text: Under the command of Captain John Smith during the War of 1812, she made three extended cruises in company with "President" and briefly with "United States". She was part of a pursuit of a fleet of British merchant ships and assisted "President" in the attempted capture of . On the return voyage, "Congress" and "President" captured seven merchant ships. "Congress"' second cruise began in October 1812, and she pursued and captured the merchant ship "Argo". Arriving back in Boston on December 31, she assisted in capturing eight additional merchant ships. After repairs, she sailed in company with "President" on April 30, 1813, and pursued , which escaped. Setting off on her own, she made a lengthy voyage off the Cape Verde Islands and the coast of Brazil. During this long cruise she captured only four small merchant ships, returning home in late 1813. Because of a lack of materials to repair her, she was placed in reserve for the remainder of the war.


title: Original six frigates of the United States Navy

text: In 1815 she returned to active service for the Second Barbary War under Captain Charles Morris, and in August "Congress" joined a squadron and began patrol duties, subsequently making appearances off Tripoli and Tunis. Returning to Boston, she decommissioned in December. She patrolled against piracy in the Gulf of Mexico from December 1816 to July 1817 and made a voyage to South America in 1818. Early in 1819 she made a voyage to China, becoming the first U.S. warship to visit that country. In 1822 she served as the flagship of James Biddle, combating piracy in the West Indies. Under Biddle she made a voyage to Spain and Argentina. She began serving as a receiving ship in 1824 and remained on that duty until ordered broken up in 1834.


text: Minor alterations were made to "President" based on experience gained in constructing the 44-gun ships "Constitution" and "United States". Humphreys instructed "President"'s naval contractor to raise the gun deck by and move the mainmast farther aft. In the case of "President", construction was begun at New York in the shipyard of Foreman Cheesman and work on her was discontinued in 1796. Construction resumed in 1798, under Christian Bergh and naval constructor William Doughty.


text: Rated at 44 guns, was the last frigate to be completed, launching from New York City on April 10, 1800, with Captain Thomas Truxtun in command. She departed for patrols during the Quasi-War on August 5 and recaptured several American merchant ships. After the peace treaty, she returned to the United States in March 1801.


text: In May 1801 she sailed under the command of Richard Dale for service in the First Barbary War. She made appearances off Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, capturing a Greek vessel with Tripolitan soldiers aboard and participating in a prisoner exchange. She returned to the United States on April 14, 1802, then left for a second patrol on the Barbary coast in 1804 under the command of Samuel Barron. In company with "Congress", "Constellation", and "Constitution", "President" experienced a mostly uneventful tour, assisting in the capture of three vessels, performing blockade duties, and undergoing two changes of commanding officers. She sailed for home on July 13, 1805, carrying with her many sailors released from captivity in Tripoli.


text: On May 16, 1811, in what became known as the Little Belt affair, "President", under the command of Captain John Rodgers, mistakenly identified as the frigate while searching for impressed American sailors taken by the Royal Navy. Though the sequence of events is disputed on both sides, both ships discharged cannon for several minutes before Rodgers determined that "Little Belt" was a much smaller ship than "Guerriere". "Little Belt" suffered serious damage and thirty-one killed or wounded in the exchange. Rodgers offered assistance to "Little Belt"s Captain Arthur Bingham, but he declined and sailed off for Halifax, Nova Scotia. The U.S. and Royal Navy investigations each determined the other ship to be responsible for the attack, increasing tensions leading up to the War of 1812.


text: Still under the command of John Rodgers, "President" made three extended cruises during the War of 1812 in company with "Congress" and briefly with "United States". "President" encountered and engaged in a fight from which "Belvidera" eventually escaped. Pursuing a fleet of merchant ships, "President" sailed to within a day's journey of the English Channel before returning to Boston, capturing seven merchant ships en route. Her second cruise began with a pursuit of and , but she failed to overtake either of them. Later prizes were the packet ship "Swallow", carrying a large amount of currency, and eight other merchant ships. "President" returned on December 31. Her third cruise of the war began April 30, 1813, with her pursuit of , but she once again lost a race to overtake an enemy ship. "President" spent five months at sea, capturing several merchant ships, but the only highlight was the capture of in late September.


text: After the ship spent a year blockaded in port, Stephen Decatur assumed command of "President". On the evening of January 14, 1815, "President" headed out of New York harbor but ran aground, suffering some damage to the copper. Unable to return to port, she was forced to head out to sea. Later the next afternoon she fought a battle with . Decatur attempted to capture "Endymion" to replace "President", but this plan failed because "Endymion" was smaller and more maneuverable. Decatur surrendered his ship to "Endymion" only to sail away under the cover of night. Subsequently, HMS "Pomone" and overtook "President", and Decatur surrendered the ship once again to "Endymion". "President" was taken into the Royal Navy as HMS "President", but served only a few years before being broken up in 1818.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: "La Belle Dame sans Merci" ("The Beautiful Lady Without Mercy") is a ballad produced by the English poet John Keats in 1819. The title was derived from the title of a 15th-century poem by Alain Chartier called "La Belle Dame sans Mercy".


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: Considered an English classic, the poem is an example of Keats' poetic preoccupation with love and death. The poem is about a fairy who condemns a knight to an unpleasant fate after she seduces him with her eyes and singing. The fairy inspired several artists to paint images that became early examples of 19th-century "femme fatale" iconography. The poem continues to be referenced in many works of literature, music, art, and film.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: The poem is simple in structure with twelve stanzas of four lines each in an ABCB rhyme scheme. Below are both the original and revised version of the poem:


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: In 2019 literary scholars Richard Marggraf Turley and Jennifer Squire proposed that the ballad may have been inspired by the tomb effigy of Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel (d. 1376) in Chichester Cathedral. At the time of Keats' visit in 1819, the effigy stood mutilated and separated from that of Arundel's second wife, Eleanor of Lancaster (d. 1372), in the northern outer aisle. The figures were reunited and restored by Edward Richardson in 1843, and later inspired Philip Larkin's 1956 poem "An Arundel Tomb".


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: Like the author's other 1819 poems such as “Ode to a Nightingale,” “On Melancholy,” and “On Indolence,” the poem was written at the heat of Keats' passion for his fiancée Fanny Browne. This is why some critics think that its theme partly reflects their relationship. However, critics such as Amy Lowell argue that "La Belle Dame sans Merci" is not biographical and that it is "not connected, except in the most general way, with Keats himself and Fanny Brawne.”


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: "La Belle Dame sans Merci" was a popular subject for the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. It was depicted by Frank Dicksee, Frank Cadogan Cowper, John William Waterhouse, Arthur Hughes, Walter Crane, and Henry Maynell Rheam. It was also satirized in the 1 December 1920 edition of "Punch" magazine.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: Around 1910, Charles Villiers Stanford produced a musical setting for the poem. It is a dramatic interpretation requiring a skilled (male) vocalist and equally skilled accompanist. In the 21st century it remains popular and is included on many anthologies of English song or British Art Music recorded by famous artists.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: In 1935, Patrick Hadley wrote a version of the Stanford score for tenor, four-part chorus, and orchestra.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: Ukrainian composer Valentyn Silvestrov wrote a song for baritone and piano after Russian translation of the poem. It belongs to Silvestrov's song cycle "Quiet Songs (Silent Songs)" (1974–1975).


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: A setting of the poem, in German translation, appears on the 2009 music album "Buch der Balladen" by Faun.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: A lyrical, mystical musical setting of this poem has been composed by Loreena McKennitt, published in her 2018 CD "Lost Souls".


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: The poem is mentioned in the story entitled "The case of Three Gables" from the 1893 book "The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. In it Holmes compares and matches the character sketch of Isadora Klein with La Belle Dame sans Merci.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: In Agatha Christie's 1936 mystery novel "Murder in Mesopotamia", the plot is centered upon an unusual woman named Louise Leidner who is described multiple times as "a kind of Belle Dame sin Merci". One character describes her as possessing a "calamitous magic that plays the devil with things".


