the quantity associated with each unit could differ from town to town, and even from trade to trade. Although certain standards, such as the "pied du roi" (the King's foot) had a degree of pre-eminence and were used by scientists, many traders chose to use their own measuring devices, giving scope for fraud and hindering commerce and industry. These variations were promoted by local vested interests, but hindered trade and taxation.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1790, a panel of five leading French scientists was appointed by the "Académie des sciences" to investigate weights and measures. They were Jean-Charles de Borda, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, Pierre-Simon Laplace, Gaspard Monge, and Nicolas de Condorcet.


title: History of the metric system

text: Over the following year, the panel, after studying various alternatives, made a series of recommendations regarding a new system of weights and measures, including that it should have a decimal radix, that the unit of length should be based on a fractional arc of a quadrant of the Earth's meridian, and that the unit of weight should be that of a cube of water whose dimension was a decimal fraction of the unit of length. The proposals were accepted by the French Assembly on 30 March 1791.


title: History of the metric system

text: Following acceptance, the "Académie des sciences" was instructed to implement the proposals. The "Académie" broke the tasks into five operations, allocating each part to a separate working group:


title: History of the metric system

text: The panel decided that the new measure of length should be equal to one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator (Earth quadrant), measured along the Paris meridian.


title: History of the metric system

text: Using Jean Picard's survey of 1670 and Jacques Cassini's survey of 1718, a provisional value of 443.44 "lignes" was assigned to the metre which, in turn, defined the other units of measure.


title: History of the metric system

text: While Méchain and Delambre were completing their survey, the commission had ordered a series of platinum bars to be made based on the provisional metre. When the final result was known, the bar whose length was closest to the meridional definition of the metre would be selected.


title: History of the metric system

text: After 1792, the name of the original defined unit of mass, ""gramme"", which was too small to serve as a practical realisation for many purposes, was adopted, the new prefix "kilo" was added to it to form the name ""kilogramme"". Consequently, the kilogram is the only SI base unit that has an SI prefix as part of its unit name.


title: History of the metric system

text: A provisional kilogram standard was made and work was commissioned to determine the precise mass of a cubic decimetre (later to be defined as equal to one litre) of water.


title: History of the metric system

text: The regulation of trade and commerce required a "practical realisation": a single-piece, metallic reference standard that was one thousand times more massive that would be known as the "grave". This mass unit defined by Lavoisier and René Just Haüy had been in use since 1793. This new, practical realisation would ultimately become the base unit of mass. On 7 April 1795, the "gramme", upon which the kilogram is based, was decreed to be equal to "the absolute weight of a volume of pure water equal to a cube of one hundredth of a metre, and at the temperature of the melting ice". Although the definition of the "kilogramme" specified water at 0 °C—a highly stable temperature point—it was replaced with the temperature at which water reaches maximum density. This temperature, about 4 °C, was not accurately known, but one of the advantages of the new definition was that the precise Celsius value of the temperature was not actually important. The final conclusion was that one cubic decimetre of water at its maximum density was equal to 99.92072% of the mass of the provisional kilogram.


title: History of the metric system

text: On 7 April 1795, the metric system was formally defined in French law. It defined six new decimal units:


title: History of the metric system

text: Decimal multiples of these units were defined by Greek prefixes: ""myria-"" (10,000), ""kilo-"" (1000), ""hecto-"" (100), and ""deka-"" (10) and submultiples were defined by the Latin prefixes ""deci-"" (0.1), ""centi-"" (0.01), and ""milli-"" (0.001).


title: History of the metric system

text: The task of surveying the meridian arc, which was estimated to take two years, fell to Pierre Méchain and Jean-Baptiste Delambre. The task eventually took more than six years (1792–1798) with delays caused not only by unforeseen technical difficulties but also by the convulsed period of the aftermath of the Revolution. Apart from the obvious nationalistic considerations, the Paris meridian was also a sound choice for practical scientific reasons: a portion of the quadrant from Dunkirk to Barcelona (about 1000 km, or one-tenth of the total) could be surveyed with start- and end-points at sea level, and that portion was roughly in the middle of the quadrant, where the effects of the Earth's oblateness were expected to be the largest.


title: History of the metric system

text: The project was split into two parts—the northern section of 742.7 km from the Belfry, Dunkirk to Rodez Cathedral which was surveyed by Delambre and the southern section of 333.0 km from Rodez to the Montjuïc Fortress, Barcelona which was surveyed by Méchain.


title: History of the metric system

text: Delambre used a baseline of about 10 km in length along a straight road, located close to Melun. In an operation taking six weeks, the baseline was accurately measured using four platinum rods, each of length two "toises" (about 3.9 m). Thereafter he used, where possible, the triangulation points used by Cassini in his 1744 survey of France. Méchain's baseline, of a similar length, and also on a straight section of road was in the Perpignan area. Although Méchain's sector was half the length of Delambre, it included the Pyrenees and hitherto unsurveyed parts of Spain. After the two surveyors met, each computed the other's baseline in order to cross-check their results and they then recomputed the metre as 443.296 "lignes", notably shorter than the 1795 provisional value of 443.44 "lignes". On 15 November 1798, Delambre and Méchain returned to Paris with their data, having completed the survey. The final value of the "mètre" was defined in 1799 as the computed value from the survey.


title: History of the metric system

text: In June 1799, platinum prototypes were fabricated according to the measured quantities, the "mètre des archives" defined to be a length of 443.296 lignes, and the "kilogramme des archives" defined to be a weight of 18827.15 grains of the "livre poids de marc", and entered into the French National Archives. In December of that year, the metric system based on them became by law the sole system of weights and measures in France from 1801 until 1812.


title: History of the metric system

text: Despite the law, the populace continued to use the old measures. In 1812, Napoleon revoked the law and issued one called the "mesures usuelles", restoring the names and quantities of the customary measures but redefined as round multiples of the metric units, so it was a kind of hybrid system. In 1837, after the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire, the new Assembly reimposed the metric system defined by the laws of 1795 and 1799, to take effect in 1840. The metrication of France took until about 1858 to be completed. Some of the old unit names, especially the "livre", originally a unit of mass derived from the Roman "libra" (as was the English pound), but now meaning 500 grams, are still in use today.


title: History of the metric system

text: At the start of the nineteenth century, the French Academy of Sciences' artefacts for length and mass were the only nascent units of the metric system that were defined in terms of formal standards. Other units based on them, except the "litre", proved to be short-lived. Pendulum clocks that could keep time in seconds had been in use for about 150 years, but their geometries were local to both latitude and altitude, so there was no standard of timekeeping. Nor had a unit of time been recognised as an essential base unit for the derivation of things like force and acceleration. Some quantities of electricity, like charge and potential, had been identified, but names and interrelationships of units were not yet established. Both Fahrenheit (~1724) and Celsius (~1742) scales of temperature existed, and varied instruments for measuring units or degrees of them. The base/derived unit model had not yet been elaborated, nor was it known how many physical quantities might be interrelated.


title: History of the metric system

text: A model of interrelated units was first proposed in 1861 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) based on what came to be called the "mechanical" units (length, mass, and time). Over the following decades, this foundation enabled mechanical, electrical, and thermal units to be correlated.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1832, German mathematician Carl-Friedrich Gauss made the first absolute measurements of the Earth's magnetic field using a decimal system based on the use of the millimetre, milligram, and second as the base unit of time. Gauss' second was based on astronomical observations of the rotation of the Earth, and was the sexagesimal second of the ancients: a partitioning of the solar day into two cycles of 12 periods, and each period divided into 60 intervals, and each interval so divided again, so that a second was 1/86,400th of the day. This effectively established a time dimension as a necessary constituent of any useful system of measures, and the astronomical second as the base unit.


