title: Emergency service response codes

text: Emergency service response codes are predefined systems used by emergency services to describe the priority and response assigned to calls for service. Response codes vary from country to country, jurisdiction to jurisdiction, and even agency to agency, with different methods used to categorize responses to reported events.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: In the United States, response codes are used to describe a mode of response for an emergency unit responding to a call. They generally vary but often have three basic tiers:


title: Emergency service response codes

text: The term "Code 4" is also occasionally considered a response code, though it generally only means "call has been handled or resolved, no further units respond".


title: Emergency service response codes

text: Certain agencies may add or remove certain codes. For example, in the Los Angeles Police Department's radio procedures, "Code 1" is not a response code. Additionally, some agencies use "Code 99" or a derivative, which typically designates a major emergency of the highest priority. Some agencies also use their own response codes; for example, Code 3 may be called a Hot Response, and Code 1 may be called a Cold Response. Some slang may be derived from these, such as "running hot" or "running cold".


title: Emergency service response codes

text: Some agencies may use the terms "upgrade" and "downgrade" to denote an increase in priority. For example, if a police unit is conducting a Code 1 response to an argument, and the dispatcher reports that the argument has escalated to a fight, the unit may report an "upgrade" to a Code 3 response. The term downgrade may be used in the opposite situation.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: A similar variation, generally used by units instead of dispatchers, is to "increase code" and "reduce code". For example, if multiple units are responding Code 3 to a call, but the units already at the scene have mostly resolved the situation, the scene units may request that the responding units "reduce code". In this example, to "reduce code" would mean to continue responding, but at Code 2 or Code 1, rather than discontinue altogether.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: The National Incident Management System (NIMS) states "it is required that plain language be used for multi-agency, multi-jurisdiction and multi-discipline events, such as major disasters and exercises", and federal grants became contingent on this beginning fiscal year 2006. NIMS also strongly encourages the use of plain language for internal use within a single agency.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: The use of lights and sirens is up to the individual police officer driving to the call. The nature of the call is an aggravating factor when deciding when to use them. Calls are graded by either the control room direct (in the case of emergency calls) or by some sort of first contact centre (nonemergency calls). Grading is affected by such factors as the use or threat of violence at the incident being reported. Even though the grading is done by the control room, officers can request an incident be upgraded if they feel in their judgement they are needed immediately. They can also request to downgrade an incident if they feel they cannot justify using emergency equipment like blue lights and sirens.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: There is no nationally agreed call grading system with a number of different systems being used across the UK and attendance times given the grade varies between forces, depending on how rural the county is. For example, Suffolk Constabulary break down Grade A emergencies into further sub-categories of Grade A Urban and Rural, with Urban attendance times attracting a 15-minute arrival time and Grade A Rural attendance would attract a 20-minute arrival time. Some of these are listed below but is not exhaustive.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: Ambulance responses in the UK are as follows. Some ambulance services allow driver discretion for Category 3/4 calls; this may be dependent on the type of call or how long it has been waiting for a response for. 999 calls to the ambulance service are triaged using either the NHS Pathways system or the Medical Priority Dispatch System.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: The use of flashing lights and sirens is colloquially known as "blues and twos", which refers to the blue lights and the two-tone siren once commonplace (although most sirens now use a range of tones). In the UK, only blue lights are used to denote emergency vehicles (although other colours may be used as sidelights, stop indicators, etc.). A call requiring the use of lights and sirens is often colloquially known as a "blue light run".


title: Emergency service response codes

text: Code 1: A time critical case with a lights and sirens ambulance response. An example is a cardiac arrest or serious traffic accident.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: Code 2: An acute but non-time critical response. The ambulance does not use lights and sirens to respond. An example of this response code is a broken leg.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: Code 3: A non-urgent routine case. These include cases such as a person with ongoing back pain but no recent injury.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: There are two types of response for the Country Fire Authority which cover the outer Melbourne Area. These are similar to those used by Ambulance Victoria, minus the use of Code 2.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: Code 1: A time critical event with response requiring lights and siren. This usually is a known and going fire or a rescue incident.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: Code 3: Non-urgent event, such as a previously extinguished fire or community service cases (such as animal rescue or changing of smoke alarm batteries for the elderly).


title: Emergency service response codes

text: The New South Wales Rural Fire Service and the New South Wales State Emergency Service use two levels of response, depending on what the call-out is and what has been directed of the crew attending the incident by orders of the duty officer:


title: Emergency service response codes

text: The New South Wales Police Force uses two distinct classifications for responding to incidents. In order to respond 'code red' a driver must be suitably trained and have qualified in appropriate police driver training courses.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: Note: Priorities 0 and 3 have been reserved for future use. Priority 9 is used for administration taskings.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: The South Australian Metropolitan Fire Service, Country Fire Service and South Australian State Emergency Service use a Priority System which has been recently updated.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: All calls are routed through the Metropolitan Fire Service (Call Sign "Adelaide Fire") including State Emergency Service 132 500 calls.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: During significant weather events the State Communication Centre (SCC) unit of the SES take over call taking responsibly. This operations centre is manned by volunteers routing calls for assistance to the closest unit who will dispatch the events to individual teams.


title: Emergency service response codes

text: For Queensland Police code 1 and code 2 are exactly the same response time. Rarely will a job be given a priority code 1, instead officers will (in most cases) be told to respond code 2.


title: Bursaspor

text: Bursaspor Kulübü Derneği (), commonly known as Bursaspor, is a Turkish sports club located in the city of Bursa. Formed in 1963, the club colours are green and white, with home kits usually featuring both colours in a striped pattern.


title: Bursaspor

text: In the 2009–10 season, the club's men's football team won its first Süper Lig title after finishing with 75 points, one point ahead of the runners-up Fenerbahçe. Bursaspor became the second club outside Istanbul to win a Süper Lig title, joining Trabzonspor who won the first of its six titles in 1975–76. The club has also won the Turkish Cup once and the Prime Minister's Cup twice, as well as the First League twice. The club's first, and most successful foray into European competition came in the 1974–75 European Cup Winners' Cup when it reached the quarter-finals. Bursaspor also took part in the 1986–87, losing in the first round, as well as the 1995 UEFA Intertoto Cup, where it lost in the quarter-finals.


title: Bursaspor

text: The club was founded on 1 June 1963 after Acar İdman Yurdu, Akınspor, İstiklal, Pınarspor and Çelikspor were merged to form a single club; Bursaspor. Green and white were chosen as the club colours, and the club entered the 2. Lig in 1963–64. Their first match took place on 21 September 1963 against İzmir Demirspor in İzmir. Bursaspor were promoted to the Süper Lig after winning the 1966–67 2. Lig. They won 19 of their 30 matches, finishing with 45 points, eight ahead of second placed Samsunspor. They were relegated to the 2. Lig in 1985–86 and were relegated again in 1986–87 season, but their relegations were revoked due to winning the Turkish Cup in 1986 and a Turkish Council of State verdict in 1987. Their most recent relegation came in 2004. They gained promotion back into the Süper Lig after winning the First League on 16 May 2006. Bursaspor won their first major cup in 1971, beating Fenerbahçe 1–0 after extra time in the now-defunct Prime Minister's Cup. Because Fenerbahçe had won the league and cup in 1973–74, Bursaspor, as 1974 Turkish Cup runners up, were given a place in the 1974–75 European Cup Winners' Cup. Bursaspor reached the quarter-finals, beating Finn Harps and Dundee United, before falling to eventual champions Dynamo Kyiv. The club's first Turkish Cup win came in 1986 when they defeated Altay 2–0 in the finals. The club therefore qualified for the 1986–87 European Cup Winners' Cup, losing to eventual champions Ajax in the first round.


title: Bursaspor

text: The 2009–10 season began successful and by the midpoint of the season, in December 2009; gameweek 17, the club were sitting in the top spot in the Süper Lig table. The first half of the season saw a 1–0 home victory against Istanbul giants Galatasaray, and also a 2–3 win away at Beşiktaş. In late 2009, Sağlam was linked with the vacant Turkey managerial position after Terim's resignation, but he refused to comment on the speculation. Guus Hiddink eventually took up the position. The latter part of the season saw a 6–0 win over mid–table İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor, the largest win in the league to date this season, and also a 2–3 away win against Fenerbahçe after winning from two goals down. Bursaspor again reached the quarter-finals of the Turkish Cup and again they lost on aggregate to Fenerbahçe, this time crashing out 4–3 due to an injury time winner from Fener. In April 2010 Bursaspor sat at the top of the table after being in the top three for the past few months. With eight games left to play Bursaspor were five points clear at the top. Five weeks before the end of the season, Bursaspor fell to second place in the Süper Lig. They maintained pressure on Fenerbahçe who had overtaken them. Going into the final game of the season, Bursaspor were just one point behind Fener, and needed to better their results against defending champions Beşiktaş. Knowing that the match against Beşiktaş could prove decisive. With Fenerbahçe held to a 1–1 home draw against Trabzonspor, and Bursaspor beating Beşiktaş 2–1, the Bursaspor were crowned champions, by just a single point. They are only the second club outside the ""Istanbul Big Three"" who have won the league. Trabzonspor were the other team, who last won in 1983–84. Before winning its first Süper Lig title in 2009–10, Bursaspor had never finished inside the top three. The club won its first title in Ertuğrul Sağlam's first full season as manager of the club. Pablo Batalla and Ozan İpek were the club's joint top scorers with eight goals apiece. Bursaspor were drawn against Rangers, Valencia and Manchester United in the group stages of the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League. In its away match against Rangers, Bursaspor decided not to don their home kit to avoid provoking Rangers' fans, as their kit heavily resembles that of Rangers' rivals, Celtic. Bursaspor is the fourth football club in Turkey to start a dedicated television channel (Bursaspor TV).