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: Vladimir Nabokov's books "The Real Life of Sebastian Knight" (1941), "Lolita" (1955) and "Pale Fire" (1962) allude to the poem.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: The last two lines of the first verse ("The sedge has withered from the lake/And no birds sing") were used as an epigraph for Rachel Carson's book "Silent Spring" (1962), about the environmental damage caused by the irresponsible use of pesticides. The second line was repeated later in the book, as the title of a chapter about their specific effects on birds.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: The last two lines of the 11th verse are used as the title of a science fiction short story, "And I awoke and found me here on the cold hill's side" (1973) by James Tiptree Jr.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: Roger Zelazny's "Amber Chronicles" refer to the poem in Chapter Five of "The Courts of Chaos" (1978) wherein the protagonist journeys to a land that resembles the poem.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: John Kennedy Toole's novel "A Confederacy of Dunces" (1980) alludes to the poem in initially describing the main character's home.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: The line is also featured in Philip Roth's "The Human Stain" (2000) in reaction to Coleman describing his new, far younger love interest.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: In Chapter 32 of Kristine Smith's novel "Law Of Survival" (2001) the protagonist, Jani, reveals her true hybrid eyes to the general public for the first time, then she asks another character, Niall, what she looks like. Niall smiles and quotes a snippet of La Belle Dame sans Merci and gives Keats credit for his words.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: The Beldam in Neil Gaiman's 2002 horror-fantasy novel "Coraline" references the mysterious woman who is also known as Belle Dame. Both share many similarities as both lure their protagonists into their lair by showing their love towards them and giving them treats to enjoy. The protagonists in both stories also encounter the ghosts who have previously met both women and warn the protagonist about their true colours and at the end of the story, the protagonist is stuck in their lair, with the exception of Coraline who managed to escape while the unnamed knight in this poem is still stuck in the mysterious fairy's lair.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: L. A. Meyer's "Bloody Jack" series (2002–2014) features a take on La Belle Dame sans Merci, adapted to reflect the protagonists age. Mary "Jacky" Faber became known as "La belle jeune fille sans merci".


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: In "Hunting Ground" (2009) by Patricia Briggs, La Belle Dame sans Merci is identified as The Lady of the Lake and is a hidden antagonist.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: Cassandra Clare's 2016 collection of novellas "Tales From the Shadowhunter Academy" includes a novella titled Pale Kings and Princes, named after the line "I saw pale kings and princes too/Pale warriors, death-pale were they all". Three of the poem's stanzas are also excerpted in the story.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: The last two lines of the first verse ("The sedge has withered from the lake/And no birds sing") are used in the text of the 2019 Nebula award-winning science fiction story "This Is How You Lose the Time War" by Amal El-Mohtar and Max Gladstone (2019).


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: The theme of a woman seducing and sacrificing men to keep herself immortal are:Helen Of Troy (Kolchak: The Night Stalker); Queen Cleopatria/Pamela Morris "Queen of the Nile"; Unnamed Model "The Girl with the Hungary Eyes" (Rod Serlings "Night Gallery);Lady Die (Friday the 13th: The Series); Mary Beth (Freakazoid!); Mirror Queen (The Brothers Grimm);Pamela Dare (The Adventures of Superboy); Star Trek animated cartoon series "The Lorelei Signal" Kirk, Spock and McCoy are captured by beautiful femme fatales who use science to drain the lifeforce out of the male crewmen to remain young; "Favorite Son" (Star Trek: Voyager) Ensign Kim finds his life energy drained by an all female society; "Otherworld (TV series) episode ["Paradise Lost"] in which beautiful femme fatales who use science to drain the lifeforce out of males to remain young;"Ark II" 1976 [last episode] "Orkus" where the crew rapidly ages after encountering a group of Immortals; "The Quality of Mercy" [Babylon 5] a wounded insane seriel killer named Karl Mueller tried to force a terminally ill physician to use a alien healing device to heal him or he would harm her and her daughter; the phyisican used the device to transfer her disease to him and then used it to drain his life energy from him until he literally dropped dead. A 1990 comic movie (Based on Twilight Zone "Queen of the Nile") had a vain woman using and sacrificing dozens of willing men to maintain her beauty until to her shock and horror one man refuses her..and she becomes older!


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: It has also been suggested that there is a strong similarity with the plot of Monty Python's Seduced Milkmen sketch.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: In a March 2017 interview with "The Quietus" the English songwriter and musician John Lydon cited the poem as a favourite.


title: La Belle Dame sans Merci

text: In the popular trading card game, "Magic the Gathering", the card "Merieke Ri Berit" is modelled after this poem.


title: Chris Pang

text: Christopher Pang (born 29 December 1984) is an Australian actor and producer. He is best known for his role as Colin Khoo in "Crazy Rich Asians" (2018) and Lee Takkam in "Tomorrow, When the War Began" (2010).


title: Chris Pang

text: Pang was born in Melbourne and is the son of Wing Chun instructors. His paternal grandparents are from Canton, China while his father, Barry Pang, was born and raised in Australia. His mother, Anne Pang, was born in Taiwan and migrated to Australia in the 1970s. He was educated at Scotch College.


title: Chris Pang

text: Pang is distantly related to Bruce Lee as Lee's father was a cousin of Pang's paternal grandmother, and both came from the same village in Canton. Through his mother Anne Pang, Pang is a descendant of Wong Nai Siong, the Chinese revolutionary leader, Christian reformer and humanitarian who was key in the Fujian province in overthrowing the propaganda machine of the late Qing dynasty.


title: Chris Pang

text: He later enrolled in a university and majored in multimedia studies. Unsatisfied with his studies, he later took a year off and sold phones to businesses before going into acting.


title: Chris Pang

text: While selling phones, Pang began his career incidentally after walking into a casting agency who were looking for a performer to do a Chinese accent for a voice over, Pang booked the role dubbing as Jackie Chan's brother in "New Police Story 4". This started his acting career. Shortly afterwards he began studying at TAFTA in Melbourne.


title: Chris Pang

text: He temporarily moved to Beijing and Hong Kong to pursue an acting career. His big break would come in 2010, booking one of the lead roles in Australian film adaptation of the young adult dystopian novel "Tomorrow, When the War Began" and would star opposite Caitlin Stasey, the film was a box office success in Australia. Later he acted in the feature film "Citizen Jia Li".


title: Chris Pang

text: Despite the success of "Tomorrow", he received little traction and in 2013 moved to Hollywood to further pursue his acting career. He reunited with his "Tomorrow" co-star Caitlin Stasey in "I, Frankenstein". In 2016, he appeared in the martial arts film "", in which he played the character Flying Blade. He also recurred in the season two of drama series "Marco Polo".


title: Chris Pang

text: In 2018, he co-starred in the film adaptation "Crazy Rich Asians", directed by Jon M. Chu and starring Constance Wu, Michelle Yeoh and Henry Golding. He portrayed Colin Khoo. He later produced and starred in the Manila-set independent film "Empty by Design" alongside Osric Chau and Filipina actress Rhian Ramos. "Empty by Design" was his first feature film as a producer.


title: Chris Pang

text: Pang co-starred in the 2019 reboot and continuation of "Charlie's Angels", directed by Elizabeth Banks. In June 2019, he was cast in a Jason Katims pilot for Amazon Studios. He also joined the cast of "Palm Springs".


title: Syllabus

text: A syllabus (; plural "syllabuses" or "syllabi") or specification is a document that communicates information about an academic course or class and defines expectations and responsibilities. It is generally an overview or summary of the curriculum. A syllabus may be set out by an examination board or prepared by the tutor or instructor who teaches or controls the course. The word is also used more generally for an abstract or programme of knowledge and is best known in this sense as referring to two catalogues of doctrinal positions condemned by the Catholic Church in 1864 and 1907.


title: Syllabus

text: According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word "syllabus" derives from modern Latin 'list', in turn from a misreading of the Greek (the leather parchment label that gave the title and contents of a document), which first occurred in a 15th-century print of Cicero's letters to Atticus. Earlier Latin dictionaries such as Lewis and Short contain the word , relating it to the non-existent Greek word , which appears to be a mistaken reading of 'syllable'; the newer Oxford Latin Dictionary does not contain this word. The apparent change from to is explained as a hypercorrection by analogy to ( 'bring together, gather').


title: Syllabus

text: Chambers Dictionary agrees that it derives from the Greek for a book label, but claims that the original Greek was a feminine noun, , , borrowed by Latin, the misreading coming from an accusative plural Latin .


title: Syllabus

text: In a 2002 study, Parks and Harris suggest "a syllabus can serve students as a model of professional thinking and writing". They also believe effective learning requires a complex interaction of skills, such as time management, prioritization of tasks, technology use, etc., and that a syllabus can promote the development of these skills.


title: Syllabus

text: In 2005, Slattery & Carlson describe the syllabus as a "contract between faculty members and their students, designed to answer student's questions about a course, as well as inform them about what will happen should they fail to meet course expectations". They promote using action verbs (identify, analyze, evaluate) as opposed to passive verbs (learn, recognize, understand) when creating course goals Habanek stresses the importance of the syllabus as a "vehicle for expressing accountability and commitment."