title: History of the metric system

text: In a paper published in 1843, James Prescott Joule first demonstrated a means of measuring the energy transferred between different systems when work is done thereby relating Nicolas Clément's calorie, defined in 1824 as "the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from 0 to 1 °C at 1 atmosphere of pressure" to mechanical work. Energy became the unifying concept of nineteenth century science, initially by bringing thermodynamics and mechanics together and later adding electrical technology.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1861, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) including William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), James Clerk Maxwell, and James Prescott Joule among its members was tasked with investigating the "Standards of Electrical Resistance". In their first report (1862), they laid the ground rules for their work—the metric system was to be used, measures of electrical energy must have the same units as measures of mechanical energy, and two sets of electromagnetic units would have to be derived—an electromagnetic system and an electrostatic system. In the second report (1863), they introduced the concept of a coherent system of units whereby units of length, mass, and time were identified as "fundamental units" (now known as "base units"). All other units of measure could be derived (hence "derived units") from these base units. The metre, gram, and second were chosen as base units.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1861, before a meeting of the BAAS, Charles Bright and Latimer Clark proposed the names of ohm, volt, and farad in honour of Georg Ohm, Alessandro Volta, and Michael Faraday respectively for the practical units based on the CGS absolute system. This was supported by Thomson (Lord Kelvin). The concept of naming units of measure after noteworthy scientists was subsequently used for other units.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1873, another committee of the BAAS (which also included Maxwell and Thomson) tasked with "the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units" recommended using the cgs system of units. The committee also recommended the names of "dyne" and "erg" for the cgs units of force and energy. The cgs system became the basis for scientific work for the next seventy years.


title: History of the metric system

text: The reports recognised two centimetre–gram–second based systems for electrical units: the Electromagnetic (or absolute) system of units (EMU) and the Electrostatic system of units (ESU).


title: History of the metric system

text: In the 1820s, Georg Ohm formulated Ohm's Law, which can be extended to relate power to current, electric potential (voltage), and resistance. During the following decades, the realisation of a coherent system of units that incorporated the measurement of electromagnetic phenomena and Ohm's law was beset with problems—several different systems of units were devised.


title: History of the metric system

text: In the three CGS systems, the constants formula_1 and formula_2 and consequently formula_3 and formula_4 were dimensionless, and thus did not require any units to define them.


title: History of the metric system

text: The electrical units of measure did not easily fit into the coherent system of mechanical units defined by the BAAS. Using dimensional analysis, the dimensions of voltage formula_5 in the ESU system were identical to the dimensions of current in the EMU system, while resistance had dimensions of velocity in the EMU system, but the inverse of velocity in the ESU system.


title: History of the metric system

text: The Electromagnetic system of units (EMU) was developed from André-Marie Ampère's discovery in the 1820s of a relationship between currents in two conductors and the force between them now known as Ampere's law:


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1833, Gauss pointed out the possibility of equating this force with its mechanical equivalent. This proposal received further support from Wilhelm Weber in 1851. In this system, current is defined by setting the magnetic force constant formula_8 to unity and electric potential is defined in such a way as to ensure the unit of power calculated by the relation formula_9 is an erg/second. The electromagnetic units of measure were known as the abampere, abvolt, and so on. These units were later scaled for use in the International System.


title: History of the metric system

text: The Electrostatic system of units (ESU) was based on Coulomb's quantification in 1783 of the force acting between two charged bodies. This relationship, now known as Coulomb's law, can be written


title: History of the metric system

text: In this system, the unit for charge is defined by setting the Coulomb force constant (formula_1) to unity and the unit for electric potential was defined to ensure the unit of energy calculated by the relation formula_13 is one erg. The electrostatic units of measure were the statampere, statvolt, and so on.


title: History of the metric system

text: The Gaussian system of units was based on Heinrich Hertz's realisation, while verifying Maxwell's equations in 1888, that the electromagnetic and electrostatic units were related by:


title: History of the metric system

text: Using this relationship, he proposed merging the EMU and the ESU systems into one system using the EMU units for magnetic quantities (subsequently named the gauss and maxwell) and ESU units elsewhere. He named this combined set of units "Gaussian units". This set of units has been recognised as being particularly useful in theoretical physics.


title: History of the metric system

text: The CGS units of measure used in scientific work were not practical for engineering, leading to the development of a more applicable system of electric units especially for telegraphy. The unit of length was 10 m (the hebdometre, nominally the Earth quadrant), the unit of mass was an unnamed unit equal to 10 g and the unit of time was the second. The units of mass and length were scaled incongruously to yield more consistent and usable electric units in terms of mechanical measures. Informally called the "practical" system, it was properly termed the quadrant–eleventhgram–second (QES) system of units according to convention.


title: History of the metric system

text: The definitions of electrical units incorporated the magnetic constant like the EMU system, and the names of the units were carried over from that system, but scaled according to the defined mechanical units. The system was formalised as the International system late in the 19th century and its units later designated the "international ampere", "international volt", etc.


title: History of the metric system

text: The factor formula_15 that occurs in Maxwell's equations in the gaussian system (and the other CGS systems) comes from the formula_15 steradians surrounding a point, such as a point electric charge. This factor could be eliminated from contexts that do not involve spherical coordinates by incorporating the factor into the definitions of the quantities involved. The system was proposed by Oliver Heaviside in 1883 and is also known as the "rationalised Gaussian system of units". The SI later adopted rationalised units based on Heaviside's rationalisation scheme.


title: History of the metric system

text: Maxwell and Boltzmann had produced theories describing the interrelationship of temperature, pressure, and volume of a gas on a microscopic scale but otherwise, in 1900, there was no understanding of the microscopic nature of temperature.


title: History of the metric system

text: By the end of the nineteenth century, the fundamental macroscopic laws of thermodynamics had been formulated and, although techniques existed to measure temperature using empirical techniques, the scientific understanding of the nature of temperature was minimal.


title: History of the metric system

text: With increasing international adoption of the metre, the shortcomings of the "mètre des Archives" as a standard became ever more apparent. Countries which adopted the metre as a legal measure purchased standard metre bars that were intended to be equal in length to the "mètre des Archives", but there was no systematic way of ensuring that the countries were actually working to the same standard. The meridional definition, which had been intended to ensure international reproducibility, quickly proved so impractical that it was all but abandoned in favour of the artefact standards, but the "mètre des Archives" (and most of its copies) were "end standards": such standards (bars which are exactly one metre in length) are prone to wear with use, and different standard bars could be expected to wear at different rates.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1867, it was proposed that a new international standard metre be created, and the length was taken to be that of the "mètre des Archives" "in the state in which it shall be found". The International Conference on Geodesy in 1867 called for the creation of a new international prototype of the metre and of a system by which national standards could be compared with it. The international prototype would also be a "line standard", that is the metre was defined as the distance between two lines marked on the bar, so avoiding the wear problems of end standards. The French government gave practical support to the creation of an International Metre Commission, which met in Paris in 1870 and again in 1872 with the participation of about thirty countries.