title: Bursaspor

text: Bursaspor's club badge includes the club name, foundation year, and the crescent moon and star from the Turkish flag. As a tribute to the club's origins, the badge also includes five stars, each a different colour – black, red, yellow, green, and navy blue. This represents the colours used by the clubs that made up Bursaspor; Acar İdman Yurdu–black, Akınspor–red, İstiklal–yellow, Pınarspor–green, Çelikspor–navy blue. Bursaspor's kit: Green shirts with white trim, green shorts, green socks. Away: Green and white hooped shirts, white shorts, green and white hooped socks. Alternate: Amber shirts with black trim, claret shorts, amber socks.


title: Bursaspor

text: Bursaspor plays its home matches at Bursa Büyükşehir Stadium. Built in 2015, the stadium currently seats 43,761 spectators. The field measures 68 by 105 meters, and is covered with natural grass. Between 1979 and 2015, the club played at the Bursa Atatürk Stadium.


title: Bursaspor

text: In the early 1990s Bursaspor's ultra group Teksas had a leader called Abdulkerim Bayraktar. He went to study in Ankara, and whilst in the city he started attending Ankaragücü games and started building ties between the two clubs. In 1993 however, his life was cut short during his military service when he was killed by terrorists. This tragic event bought Bursaspor and Ankaragücü even closer together. During the first game after his death, Bursaspor organised a tribute to him, and the events which happened next cemented the brotherhood between these two teams. A large group of Ankaragücü supporters made their way onto the pitch and unveiled a large banner reading 'Our brother Abdul will never die, he lives on in our hearts'. The two supporter groups united and hundreds of Ankaragücü ultras attended his funeral. From that day on, Bursaspor supporters would chant Ankaragücü's name in the 6th minute of every home game, 06 being significant due to 06 being Ankara's city code. Ankaragücü supporters in return chant Bursaspor's name during the 16th minute, 16 being Bursa's city code. When the two sides play, the supporters sit together; it is one of the rare occasions in which ultras from opposing teams watch a game together in a mixed environment. They bring BursAnkara scarfs (a merger of the two cities' names) to the games and create an atmosphere full of mutual respect.


title: Time in a Bottle

text: "Time in a Bottle" is a song by singer-songwriter Jim Croce. He wrote the lyrics after his wife Ingrid told him she was pregnant in December 1970. It appeared on Croce's 1972 ABC debut album "You Don't Mess Around with Jim" and was featured in the 1973 ABC made-for-television movie "She Lives!" After he was killed in a plane crash in September 1973, the song was aired frequently on radio, and demand for a single release built. The single of "Time in a Bottle" became Croce's second and final track to reach number 1 in the United States.


title: Time in a Bottle

text: The arrangement features a harpsichord that producer Tommy West discovered had been left in the mixing studio.


title: Time in a Bottle

text: "Cash Box" magazine called the song "a sweet, tender ballad filled with Croce’s magical vocal touch".


title: Time in a Bottle

text: "Time in a Bottle" was the third posthumous "Billboard" number-one hit after "Sittin' on the Dock of the Bay" by Otis Redding and "Me and Bobby McGee" by Janis Joplin.


title: Time in a Bottle

text: After the single finished its two-week run at the top of the charts in early January 1974, the album "You Don't Mess Around with Jim" became No. 1 for five weeks.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Eastern Orthodox theology is the theology particular to the Eastern Orthodox Church. It is characterized by monotheistic Trinitarianism, belief in the Incarnation of the essentially divine Logos or only-begotten Son of God, a balancing of cataphatic theology with apophatic theology, a hermeneutic defined by a Sacred Tradition, a catholic ecclesiology, a robust of the person, and a principally recapitulative and therapeutic soteriology.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church considers itself to be the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church established by Jesus Christ and his Apostles. The Eastern Orthodox Church asserts to have been very careful in preserving these traditions. Eastern Orthodox Christians regard the Christian Bible as a collection of inspired texts that sprang out of this tradition, not the other way around; and the choices made in the compilation of the New Testament as having come from comparison with already firmly established faith. The Bible has come to be a very important part of tradition, but not the only part.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Tradition also includes the Nicene Creed, the decrees of the Seven Ecumenical Councils, the writings of the Church Fathers, as well as Eastern Orthodox laws (canons), liturgical books, icons, etc.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Eastern Orthodoxy interprets truth based on three witnesses: the consensus of the Holy Fathers of the Church; the ongoing teaching of the Holy Spirit guiding the life of the Church through the "nous", or mind of the Church (also called the "Universal Consciousness of the Church"), which is believed to be the Mind of Christ (); and the praxis of the church (including among other things asceticism, liturgy, hymnography, and iconography).


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: The consensus of the Church over time defines its catholicity—that which is believed at all times by the entire Church. St. Vincent of Lerins wrote in his "Commonitoria" (434 AD) that Church doctrine, like the human body, develops over time while still keeping its original identity: "[I]n the Orthodox Church itself, all possible care must be taken, that we hold that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, by all." Those who disagree with that consensus are not accepted as authentic "Fathers." All theological concepts must be in agreement with that consensus. Even those considered to be authentic "Fathers" may have some theological opinions that are not universally shared, but are not thereby considered heretical. Some Holy Fathers have even made statements that were later defined as heretical, but their mistakes do not exclude them from position of authority. Thus an Eastern Orthodox Christian is not bound to agree with every opinion of every Father, but rather with the consensus of the Fathers, and then only on those matters about which the church is dogmatic.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Some of the greatest theologians in the history of the church come from the 4th century, including the Cappadocian Fathers and the Three Hierarchs. However, the Eastern Orthodox do not consider the "Patristic era" to be a thing of the past, but that it continues in an unbroken succession of enlightened teachers (i.e., the saints, especially those who have left us theological writings) from the Apostles to the present day.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: From the Eastern Orthodox perspective, the Bible represents those texts approved by the Church for the purpose of conveying the most important parts of what it already believes. The Church more or less accepted the preexisting Greek Septuagint version of the Hebrew scriptures as handed down to them from the Jews; but the New Testament texts were written to members or congregations of the Church which already existed. These texts were not universally considered canonical until the church reviewed, edited, accepted and ratified them in 368 AD.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: The Greeks have always understood that certain sections of Scripture, while containing moral lessons and complex truth, do not necessarily have to be interpreted literally. The Eastern Orthodox also understand that a particular passage may be interpreted on many different levels simultaneously. However, interpretation is not a matter of personal opinion (). For this reason, Eastern Orthodox depend upon the consensus of the Holy Fathers to provide a trustworthy guide to the accurate interpretation of Scripture.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Eastern Orthodox Christianity is a strongly biblical church. A large portion of the Daily Office is made up of either direct portions of scripture (Psalms, lections) or allusions to scriptural passages or themes (hymnography such as that contained in the Octoechos, Triodion, Pentecostarion, etc.) The entire Psalter is read in the course of a week (twice during Great Lent). The entire New Testament (with the exception of the Book of Revelation) is read during the course of the year, and numerous passages are read from the Old Testament at Vespers and other services.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: The Gospel Book is considered to be an icon of Christ, and is placed in a position of honour on the Holy Table (altar). The Gospel Book is traditionally not covered in leather (the skin of a dead animal) because the Word of God is considered to be life-giving. Traditionally, the Gospel is covered in gold or cloth. Eastern Orthodox Christians are encouraged to read and study the Bible daily, especially making use of the writings of the Holy Fathers for guidance.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Recent essays have been written by various contemporary Eastern Orthodox scholars which attempt to reconcile and react to both the creationist interpretation of Genesis 1-2 and the Darwinian theory of human evolution.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in a monotheistic conception of God (God is only one), which is both transcendent (wholly independent of, and removed from, the material universe) and immanent (involved in the material universe). In discussing God's relationship to his creation, Eastern Orthodox theology distinguishes between God's eternal essence, which is totally transcendent, and his "uncreated energies", which is how he reaches humanity. The God who is transcendent and the God who touches mankind are one and the same. That is, these energies are not something that proceed from God or that God produces, but rather they are God himself: distinct, yet inseparable from God's inner being.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in a single God who is both three and one (triune); the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, "one in essence and undivided". The Trinity, three distinct, divine persons ("hypostases"), without overlap or modality among them, who each have one divine essence ("ousia", Greek: οὐσία)—uncreated, immaterial, and eternal. The Father is eternal and not begotten and does not proceed from any, the Son is eternal and begotten of the Father, and the Holy Spirit is eternal and proceeds from the Father. Eastern Orthodox doctrine regarding the Trinity is summarised in the Nicene Creed. The essence of God being that which is beyond human comprehension and cannot be defined or approached by human understanding.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Eastern Orthodox Christians believe the Word of God () is one person in two natures, both fully divine and fully human, perfectly God (τέλειος Θεός) and perfectly man (τέλειος άνθρωπος) united in the person of Jesus Christ, in a unique event known as "the Incarnation". Throughout the ages this has been a point of contention between schismatic Christian theological factions (heterodox) and the mainstream body of Christian believers (orthodox). Christ had a divine will, or set of desires and spiritual incentives, and a human will with fleshly drives. He had a human body, human mind, and human spirit able to be tempted with sin and to suffer the same way as we would. In this way God is said to have suffered and died "in the flesh" of Jesus, although the divine nature is itself impassible and immortal.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Eastern Orthodox Christians believe that Jesus of Nazareth is the promised Messiah of the Jews, the God of Israel come to be with his people, the Redeemer of the human race who saves the world from sin and its effects, the comprehensible self-revelation of the incomprehensible God, and the pre-eternal Son begotten of the Father before all ages: "the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds (æons), Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father." He is said to have been begotten timelessly as God without a mother and begotten in history as man without a father.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in the betrayal, trial, execution, burial and resurrection of Jesus Christ, that he truly rose from the dead on the third day following his crucifixion. The feast of the resurrection of Christ, which is called "Easter" in Germanic languages, is known as "Pascha" in the Eastern Orthodox Church. This is the Aramaic variant (the language spoken at the time of Jesus) of the Hebrew "Pesach", meaning "Passover". The resurrection of Christ is the Christian Passover. Pascha is called "the Feast of Feasts" and is considered the greatest feast of all the Church's liturgical feasts, including the feasts of the Nativity (Christmas) and the Annunciation.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: In discussing God's relationship to his creation a distinction is made within Eastern Orthodox theology between God's eternal essence and uncreated energies, though it is understood that this does not compromise the divine simplicity. Energies and essence are both inseparably God. The divine energies are the expressions of divine being in action according to Eastern Orthodox doctrine, whereas the persons of the Trinity are divine by nature. Hence, created beings are united to God through participation in the divine energies and not the divine essence or "ousia".