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: In computational physics and chemistry, the Hartree–Fock (HF) method is a method of approximation for the determination of the wave function and the energy of a quantum many-body system in a stationary state.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: The Hartree–Fock method often assumes that the exact "N"-body wave function of the system can be approximated by a single Slater determinant (in the case where the particles are fermions) or by a single permanent (in the case of bosons) of "N" spin-orbitals. By invoking the variational method, one can derive a set of "N"-coupled equations for the "N" spin orbitals. A solution of these equations yields the Hartree–Fock wave function and energy of the system.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: Especially in the older literature, the Hartree–Fock method is also called the self-consistent field method (SCF). In deriving what is now called the Hartree equation as an approximate solution of the Schrödinger equation, Hartree required the final field as computed from the charge distribution to be "self-consistent" with the assumed initial field. Thus, self-consistency was a requirement of the solution. The solutions to the non-linear Hartree–Fock equations also behave as if each particle is subjected to the mean field created by all other particles (see the Fock operator below), and hence the terminology continued. The equations are almost universally solved by means of an iterative method, although the fixed-point iteration algorithm does not always converge.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: This solution scheme is not the only one possible and is not an essential feature of the Hartree–Fock method.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: The Hartree–Fock method finds its typical application in the solution of the Schrödinger equation for atoms, molecules, nanostructures and solids but it has also found widespread use in nuclear physics. (See Hartree–Fock–Bogoliubov method for a discussion of its application in nuclear structure theory). In atomic structure theory, calculations may be for a spectrum with many excited energy levels and consequently the Hartree–Fock method for atoms assumes the wave function is a single configuration state function with well-defined quantum numbers and that the energy level is not necessarily the ground state.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: For both atoms and molecules, the Hartree–Fock solution is the central starting point for most methods that describe the many-electron system more accurately.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: The rest of this article will focus on applications in electronic structure theory suitable for molecules with the atom as a special case.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: The discussion here is only for the Restricted Hartree–Fock method, where the atom or molecule is a closed-shell system with all orbitals (atomic or molecular) doubly occupied. Open-shell systems, where some of the electrons are not paired, can be dealt with by either the restricted open-shell or the unrestricted Hartree–Fock methods.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: The origin of the Hartree–Fock method dates back to the end of the 1920s, soon after the discovery of the Schrödinger equation in 1926. Douglas Hartree's methods were guided by some earlier, semi-empirical methods of the early 1920s (by E. Fues, R. B. Lindsay, and himself) set in the old quantum theory of Bohr.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: In the Bohr model of the atom, the energy of a state with principal quantum number "n" is given in atomic units as formula_1. It was observed from atomic spectra that the energy levels of many-electron atoms are well described by applying a modified version of Bohr's formula. By introducing the quantum defect "d" as an empirical parameter, the energy levels of a generic atom were well approximated by the formula formula_2, in the sense that one could reproduce fairly well the observed transitions levels observed in the X-ray region (for example, see the empirical discussion and derivation in Moseley's law). The existence of a non-zero quantum defect was attributed to electron–electron repulsion, which clearly does not exist in the isolated hydrogen atom. This repulsion resulted in partial screening of the bare nuclear charge. These early researchers later introduced other potentials containing additional empirical parameters with the hope of better reproducing the experimental data.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: In 1927, D. R. Hartree introduced a procedure, which he called the self-consistent field method, to calculate approximate wave functions and energies for atoms and ions. Hartree sought to do away with empirical parameters and solve the many-body time-independent Schrödinger equation from fundamental physical principles, i.e., ab initio. His first proposed method of solution became known as the "Hartree method", or "Hartree product". However, many of Hartree's contemporaries did not understand the physical reasoning behind the Hartree method: it appeared to many people to contain empirical elements, and its connection to the solution of the many-body Schrödinger equation was unclear. However, in 1928 J. C. Slater and J. A. Gaunt independently showed that the Hartree method could be couched on a sounder theoretical basis by applying the variational principle to an ansatz (trial wave function) as a product of single-particle functions.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: In 1930, Slater and V. A. Fock independently pointed out that the Hartree method did not respect the principle of antisymmetry of the wave function.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: A solution to the lack of anti-symmetry in the Hartree method came when it was shown that a Slater determinant, a determinant of one-particle orbitals first used by Heisenberg and Dirac in 1926, trivially satisfies the antisymmetric property of the exact solution and hence is a suitable ansatz for applying the variational principle. The original Hartree method can then be viewed as an approximation to the Hartree–Fock method by neglecting exchange. Fock's original method relied heavily on group theory and was too abstract for contemporary physicists to understand and implement. In 1935, Hartree reformulated the method to be more suitable for the purposes of calculation.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: The Hartree–Fock method, despite its physically more accurate picture, was little used until the advent of electronic computers in the 1950s due to the much greater computational demands over the early Hartree method and empirical models. Initially, both the Hartree method and the Hartree–Fock method were applied exclusively to atoms, where the spherical symmetry of the system allowed one to greatly simplify the problem. These approximate methods were (and are) often used together with the central field approximation, to impose the condition that electrons in the same shell have the same radial part, and to restrict the variational solution to be a spin eigenfunction. Even so, calculating a solution by hand using the Hartree–Fock equations for a medium-sized atom was laborious; small molecules required computational resources far beyond what was available before 1950.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: The Hartree–Fock method is typically used to solve the time-independent Schrödinger equation for a multi-electron atom or molecule as described in the Born–Oppenheimer approximation. Since there are no known analytic solutions for many-electron systems (there "are" solutions for one-electron systems such as hydrogenic atoms and the diatomic hydrogen cation), the problem is solved numerically. Due to the nonlinearities introduced by the Hartree–Fock approximation, the equations are solved using a nonlinear method such as iteration, which gives rise to the name "self-consistent field method".


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: The variational theorem states that for a time-independent Hamiltonian operator, any trial wave function will have an energy expectation value that is greater than or equal to the true ground-state wave function corresponding to the given Hamiltonian. Because of this, the Hartree–Fock energy is an upper bound to the true ground-state energy of a given molecule. In the context of the Hartree–Fock method, the best possible solution is at the "Hartree–Fock limit"; i.e., the limit of the Hartree–Fock energy as the basis set approaches completeness. (The other is the "full-CI limit", where the last two approximations of the Hartree–Fock theory as described above are completely undone. It is only when both limits are attained that the exact solution, up to the Born–Oppenheimer approximation, is obtained.) The Hartree–Fock energy is the minimal energy for a single Slater determinant.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: The starting point for the Hartree–Fock method is a set of approximate one-electron wave functions known as "spin-orbitals". For an atomic orbital calculation, these are typically the orbitals for a hydrogen-like atom (an atom with only one electron, but the appropriate nuclear charge). For a molecular orbital or crystalline calculation, the initial approximate one-electron wave functions are typically a linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO).