title: History of the metric system

text: On 20 May 1875, an international treaty known as the "Convention du Mètre" (Metre Convention) was signed by 17 states. This treaty established the following organisations to conduct international activities relating to a uniform system for measurements:


title: History of the metric system

text: The international prototype of the metre and international prototype of the kilogram were both made from a 90% platinum, 10% iridium alloy which is exceptionally hard and which has good electrical and thermal conductivity properties. The prototype had a special X-shaped (Tresca) cross section to minimise the effects of torsional strain during length comparisons and the prototype kilograms were cylindrical in shape. The London firm Johnson Matthey delivered 30 prototype metres and 40 prototype kilograms. At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889, bar No. 6 and cylinder No. X were accepted as the international prototypes. The remainder were either kept as BIPM working copies or distributed to member states as national prototypes.


title: History of the metric system

text: Following the Convention of the Metre, in 1889, the BIPM had custody of two artefacts—one to define length and the other to define mass. Other units of measure which did not rely on specific artefacts were controlled by other bodies.


title: History of the metric system

text: Although the definition of the kilogram remained unchanged throughout the 20th century, the 3rd CGPM in 1901 clarified that the kilogram was a unit of mass, not of weight. The original batch of 40 prototypes (adopted in 1889) were supplemented from time to time with further prototypes for use by new signatories to the Metre Convention.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1921, the Treaty of the Metre was extended to cover electrical units, with the CGPM merging its work with that of the IEC.


title: History of the metric system

text: The 20th century history of measurement is marked by five periods: the 1901 definition of the coherent MKS system; the intervening 50 years of coexistence of the MKS, cgs and common systems of measures; the 1948 "Practical system of units" prototype of the SI; the introduction of the SI in 1960; and the evolution of the SI in the latter half century.


title: History of the metric system

text: The need for an independent electromagnetic dimension to resolve the difficulties related to defining such units in terms of length, mass, and time was identified by Giorgi in 1901. This led to Giorgi presenting a paper in October 1901 to the congress of the Associazione Elettrotecnica Italiana (A.E.I.) in which he showed that a coherent electro-mechanical system of units could be obtained by adding a fourth base unit of an electrical nature (e.g., ampere, volt, or ohm) to the three base units proposed in the 1861 BAAS report. This gave physical dimensions to the constants "k" and "k" and hence also to the electro-mechanical quantities "ε" (permittivity of free space) and "μ" (permeability of free space). His work also recognised the relevance of energy in the establishment of a coherent, rational system of units, with the joule as the unit of energy, and the electrical units in the International System of Units remaining unchanged. However, it took more than thirty years before Giorgi's work was accepted in practice by the IEC.


title: History of the metric system

text: As industry developed around the world, the cgs system of units as adopted by the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1873 with its plethora of electrical units continued to be the dominant system of measurement, and remained so for at least the next 60 years. The advantages were several: it had a comprehensive set of derived units which, while not quite coherent, were at least homologous; the MKS system lacked a defined unit of electromagnetism at all; the MKS units were inconveniently large for the sciences; customary systems of measures held sway in the United States, Britain, and the British empire, and even to some extent in France, the birthplace of the metric system, which inhibited adoption of any competing system. Finally, war, nationalism, and other political forces inhibited development of the science favouring a coherent system of units.


title: History of the metric system

text: At the 8th CGPM in 1933, the need to replace the "international" electrical units with "absolute" units was raised. The IEC proposal that Giorgi's 'system', denoted informally as MKSX, be adopted was accepted, but no decision was made as to which electrical unit should be the fourth base unit. In 1935, J. E. Sears proposed that this should be the ampere, but World War II prevented this being formalised until 1946. The first (and only) follow-up comparison of the national standards with the international prototype of the metre was carried out between 1921 and 1936, and indicated that the definition of the metre was preserved to within 0.2 µm. During this follow-up comparison, the way in which the prototype metre should be measured was more clearly defined—the 1889 definition had defined the metre as being the length of the prototype at the temperature of melting ice, but, in 1927, the 7th CGPM extended this definition to specify that the prototype metre shall be "supported on two cylinders of at least one centimetre diameter, symmetrically placed in the same horizontal plane at a distance of 571 mm from each other". The choice of 571 mm represents the Airy points of the prototype—the points at which the bending or droop of the bar is minimised.


title: History of the metric system

text: The 9th CGPM met in 1948, fifteen years after the 8th CGPM. In response to formal requests made by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and by the French government to establish a practical system of units of measure, the CGPM requested the CIPM to prepare recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement, suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention. The CIPM's draft proposal was an extensive revision and simplification of the metric unit definitions, symbols, and terminology based on the MKS system of units.


title: History of the metric system

text: Following astronomical observations, the second was set as a fraction of the year 1900. The electromagnetic base unit, as required by Giorgi, was accepted as the ampere. After negotiations with the CIS and IUPAP, two additional units—the degree kelvin and the candela—were also proposed as base units. For the first time, the CGPM made recommendations concerning derived units. At the same time, the CGPM adopted conventions for the writing and printing of unit symbols and numbers and catalogued the symbols for the most important MKS and CGS units of measure.


title: History of the metric system

text: Until the advent of the atomic clock, the most reliable timekeeper available to humanity was the Earth's rotation. It was natural, therefore, that the astronomers under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) took the lead in maintaining the standards relating to time. During the 20th century, it became apparent that the Earth's rotation was slowing down, resulting in days becoming 1.4 milliseconds longer each century—this was verified by comparing the calculated timings of eclipses of the Sun with those observed in antiquity going back to Chinese records of 763 BC. In 1956, the 10th CGPM instructed the CIPM to prepare a definition of the second; in 1958, the definition was published stating that the second (called an "ephemeris" second) would be calculated by extrapolation using Earth's rotational speed in 1900.


title: History of the metric system

text: Per Giorgi's proposals of 1901, the CIPM also recommended that the ampere be the base unit from which electromechanical units would be derived. The definitions for the ohm and volt that had previously been in use were discarded, and these units became derived units based on the ampere. In 1946, the CIPM formally adopted a definition of the ampere based on the original EMU definition and redefined the ohm in terms of other base units. The definitions for the absolute electrical system, based on the ampere, were formalised in 1948. The draft proposed units with these names are very close, but not identical, to the international units.


title: History of the metric system

text: In the Celsius scale from the 18th century, temperature was expressed in degrees Celsius with the definition that ice melted at 0 °C and (at standard atmospheric pressure) water boiled at 100 °C. A series of lookup tables defined temperature in terms of interrelated empirical measurements made using various devices. In 1948, definitions relating to temperature had to be clarified. (The degree, as an angular measure, was adopted for general use in many countries, so, in 1948, the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) recommended that the degree Celsius, as used for the measurement of temperature, be renamed the degree Celsius.)


title: History of the metric system

text: At the 9th CGPM, the Celsius temperature scale was renamed the Celsius scale, and the scale itself was fixed by defining the triple point of water as 0.01 °C, though the CGPM left the formal definition of absolute zero until the 10th CGPM when the name "Kelvin" was assigned to the absolute temperature scale, and the triple point of water was defined as being 273.16 °K.


title: History of the metric system

text: Before 1937, the International Commission on Illumination (CIE from its French title, the "Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage"), in conjunction with the CIPM, produced a standard for luminous intensity to replace the various national standards. This standard, the candela (cd), which was defined as "the brightness of the full radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum is 60 new candles per square centimetre", was ratified by the CGPM in 1948.


title: History of the metric system

text: The newly accepted definition of the ampere allowed practical and useful coherent definitions of a set of electromagnetic derived units, including farad, henry, watt, tesla, weber, volt, ohm, and coulomb. Two derived units, lux and lumen, were based on the new candela, and one, degree Celsius, equivalent to the degree Kelvin. Five other miscellaneous derived units completed the draft proposal: radian, steradian, hertz, joule, and newton.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1952, the CIPM proposed the use of wavelength of a specific light source as the standard for defining length, and, in 1960, the CGPM accepted this proposal using radiation corresponding to a transition between specified energy levels of the krypton 86 atom as the new standard for the metre. The standard metre artefact was retired.