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: The Church taught (against the Gnostics) that the cosmos is fallen not because God created it dysfunctional, but because humanity misused their freedom to love and chose a path separating them from God by idolatrously proclaiming their self-sufficiency. When humanity made this choice, it is taught in Eastern patristics, all of reality, i.e. every sphere of human experience, "fell" and was corrupted. The Eastern Orthodox understanding of creation stands in radical contrast to the fatalist approach to sin as taught by the Gnostics and later by strict Augustinians. God created "sarx" ("the flesh") as a provision for humanity, as led by the Spirit of God, to remedy its fallen state by using the time on earth to seek and reconcile with God, even as our common "sarx" separates us from Him.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Eastern Orthodox authors see theodicy as an exclusively Western preoccupation. Pavel Florensky in "The Pillar and Ground of the Truth: An Essay in Orthodox Theodicy in Twelve Letters"; Archbishop Stylianos in "Theodicy and Eschatology: A Fundamental Orthodox Viewpoint" in "Theodicy and Eschatology" (Australian Theological Forum Press 2005 ); Tsunami and Theodicy by David B. Hart, an Eastern Orthodox theologian and author of "The Beauty of the Infinite"; "The Lady and the Wench": A Practical Theodicy in Russian Literature by Paul Valliere; and with regard to one of the Fathers of the Church Irenaeus' Theodicy.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: The Eastern Orthodox approach to sin, and how it is dealt with, shuns perceived Western "legalism." Following rules strictly without the heart "being in it" does not help a believer with his salvation. Sin is not fundamentally about transgressing a Divine law; rather, it stands for any behavior which "misses the mark," that is, fails to live up to the higher goal of conforming to God's nature, which is love.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Thus, in the Eastern Orthodox tradition sin is not viewed primarily as a guilty stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, but rather as a pervading sickness or a failure to achieve the goal of a truly human life, fulfilling one's Divine design and function as the created likeness of God. Sin, therefore, implies the impetus to become something other than what we were created for, rather than guilt for violating a commandment. Because each person's experience is unique, conquering one's sinful habits requires individual attention and correction. The ultimate goal for this salvific process is to become divinized, to reflect the Divine likeness by becoming Christ-like in one's thought, life and behavior.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: A traditional practice of Eastern Orthodoxy is, as in other apostolic churches, to have a spiritual mentor and guide to whom one confesses and who treats the sin on an individual basis. An experienced and spiritually mature guide will know how and when to apply strictness in dealing with sin and when to administer mercy.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: In Eastern Orthodoxy, God created humanity with the ability to freely love him and gave humans a direction to follow. Man (Adam) and Woman (Eve) chose rather to disobey God by eating from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, thus changing the "perfect" mode of existence of Man into a flawed or "fallen" one. Since then a fallen nature and all that has come from it is the result of this "Ancestral Sin". Because of the entrance of death into the world through Adam, all humans end up sinning and follow in his ways (Rom. 5:12, Heb. 2:14-15). Through the union of humanity with divinity in Jesus Christ the mode of existence of humanity is restored in the Person of Christ. Those who are incorporated in him may participate in this renewal of the perfect mode of existence, be saved from sin and death, and be united to God in deification (theosis). Ancestral sin is cleansed in humans through baptism or, in the case of the Theotokos, the moment Christ took form within her.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Man is not seen as inherently guilty of the sin committed by Adam, a view that differs from the Roman Catholic doctrine of original sin, where Adam is conceived as the federal head and legal representative of the human race, as first articulated by Latin Father Augustine of Hippo, According to the Orthodox, humanity inherited the consequences of Adam's sin, not the guilt. The difference stems from Augustine's interpretation of a Latin translation of Romans 5:12 to mean that through Adam all men sinned, whereas the Orthodox, reading in Greek, interpret it as meaning that all of humanity sins as a consequence of the inheritance from Adam of a mortal nature. The Orthodox Church does not teach that all are born guilty and deserving of damnation, and Protestant doctrines such as predestination which are derived from the Augustinian theory of original sin and are especially prominent in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions, are not a part of Orthodox belief.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: In the book "Ancestral Sin", John S. Romanides addresses the concept of original sin, which he understands as an inheritance of ancestral sin from previous generations. Romanides asserts that original sin (understood as innate guilt) is not an apostolic doctrine of the Church nor cohesive with the Eastern Orthodox faith, but rather an unfortunate innovation of later church fathers such as Augustine. In the realm of ascetics it is by choice, not birth, that one takes on the sins of the world.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church, as well as the Non-Chalcedonian Churches (i.e., Oriental Orthodoxy and Assyrian Church of the East), teach that both the elect and the lost enter into the presence of God after death, and that the elect experience this presence as light and rest, while the lost experience it as darkness and torment.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: The Orthodox see this doctrine as supported by Scripture and by the patristic tradition. Hell as professed in the East is neither the absence of God, nor the ontological separation of the soul from the presence of God, but rather the opposite—Heaven and Hell are the fully manifest divine presence, experienced either pleasantly as peace and joy or unpleasantly as shame and anguish, depending upon one's spiritual state and preparedness.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Eastern Orthodox Christians hold that man was originally created in communion with God, but through acting in a manner contrary to his own nature (which is intrinsically ordered to communion with God), he disrupted that communion. Because of man's refusal to fulfill the "image and likeness of God" within him, corruption and the sickness of sin whose consequence is death entered man's mode of existence. But when Jesus came into the world he was perfect man and perfect God united in the divine Hypostasis of the Logos, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity. Through his assumption of human nature, human existence was restored, enabling human beings to bring creation to its fullness through participation in divinity by incorporation into Jesus Christ. St. Athanasius:


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Salvation, or "being saved," therefore, refers to this process of being saved from death and corruption and the fate of hell. The Orthodox Church believes that its teachings and practices represent the true path to participation in the gifts of God. Yet, it should be understood that the Orthodox do not believe that you must be Orthodox to participate in salvation. God is merciful to all. The Orthodox believe that there is nothing that a person (Orthodox or non-Orthodox) can do to earn salvation. It is rather a gift from God. However, this gift of relationship has to be accepted by the believer, since God will not force salvation on humanity. Man is free to reject the gift of salvation continually offered by God. To be saved, man must work together with God in a "synergeia" whereby his entire being, including his will, effort and actions, are perfectly conformed with, and united to, the divine. Vladimir Lossky:


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Prior to Christ's incarnation on Earth it was man's "fate", when he died, because of the fall of Adam, to be separated from God. Because man distorted his mode of existence through acting against what was natural to him - thus disobeying God - humanity placed itself in a terrible and inescapable position. God, however, raised humanity's fallen nature by uniting his divine nature with our human nature. This he accomplished through the Incarnation of the Second Person of the Holy Trinity, who assumed human nature, thus becoming man, whilst retaining the divine nature proper to divinity. It is fundamental for Orthodox Christians that they accept Christ as both God and Man, both natures complete. This is viewed as the only way of escaping the hell of separation from God. The incarnation unites humanity to divinity. Orthodox Christians believe that because of that Incarnation, everything is different. It is said that St Basil stated: "We are to strive to become little gods, within God, little jesus christs within Jesus Christ". In other words, Orthodox Christians must seek perfection in all things in their lives; and strive to acquire Godly virtue. It is believed that God, through assuming humanity, makes it possible for man to participate in divinity. Orthodox Christians do not believe in becoming "separate" gods in the pagan sense; rather, they believe that humans may participate in the divine energies of God without loss of their personal particularity. Humans, therefore, become by grace what God is by nature ("God became man so that man might become a god.", "De Incarnatione," Athanasius of Alexandria).