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: The orbitals above only account for the presence of other electrons in an average manner. In the Hartree–Fock method, the effect of other electrons are accounted for in a mean-field theory context. The orbitals are optimized by requiring them to minimize the energy of the respective Slater determinant. The resultant variational conditions on the orbitals lead to a new one-electron operator, the Fock operator. At the minimum, the occupied orbitals are eigensolutions to the Fock operator via a unitary transformation between themselves. The Fock operator is an effective one-electron Hamiltonian operator being the sum of two terms. The first is a sum of kinetic-energy operators for each electron, the internuclear repulsion energy, and a sum of nuclear–electronic Coulombic attraction terms. The second are Coulombic repulsion terms between electrons in a mean-field theory description; a net repulsion energy for each electron in the system, which is calculated by treating all of the other electrons within the molecule as a smooth distribution of negative charge. This is the major simplification inherent in the Hartree–Fock method and is equivalent to the fifth simplification in the above list.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: Since the Fock operator depends on the orbitals used to construct the corresponding Fock matrix, the eigenfunctions of the Fock operator are in turn new orbitals, which can be used to construct a new Fock operator. In this way, the Hartree–Fock orbitals are optimized iteratively until the change in total electronic energy falls below a predefined threshold. In this way, a set of self-consistent one-electron orbitals is calculated. The Hartree–Fock electronic wave function is then the Slater determinant constructed from these orbitals. Following the basic postulates of quantum mechanics, the Hartree–Fock wave function can then be used to compute any desired chemical or physical property within the framework of the Hartree–Fock method and the approximations employed.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: where formula_4 is the molecular Hamilton in the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, formula_5 is one the one Slater determinant Hartree-Fock wave function and the second term is the sum over a Lagrange multiplier formula_6 and the constraint that the spin orbitals formula_7 of the Slater determinant


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: are orthonormal. Since we can choose the basis of formula_7, we choose a basis in which the Lagrange multiplier matrix formula_6 becomes diagonal, i.e. formula_11. Performing the variation, we obtain


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: The factor 1/2 in the molecular Hamiltonian drops out before the double integrals due to symmetry and the product rule. We find the Fock equation


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: Because the electron–electron repulsion term of the molecular Hamiltonian involves the coordinates of two different electrons, it is necessary to reformulate it in an approximate way. Under this approximation (outlined under Hartree–Fock algorithm), all of the terms of the exact Hamiltonian except the nuclear–nuclear repulsion term are re-expressed as the sum of one-electron operators outlined below, for closed-shell atoms or molecules (with two electrons in each spatial orbital). The "(1)" following each operator symbol simply indicates that the operator is 1-electron in nature.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: is the Coulomb operator, defining the electron–electron repulsion energy due to each of the two electrons in the "j"-th orbital. Finally,


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: is the exchange operator, defining the electron exchange energy due to the antisymmetry of the total "N"-electron wave function. This "exchange energy" operator formula_23 is simply an artifact of the Slater determinant. Finding the Hartree–Fock one-electron wave functions is now equivalent to solving the eigenfunction equation


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: where formula_25 are a set of one-electron wave functions, called the Hartree–Fock molecular orbitals.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: Typically, in modern Hartree–Fock calculations, the one-electron wave functions are approximated by a linear combination of atomic orbitals. These atomic orbitals are called Slater-type orbitals. Furthermore, it is very common for the "atomic orbitals" in use to actually be composed of a linear combination of one or more Gaussian-type orbitals, rather than Slater-type orbitals, in the interests of saving large amounts of computation time.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: Various basis sets are used in practice, most of which are composed of Gaussian functions. In some applications, an orthogonalization method such as the Gram–Schmidt process is performed in order to produce a set of orthogonal basis functions. This can in principle save computational time when the computer is solving the Roothaan–Hall equations by converting the overlap matrix effectively to an identity matrix. However, in most modern computer programs for molecular Hartree–Fock calculations this procedure is not followed due to the high numerical cost of orthogonalization and the advent of more efficient, often sparse, algorithms for solving the generalized eigenvalue problem, of which the Roothaan–Hall equations are an example.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: Numerical stability can be a problem with this procedure and there are various ways of combatting this instability. One of the most basic and generally applicable is called "F-mixing" or damping. With F-mixing, once a single-electron wave function is calculated, it is not used directly. Instead, some combination of that calculated wave function and the previous wave functions for that electron is used, the most common being a simple linear combination of the calculated and immediately preceding wave function. A clever dodge, employed by Hartree, for atomic calculations was to increase the nuclear charge, thus pulling all the electrons closer together. As the system stabilised, this was gradually reduced to the correct charge. In molecular calculations a similar approach is sometimes used by first calculating the wave function for a positive ion and then to use these orbitals as the starting point for the neutral molecule. Modern molecular Hartree–Fock computer programs use a variety of methods to ensure convergence of the Roothaan–Hall equations.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: Of the five simplifications outlined in the section "Hartree–Fock algorithm", the fifth is typically the most important. Neglect of electron correlation can lead to large deviations from experimental results. A number of approaches to this weakness, collectively called post-Hartree–Fock methods, have been devised to include electron correlation to the multi-electron wave function. One of these approaches, Møller–Plesset perturbation theory, treats correlation as a perturbation of the Fock operator. Others expand the true multi-electron wave function in terms of a linear combination of Slater determinants—such as multi-configurational self-consistent field, configuration interaction, quadratic configuration interaction, and complete active space SCF (CASSCF). Still others (such as variational quantum Monte Carlo) modify the Hartree–Fock wave function by multiplying it by a correlation function ("Jastrow" factor), a term which is explicitly a function of multiple electrons that cannot be decomposed into independent single-particle functions.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: An alternative to Hartree–Fock calculations used in some cases is density functional theory, which treats both exchange and correlation energies, albeit approximately. Indeed, it is common to use calculations that are a hybrid of the two methods—the popular B3LYP scheme is one such hybrid functional method.


title: Hartree–Fock method

text: For a list of software packages known to handle Hartree–Fock calculations, particularly for molecules and solids, see the list of quantum chemistry and solid state physics software.


title: Migrant Mother

text: Migrant Mother is a photograph taken in 1936 in Nipomo, California by American photographer Dorothea Lange during her spell at the Resettlement Administration (later the Farm Security Administration). Since then, the photograph has become an icon of the Great Depression and because it is in the public domain, it has been reproduced to serve as advertisements and much more. Today, Lange's work is considered to be a part of the classic canon of American art and international photography. The 28.3 by 21.8 cm (11 1/8 by 8 9/16 in) gelatin silver print photograph depicts two children burying their faces in their mother who anxiously gazes off into the distance. A print is housed at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.


title: Migrant Mother

text: "Migrant Mother" depicts a mother looking off into the distance with two of her children at her sides and an infant in her lap. Her children's faces are not shown as the children both bury their faces in their mother's shoulders. The black and white photograph print held in the Museum of Modern Art is approximately the same size as a sheet of North American printer paper (11 1/8 by 8 9/16 in) so the woman and her children are smaller than life-sized figures.


title: Migrant Mother

text: The mother is the focal point of this photograph as she is the only person in the photograph without an obscured face. This was intentional as Lange instructed the two children to turn their backs to the camera and rest their hands on their mother's shoulders. By doing so, Lange was able to eliminate any possibility of unwanted effects from exchanges and competing countenances. Thus, the viewer's attention is immediately drawn towards the mother's anxious face rather than her children. Unlike the five other photographs Lange took that day, Migrant Mother's frame is much more focused on the mother and children as the frame does not allow any room for the background to be shown. In fact, the only parts of the photograph that are shown are above the mother's and children's head.


title: Migrant Mother

text: "Migrant Mother" was achieved through a process of deliberate and careful intervention by Lange. Although she considered herself a documentary photographer and stuck to the belief that she should not intervene in the subject of her photography, Lange manipulated the framing and the subjects to finally arrive to her final shot.


title: Migrant Mother

text: Lange found the mother and her children somewhat by accident. She was driving home in March 1936 on a cold, rainy afternoon in Nipomo, California when she passed a sign that said “Pea-Pickers Camp”. She continued to drive but could not shake the image of the sign from her memory and turned around heading for the camp. In a memoir written by Lange about the photoshoot, she writes, “I was on my way and barely saw a crude sign with pointing arrow which flashed by me at the side of the road saying Pea-Pickers Camp. But out of the corner of my eye I did see it… Having well convinced myself for twenty miles that I could continue on, I did the opposite. Almost without realizing what I was doing, I made a U-turn on the empty highway”. When Lange first arrived to the camp of migrant pea pickers, she took two snapshots of the mother's tent and her children. In the tent was the mother, her teenage daughter, and three young children. Realizing that these photographs lacked a central focus, Lange honed in on the mother and her children.