title: History of the metric system

text: In 1960, Giorgi's proposals were adopted as the basis of the "Système International d'Unités" (International System of Units), the SI. This initial definition of the SI included six base units, the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, degree Kelvin, and candela, and sixteen coherent derived units.


title: History of the metric system

text: The evolution of the SI after its publication in 1960 has seen the addition of a seventh base unit, the "mole", and six more derived units, the "pascal" for pressure, the "gray", "sievert", and "becquerel" for radiation, the "siemens" for electrical conductance, and "katal" for catalytic (enzymatic) activity. Several units have also been redefined in terms of physical constants.


title: History of the metric system

text: Over the ensuing years, the BIPM developed and maintained cross-correlations relating various measuring devices such as thermocouples, light spectra, and the like to the equivalent temperatures.


title: History of the metric system

text: The mole was originally known as a gram-atom or a gram-molecule—the amount of a substance measured in grams divided by its atomic weight. Originally chemists and physicists had differing views regarding the definition of the atomic weight—both assigned a value of 16 atomic mass units (amu) to oxygen, but physicists defined oxygen in terms of the O isotope whereas chemists assigned 16 amu to O, O and O isotopes mixed in the proportion that they occur in nature. Finally, an agreement between the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) brought this duality to an end in 1959/60, both parties agreeing to define the atomic weight of C as being exactly 12 amu. This agreement was confirmed by ISO and in 1969 the CIPM recommended its inclusion in SI as a base unit. This was done in 1971 at the 14th CGPM.


title: History of the metric system

text: The second major trend in the post-modern SI was the migration of unit definitions in terms of physical constants of nature.


title: History of the metric system

text: Astronomers from the US Naval Observatory (USNO) and the National Physical Laboratory determined a relationship between the frequency of radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom and the estimated rate of rotation of the earth in 1900. Their atomic definition of the second was adopted in 1968 by the 13th CGPM.


title: History of the metric system

text: By 1975, when the second had been defined in terms of a physical phenomenon rather than the earth's rotation, the CGPM authorised the CIPM to investigate the use of the speed of light as the basis for the definition of the metre. This proposal was accepted in 1983.


title: History of the metric system

text: The candela definition proved difficult to implement so, in 1979, the definition was revised and the reference to the radiation source was replaced by defining the candela in terms of the power of a specified frequency of monochromatic yellowish-green visible light, which is close to the frequency where the human eye, when adapted to bright conditions, has greatest sensitivity.


title: History of the metric system

text: After the metre was redefined in 1960, the kilogram remained the only SI base defined by a physical artefact. During the years that followed, the definitions of the base units and particularly the "mise en pratique" to realise these definitions have been refined.


title: History of the metric system

text: The third periodic recalibration in 1988–1989 revealed that the average difference between the IPK and adjusted baseline for the national prototypes was 50 μg—in 1889, the baseline of the national prototypes had been adjusted so that the difference was zero. As the IPK is the definitive kilogram, there is no way of telling whether the IPK had been losing mass or the national prototypes had been gaining mass.


title: History of the metric system

text: During the course of the century, the various national prototypes of the kilogram were recalibrated against the international prototype of the kilogram (IPK) and, therefore, against each other. The initial 1889 starting-value offsets of the national prototypes relative to the IPK were nulled, with any subsequent mass changes being relative to the IPK.


title: History of the metric system

text: From the early 1990s, the International Avogadro Project worked on creating a 1 kg, 94 mm, sphere made of a uniform silicon-28 crystal, with the intention of being able replace the IPK with a physical object which would be precisely reproducible from an exact specification. Due to its precise construction, the Avogadro Project's sphere is likely to be the most precisely spherical object ever created by humans.


title: History of the metric system

text: Other groups worked on concepts such as creating a reference mass via precise electrodeposition of gold or bismuth atoms, and defining the kilogram in terms of the ampere by relating it to forces generated by electromagnetic repulsion of electric currents.


title: History of the metric system

text: Eventually, the choices were narrowed down to the use of the Watt balance and the International Avogadro Project sphere.


title: History of the metric system

text: Ultimately, a decision was made not to create any physical replacement for the IPK, but instead to define all SI units in terms of assigning precise values to a number of physical constants which had previously been measured in terms of the earlier unit definitions.


title: History of the metric system

text: At its 23rd meeting (2007), the CGPM mandated the CIPM to investigate the use of natural constants as the basis for all units of measure rather than the artefacts that were then in use.


title: History of the metric system

text: The following year, this was endorsed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP). At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading, United Kingdom, in September 2010, a resolution and draft changes to the SI brochure that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed in principle. The CIPM meeting of October 2010 found that "the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met. For this reason the CIPM does not propose a revision of the SI at the present time". The CIPM, however, presented a resolution for consideration at the 24th CGPM (17–21 October 2011) to agree to the new definitions in principle, but not to implement them until the details had been finalised.


title: History of the metric system

text: In the redefinition, four of the seven SI base units—the kilogram, ampere, kelvin, and mole—were redefined by setting exact numerical values for the Planck constant ('), the elementary electric charge ('), the Boltzmann constant (), and the Avogadro constant (), respectively. The second, metre, and candela were already defined by physical constants and were subject to correction to their definitions. The new definitions aimed to improve the SI without changing the value of any units, ensuring continuity with existing measurements.


title: History of the metric system

text: This resolution was accepted by the conference, and, in addition, the CGPM moved the date of the 25th meeting forward from 2015 to 2014. At the 25th meeting on 18 to 20 November 2014, it was found that "despite [progress in the necessary requirements] the data do not yet appear to be sufficiently robust for the CGPM to adopt the revised SI at its 25th meeting", thus postponing the revision to the next meeting in 2018.


title: History of the metric system

text: Measurements accurate enough to meet the conditions were available in 2017 and the redefinition was adopted at the 26th CGPM (13–16 November 2018), with the changes finally coming into force in 2019, creating a system of definitions which is intended to be stable for the long term.


title: Mie scattering

text: The Mie solution to Maxwell's equations (also known as the Lorenz–Mie solution, the Lorenz–Mie–Debye solution or Mie scattering) describes the scattering of an electromagnetic plane wave by a homogeneous sphere. The solution takes the form of an infinite series of spherical multipole partial waves. It is named after Gustav Mie.


title: Mie scattering

text: The term "Mie solution" is also used for solutions of Maxwell's equations for scattering by stratified spheres or by infinite cylinders, or other geometries where one can write separate equations for the radial and angular dependence of solutions. The term "Mie theory" is sometimes used for this collection of solutions and methods; it does not refer to an independent physical theory or law. More broadly, the "Mie scattering" formulas are most useful in situations where the size of the scattering particles is comparable to the wavelength of the light, rather than much smaller or much larger.


title: Mie scattering

text: Mie scattering (sometimes referred to as a non-molecular scattering or aerosol particle scattering) takes place in the lower of the atmosphere, where many essentially spherical particles with diameters approximately equal to the wavelength of the incident ray may be present. Mie scattering theory has no upper size limitation, and converges to the limit of geometric optics for large particles.