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: The Resurrection of Christ is the central event in the liturgical year of the Orthodox Church and is understood in literal terms as a real historical event. Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was crucified and died, descended into Hades, rescued all the souls held there as a consequence of their having sinned; and then, because Hades could not restrain the infinite God, rose from the dead, thus saving all humanity. Through these events, he released humanity from the bonds of Hades and then came back to the living as man and God. That each individual human may partake of this immortality, which would have been impossible without the Resurrection, is the main promise held out by God in his New Covenant with humanity, according to Orthodox Christian tradition.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Every holy day of the Orthodox liturgical year relates to the Resurrection directly or indirectly. Every Sunday of the year is dedicated to celebrating the Resurrection; many Orthodox believers will refrain from kneeling or prostrating on Sundays in observance thereof. Even in the liturgical commemorations of the Passion of Christ during Holy Week, there are frequent allusions to the ultimate victory at its completion.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: The ultimate goal of the Orthodox Christian is to achieve "theosis" ("deification") or conformity to and intimate union with God. This is sometimes expressed thus: "God became man so that Man might become god." Some of the greatest saints have achieved, in this life, a measure of this process. The individual who achieves "theosis" never realizes his accomplishment, as his perfect humility keeps him blind to pride. Salvation therefore is not merely an escape from the eternal bondage of death, but an entrance to life in Christ here and now.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: A central concept in Eastern Christianity is "nous" (typically translated "mind" or "understanding"), the apperceptive and relational faculty of attention or awareness which is the center, heart, or spirit of the person. Nous is the eye or soul of the person. It is the nous that is both logical and intuitive understanding. It was humanity's nous that was damaged by Adam's sin and fall and it was this damaged consciousness that each human by birth now receives.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: It is the nous which has to be healed and nourished by means of illumination (see "theoria"). In Orthodox thought, the Church offers a therapeutic treatment for pain, suffering, and the search for value in existence. Orthodox Christianity is healing or therapeutic, and works in each individual to overcome their passions (i.e. evil thoughts, pasts, addictions).


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: As a reorientation of the self, faith ("pistis") is sometimes used interchangeably with noesis in Eastern Christianity. Faith is the intuitive, noetic experience of the nous or spirit. Transformative faith is a gift from God and among his uncreated operations.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: According to anti-Latin polemicist John Romanides, Western Christianity does not offer a spiritual cure for spiritual problems, but expresses salvation as a worldly (religious) goal in the pursuit of happiness, rather than seeking to attain the vision of God and transcend the self. Spiritual work is done to reconcile the heart and mind, by putting the mind in the heart, and then contemplating through our intuition. According to Lossky, rationalism reduces man and nature to cold mechanical concepts, interpretations and symbols of reality not reality in and of itself.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: A great many traditions revolve around the Ever-Virgin Mary, the "Theotokos", the Birth-giver in Incarnation of the preeternal Word of God. It is believed by Orthodox Christians that she was and remained a virgin before and after Christ's birth. Many of the Church's beliefs concerning the Virgin Mary are reflected in the apocryphal text "The Nativity of Mary", which was not included in scripture, but is considered to be accurate in its description of events. The child Mary was consecrated at the age of three to serve in the temple as a temple virgin. Zachariah, at that time High Priest of the Temple, did the unthinkable and carried Mary into the Holy of Holies as a sign of her importance – that she herself would become the ark in which God would take form. At the age of twelve she was required to give up her position and marry, but she desired to remain forever a virgin in dedication to God. And so it was decided to marry her to a close relative, Joseph, an uncle or cousin, an older man, a widower, who would take care of her and allow her to retain her virginity. And so it was that when the time came she submitted to God's will and allowed the Christ to take form within her. It is believed by many Orthodox that she, in her life, committed no sin; however, the Orthodox do not accept the Roman Catholic doctrine of the Immaculate conception. The Theotokos was subject to original sin as the Orthodox understand it, yet she lived her life stainless and pure. In the theology of the Orthodox Church, it is most important to understand that Christ, from the very moment of conception, was fully God and fully man. Therefore, Orthodox Christians believe that it is correct to say that Mary is indeed the Theotokos, the Birth-giver of God, and that she is the greatest of all humans ever to have lived (except, of course, for Christ her Son). The term 'Theotokos' has tremendous theological significance to Orthodox Christians, as it was at the center of the Christological debates of the 4th and 5th centuries AD.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: After her great role was accomplished, the Church believes she remained a virgin, continuing to serve God in all ways. She traveled much with her son, and was present both at his Passion on the Cross and at his ascension into heaven. It is also believed that she was the first to know of her son's resurrection – the Archangel Gabriel appearing to her once more revealed it to her. It is believed she lived to the age of seventy and called all the apostles to her before she died. According to tradition Saint Thomas arrived late and was not present at her death. Desiring to kiss her hand one last time he opened her tomb but her body was gone. The Orthodox believe she was assumed into heaven bodily; however, unlike in the Roman Catholic Church, it is not held dogmatically and the holy day is usually referred to as the Feast of the Dormition, not that of the Assumption.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: In the Eastern Orthodox Church a saint is defined as anyone who is currently in Heaven, whether recognized here on earth or not. By this definition, Adam and Eve, Moses, the various prophets, martyrs for the faith, the angels and archangels are all given the title of "Saint". There is a service in the Orthodox Church in which a saint is formally recognized by the entire Church, called "glorification". This does not, however, "make" a saint but simply accords him or her a place on the calendar with regular services in his honor. Recently, in order to avoid abuses, the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople has begun to follow the longstanding practice of other local Orthodox churches by issuing special encyclical letters ("tomoi") in which the Church acknowledges the popular veneration of a saint. Glorification usually happens after believers have already begun venerating a saint. There are numerous small local followings of countless saints that have not yet been recognized by the entire Orthodox Church.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: A strong element in favor of glorification can be the perceived miraculous condition of physical remains (relics), although that alone is not considered sufficient. In some Orthodox countries it is the custom to re-use graves after three to five years due to limited space. Bones are respectfully washed and placed in an ossuary, often with the person's name written on the skull. Occasionally when a body is exhumed something believed to be miraculous occurs to reveal the person's sainthood. There have been numerous occurrences where the exhumed bones are said to suddenly give off a wonderful fragrance, like flowers; or sometimes the body is said to be found incorrupt despite having not been embalmed (traditionally the Orthodox do not embalm the dead) and having been buried for three years.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: For the Orthodox, body and soul both comprise the person, and in the end, body and soul will be reunited; therefore, the body of a saint shares in the holiness of the soul of the saint.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: Orthodox venerate saints and ask for their prayers, and consider them brothers and sisters in Christ Jesus. Saints are venerated and loved and asked to intercede for salvation, but they are not given the worship accorded to God, because their holiness is believed to come from God. In fact, anyone who worships a saint, relics, or icons is to be excommunicated. As a general rule only clergy will touch relics in order to move them or carry them in procession; however, in veneration the faithful will kiss the relic to show love and respect toward the saint. Every altar in every Orthodox church contains relics, usually of a martyr. The Church building interiors are covered with the icons of saints.


title: Eastern Orthodox theology

text: The Orthodox Church sees baptism, both for infants and adults, as the moment one is incorporated into Christ. The person baptised is given a new name, usually the name of a saint. As well as birthdays, Orthodox celebrate the day of the saint for whom the person is named (the person's name day).


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: Germany uses a 5- or 6-point grading scale (GPA) to evaluate academic performance for the youngest to the oldest students. Grades vary from 1 (excellent, "sehr gut") to 5 (resp. 6) (insufficient, "nicht genügend"). In the final classes of German Gymnasium schools that prepare for university studies, a point system is used with 15 points being the best grade and 0 points the worst. The percentage causing the grade can vary from teacher to teacher.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: In primary and lower secondary education (1st to 10th grade), German school children receive grades based on a 6-point grading scale ranging from 1 (excellent, "sehr gut") to 6 (insufficient, "ungenügend"). Variations on the traditional six grade system allow for awarding grades suffixed with "+" and "−".


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: To calculate averages of suffixed grades, they are assigned fractional values, where 1 is 1.0, 1− is 1.3, 2+ is 1.7, 2 is 2.0, 2− is 2.3 and so on. As schools are governed by the states, not by the federal government, there are slight differences. Often a more granular scale of "1−" (equal to 1.25), "1-2" (= 1.5), "2+" (= 1.75), etc. is used; sometimes even decimal grading (1.0, 1.1, 1.2 and so on) is applied.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: In end-of-year report cards, only unmodified integer grades may be used; in some regions they are written in text form.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: Many states currently also prescribe the use of behaviour-based notes ("Kopfnoten"), which grade things such as "Orderliness" or "General Behaviour".