title: Migrant Mother

text: Lange moved closer to the tent and took a third snapshot of just the mother and her baby asking the two young children at her side to move out of the frame. In this photograph the mother is breastfeeding her baby as she looks down. The mother looks tired and worn in her makeshift tent home. Despite capturing an intimate moment where a mother is nursing her child, Lange sensed a flaw in the photograph – the mother's gaze. The mother was looking downward, “... as if wishing to shield herself from the scrutiny of the camera”. For Lange, this expression spoiled the image. She and her colleagues tried as best they could to present their subjects as dignified human beings in order to elicit sympathy rather than ridicule. Lange sensed that she was invading her subject's privacy and was causing discomfort so she moved on to her fourth shot to regain composure.


title: Migrant Mother

text: In Lange's fourth photograph, she asks one of the children to enter the frame and to stand with her chin resting on her mother's shoulder. In this photograph, the mother is looking up into the distance with her daughter's head resting on her shoulder and her baby on her lap. The mother's expression in this photograph was now acceptable for Lange. She decided to take another but made some critical changes looking at what was captured in the background of the photograph.


title: Migrant Mother

text: Lange moved herself to the left and switched from her previously horizontal orientation to a vertical orientation of the frame. This allowed her to center the mother, the child, and the baby and left ample headroom for them. Additionally, moving left cut out the details in the background which she preferred not to show because of the possible implications that might sour viewers’ image of her subjects. Lange took one last picture of the mother and her children, but this time she asked a second child to step in the frame. There were now a total of three children in the frame. The mother held her baby in her lap and her two children stood at her sides. In order to remove any possibility of competing gazes and any exchanges that might create unwanted effects, Lange asked both children to turn their backs towards the camera and place their hands on their mother's shoulders. Lange then moved closer to the mother, focusing her at the center of the frame and excluding any other background such that the mother and her children were the only objects in the frame. This last photograph is now known as Migrant Mother. According to Lange, she was only at the camp for ten minutes. After her last shot she finally closed her camera and went home.


title: Migrant Mother

text: The subjects of Lange's photography were always nameless. Roy Stryker, a manager of the FSA's photographic project, had his photographers practice contemporary social science techniques in captioning their images. This allowed the subjects to be viewed as common men and women under unfortunate circumstances that the Roosevelt administration was trying to improve. Several decades after the photograph's publication, a journalist found the identity of the iconic photograph's mother – Florence Thompson – discovering that she was born in 1903 in a Cherokee reservation in Oklahoma. She married at the age of seventeen and had six children until her husband died in 1931. In 1933, she became pregnant again. Fearing that welfare authorities would take her child away, she moved back to Oklahoma. In 1934, her whole family moved out to Shafter, California where she worked in fields and began a relationship with James Hill. She had four more children with him. When Lange met Thompson, Hill and Thompson's sons were out looking to get their car fixed. In 1958, 22 years after the photograph had been published, Thompson saw "Migrant Mother" in a magazine and wrote to the magazine asking them to recall all unsold magazines to protect her and her family's rights. At that point the photograph had become public property and its publication was far beyond the reach of Lange's control. Once Thompson and her family came to know this, they withdrew their complaint and now speak positively about Lange.


title: Migrant Mother

text: Migrant Mother's furrowed brow and hand placement suggests anxiety and worry about her duties as a mother to nurture and protect her children. Her expression and juxtaposition with her children and clothing indicates that the family is overcome by circumstances they cannot control, thus removing any blame from the mother. The children leaning on their mother depicts the mother as the children's pillar of strength. The absence of any space between the mother and children implies that the family have become one flesh in their suffering. In fact, photography scholar Sally Stein writes that if the photograph depicted the mother without her children, the photograph would have much less power. She argues that because the children are so close to their mother that through this visual compression, the merged mother with her children represents a sort of bondage. As a mother herself and a photographer of the working-class people, Lange was aware of this imprisonment and shared the complex anxiety felt by the mother. In addition to the presence of children, Stein argued that due to these implications and lack of resolution, Migrant Mother held a sort of inner tension that added to its power.


title: Migrant Mother

text: The process in which Lange obtained "Migrant Mother" revealed key insights into the prevailing social norms at the time and reflects key aspects in Lange's life. By 1936, Lange was married to a new man and was much happier in this marriage than her previous one. She felt like she was starting a new chapter in her life and felt more in control. Lange's process reflects this new chapter in her life. James Curtis, a scholar of FSA photography, writes, “The Migrant Mother series reflects Lange’s new mood… Lange moved confidently in arranging her compositions. She knew the image she wanted, knew what to feature and what to leave out”. Lange and her colleagues worked very hard to convey their subjects with dignity such that their plight would receive sympathy rather than ridicule. Her transition from photograph to photograph in the "Migrant Mother" series reveals this as she chooses to remove and alter key aspects of the frame in order to achieve a certain aesthetic. For example, she chooses to remove the teenager altogether from the final photographs to remove the questions such as, “Was she [the mother] a teenager herself when she gave birth to her first child?”. Curtis writes, “While middle-class viewers were sympathetically disposed to the needs of impoverished children, teenagers posed thorny questions of personal responsibility”.


title: Migrant Mother

text: Since its publication, "Migrant Mother" has become an icon of the Great Depression. The photograph has been in the public domain and since then it has been reproduced many times including as postage stamps, as advertisements, for charity fundraising, and as magazine covers. The Black Panthers even put an afro on the mother. However, the legacy of Migrant Mother extended further than just to media. In the summer of 1983, the photograph was published in the national press. Florence Thompson was ill with cancer, but had no insurance to help pay the costs. Her children pleaded for money to help with the costs and within weeks, they were able to raise $30,000 for their dying mother. Thompson eventually succumbed to her ails and passed in mid-September. Although most people will likely not know who Dorothea Lange is nor will they know the identity of the Migrant Mother, many recognize the mother's face as an emblem of the Great Depression.


title: Business communication

text: Business communication is communication that is intended to help a business achieve a fundamental goal, through information sharing between employees as well as people outside the company. It includes the process of creating, sharing, listening, and understanding messages between different groups of people through written and verbal formats. The way that people communicate and operate within a business is very vital to how successful the company will be in the business world. Business communication occurs internally, employee-to-employee, or externally, business-to-business or business-to-consumer. This internal and external communication can happen through verbal or non-verbal communication methods. Often these internal and external forms of communication come with barriers, which can prevent the receiver from understanding the information sent by the sender.


title: Business communication

text: The word communication has been derived from the Latin word communis which implies common. Thus communication may be defined as the interchange of thoughts and information to bring about mutual understanding.


title: Business communication

text: Business communication is closely related to professional communication and technical communication. It encompasses topics such as marketing, brand management, customer relations, consumer behavior, advertising, public relations, corporate communication, community engagement, reputation management, interpersonal communication, employee engagement, internal communication, and event management.


title: Business communication

text: Communication in general is valued even more in international business communications to allow for the understanding of cultures and the overall morale of the operation.


title: Business communication

text: Business communication focuses primarily on achieving goals/aims and, in the case of a public company or organization, increasing the dividends of shareholders.


title: Business communication

text: Business-to-employee communication, also known as workplace communication, is the exchange of information within an organization. The purpose of some communications is to develop trust, and/or to increase productivity


title: Business communication

text: This type of business communication includes the flow of information from one level of the business hierarchy to another. Communication that flows from the top of the hierarchy to the bottom ("top-down communication") has been shown to decrease the stress levels of employees if it provides clarification and reassurance to the worker. The amount of information shared in this way is often dependent on a "need to know" basis. This communication may take the form of memos and other internal documents. Although a certain level of top-down communication is helpful, too much communication can be seen by the employee as micromanagement. Upward communication is any communication within the business that is passed through the business hierarchy from the bottom upwards. Suggestion boxes, which allow low-level workers to communicate with management anonymously, are one example of upward communication. Horizontal communication occurs between individuals who are on the same level in the business hierarchy.