title: Mie scattering

text: A modern formulation of the Mie solution to the scattering problem on a sphere can be found in many books, e.g., J. A. Stratton's "Electromagnetic Theory". In this formulation, the incident plane wave, as well as the scattering field, is expanded into radiating spherical vector spherical harmonics. The internal field is expanded into regular vector spherical harmonics. By enforcing the boundary condition on the spherical surface, the expansion coefficients of the scattered field can be computed.


title: Mie scattering

text: For particles much larger or much smaller than the wavelength of the scattered light there are simple and accurate approximations that suffice to describe the behavior of the system. But for objects whose size is within a few orders of magnitude of the wavelength, e.g., water droplets in the atmosphere, latex particles in paint, droplets in emulsions, including milk, and biological cells and cellular components, a more detailed approach is necessary.


title: Mie scattering

text: The Mie solution is named after its developer, German physicist Gustav Mie. Danish physicist Ludvig Lorenz and others independently developed the theory of electromagnetic plane wave scattering by a dielectric sphere.


title: Mie scattering

text: The formalism allows the calculation of the electric and magnetic fields inside and outside a spherical object and is generally used to calculate either how much light is scattered (the total optical cross section), or where it goes (the form factor). The notable features of these results are the Mie resonances, sizes that scatter particularly strongly or weakly. This is in contrast to Rayleigh scattering for small particles and Rayleigh–Gans–Debye scattering (after Lord Rayleigh, Richard Gans and Peter Debye) for large particles. The existence of resonances and other features of Mie scattering makes it a particularly useful formalism when using scattered light to measure particle size.


title: Mie scattering

text: Rayleigh scattering describes the elastic scattering of light by spheres that are much smaller than the wavelength of light. The intensity "I" of the scattered radiation is given by


title: Mie scattering

text: where "I" is the light intensity before the interaction with the particle, "R" is the distance between the particle and the observer, "θ" is the scattering angle, "λ" is the wavelength of light under consideration, "n" is the refractive index of the particle, and "d" is the diameter of the particle.


title: Mie scattering

text: It can be seen from the above equation that Rayleigh scattering is strongly dependent upon the size of the particle and the wavelengths. The intensity of the Rayleigh scattered radiation increases rapidly as the ratio of particle size to wavelength increases. Furthermore, the intensity of Rayleigh scattered radiation is identical in the forward and reverse directions.


title: Mie scattering

text: The Rayleigh scattering model breaks down when the particle size becomes larger than around 10% of the wavelength of the incident radiation. In the case of particles with dimensions greater than this, Mie's scattering model can be used to find the intensity of the scattered radiation. The intensity of Mie scattered radiation is given by the summation of an infinite series of terms rather than by a simple mathematical expression. It can be shown, however, that scattering in this range of particle sizes differs from Rayleigh scattering in several respects: it is roughly independent of wavelength and it is larger in the forward direction than in the reverse direction. The greater the particle size, the more of the light is scattered in the forward direction.


title: Mie scattering

text: The blue colour of the sky results from Rayleigh scattering, as the size of the gas particles in the atmosphere is much smaller than the wavelength of visible light. Rayleigh scattering is much greater for blue light than for other colours due to its shorter wavelength. As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, its blue component is Rayleigh scattered strongly by atmospheric gases but the longer wavelength (e.g. red/yellow) components are not. The sunlight arriving directly from the Sun therefore appears to be slightly yellow, while the light scattered through rest of the sky appears blue. During sunrises and sunsets, the effect of Rayleigh scattering on the spectrum of the transmitted light is much greater due to the greater distance the light rays have to travel through the high-density air near the Earth's surface.


title: Mie scattering

text: In contrast, the water droplets that make up clouds are of a comparable size to the wavelengths in visible light, and the scattering is described by Mie's model rather than that of Rayleigh. Here, all wavelengths of visible light are scattered approximately identically, and the clouds therefore appear to be white or grey.


title: Mie scattering

text: The Rayleigh–Gans approximation is an approximate solution to light scattering when the relative refractive index of the particle is close to that of the environment, and its size is much smaller in comparison to the wavelength of light divided by |"n" − 1|, where "n" is the refractive index:


title: Mie scattering

text: where formula_4 is the wavevector of the light (formula_5), and formula_6 refers to the linear dimension of the particle. The former condition is often referred as the "optically soft" and the approximation holds for particles of arbitrary shape.


title: Mie scattering

text: The anomalous diffraction approximation is valid for large (compared to wavelength) and optically soft spheres; soft in the context of optics implies that the refractive index of the particle (m) differs only slightly from the refractive index of the environment, and the particle subjects the wave to only a small phase shift. The extinction efficiency in this approximation is given by


title: Mie scattering

text: where "Q" is the efficiency factor of scattering, which is defined as the ratio of the scattering cross-section and geometrical cross-section π"a".


title: Mie scattering

text: The term "p" = 4πa("n" − 1)/λ has as its physical meaning the phase delay of the wave passing through the centre of the sphere, where "a" is the sphere radius, "n" is the ratio of refractive indices inside and outside of the sphere, and "λ" the wavelength of the light.


title: Mie scattering

text: The scattering by a spherical nanoparticle is solved exactly regardless of the particle size. We consider scattering by a plane wave propagating along the "z"-axis polarized along the "x"-axis. Dielectric and magnetic permeabilities of a particle are formula_8 and formula_9, and formula_10 and formula_11 for the environment.


title: Mie scattering

text: In order to solve the scattering problem, we write first the solutions of the vector Helmholtz equation in spherical coordinates, since the fields inside and outside the particles must satisfy it. Helmholtz equation:


title: Mie scattering

text: In addition to the Helmholtz equation, the fields must satisfy the conditions formula_13 and formula_14, formula_15.


title: Mie scattering

text: and formula_20 — Associated Legendre polynomials, and formula_21 — any of the spherical Bessel functions.


title: Mie scattering

text: Here the superscript formula_24 means that in the radial part of the functions formula_25 are spherical Bessel functions of the first kind.


title: Mie scattering

text: In this case, all coefficients at formula_27 are zero, since the integral over the angle formula_28 in the numerator is zero.


title: Mie scattering

text: 1) Interface conditions on the boundary between the sphere and the environment (which allow us to relate the expansion coefficients of the incident, internal, and scattered fields)


title: Mie scattering

text: 2) The condition that the solution is bounded at the origin (therefore, in the radial part of the generating functions formula_25, spherical Bessel functions of the first kind are selected for the internal field),


title: Mie scattering

text: 3) For a scattered field, the asymptotics at infinity corresponds to a diverging spherical wave (in connection with this, for the scattered field in the radial part of the generating functions formula_25 spherical Hankel functions of the first kind are chosen).


title: Mie scattering

text: Here the superscript formula_33 means that in the radial part of the functions formula_25 are spherical Hankel functions of the first kind (those of the second kind would have formula_35), and formula_36,


title: Mie scattering

text: formula_39 is the wave vector outside the particle formula_40 is the wave vector in the medium from the particle material, formula_41 and formula_42 are the refractive indices of the medium and the particle.


title: Mie scattering

text: formula_50 and formula_51 represent the spherical functions of Bessel and Hankel of the first kind, respectively.


title: Mie scattering

text: Values commonly calculated using Mie theory include efficiency coefficients for extinction formula_52, scattering formula_53, and absorption formula_54.


title: Mie scattering

text: These efficiency coefficients are ratios of the cross section of the respective process, formula_55, to the particle protected area, formula_56, where "a" is the particle radius.


title: Mie scattering

text: The contributions in these sums, indexed by "n", correspond to the orders of a multipole expansion with n=1 being the dipole term, n=2 being the quadrapole term, and so forth.