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: Teachers who teach Grundschule (primary school) or Sonderschule (special education school) are allowed to use "pädagogische Noten" ("pedagogic grades"). Thus if a student tries very hard, but still does very poorly compared to the rest of the class, the teachers are allowed to give them good grades because they tried so hard.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: In the final classes of Gymnasium schools (11th to 12th/13th grade) the grades are converted to numbers ("points"), where "1+" equals 15 points and "6" equals 0 points. Since 1+ exists in this system, theoretically a final Abitur grade of less than 0.6 is possible and such grades are used in an informal setting, although officially any student with less than 1.0 will be awarded a 1.0 Abitur. When the point system is used, a grade of 4 (5 points) is the lowest passing grade, and 4− (4 points) the highest failing grade.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: Most of the universities use ""mit Auszeichnung bestanden"" (passed with distinction/excellent) if the grade is a perfect score of 1.0.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: For law students at German universities, a similar system to the 1 to 5 scale is used that comprises one more grade that is inserted between 2 ("gut") and 3 ("befriedigend"), named "vollbefriedigend". This is because the grades 2 ("gut") and 1 ("sehr gut") are extremely rare, so an additional grade was created below "gut" to increase differentiation. Every grade is converted into points similarly to the "Gymnasium" system described above, starting at 18 points (excellent) down to 0 points (poor). 4 points is the lowest pass grade.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> This conversion scheme is intended as a guideline, as exact conversions may differ.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: A matter of particular interest for those considering studying abroad or even enrolling full-time in a German university is the conversion of grades. While the below information may prove useful, it is recommended to contact the interested university directly to inquire which method they use to convert grades.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: A number of systems exist for the conversion of grades from other countries into German grades. One such system, used by most universities in North Rhine-Westphalia and Bavaria, is called the "Modified Bavarian Formula":


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: where formula_2 = German grade, formula_3 = best possible score in foreign country's grading system, formula_4 = lowest passing score in foreign grading system and formula_5 = obtained foreign grade (to be converted into German grade). The resulting value is rounded to the next German grade (e.g. 1.6 is rounded to the German grade 1.7 and 2.4 is rounded to 2.3). For resulting values between two German grades, the score is rounded to the better grade (e.g. 2.5 is rounded to the German grade 2.3 and 1.15 is rounded to 1.0).


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: In particular doctorate's degrees, e.g. Dr. phil. or Dr. rer. nat., are graded by using the Latin versions. In this case the grade (Note/Zensur) is called "Prädikat". The following rough guide may be used to convert into standard German grades:


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: With the polytechnic reform of the school system initiated by the "Act on Socialistic Development of the School System in the German Democratic Republic" the Ministry of People's Education wanted to adapt academic grading for all institutions in its jurisdiction, which were general educational schools, vocational schools and professional schools for the qualification of lower classes teachers, educators and kindergartners. Therefore, a reorganized grading scale was enacted in "Directive on the introduction of a unified grading scale for secondary schools, extended secondary schools, special schools, vocational schools, institutes of vocational masters' education, institutes of vocational school teachers' education, institutes of vocational teachers' further education, institutes of teachers' education and pedagogic institutes". This directive was unchangedly effective from September 1, 1960, to August 25, 1993.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: For all of the different subjects there were further recommendations with even more specific descriptions in relation to the general grading scale. These particular comments should help the teacher to grade the achievements of the students as objectively as possible.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: At public schools in Germany, teachers are supposed to evaluate students against fixed course-specific criteria, but often feel implicit pressure to grade students on a curve where grades are awarded based on performance relative to all other individuals rather than performance relative to the difficulty of a specific course.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: Specifically, in the 2008 case of Sabine Czerny, a Bavarian primary school teacher, Czerny thought that 91% of the class would be able to make a successful transition into a Realschule or a Gymnasium (high schools for which normally only about 50% of Bavarian children qualify based on their educational achievements). While the parents liked this result, the educational authorities questioned Czerny's grading standards. Czerny claims that her students' results stood up in cross-classroom tests; nonetheless she was transferred to another school. Czerny received much public sympathy and later went on to write a book about her experiences.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: German Gymnasiums are schools which aim to prepare students for college education. These schools are selective, and tough grading is a traditional element of the teaching. The culture of these works against students of average academic ability who barely qualify for a Gymnasium place, and who may then find themselves on the bottom of their class; these same students would have achieved better grades for the same effort if they had attended a non-selective comprehensive school (Gesamtschule).


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: A study revealed that a sample of Gymnasium high school seniors of average mathematical ability who chose to attend advanced college-preparatory math classes at their school ("Leistungskurs") found themselves in the very bottom of their class and had an average grade of 5 (i.e. failed the class). Comprehensive school students of equal mathematical ability found themselves in the upper half of the equivalent course in their school and obtained an average grade of 3+. It was found that students who graduated from a Gesamtschule tend to do worse in college than their grades in high school classes would predict - and vice versa for Gymnasium students.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: Often the German grades are treated like an interval scale to calculate means and deviations for comparisons. Even though it lacks any psychometric standardization, the grading system is often compared to normally distributed norm-referenced assessments. Using an expected value of 3 and a standard deviation of 1, transformations into other statistical measures like Percentiles, T, Stanine etc. or (like in the PISA studies) an IQ scale are then possible.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: At high school level, schooling in most of Germany is selective—thus for instance a "Gymnasium" student who is underperforming compared to his classmates may still be close to or above average when compared to his entire age group.


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: At university level, the distribution is highly non-normal and idiosyncratic to the subject. Substantially more German students fail exams in university than in other countries (usually about 20–40%, often even more). Grades awarded vary widely between fields of study and between universities. (In law degrees, for instance, only 10–15% of candidates are awarded a grade better than ""befriedigend"".)


title: Academic grading in Germany

text: This might be one reason for the low graduation rates at university in international comparisons, as well as for the small number of people who obtain an ""Abitur"" in the first place. However, several empirical psychological studies show that the grades awarded in Germany at school and university have a high reliability when taking up higher education and research jobs. The universities usually demand high grades in Diploma Thesis or a Master Thesis. Thesis grades are by far the most critical factor while applying for job or higher education e.g. PhDs. One study from 1995 found that GPAs from school are a mild (weak) predictor for success in university and to a slightly better degree for success in vocational trainings, and that GPAs from school or university have nearly no predictive value for job performance. Nevertheless, due to rarity of psychometric testing (like Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) or the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) and the like in the US) the GPA is usually used as the most predictive criterion available within an application process. For job recruiting, school/university grades have a high impact on career opportunities, as independent scientifically based recruitment and assessment is used by less than 8% of German employers (cf 50–70% in other European countries).


title: Psychotic depression

text: Psychotic depression, also known as depressive psychosis, is a major depressive episode that is accompanied by psychotic symptoms. It can occur in the context of bipolar disorder or major depressive disorder. It can be difficult to distinguish from schizoaffective disorder, a diagnosis that requires the presence of psychotic symptoms for at least two weeks without any mood symptoms present. Unipolar psychotic depression requires that the psychotic features occur only during episodes of major depression. Diagnosis using the DSM-5 involves meeting the criteria for a major depressive episode, along with the criteria for "mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features" specifier.


title: Psychotic depression

text: Individuals with psychotic depression experience the symptoms of a major depressive episode, along with one or more psychotic symptoms, including delusions and/or hallucinations. Delusions can be classified as mood congruent or incongruent, depending on whether or not the nature of the delusions is in keeping with the individual's mood state. Common themes of mood congruent delusions include guilt, persecution, punishment, personal inadequacy, or disease. Half of patients experience more than one kind of delusion. Delusions occur without hallucinations in about one-half to two-thirds of patients with psychotic depression. Hallucinations can be auditory, visual, olfactory (smell), or haptic (touch), and are congruent with delusional material. Affect is sad, not flat. Severe anhedonia, loss of interest, and psychomotor retardation are typically present.


title: Psychotic depression

text: Psychotic symptoms tend to develop after an individual has already had several episodes of depression without psychosis. However, once psychotic symptoms have emerged, they tend to reappear with each future depressive episode. The prognosis for psychotic depression is not considered to be as poor as for schizoaffective disorders or primary psychotic disorders. Still, those who have experienced a depressive episode with psychotic features have an increased risk of relapse and suicide compared to those without psychotic features, and they tend to have more pronounced sleep abnormalities.


title: Psychotic depression

text: Family members of those who have experienced psychotic depression are at increased risk for both psychotic depression and schizophrenia.


title: Psychotic depression

text: Most patients with psychotic depression report having an initial episode between the ages of 20 and 40. As with other depressive episodes, psychotic depression tends to be episodic, with symptoms lasting for a certain amount of time and then subsiding. While psychotic depression can be chronic (lasting more than 2 years), most depressive episodes last less than 24 months. A study conducted by Kathleen S. Bingham found that patients receiving appropriate treatment for psychotic depression went into "remission". They reported a quality of life similar to that of people without PD.


title: Psychotic depression

text: There are a number of biological features that may distinguish psychotic depression from non-psychotic depression. The most significant difference may be the presence of an abnormality in the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis (HPA). The HPA axis appears to be dysregulated in psychotic depression, with dexamethasone suppression tests demonstrating higher levels of cortisol following dexamethasone administration (i.e. lower cortisol suppression). Those with psychotic depression also have higher ventricular-brain ratios than those with non-psychotic depression.


title: Psychotic depression

text: Psychotic symptoms are often missed in psychotic depression, either because patients do not think their symptoms are abnormal or they attempt to conceal their symptoms from others. On the other hand, psychotic depression may be confused with schizoaffective disorder. Due to overlapping symptoms, differential diagnosis includes also dissociative disorders.


title: Psychotic depression

text: Several treatment guidelines recommend pharmaceutical treatments that include either the combination of a second-generation antidepressant and atypical antipsychotic or tricyclic antidepressant monotherapy or electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) as the first-line treatment for unipolar psychotic depression.