title: Business communication

text: Business-to-business communication is sharing information between different other companies, often done to benefit both parties. Business communication can help the company achieve its fundamental goals by informing, persuading, and building good relations with other companies to reach mutual goals.


title: Business communication

text: Business-to-consumer communication, also known as direct-to-consumer, is when a company directly communicates with its consumers about product details or company information. The opposite is when a consumer leaves reviews on a product (or service), which may identify how the company could improve its product.


title: Business communication

text: These internal and external types of business communication occur through verbal and non-verbal methods of communication.


title: Business communication

text: Face-to-face meetings and presentations are popular methods of communication between employees within an organization; they increasingly feature audiovisual material, like copies of reports, or material prepared in Microsoft PowerPoint or Adobe Flash. Means such as telephone conference and letters allows for communication over long distances. In the 21st century, computer-mediated communication, such as video conferencing and email, has become increasingly prevalent in business. Formal reports are also important in documenting the activities of any department.


title: Business communication

text: There are several barriers that a business might experience when communicating with business partners. Such barriers can prevent one from receiving or understanding messages others use to convey information, ideas, and thoughts.


title: Business communication

text: These often arise because of differences in the states of mind, body, and perspective between sender and receiver, which are a result of how encoding or decoding processes occur.


title: Business communication

text: Higher learning institutions offer communication courses, and many are now offering business communication courses. These courses teach students how to communicate more effectively. Attending these courses help students understand the communication barriers they might experience when communicating with others. It is suggested that 93% of employers believe that clear communication skills are more important than the students' actual major area of study. Communication competence is an ability that is sought after by employers and often leads to professional success.


title: Business communication

text: In a business communicating negative news is unavoidable. At one point or the other, it had to be done. It may be about giving the employees some constructive feedback on their work or informing them that they are being laid off. It may have a serious effect on them based on how you choose to deliver those messages.


title: Business communication

text: While communicating negative news, if possible, at first provide some good news, express gratitude, have agreement or understanding, and then discuss and explain the reasons that led to the decision. while communicating negative news, we must be non-judgmental and use non-discriminatory language while doing so. We must be compassionate and fair to them. The next step is to explain the bad news clearly without overemphasizing it, avoid using negative language, and end the communication on a positive and friendly note


title: Caribbean Hindustani

text: Caribbean Hindustani is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by Indo-Caribbeans and the Indo-Caribbean diaspora. It is mainly based on the Bhojpuri and Awadhi dialects. These Hindustani dialects were spoken by the Indians who came as immigrants to the Caribbean from India as indentured laborers. It is closely related to Fiji Hindi and the Bhojpuri-Hindustani spoken in Mauritius and South Africa.


title: Caribbean Hindustani

text: Because a majority of people came from the Bhojpur region in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand, and the Awadh region in Uttar Pradesh, Caribbean Hindustani is most influenced by Bhojpuri, Awadhi and other Eastern Hindi-Bihari dialects. Standard Hindustani (Standard Hindi-Standard Urdu) has also influenced the language due to the arrival of Bollywood films, music, and other media from India. It also has a minor influence from Tamil and other Dravidian languages. The language has also borrowed many words from Dutch and English in Suriname and Guyana, and English and French in Trinidad and Tobago. Many words unique to Caribbean Hindustani have been created to cater for the new environment that Indo-Caribbeans now live in. After the introduction of Standard Hindustani to the Caribbean, Caribbean Hindustani was seen by many Indo-Caribbeans as a broken version of Hindi, however due to later academic research it was seen as deriving from Bhojpuri, Awadhi, and other dialects and was in fact not a broken language, but its own unique language mainly deriving from the Bhojpuri and Awadhi dialects, and not the Khariboli dialect like Standard Hindi and Urdu did, thus the difference.


title: Caribbean Hindustani

text: Caribbean Hindustani is spoken as a vernacular by Indo-Caribbeans, independent of their religious background. When written, the Devanagari script is used by Hindus, while some Muslims tend to use the Perso-Arabic script in the Nastaliq calligraphic hand following the Urdu alphabet; historically, the Kaithi script was also used. However, due to the decline in the language these scripts are not widely used and most often the Latin script is used due to familiarity and easiness.


title: Caribbean Hindustani

text: Chutney music, chutney soca, chutney parang, baithak gana, folk music, classical music, some Hindu religious songs, some Muslim religious songs, and even some Indian Christian religious songs are sung in Caribbean Hindustani, sometimes being mixed with English in the Anglophone Caribbean or Dutch in Suriname and the Dutch Caribbean.


title: Caribbean Hindustani

text: The Caribbean Hindustani of Guyana is known as Guyanese Hindustani, Guyanese Bhojpuri or "Aili Gaili". It is spoken by some members in a community of 300,000 Indo-Guyanese, mostly by the older generation. The Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani dialect of Guyanese Hindustani and Sarnami is spoken in East Berbice-Corentyne in Guyana and the neighboring district of Nickerie in Suriname.


title: Caribbean Hindustani

text: The variant that is spoken in Trinidad and Tobago is known as "Trinidadian Hindustani", "Trinidadian Bhojpuri", "Trinidadian Hindi", "Indian", "Plantation Hindustani", or "Gaon ke Bolee (Village Speech)". A majority of the early Indian indentured immigrants spoke the Bhojpuri and Awadhi dialects, which later formed into Trinidadian Hindustani. In 1935, Indian movies began showing to audiences in Trinidad. Most of the Indian movies were in the Standard Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) dialect and this modified Trinidadian Hindustani slightly by adding Standard Hindi and Urdu phrases and vocabulary to Trinidadian Hindustani. Indian movies also revitalized Hindustani among Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians. The British colonial government and estate owners had disdain and contempt for Hindustani and Indian languages in Trinidad. Due to this, many Indians saw it as a broken language keeping them in poverty and bound to the cane fields, and did not pass it on as a first language, but rather as a heritage language, as they favored English as a way out. Around the mid to late 1960s the "lingua franca" of Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians switched from Trinidadian Hindustani to a sort of "Hindinized" version of English. Today Hindustani survives on through Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian musical forms such as, Bhajan, Indian classical music, Indian folk music, Filmi, Pichakaree, Chutney, Chutney soca, and Chutney parang. As of 2003, there are about 15,633 Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians who speak Trinidadian Hindustani and as of 2011, there are about 10,000 who speak Standard Hindi. Many Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians today speak a type of Hinglish that consists of Trinidadian and Tobagonian English that is heavily laced with Trinidadian Hindustani vocabulary and phrases and many Indo-Trinidadians and Tobagonians can recite phrases or prayers in Hindustani today. There are many places in Trinidad and Tobago that have names of Hindustani origin. Some phrases and vocabulary have even made their way into the mainstream English and English Creole dialect of the country. World Hindi Day is celebrated each year on 10 January with events organized by the National Council of Indian Culture, Hindi Nidhi Foundation, Indian High Commission, Mahatma Gandhi Institute for Cultural Co-operation, and the Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha.


title: Caribbean Hindustani

text: "Sarnami" or "Sarnami Hindoestani" or "Sarnami Hindustani" meaning "Surinamese Hindustani" is the third-most spoken language in Suriname after Dutch and Sranan Tongo (the two "lingua francas").


title: Caribbean Hindustani

text: It developed as a fusion of Bihari and Eastern Hindi languages, specifically Bhojpuri, Awadhi, and – to a lesser degree – Magahi. Most scholars agree that Bhojpuri is the main contributor in the formation of Sarnami. It is mainly spoken by and within Suriname's Indo-Surinamese (ca. 27% of the population) community and therefore it is not considered to be a third lingua franca. While Sarnami is mostly a language of informal daily communication, the traditional prestige language of the community is Standard Hindi–Urdu in either of its literary variants: Hindi (Modern Standard Hindi) for Hindus, and Urdu for Muslims. Similar to how Jamaican Patois is used informally and Jamaican Standard English or the "Queen's English" is seen as more prestigious. "Baithak Gana" is the most famous genre of music sung in Sarnami Hindustani.