title: Mie scattering

text: If the size of the particle is equal to several wavelengths in the material, then the scattered fields have some features.


title: Mie scattering

text: Further, we will talk about the form of the electric field since the magnetic field is obtained from it by taking the rotor.


title: Mie scattering

text: All Mie coefficients depend on the frequency and have maximums when the denominator is close to zero (exact equality to zero is achieved for complex frequencies). In this case, it is possible, that the contribution of one specific harmonic dominates in scattering. Then at large distances from the particle, the radiation pattern of the scattered field will be similar to the corresponding radiation pattern of the angular part of vector spherical harmonics. The harmonics formula_61 correspond to electric dipoles (if the contribution of this harmonic dominates in the expansion of the electric field, then the field is similar to the electric dipole field), formula_62 correspond to the electric field of the magnetic dipole, formula_63 and formula_64 - electric and magnetic quadrupoles, formula_65 and formula_66 - octupoles, and so on. The maxima of the scattering coefficients (as well as the change of their phase to formula_67) are called multipole resonances.


title: Mie scattering

text: The dependence of the scattering cross-section on the wavelength and the contribution of specific resonances strongly depends on the particle material. For example, for a gold particle with a radius of 100 nm, the contribution of the electric dipole to scattering predominates in the optical range, while for a silicon particle there are pronounced magnetic dipole and quadrupole resonances. For metal particles, the peak visible in the scattering cross-section is also called localized plasmon resonance.


title: Mie scattering

text: In the limit of small particles or long wavelengths, the electric dipole contribution dominates in the scattering cross-section.


title: Mie scattering

text: In case of "x-"polarized plane wave, incident along the "z"-axis, decompositions of all fields contained only harmonics with "m=1",


title: Mie scattering

text: For a rotated plane wave, the expansion coefficients can be obtained, for example, using the fact that during rotation, vector spherical harmonics are transformed through each other by Wigner D-matrixes.


title: Mie scattering

text: The "Kerker effect" is a phenomenon in scattering directionality, which occurs when different multipole responses are presented and not negligible.


title: Mie scattering

text: In 1983, in the work of Kerker, Wang and Giles the direction of scattering by particles with formula_70 was investigated. In particular, it was shown that for hypothetical particles with formula_71 backward scattering is completely suppressed. This can be seen as an extension to a spherical surface of Giles' and Wild's results for reflection at a planar surface with equal refractive indices where reflection and transmission is constant and independent of angle of incidence.


title: Mie scattering

text: In addition, scattering cross sections in the forward and backward directions are simply expressed in terms of Mie coefficients:


title: Mie scattering

text: So, for example, when terms with formula_74 can be neglected (dipole approximation), formula_75, corresponds to the minimum in backscattering (magnetic and electric dipoles are equal in magnitude and are in phase, this is also called 'first Kerker' or 'zero-backward intensity condition'). And formula_76 corresponds to minimum in forward scattering, this is also called ‘second Kerker condition’ (or ‘near-zero forward intensity condition’). From the optical theorem, it is shown that for a passive particle formula_77 is not possible. For the exact solution of the problem, it is necessary to take into account the contributions of all multipoles. The sum of the electric and magnetic dipoles forms Huygens source


title: Mie scattering

text: For dielectric particles, maximum forward scattering is observed at wavelengths longer than the wavelength of magnetic dipole resonance, and maximum backward scattering at shorter ones.


title: Mie scattering

text: Later, other varieties of the effect were found. For example, the transverse Kerker effect, with nearly complete simultaneous


title: Mie scattering

text: suppression of both forward and backward scattered fields (side-scattering patterns), optomechanical Kerker effect, in acoustic scattering, and also found in plants.


title: Mie scattering

text: where formula_79 — identity matrix formula_80 for formula_81 for formula_82. Since all fields are vectorial, the Green function is a 3 by 3 matrix and is called a dyadic. If polarization formula_83 is induced in the system, when the fields are written as


title: Mie scattering

text: In the same way as the fields, the Green's function can be decomposed into vector spherical harmonics.


title: Mie scattering

text: In the presence of a sphere, the Green's function is also decomposed into vector spherical harmonics. Its appearance depends on the environment in which the points formula_87 and formula_88 are located.


title: Mie scattering

text: Mie solutions are implemented in a number of programs written in different computer languages such as Fortran, MATLAB, and Mathematica. These solutions solve for an infinite series, and provide as output the calculation of the scattering phase function, extinction, scattering, and absorption efficiencies, and other parameters such as asymmetry parameters or radiation torque. Current usage of the term "Mie solution" indicates a series approximation to a solution of Maxwell's equations. There are several known objects that allow such a solution: spheres, concentric spheres, infinite cylinders, clusters of spheres and clusters of cylinders. There are also known series solutions for scattering by ellipsoidal particles. A list of codes implementing these specialized solutions is provided in the following:


title: Mie scattering

text: A generalization that allows a treatment of more generally shaped particles is the T-matrix method, which also relies on a series approximation to solutions of Maxwell's equations.


title: Mie scattering

text: Mie theory is very important in meteorological optics, where diameter-to-wavelength ratios of the order of unity and larger are characteristic for many problems regarding haze and cloud scattering. A further application is in the characterization of particles by optical scattering measurements. The Mie solution is also important for understanding the appearance of common materials like milk, biological tissue and latex paint.


title: Mie scattering

text: Mie scattering occurs when the diameters of atmospheric particulates are similar to or larger than the wavelengths of the light. Dust, pollen, smoke and microscopic water droplets that form clouds are common causes of Mie scattering. Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere, where larger particles are more abundant, and dominates in cloudy conditions.


title: Mie scattering

text: Mie theory has been used to determine whether scattered light from tissue corresponds to healthy or cancerous cell nuclei using angle-resolved low-coherence interferometry.


title: Mie scattering

text: Mie theory is a central principle in the application of nephelometric based assays, widely used in medicine to measure various plasma proteins. A wide array of plasma proteins can be detected and quantified by nephelometry.


title: Mie scattering

text: A number of unusual electromagnetic scattering effects occur for magnetic spheres. When the relative permittivity equals the permeability, the back-scatter gain is zero. Also, the scattered radiation is polarized in the same sense as the incident radiation. In the small-particle (or long-wavelength) limit, conditions can occur for zero forward scatter, for complete polarization of scattered radiation in other directions, and for asymmetry of forward scatter to backscatter. The special case in the small-particle limit provides interesting special instances of complete polarization and forward-scatter-to-backscatter asymmetry.


title: Mie scattering

text: Mie theory has been used to design metamaterials. They usually consist of three-dimensional composites of metal or non-metallic inclusions periodically or randomly embedded in a low-permittivity matrix. In such a scheme, the negative constitutive parameters are designed to appear around the Mie resonances of the inclusions: the negative effective permittivity is designed around the resonance of the Mie electric dipole scattering coefficient, whereas negative effective permeability is designed around the resonance of the Mie magnetic dipole scattering coefficient, and doubly negative material (DNG) is designed around the overlap of resonances of Mie electric and magnetic dipole scattering coefficients. The particle usually have the following combinations:


title: Mie scattering

text: In theory, the particles analyzed by Mie theory are commonly spherical but, in practice, particles are usually fabricated as cubes or cylinders for ease of fabrication. To meet the criteria of homogenization, which may be stated in the form that the lattice constant is much smaller than the operating wavelength, the relative permittivity of the dielectric particles should be much greater than 1, e.g. formula_107 to achieve negative effective permittivity (permeability).