title: Psychotic depression

text: There is some evidence indicating that combination therapy with an antidepressant plus an antipsychotic is more effective in treating psychotic depression than either antidepressant treatment alone or placebo. In the context of psychotic depression, the following are the most well-studied antidepressant/antipsychotic combinations:


title: Psychotic depression

text: There is insufficient evidence to determine if treatment with an antidepressant alone is effective. Tricyclic antidepressants may be particularly dangerous, because overdosing has the potential to cause fatal cardiac arrhythmias.


title: Psychotic depression

text: There is insufficient evidence to determine if treatment with antipsychotic medications alone is effective. Olanzapine may be an effective monotherapy in psychotic depression, although there is evidence that it is ineffective for depressive symptoms as a monotherapy; and olanzapine/fluoxetine is more effective. Quetiapine monotherapy may be particularly helpful in psychotic depression since it has both antidepressant and antipsychotic effects and a reasonable tolerability profile compared to other atypical antipsychotics. The current drug-based treatments of psychotic depression are reasonably effective but can cause side effects, such as nausea, headaches, dizziness, and weight gain.


title: Psychotic depression

text: In modern practice of ECT a therapeutic clonic seizure is induced by electric current via electrodes placed on a person under general anesthesia. Despite much research the exact mechanism of action of ECT is still not known. ECT carries the risk of temporary cognitive deficits (e.g., confusion, memory problems), in addition to the burden of repeated exposures to general anesthesia.


title: Psychotic depression

text: Efforts are made to find a treatment which targets the proposed specific underlying pathophysiology of psychotic depression. A promising candidate was mifepristone, which by competitively blocking certain neuro-receptors, renders cortisol less able to directly act on the brain and was thought to therefore correct an overactive HPA axis. However, a Phase III clinical trial, which investigated the use of mifepristone in PMD, was terminated early due to lack of efficacy.


title: Psychotic depression

text: Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is being investigated as an alternative to ECT in the treatment of depression. TMS involves the administration of a focused electromagnetic field to the cortex to stimulate specific nerve pathways.


title: Psychotic depression

text: Research has shown that psychotic depression differs from non-psychotic depression in a number of ways: potential precipitating factors, underlying biology, symptomatology beyond psychotic symptoms, long-term prognosis, and responsiveness to psychopharmacological treatment and ECT.


title: Psychotic depression

text: The long-term outcome for psychotic depression is generally poorer than for non-psychotic depression.


title: Sick Note (TV series)

text: Sick Note is a British black comedy television series starring Rupert Grint and Nick Frost. It was created and written by Nat Saunders and James Serafinowicz and directed by Matt Lipsey. It first aired on 7 November 2017 on Sky One. In April 2017, it was reported that a second series had been commissioned before the first had aired. It became available for streaming on Netflix worldwide from November 2018.


title: Sick Note (TV series)

text: In April 2021, Saunders stated the series was "neither recommissioned or cancelled, just in TV show limbo" when asked on Twitter about its status, adding that a return seemed unlikely. Serafinowicz had previously shared similar thoughts and revealed they "wrote the first 2 episodes of season 3 but nothing ever happened."


title: Sick Note (TV series)

text: When insurance agent Daniel Glass (Rupert Grint) is misdiagnosed with terminal oesophageal cancer, due to his incompetent doctor (Nick Frost), he begins to notice that everyone around him treats him better and he decides not to tell. This leads to more lies and secrets which need to be covered up. Daniel and the doctor become allies as each have something to gain by maintaining the façade; however, they attract the attention of a local policeman who believes Daniel may have been involved in a murder case. As more people become involved the web of lies begin to grow and eventually serious crimes are committed.


title: Sick Note (TV series)

text: The first season was released on DVD on 21 October 2019. The second season was released on 17 February 2020.


title: Sick Note (TV series)

text: "Sick Note" received mixed reviews from critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has a 50% approval rating based on 6 reviews. Rupert Hawksley of "The Daily Telegraph" stated the premise "is not a bad one at all" but ultimately finds that the "cast is wasted" due to the writing, claiming that the "jokes landed with all the grace of an injured pheasant." Brad Newsome of the "Sydney Morning Herald" described the series by saying, "Rupert Grint, Nick Frost and Don Johnson are all very naughty boys in this dark but agreeably untaxing British comedy series." Barbara Ellen of "The Guardian" considered the "performances are great and there are plenty of laughs in the escalating twists of surrealist failure." In an article by James Rampton for "The Independent", it is characterized as "dark, but silly as well. It's "Breaking Bad" meets "Fawlty Towers"," and "cleverly fuses light and shade."


title: Sick Note (TV series)

text: In a review for "Paste Magazine", LaToya Ferguson also writes that "Sick Note" has a "pretty solid premise" but the series is "wildly uneven," it "has a singular narrative and aesthetic vision, and it never once veers from that, no matter what", continuing that the addition of Lohan to the second season "doesn't read as an attempt to course-correct, it probably should've been," although her character "meshes much better with the story as a whole. Especially, as she almost, sort of, but not quite solves the show's woman problem."


title: Sixteen Stone

text: Sixteen Stone is the debut studio album by English rock band Bush, released on 6 December 1994 by Trauma and Interscope Records. It became the band's most popular album, peaking at number four on the US "Billboard" 200 and boasting numerous successful singles. "Comedown" and "Glycerine" remain two of Bush's biggest hits to date, each reaching number one on the US "Billboard" Modern Rock Tracks chart. "Comedown", "Machinehead", and "Glycerine" were the three songs from the album to enter the US "Billboard" Hot 100, reaching number thirty, number forty-three, and number twenty-eight, respectively. The album was certified 6× Platinum in the United States by the RIAA on April 16, 1997.


title: Sixteen Stone

text: To mark its twentieth anniversary, a remastered edition of the album was released on 14 October 2014.


title: Sixteen Stone

text: "Sixteen Stone" was recorded in January 1994 at Westway Records in London, and produced by Clive Langer and Alan Winstanley. In 1999, Gavin Rossdale explained that the decision to have Langer produce the record was brought about by Langer simply being English, and by his work co-writing the song "Shipbuilding" with Elvis Costello. Rossdale initially wanted Steve Albini, who produced the 1996 follow-up "Razorblade Suitcase", to work on "Sixteen Stone". David Carson designed the album artwork and packaging for the album.


title: Sixteen Stone

text: Guitarist Nigel Pulsford's father and Rossdale's stepfather died around the time the album was recorded. "Sixteen Stone" is dedicated to both.


title: Sixteen Stone

text: Some time prior to release, the band, known previously as Future Primitive, became known as Bush after Carson convinced the band that a shortened name would be more suitable for a CD. "Sixteen Stone" was delivered to Trauma Records in early April 1994, and released on 6 December that year through the label. Rossdale has stated that the reason "Sixteen Stone"'s release through Trauma was delayed was the label's distributor, Hollywood Records, opining that the record contained "no singles" and "no album tracks".


title: Sixteen Stone

text: The music of "Sixteen Stone" has been characterized variously as grunge, hard rock, and post-grunge, and has been compared with the music of 90s Seattle-based bands including Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Alice in Chains and Soundgarden; the song "Bomb" in particular invited a description of "Nirvana-approximating" from "Stereogum". Styles displayed on the record include the balladry of "Glycerine", the Ramones-indebted punk rock of "X-Girlfriend", and what "Stereogum" proclaimed as "groove-grunge" on "Comedown" and "Body".


title: Sixteen Stone

text: Drummer Robin Goodridge told the publication "Modern Drummer" in 1996 that "Sixteen Stone" features percussion informed by the styles John Bonham of Led Zeppelin, Billy Cobham and Keith Moon of The Who.


title: Sixteen Stone

text: The lyrical content of "Sixteen Stone" revolved around a variety of themes. "Testosterone" conveyed a take-down of machismo, while "Stereogum" analyzed "Monkey" to be a "sardonic statement about rock stardom" and to "attack the British sellout angle". "Bomb" is an anti-war song; Rossdale told "American Songwriter" in 2011 that the song had been "written about the Irish IRA presence where I grew up". Other songs related to personal challenges, including "Little Things" which Rossdale claimed was written about "trying to be strong in the face of adversity".


title: Sixteen Stone

text: "Sixteen Stone" received mostly positive feedback from music critics. "Q" wrote that Bush "make a carefully honed post-grunge sound that fits perfectly alongside American counterparts like Stone Temple Pilots or Live." In a four-and-a-half stars out of five review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic calls their sound impressive, but states that the band sounds too much like Seattle rockers Nirvana and Pearl Jam. Robert Christgau was more critical in "The Village Voice", regarding it as a "not altogether unmusical howl of male pain" that glorified "despair".


title: Sixteen Stone

text: In April 2014, "Rolling Stone" placed the album at number thirty-nine on their "1994: The 40 Best Records From Mainstream Alternative's Greatest Year" list. A month later, Loudwire placed "Sixteen Stone" at number eight on its "10 Best Hard Rock Albums of 1994" list. In July 2014 "Guitar World" placed the album on its "Superunknown: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994" list.


title: Sixteen Stone

text: Around the album's 20th anniversary, a remastered edition of its original recordings was released. When asked about also remixing the album for the anniversary edition, Rossdale stated "I did attempt to remix ... but it's really, like, you just can't do that. You can't mess with stuff. Those mixes, every single level of those songs is just ingrained in my DNA as it's probably in anybody's DNA who knows it. It just sounds really weird when you mess with it."


title: Sixteen Stone

text: "Sixteen Stone" first entered the "Billboard" 200 at number 187 for week ending 28 January 1995, and eventually peaked at number four. In 2010 the album's US sales passed the six million mark.