title: Caribbean Hindustani

text: Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani, also called Nickerian Sarnami or Berbician Hindustani, is a unique dialect of Sarnami and Guyanese Bhojpuri-Hindustani that developed in the district of Nickerie in Suriname and the neighboring county of Berbice (present-day East Berbice-Corentyne) in Guyana during the colonial times in the late 19th century to the early 20th century. Even though Suriname's Nickerie and Guyana's Berbice are in different countries separated by the Courantyne River, the groups of descendants of Indian indentured laborers that settled in both areas existed as one Indian community and marriage between Indians from Nickerie to Indians in Berbice and vice versa often occurred. The difference in colonial and post-colonial independent history in the two districts led to the Indians in Nickerie in Suriname being able to preserve the dialect, while in Berbice in Guyana it largely died out, however many words and phrases from the dialect were incorporated into the Guyanese English Creole of Berbice. Today the remaining speakers of Guyanese Hindustani are mostly speakers of the Nickerian-Berbician dialect due to the influx of Nickerians in Berbice. Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani is mostly mutually intelligible with the Sarnami spoken in the rest of Suriname, although there are many words from Guyanese English Creole, English, and Berbice Creole Dutch. Nickerian-Berbician Hindustani is also mutually intelligible with the Guyanese Hindustani spoken in the rest Guyana, however unlike Suriname, Indians in Guyana have mostly adopted Guyanese English Creole as their first language and it is spoken mostly by the elderly, Hindu priests, and immigrants from Suriname.


title: Caribbean Hindustani

text: Early research on the language has been conducted by Motilall Rajvanshi Marhe from Suriname, Peggy Mohan and Kumar Mahabir from Trinidad and Tobago, and Surendra Kumar Gambhir in Guyana. Attempts to preserve the language are being made by Caribbean Hindustani Inc. led by Visham Bhimull, Sarnami Bol Inc. led by Rajsingh Ramanjulu in Suriname, Karen Dass in Trinidad and Tobago, and Harry Hergash in Canada who is originally from Guyana.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: The Hundred Schools of Thought () were philosophies and schools that flourished from the 6th century BC to 221 BC during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period of ancient China.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: An era of substantial discrimination in China, it was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, but it was also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. This phenomenon has been called the Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought (百家爭鳴/百家争鸣; "bǎijiā zhēngmíng"; "pai-chia cheng-ming"; "hundred schools contend"). The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in East Asian countries and the East Asian diaspora around the world. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: A traditional source for this period is the "Shiji", or "Records of the Grand Historian" by Sima Qian. The autobiographical section of the "Shiji", the "Taishigong Zixu" (太史公自序), refers to the schools of thought described below.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Confucianism (儒家; "Rújiā"; "Ju-chia"; "School of scholars") is the body of thought that arguably had the most enduring effects on Chinese life. Its written legacy lies in the Confucian Classics, which later became the foundation of traditional society. Confucius (551–479 BC), or Kongzi ("Master Kong"), looked back to the early days of the Zhou dynasty for an ideal socio-political order. He believed that the only effective system of government necessitated prescribed relationships for each individual: "Let the ruler be a ruler and the subject a subject". Furthermore, he contended that a king must be virtuous in order to rule the state properly. To Confucius, the functions of government and social stratification were facts of life to be sustained by ethical values; thus his ideal human was the junzi, which is translated as "gentleman" or "superior person".


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: The effect of the combined work of Confucius, the codifier and interpreter of a system of relationships based on ethical behavior, and Mencius, the synthesizer and developer of applied Confucianist thought, was to provide traditional Chinese society with a comprehensive framework by which to order virtually every aspect of life.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: There were many accretions to the body of Confucian thought, both immediately and over the millennia, from within and without the Confucian school. Interpretations adapted to contemporary society allowed for flexibility within Confucianism, while the fundamental system of modeled behavior from ancient texts formed its philosophical core.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Diametrically opposed to Mencius, in regards to human nature (性), was the interpretation of Xunzi (c. 300–237 BC), another Confucian follower. Xunzi preached that man is not innately good; he asserted that goodness is attainable only through training one's desires and conduct.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: The School of Law or Legalism (法家; "Fǎjiā"; "Fa-chia"; "School of law") doctrine was formulated by Li Kui, Shang Yang (d. 338 BC), Han Fei (d. 233 BC), and Li Si (d. 208 BC), who maintained that human nature was incorrigibly selfish; accordingly, the only way to preserve the social order was to impose discipline from above, and to see to a strict enforcement of laws. The Legalists exalted the state above all, seeking its prosperity and martial prowess over the welfare of the common people.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Legalism greatly influenced the philosophical basis for the imperial form of government. During the Han Dynasty, the most practical elements of Confucianism and Legalism were taken to form a sort of synthesis, marking the creation of a new form of government that would remain largely intact until the late 19th century, with continuing influence into the present.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Philosophical Taoism or Daoism (道家; "Dàojiā"; "Tao-chia"; "School of the Way") developed into the second most significant stream of Chinese thought. Its formulation is often attributed to the legendary sage Laozi ("Old Master"), who is said to predate Confucius, and Zhuangzi (369–286 BC). The focus of Taoism is on the individual within the natural realm rather than the individual within society; accordingly, the goal of life for each individual is seeking to adjust oneself and adapting to the rhythm of nature (and the Fundamental) world, to follow the Way (tao) of the universe, and to live in harmony. In many ways the opposite of rigid Confucian morality, Taoism was for many of its adherents a complement to their ordered daily lives. A scholar serving as an official would usually follow Confucian teachings, but at leisure or in retirement might seek harmony with nature as a Taoist recluse. Politically, Taoism advocates for rule through inaction, and avoiding excessive interference.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Mohism or Moism (墨家; "Mòjiā";" Mo-chia"; "School of Mo") was developed by followers of Mozi (also referred to as Mo Di; 470–c.391 BC). Though the school did not survive through the Qin dynasty, Mohism was seen as a major rival of Confucianism in the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Its philosophy rested on the idea of impartial care (): Mozi believed that "everyone is equal before heaven", and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the practice of collective love. This is often translated and popularized as "universal love", which is misleading as Mozi believed that the essential problem of human ethics was an excess of partiality in compassion, not a deficit in compassion as such. His aim was to re-evaluate behavior, not emotions or attitudes. His epistemology can be regarded as primitive materialist empiricism; he believed that human cognition ought to be based on one's perceptions – one's sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing – instead of imagination or internal logic, elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music, which he denounced as extravagant. He regarded offensive warfare as wasteful and advocated pacifism or at the most, defensive fortification. The achievement of social goals, according to Mozi, necessitated the unity of thought and action. His political philosophy bears a resemblance to divine-rule monarchy: the population ought always to obey its leaders, as its leaders ought always to follow the will of heaven. Mohism might be argued to have elements of meritocracy: Mozi contended that rulers should appoint officials by virtue of their ability instead of their family connections. Although popular faith in Mohism had declined by the end of the Qin Dynasty, its views are said to be strongly echoed in Legalist thought.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: The School of Naturalists or Yin-yang (陰陽家/阴阳家; "Yīnyángjiā"; "Yin-yang-chia"; "School of Yin-Yang") was a philosophy that synthesized the concepts of yin-yang and the Five Elements; Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school. His theory attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces in nature: the complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female, negative) and yang (light, hot, male, positive) and the Five Elements or Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth). In its early days, this theory was most strongly associated with the states of Yan and Qi. In later periods, these epistemological theories came to hold significance in both philosophy and popular belief. This school was absorbed into Taoism's alchemic and magical dimensions as well as into the Chinese medical framework. The earliest surviving recordings of this are in the Ma Wang Dui texts and Huangdi Neijing.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: The School of Names or Logicians (名家; "Míngjiā"; "Ming-chia"; "School of names") grew out of Mohism, with a philosophy that focused on definition and logic. It is said to have parallels with that of the Ancient Greek sophists or dialecticians. The most notable Logician was Gongsun Longzi.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: In addition to the above six major philosophical schools within the Hundred Schools of Thought, the "Yiwenzhi" of the "Book of Han" adds four more into the Ten Schools (十家; "Shijia").


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: The School of Diplomacy or School of Vertical and Horizontal [Alliances] () specialized in diplomatic politics; Zhang Yi and Su Qin were representative thinkers. This school focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle, so it stressed political and diplomatic tactics, and debate and lobbying skill. Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Agriculturalism () was an early agrarian social and political philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. The philosophy is founded on the notion that human society originates with the development of agriculture, and societies are based upon "people's natural propensity to farm."