title: Mie scattering

text: Mie theory is often applied in laser diffraction analysis to inspect the particle sizing effect. While early computers in the 1970s were only able to compute diffraction data with the more simple Fraunhofer approximation, Mie is widely used since the 1990s and officially recommended for particles below 50 micrometers in guideline ISO 13320:2009.


title: Mie scattering

text: Mie scattering is the primary method of sizing single sonoluminescing bubbles of air in water and is valid for cavities in materials, as well as particles in materials, as long as the surrounding material is essentially non-absorbing.


title: Mie scattering

text: It has also been used to study the structure of "Plasmodium falciparum", a particularly pathogenic form of malaria.


title: Mie scattering

text: In 1986, P. A. Bobbert and J. Vlieger extended the Mie model to calculate scattering by a sphere in a homogeneous medium placed on flat surface. Like Mie model, the extended model can be applied to spheres with a radius close to the wavelength of the incident light. There is a C++ code implementing Bobbert–Vlieger (BV) model.


title: June Havoc

text: June Havoc (born Ellen Evangeline Hovick; November 8, 1912 – March 28, 2010) was a Canadian American actress, dancer, stage director and memoirist.


title: June Havoc

text: Havoc was a child vaudeville performer under the tutelage of her mother Rose Thompson Hovick, born Rose Evangeline Thompson. She later acted on Broadway and in Hollywood, and stage-directed, both on and off-Broadway. She last acted on television in 1990 in a story arc on the soap opera "General Hospital", and she last appeared on television as herself in interviews in the "Vaudeville" episode of "American Masters" in 1997 and in "The Rodgers & Hart: Thou Swell, Thou Witty" episode of "Great Performances" in 1999. Her elder sister Louise gravitated to burlesque and became the well-known striptease performer Gypsy Rose Lee.


title: June Havoc

text: Ellen Evangeline Hovick was born in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. For many years 1916 was cited as her year of birth. Havoc acknowledged in her later years that 1912 was likely the correct year. She was reportedly uncertain of the year. Her mother forged various birth certificates for both her daughters to evade child labor laws. Her life-long career in show business began when she was a child, billed as "Baby June."


title: June Havoc

text: Her sister, entertainer Gypsy Rose Lee (born as Rose Louise Hovick), was called "Louise" by her family members. Their parents were Rose Thompson Hovick, of German descent, and John ("Jack") Olaf Hovick, the son of Norwegian immigrants, who worked as an advertising agent and reporter for the "Seattle Times" newspaper.


title: June Havoc

text: Following their parents' divorce, the two sisters earned the family's income by appearing in vaudeville, where June's talent often overshadowed Louise's. Baby June got an audition with Alexander Pantages, who had come to Seattle, Washington in 1902 to build theaters up and down the west coast of the United States. Soon, she was launched in vaudeville and also appeared in Hollywood movies. She could not speak until the age of three, but the films were all silent. She would cry for the cameras when her mother told her that the family's dog had died.


title: June Havoc

text: In December 1928, Havoc, in an effort to escape her overbearing mother, eloped with Bobby Reed, a boy in the vaudeville act. Weeks later after performing at the Jayhawk Theatre in Topeka, Kansas on December 29, 1928, Rose reported Reed to the Topeka Police, and he was arrested. Rose had a concealed gun on her when she met Bobby at the police station. She pulled the trigger, but the safety was on. She then physically attacked her soon-to-be new son-in-law, and the police had to pry her off the hapless Reed. June soon married him, leaving both her family and the act. The marriage did not last, but the two remained on friendly terms.


title: June Havoc

text: She adopted the surname Havoc, a variant of her birth name. In 1936, Havoc got her first part on Broadway in the Sigmund Romberg operetta "Forbidden Melody". In 1940, she gave a show-stopping performance as Gladys Bumps in the Rodgers and Hart musical "Pal Joey", with Gene Kelly in the lead role and Van Johnson, who was in the chorus, along with future film director Stanley Donen. Based on their success, Havoc, Johnson and Kelly were beckoned by Hollywood. Havoc made her first film in 1942, and she began to alternate film roles with returns to the Broadway stage. From 1942 to 1944, Havoc appeared in 11 films, including "My Sister Eileen" with Rosalind Russell, and "No Time For Love" with Claudette Colbert and Fred MacMurray. She then returned to Broadway in the 1943–44 season, co-starring with Bobby Clark in the Cole Porter musical "Mexican Hayride", for which she received the Donaldson Award for best performance by an actress in a supporting role in a musical.


title: June Havoc

text: In 1944, Ethel Merman was set to star as the title character in the musical play "Sadie Thompson" with a score by Vernon Duke and Howard Dietz, directed and produced by Rouben Mamoulian. The musical play was based on the short story "Rain" by W. Somerset Maugham. The serious nature of the production was a departure from Merman’s string of successful musical comedies. Moreover, during rehearsals, Merman had difficulties memorizing the lyrics, and she blamed Dietz for his use of sophisticated and foreign words. She had her husband, newspaper promotion director Bob Levitt, tone down some of the lyrics. Dietz took exception to Merman’s singing the altered lyrics and gave her an ultimatum to sing his original lyrics or leave the show. In response, Merman withdrew from the production. Commentators have speculated that Merman's departure was probably due to her reluctance to assume such a serious role in her first dramatic musical.


title: June Havoc

text: Havoc left her starring role in "Mexican Hayride" and assumed the role written for Merman. The production of "Sadie Thompson" had a difficult out-of-town tryout with songs being deleted and other songs added. Indeed, even after the Broadway opening, musical numbers continued to be cut and other numbers added. "Sadie Thompson" opened on Broadway on November 16, 1944 to mixed reviews. Havoc received almost uniformly favorable reviews. She was called the “most enjoyable asset” of the show and praised for the “consummate skill of her artistry.” Her performance was described as “surprisingly effective“ and “truly touching,” and she was deemed a “worthy successor” to Jeanne Eagels, who had famously first portrayed the role on Broadway in the play "Rain". The score and the book received mixed reviews, with the score called “undistinguished.” However, one reviewer compared the show favorably to "Oklahoma!", which Mamoulian had also directed. Nonetheless, the show only lasted 60 performances and closed on January 6, 1945. In 1945, Havoc was featured in the film "Brewster's Millions" and starred in "The Ryan Girl" on Broadway.


title: June Havoc

text: In Hollywood, Havoc played the second female lead for three of the most popular musical movie stars in the 1940s and early 1950s: Alice Faye in "Hello, Frisco, Hello" with John Payne


title: June Havoc

text: (1943); Betty Grable in "When My Baby Smiles at Me" with Dan Dailey (1948) and Betty Hutton in "Red, White And Blue" with Victor Mature (1949). She also played leading roles in several films noir: "Intrigue" with George Raft (1947), "Chicago Deadline" with Alan Ladd (1949), "The Story of Molly X" with John Russell (1949) and "Once A Thief" with Caesar Romero (1950). Havoc's best remembered film role was probably as the Jewish, yet closeted about her identity, secretary in the Elia Kazan Oscar-winning best film "Gentleman's Agreement".


title: June Havoc

text: In the late 1950s, Havoc decided that she wanted to act in classic plays. In 1956, she worked with the Phoenix Theatre company, first starring as Queen Jocasta opposite John Kerr in "The Infernal Machine", playwright Jean Cocteau’s retelling of the Oedipus myth. "New York Times" critic Brooks Atkinson opined that her performance brought “a gravity and force that become the tragic situation.” Next Havoc played Titania in "A Midsummer Night's Dream" at the American Shakespeare Festival Theater & Academy. Atkinson called her Titania “conspicuously delightful” and found her performance, along with those of Barbara Barrie and Inga Swenson, “a fine Shakespeare revel.” She then returned to the Phoenix Theatre company for the production of "The Beaux' Stratagem". Atkinson observed that Havoc played Mrs. Sullen “as a lovely lady with an infectious sense of humor.”