title: Islands (King Crimson album)

text: Islands is the fourth studio album by English band King Crimson, released in December 1971 on the record label Island. "Islands" is the only studio album to feature the 1971-1972 touring line-up of Robert Fripp, Mel Collins, Boz Burrell and Ian Wallace. This would be the last album before an entirely new group (except for Fripp) would record the trilogy of "Larks' Tongues in Aspic", "Starless and Bible Black" and "Red" between 1973-1974. This is also the last album to feature the lyrics of co-founding member Peter Sinfield.


title: Islands (King Crimson album)

text: Musically, the album expands on the improvisational jazz leanings of King Crimson's previous album, "Lizard". It received a mixed response from critics and fans.


title: Islands (King Crimson album)

text: The harmonic basis for the tune "The Letters" is derived from the Giles, Giles and Fripp song "Why Don't You Just Drop In", available on "The Brondesbury Tapes" compilation. The bridge section is also taken from the King Crimson version of the song, performed by the original line-up, titled simply "Drop In" and later released on the live-album "Epitaph".


title: Islands (King Crimson album)

text: The lyrics to "Ladies of the Road" are a series of male sexual fantasies revolving around "girls of the road", i.e. groupies. Lyricist Peter Sinfield later commented on the song: "... everybody writes at least one groupie song. We shouldn't. But we do. It is the ultimate sexist lyric "of all time". I couldn't imagine anyone taking it too seriously, because in those days you were still able to say things like 'my lady' with a capital M and a capital L." [emphasis in original]


title: Islands (King Crimson album)

text: The original basis for the song "Prelude: Song of the Gulls" is derived from the Giles, Giles and Fripp song "Suite No. 1".


title: Islands (King Crimson album)

text: The first vinyl release of the album features a hidden track. At the end of side two there is a recording of studio chatter followed by Fripp saying, among other things, "...What we're going to do, umm... do it twice more, once with the oboe, once without it, and then... we finish." This was included on the initial CD release but was accidentally left off the first pressings of the 1989 Definitive Edition CD remaster. It was restored on all subsequent reissues, and has been used as "walk on" music for all shows starting in 2014.


title: Islands (King Crimson album)

text: The original United Kingdom and European cover depicts the Trifid Nebula in Sagittarius and displays neither the name of the band nor the title. The original United States and Canadian album cover (as released by Atlantic) was a Peter Sinfield painting of off-white with coloured "islands". This was used as an internal gatefold sleeve in the UK. When the King Crimson catalogue was re-issued by EG, they standardised on the "Trifid Nebula" cover worldwide.


title: Islands (King Crimson album)

text: The album was re-released in 2010 as the fifth release in King Crimson's 40th Anniversary series, featuring new stereo and 5.1 surround mixes by Steven Wilson and Robert Fripp, Sid Smith sleeve notes and extra tracks and alternative versions. The DVD-A presents a 5.1 surround sound mix by Wilson, a hi-res stereo version of the 2010 mix, a hi-res stereo version of the original album mix taken from the 30th anniversary master source and previously unreleased material, including studio takes mixed from the original recording sessions.


title: Islands (King Crimson album)

text: Retrospective reviews have been mixed, with critics generally praising the band's performances while finding the compositions and album structure aimless. AllMusic called it "the weakest Crimson studio album from their first era" that "is only a real disappointment in relation to the extraordinarily high quality of the group's earlier efforts." Conversely, All About Jazz described the album as a "well-conceived, tremendously executed and perfectly sequenced collection", and complimented Fripp's utilization of "a more sophisticated jazz vernacular" in a rock context.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: Bergamot essential oil is a cold-pressed essential oil produced by cells inside the rind of a bergamot orange fruit. It is a common flavoring and top note in perfumes. The scent of bergamot essential oil is similar to a sweet light orange peel oil with a floral note.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: The "sfumatura" or slow-folding process was the traditional technique for manually extracting the bergamot oil. By more modern methods, the oil is extracted mechanically with machines called peelers, which scrape the outside of the fruit under running water to get an emulsion channeled into centrifuges for separating the essence from the water. The rinds of 100 bergamot oranges yield about of bergamot oil.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: Bergamot essential oil has been used in cosmetics, aromatherapy, and as a flavoring in food and beverages. Its citrus scent makes it a natural flavoring and deodorizing agent. The volatile oils of the bergamot orange are described as flavoring agents in the USP Food Chemicals Codex and are generally recognized as safe for human consumption by the Food and Drug Administration. For example, Earl Grey tea is a type of black tea that may contain bergamot essential oil as a flavoring agent.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: Historically, bergamot essential oil was an ingredient in Eau de Cologne, a perfume originally concocted by Johann Maria Farina at the beginning of the 18th century. The first record of bergamot oil used as a fragrance in perfume is from 1714, found in the Farina Archive in Cologne.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: A clear liquid (sometimes there is a deposit consisting of waxes) in color from green to greenish yellow, bergamot essential oil consists of a volatile fraction (average 95%) and a non-volatile fraction (5% or residual). Chemically, it is a complex mixture of many classes of organic substances, particularly in the volatile fraction, including terpenes, esters, alcohols and aldehydes, and for the non-volatile fraction, oxygenated heterocyclic compounds as coumarins and furanocoumarins.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: The main compounds in the oil are limonene, linalyl acetate, linalool, γ-terpinene and β-pinene, and in smaller quantities geranial and β-bisabolene.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: The main non-volatile compounds are coumarins (citropten, 5-geranyloxy-7-methoxycoumarin) and furanocoumarins (bergapten, bergamottin).


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: The bergamot essential oil is particularly subject to adulteration being an essential oil produced in relatively small quantities. Generally adulteration is to "cut" the oil, i.e. adding distilled essences of poor quality and low cost, for example of bitter orange and bergamot mint and/or mixtures of terpenes, natural or synthetic, or "reconstruct" the essence from synthetic chemicals, coloring it with chlorophyll. Worldwide, each year, around three thousand tonnes of declared essence of bergamot are marketed, while the genuine essence of bergamot produced annually amounts to no more than one hundred tons.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: Natural source analysis based on the Carbon-14 method can identify adulterated essences by detecting synthetic chemicals manufactured from petroleum that are used to mimic the chemical profile of bergamot oil and other essential oils.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: Gas chromatography with columns having a chiral stationary phase allows analyzing mixtures of enantiomers. The analysis of the enantiomeric distribution of various compounds, such as linalyl acetate and linalool, allows the characterization of the bergamot oil according to the manufacturing process and allows for the detection of possible adulteration.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: The combined use of isotope ratio mass spectrometry and SNIF-NMR (Site-Specific Natural Isotope Fractionation-Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) allows discovering adulteration otherwise undetectable even allowing for the identification of the geographical origin of the essential oil.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: The GC-C-IRMS (Gas Chromatography-Combustion – Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer) technique, the most recently used, allows obtaining similar results.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: Analytical values take as reference for genuinity evaluation of bergamot essential oil by the "Experimental Station for the Industry of the Essential oils and Citrus products", in Reggio Calabria, Italy.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: The phototoxic effects of bergamot essential oil have been known for more than a century. In 1925, Rosenthal coined the term "Berloque dermatitis" (from the French word "breloque" meaning trinket or charm) to describe the pendant-like streaks of pigmentation observed on the neck, face, and arms of patients. He was unaware that, in 1916, Freund had correctly observed that these pigmentation effects were due to sun exposure after the use of Eau de Cologne, a perfume infused with bergamot oil.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: Use of bergamot aromatherapy oil, followed by exposure to ultraviolet light (either sunlight or a tanning bed), has been reported to cause phytophotodermatitis, a serious skin inflammation indicated by painful erythema and bullae on exposed areas of the skin. In one case, six drops of bergamot aromatherapy oil in a bath followed by 20–30 minutes exposure of ultraviolet light from a tanning bed caused a severe burn-like reaction.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: Bergamot essential oil contains a significant amount of bergapten, a phototoxic substance that gets its name from the bergamot orange. Bergapten, a linear furanocoumarin derived from psoralen, is often found in plants associated with phytophotodermatitis. Note that bergamot essential oil has a higher concentration of bergapten (3000–3600 mg/kg) than any other "Citrus"-based essential oil.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: When bergamot essential oil is applied directly to the skin via a patch test, followed by exposure to ultraviolet light, a concentration-dependent phototoxic effect is observed. However, if the oil is twice rectified (and therefore bergapten-free), no phototoxic response is observed.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: The International Fragrance Association (IFRA) restricts the use of bergamot essential oil due to its phototoxic effects. Specifically, IFRA recommends that leave-on skin products be limited to 0.4% bergamot oil, which is more restrictive than any other "Citrus"-based essential oil.


title: Bergamot essential oil

text: Although generally recognized as safe for human consumption, bergamot essential oil contains a significant amount of bergamottin, one of two furanocoumarins believed to be responsible for a number of grapefruit–drug interactions. In one case study, a patient who consumed four liters of Earl Grey tea per day suffered paresthesias, fasciculations and muscle cramps.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (American English), carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers (Commonwealth English), carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics, carbon-fiber reinforced-thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP), also known as carbon fiber, carbon composite, or just carbon, are extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastics that contain carbon fibers. CFRPs can be expensive to produce, but are commonly used wherever high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness (rigidity) are required, such as aerospace, superstructures of ships, automotive, civil engineering, sports equipment, and an increasing number of consumer and technical applications.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: The binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester, or nylon, are sometimes used. The properties of the final CFRP product can be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix (resin). The most common additive is silica, but other additives such as rubber and carbon nanotubes can be used.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: Carbon fiber is sometimes referred to as "graphite-reinforced polymer" or "graphite fiber-reinforced polymer" ("GFRP" is less common, as it clashes with glass-(fiber)-reinforced polymer).


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: CFRP are composite materials. In this case the composite consists of two parts: a matrix and a reinforcement. In CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides its strength. The matrix is usually a polymer resin, such as epoxy, to bind the reinforcements together. Because CFRP consists of two distinct elements, the material properties depend on these two elements.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: Reinforcement gives CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress and elastic modulus respectively. Unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber and the proportion of the carbon fibers relative to the polymer. The two different equations governing the net elastic modulus of composite materials using the properties of the carbon fibers and the polymer matrix can also be applied to carbon fiber reinforced plastics. The following equation,


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. formula_2 is the total composite modulus, formula_3 and formula_4 are the volume fractions of the matrix and fiber respectively in the composite, and formula_5 and formula_6 are the elastic moduli of the matrix and fibers respectively. The other extreme case of the elastic modulus of the composite with the fibers oriented transverse to the applied load can be found using the following equation:


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: The fracture toughness of carbon fiber reinforced plastics is governed by the following mechanisms: 1) debonding between the carbon fiber and polymer matrix, 2) fiber pull-out, and 3) delamination between the CFRP sheets. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0.5% strain to failure. Although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material and finding alternative polymer matrix. One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: Despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out. While steel and many other structural metals and alloys do have estimable fatigue or endurance limits, the complex failure modes of composites mean that the fatigue failure properties of CFRP are difficult to predict and design against. As a result, when using CFRP for critical cyclic-loading applications, engineers may need to design in considerable strength safety margins to provide suitable component reliability over its service life.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: Environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While CFRPs demonstrate excellent corrosion resistance, the effect of moisture at wide ranges of temperatures can lead to degradation of the mechanical properties of CFRPs, particularly at the matrix-fiber interface. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the moisture plasticizes the polymer matrix. This led to significant changes in properties that are dominantly influenced by the matrix in CFRPs such as compressive, interlaminar shear, and impact properties. The epoxy matrix used for engine fan blades is designed to be impervious against jet fuel, lubrication, and rain water, and external paint on the composites parts is applied to minimize damage from ultraviolet light.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: Carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum or mild steel but not to stainless steel or titanium.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics are very hard to machine, and causes significant tool wear. The tool wear in CFRP machining is dependent on the fiber orientation and machining condition of the cutting process. To reduce tool wear various types of coated tools are used in machining CFRP and CFRP-metal stack.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: The primary element of CFRP is a carbon filament; this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon, or petroleum pitch. For synthetic polymers such as PAN or rayon, the precursor is first spun into filament yarns, using chemical and mechanical processes to initially align the polymer chains in a way to enhance the final physical properties of the completed carbon fiber. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers. After drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms (carbonization), producing the final carbon fiber. The carbon fibers filament yarns may be further treated to improve handling qualities, then wound on to bobbins. From these fibers, a unidirectional sheet is created. These sheets are layered onto each other in a quasi-isotropic layup, e.g. 0°, +60°, or −60° relative to each other.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: From the elementary fiber, a bidirectional woven sheet can be created, i.e. a twill with a 2/2 weave. The process by which most CFRPs are made varies, depending on the piece being created, the finish (outside gloss) required, and how many of the piece will be produced. In addition, the choice of matrix can have a profound effect on the properties of the finished composite.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: Many CFRP parts are created with a single layer of carbon fabric that is backed with fiberglass. A tool called a chopper gun is used to quickly create these composite parts. Once a thin shell is created out of carbon fiber, the chopper gun cuts rolls of fiberglass into short lengths and sprays resin at the same time, so that the fiberglass and resin are mixed on the spot. The resin is either external mix, wherein the hardener and resin are sprayed separately, or internal mixed, which requires cleaning after every use.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: One method of producing CFRP parts is by layering sheets of carbon fiber cloth into a mold in the shape of the final product. The alignment and weave of the cloth fibers is chosen to optimize the strength and stiffness properties of the resulting material. The mold is then filled with epoxy and is heated or air-cured. The resulting part is very corrosion-resistant, stiff, and strong for its weight. Parts used in less critical areas are manufactured by draping cloth over a mold, with epoxy either preimpregnated into the fibers (also known as "pre-preg") or "painted" over it. High-performance parts using single molds are often vacuum-bagged and/or autoclave-cured, because even small air bubbles in the material will reduce strength. An alternative to the autoclave method is to use internal pressure via inflatable air bladders or EPS foam inside the non-cured laid-up carbon fiber.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: For simple pieces of which relatively few copies are needed (1–2 per day), a vacuum bag can be used. A fiberglass, carbon fiber, or aluminum mold is polished and waxed, and has a release agent applied before the fabric and resin are applied, and the vacuum is pulled and set aside to allow the piece to cure (harden). There are three ways to apply the resin to the fabric in a vacuum mold.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: The first method is manual and called a wet layup, where the two-part resin is mixed and applied before being laid in the mold and placed in the bag. The other one is done by infusion, where the dry fabric and mold are placed inside the bag while the vacuum pulls the resin through a small tube into the bag, then through a tube with holes or something similar to evenly spread the resin throughout the fabric. Wire loom works perfectly for a tube that requires holes inside the bag. Both of these methods of applying resin require hand work to spread the resin evenly for a glossy finish with very small pin-holes.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: A third method of constructing composite materials is known as a dry layup. Here, the carbon fiber material is already impregnated with resin (pre-preg) and is applied to the mold in a similar fashion to adhesive film. The assembly is then placed in a vacuum to cure. The dry layup method has the least amount of resin waste and can achieve lighter constructions than wet layup. Also, because larger amounts of resin are more difficult to bleed out with wet layup methods, pre-preg parts generally have fewer pinholes. Pinhole elimination with minimal resin amounts generally require the use of autoclave pressures to purge the residual gases out.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: A quicker method uses a compression mold, also commonly known as carbon fiber forging. This is a two (male and female), or multi-piece mold, usually made out of aluminum or steel and more recently 3d printed plastic. The mold components are pressed together with the fabric and resin loaded into the inner cavity that ultimately becomes the desired component. The benefit is the speed of the entire process. Some car manufacturers, such as BMW, claimed to be able to cycle a new part every 80 seconds. However, this technique has a very high initial cost since the molds require CNC machining of very high precision.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: For difficult or convoluted shapes, a filament winder can be used to make CFRP parts by winding filaments around a mandrel or a core.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: The Airbus A350 XWB is built of 52% CFRP including wing spars and fuselage components, overtaking the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, for the aircraft with the highest weight ratio for CFRP, which is 50%. This was one of the first commercial aircraft to have wing spars made from composites. The Airbus A380 was one of the first commercial airliners to have a central wing-box made of CFRP; it is the first to have a smoothly contoured wing cross-section instead of the wings being partitioned span-wise into sections. This flowing, continuous cross section optimises aerodynamic efficiency. Moreover, the trailing edge, along with the rear bulkhead, empennage, and un-pressurised fuselage are made of CFRP. However, many delays have pushed order delivery dates back because of problems with the manufacture of these parts. Many aircraft that use CFRP have experienced delays with delivery dates due to the relatively new processes used to make CFRP components, whereas metallic structures have been studied and used on airframes for years, and the processes are relatively well understood. A recurrent problem is the monitoring of structural ageing, for which new methods are constantly investigated, due to the unusual multi-material and anisotropic nature of CFRP.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: In 1968 a "Hyfil" carbon-fiber fan assembly was in service on the Rolls-Royce Conways of the Vickers VC10s operated by BOAC.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: Specialist aircraft designers and manufacturers Scaled Composites have made extensive use of CFRP throughout their design range, including the first private crewed spacecraft Spaceship One. CFRP is widely used in micro air vehicles (MAVs) because of its high strength to weight ratio.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: CFRPs are extensively used in high-end automobile racing. The high cost of carbon fiber is mitigated by the material's unsurpassed strength-to-weight ratio, and low weight is essential for high-performance automobile racing. Race-car manufacturers have also developed methods to give carbon fiber pieces strength in a certain direction, making it strong in a load-bearing direction, but weak in directions where little or no load would be placed on the member. Conversely, manufacturers developed omnidirectional carbon fiber weaves that apply strength in all directions. This type of carbon fiber assembly is most widely used in the "safety cell" monocoque chassis assembly of high-performance race-cars. The first carbon fiber monocoque chassis was introduced in Formula One by McLaren in the 1981 season. It was designed by John Barnard and was widely copied in the following seasons by other F1 teams due to the extra rigidity provided to the chassis of the cars.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: Many supercars over the past few decades have incorporated CFRP extensively in their manufacture, using it for their monocoque chassis as well as other components. As far back as 1971, the Citroën SM offered optional lightweight carbon fiber wheels.


title: Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers

text: Use of the material has been more readily adopted by low-volume manufacturers who used it primarily for creating body-panels for some of their high-end cars due to its increased strength and decreased weight compared with the glass-reinforced polymer they used for the majority of their products.