title: June Havoc

text: Havoc and her sister continued to get demands for money and gifts from their mother until her death in 1954. After their mother's death, the sisters then were free to write about her without risking a lawsuit. Lee's memoir, "Gypsy", published in 1957, inspired the Jule Styne, Stephen Sondheim, and Arthur Laurents Broadway musical "Gypsy: A Musical Fable". Havoc did not like the way she was portrayed in the piece, which became a source of contention between the two, but gave her agreement in her sister's financial interest. Havoc and Lee reportedly were estranged for more than a decade, but reconciled shortly before Lee's death in 1970.


title: June Havoc

text: In 1960, President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized the creation of the President’s Special International Program, under the United States Department of State and its agent, the International Cultural Exchange Service of America. The Program, with the American National Theatre and Academy, established the Theatre Guild American Repertory Theatre to perform a program of plays abroad. Havoc, as well as Helen Hayes, Leif Erickson and others, made six-month commitments to participate in the repertory company. Three plays were selected to be performed in repertory: "The Skin of Our Teeth", in which Havoc played Sabina and Hayes portrayed Mrs. Antrobus; "The Miracle Worker", in which Havoc portrayed Mrs. Keller; and "The Glass Menagerie", in which Hayes played the mother. The playwrights, Thornton Wilder, William Gibson and Tennessee Williams, all personally supervised the productions of their plays. In February and early March 1960, the repertory company performed the plays at the National Theater in Washington, D.C. Commencing later in March, the company toured in Europe and the Middle East, performing the plays in major cities in Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Greece, Egypt, Israel, Turkey, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Italy, Switzerland and France. Later in the year, the repertory company toured Latin America, performing the same plays, and was the first American repertory theater company to perform in Latin America.


title: June Havoc

text: In 1959, Havoc's first memoir, "Early Havoc", was published. "The New York Times" critic called the book "spirited" and "entertaining." In the memoir, Havoc recounted her life from childhood to 1933, when she first competed in a marathon dance contest. The chapters alternated between a chronological progression and a description of the grueling marathon dance contest, detailing the desperation and degradation she experienced and observed. At the time of the book's publication, Havoc was appearing on Broadway in the play "The Warm Peninsula", co-starring Julie Harris and Farley Granger. Harris read the memoir, and was so taken with the dance contest chapters that she urged Havoc to write a play based upon that experience. At first she demurred, never having written a play. However, Harris persisted, and when she said that she would star as Havoc's character in the play, Havoc was finally persuaded to write the play. Upon completion, the play "Marathon ’33" was performed in a workshop at the Actors Studio. David Merrick optioned the play for Broadway with Gower Champion set to direct. However, Havoc canceled the option, explaining that Merrick wanted to turn the play into a musical. Champion responded that Havoc had canceled the option because Merrick had wanted her to work with another writer to revise the play, and she had refused.


title: June Havoc

text: Havoc then planned to present "Marathon '33" in an actual dance hall, the Riviera Terrace ballroom near Columbia University. However, when the ballroom was sold, she agreed to present her play on Broadway. As director and choreographer, Havoc turned the stage at the ANTA Theatre into a dance hall. "Marathon '33" proved to be a flop "d'estime," opening on December 22, 1963, running for 48 performances and closing on February 1, 1964. The play featured 34 actors, several of whom went on to highly successful careers, including Doris Roberts, Joe Don Baker, Conrad Janis, Gabriel Dell and Ralph Waite. The play earned four Tony nominations, including nominations for Havoc for best direction of a play and for Harris as best actress in a play.


title: June Havoc

text: Havoc wrote three more plays, "I, Said The Fly", "The Great State of Hysteria" and "The Great Elinor Glyn Emancipation Gun Powder Love Regatta"; the book and lyrics for a musical, "Oh Glorious Tintinnabulation"; as well as a one-woman show and a second memoir, "More Havoc". In reviewing "More Havoc," The New York Times critic called Havoc a "writer of consequence" and described the book as "a vivid, biting and painfully real remembrance of her own walk on the wild side of the Depression years and on up through her triumph in 'Pal Joey' and Hollywood stardom."


title: June Havoc

text: In 1966, Havoc appeared as Millicent Jordan in an all-star revival of "Dinner At Eight" on Broadway, directed by Sir Tyrone Guthrie, and featuring Walter Pidgeon, Arlene Francis, Darren McGavin and Pamela Tiffin. The New York Times critic Walter Kerr lauded Havoc’s performance as the hostess of the dinner, noting that she was becoming this country’s Vivien Leigh. Kerr observed: “She makes the prospect of spending the entire day on the telephone rounding up a guest list, sound like work for a contented dove. That is to say, she coos cheerily, even with a pencil in her mouth, as she sets about buttering up all the people who can’t say, “no,” and she caresses her very chic white French phone with the exquisite finesse of a Victorian gentlewoman doing needlework.”


title: June Havoc

text: During the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson, the National Endowment for the Arts and the U.S. Department of Education provided funding in 1966 for the creation of professional theater programs in three cities: Los Angeles, New Orleans and Providence, Rhode Island. In New Orleans, the professional theater company was named The Repertory Theatre, New Orleans (“the Repertory Theatre”). The program involved 48,000 high school students, who saw four plays each year after reading the plays in class. The productions included guest actors, such as Havoc, who portrayed Mrs. Malaprop in The Rivals, and also lectured in the schools.


title: June Havoc

text: After President Richard M. Nixon took office in January 1969, the federal funding ended. The Repertory Theatre sought to become self-sustaining and hired Havoc as the artistic director. She created a theater in a vacant 100-year-old synagogue, constructing a thrust stage with audience members seated on three sides. She also established an apprentice program for teenagers, an acting school, and a space for an African American theater group. Havoc was able to lure well-known actors to participate in productions, such as Julie Harris and Jessica Walter in "The Women". After the 1970 season, Havoc resigned due to budgetary limitations. Her farewell production in November 1970 was "The Skin of Our Teeth", with Havoc portraying Sabina and at age 58, performing on a trapeze 60 feet above the audience.


title: June Havoc

text: In the fall of 1982, Havoc became the eighth and final actress to portray the featured role of the villainous "Miss Hannigan" in the long running original Broadway production of the musical "Annie". She continued in the role until the show closed after more than four years on January 2, 1983. In 1995, she made her last New York stage appearance at age 82 as the title character in "The Old Lady’s Guide to Survival" at the Off-Broadway Lamb's Theater. Her performance was cited as one of the season's five best by an actress in a primary role by the editors of "The Best Plays of 1994–1995". At age 88, Havoc starred with Dick Cavett in the Tennessee Williams one-act play "Lifeboat Drill" as part of the January 26, 2002 fourth Tennessee Williams marathon at the Hartford Stage Company.


title: June Havoc

text: Havoc performed intermittently on the radio in the 1940s and early 1950s. Her performances ranged from the full-length plays, such as "Golden Boy" on the prestigious Theater Guild on the Air and "Skylark" on NBC Best Plays, to the more popular mystery program "Suspense". Under the pseudonym Armana Fargey, she also appeared on episodes of "The Adventures of Sam Spade" and "Suspense".