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: The Agriculturalists believed that the ideal government, modeled after the semi-mythical governance of Shennong, is led by a benevolent king, one who works alongside the people in tilling the fields. The Agriculturalist king is not paid by the government through its treasuries; his livelihood is derived from the profits he earns working in the fields, not his leadership.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Unlike the Confucians, the Agriculturalists did not believe in the division of labour, arguing instead that the economic policies of a country need to be based upon an egalitarian self sufficiency. The Agriculturalists supported the fixing of prices, in which all similar goods, regardless of differences in quality and demand, are set at exactly the same, unchanging price.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: For example, Mencius once criticized its chief proponent Xu Xing for advocating that rulers should work in the fields with their subjects. One of Xu's students is quoted as having criticized the duke of Teng in a conversation with Mencius by saying:


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Syncretism, or the School of Miscellany () integrated teachings from different schools; for instance, Lü Buwei found scholars from different schools to write a book called "Lüshi Chunqiu" cooperatively. This school tried to integrate the merits of various schools and avoid their perceived flaws. The (c. 330 BC) "Shizi" is the earliest textual example of the Syncretic School.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Indeed, all the thoughts which were discussed by and originated from non-famous people on the street were included in this school. At that time, there were some government officials responsible for collecting ideas from non-famous people on the street and report to their seniors. Such thoughts formed the origin of this school.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Another group is the School of the Military () that often studied and discussed about what westerners called the philosophy of war. Some of them studied warfare and strategy, others focused on kinds and skills of weapons. Sun Tzu and Sun Bin were influential leaders. Some of their famous works are Sun Tzu's The Art of War and Sun Bin's Art of War. Their theories influenced later China and even East Asia more broadly. These classical texts have received great interest among contemporary interpreters, some of whom have applied it to military strategy, the martial arts, and even modern business.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Yangism was a form of ethical egoism founded by Yang Zhu. It was once widespread but fell to obscurity before the Han dynasty. Due to its stress on individualism, it influenced later generations of Taoists.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: School of the Medical Skills () is a school which studied medicine and health. Bian Que and Qibo were well-known scholars. Two of the earliest and existing Chinese medical works are Huangdi Neijing and Shanghan Lun.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: The "Yiwenzhi" of the "Hanshu" claims that the officials working for the government during the early Zhou Dynasty lost their position when the authority of the Zhou rulers began to break down in the Eastern Zhou period. In this way, the officials spread all over the country and started to teach their own field of knowledge as private teachers. In this way the schools of philosophy were born. In particular, the School of Scholars (i.e. the Confucian School) was born from the officials of the Ministry of Education; the Taoists from the historians; the Yin-yang School from the astronomers; the Legalist School from the Ministry of Justice; the School of Names from the Ministry of Rituals; the Mohist School from the Guardians of the Temple; the School of Diplomacy from the Ministry of Embassies; the School of Miscellany from the government counselors; the School of Agriculture from the Ministry of the Soil and Wheat; the School of Minor Talks from the minor officials. Although the details are unclear, the burning of books and burying of scholars during the Qin was the end of the period of open discussion.


title: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: It should be stressed that only the Ru, or Confucians and the Mohists were actual organized schools of teachers and disciples during this period. All the other schools were invented later to describe groups of texts that expressed similar ideas. There was never an organized group of people describing themselves as "Legalists," for example, and the term "Daoist" was only coined in the Eastern Han after having succeeded the Western Han's Huang-Lao movement.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: "And you are lynching Negroes" (, ; which also means ""Yet, in your [country], [they] lynch Negroes"") is a catchphrase that describes or satirizes Soviet Union responses to United States criticisms of Soviet human rights violations.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: The Soviet media frequently covered racial discrimination, financial crises, and unemployment in the United States, which were identified as failings of the capitalist system that had been supposedly erased by state socialism. Lynchings of African Americans were brought up as an embarrassing skeleton in the closet for the US, which the Soviets used as a form of rhetorical ammunition when reproached for their own perceived economic and social failings. After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the phrase became widespread as a reference to Russian information-warfare tactics. Its use subsequently became widespread in Russia to criticize any form of US policy.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: Former Czech president and writer Václav Havel placed the phrase among "commonly canonized demagogical tricks". "The Economist" described it as a form of whataboutism that became ubiquitous after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The book "Exit from Communism" by author Stephen Richards Graubard wrote that it symbolized a divorce from reality.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: Author Michael Dobson compared it to the idiom the pot calling the kettle black, and called the phrase a "famous example" of "tu quoque" reasoning. The conservative magazine "National Review" called it "a bitter Soviet-era punch line", and added "there were a million Cold War variations on the joke". The Israeli newspaper "Haaretz" described use of the idiom as a form of Soviet propaganda. The British liberal political website "Open Democracy" called the phrase "a prime example of whataboutism". In her work "Security Threats and Public Perception", Elizaveta Gaufman described the fallacy as a tool to reverse someone's argument against them.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: Supposedly, use of phrases like these, exemplifying the "tu quoque" logical fallacy, was an attempt to deflect criticism of the Soviet Union by referring to racial discrimination and lynching in the United States.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: The use of the phrase as a reference to demagoguery and hypocrisy is traced to U.S. senator Edward W. Carmack during a May 31, 1902, speech in the U.S. Congress, where he said "Senators on the other side of the chamber began to wave the bloody shirt again...[saying] You are lynching negroes in the South. We are lynching them in the Philippine Islands."


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: After this, it was used as a Russian political joke about a dispute between an American and a Soviet man.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: After receiving criticism of his country because of the deaths caused by the 1903 anti-Jewish Kishinev pogrom, the Russian Minister of the Interior Vyacheslav von Plehve pointed out "The Russian peasants were driven to frenzy. Excited by race and religious hatred, and under the influence of alcohol, they were worse than the people of the Southern States of America when they lynch negroes." Soviet artist Dmitri Moor produced the lithograph "Freedom to the Prisoners of Scottsboro!", after the 1931 trial of the Scottsboro Boys of Alabama.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: The treatment of the Scottsboro Boys popularized the phrase in usage by the Soviet Union against the US as a form of criticism against those who themselves criticized human rights abuses. In his 1934 book "Russia Today: What Can We Learn from It?", Sherwood Eddy wrote: "In the most remote villages of Russia today Americans are frequently asked what they are going to do to the Scottsboro Negro boys and why they lynch Negroes."


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: Apparently, when the Soviet Union faced harsh words from the Western world over its civil liberties problems, it employed the phrase as a common retort.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: In a 1930s argument with black student Pierre Kalmek, Bolshevik politician Dmitry Manuilsky said that in the United States "whites have the privilege to lynch Negroes, but Negroes do not have the privilege to lynch whites." He called this a form of white chauvinism, asking: "Do we have a difference here between the salaries of Negro and white workers? Do we have the right to lynch Negro citizens?"


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: During the Stalin era, praise for the quality of any aspect of US life prompted the rejoinder "Yes, but they lynch Blacks, don't they?" Throughout the 1930s, white men traveling from the US to the Soviet Union on business reported to the US consulate in Riga, Latvia, that locals asked them about the dichotomy between living in a free society and "the 'lynching' of blacks." The term worked its way into fiction literature books written in the country, and was seen in this context as criticism of foreigners. Years later a science fiction comic, "Technique - The Youth" - 1948. - No. 2 titled "In a world of crazy fantasy" () featured a poem of political attacks on the cover which included a similar line: "Every planet's Negroes are being lynched there."


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: The phrase became a common witticism used among Soviet citizens; a parable involved a call-in program on Radio Moscow where any question about their living conditions was met with the answer: "In America, they lynch Negroes." A US citizen living in the Soviet Union in 1949 was arrested after complaining the government barred him from work; a local paper made fun of his expectation of fair treatment, writing of the US as "the country where they lynch Negroes." In 1949 Soviet author and war poet Konstantin Simonov gave a speech at a Soviet jubilee event honoring poet Alexander Pushkin (who had African ancestry), where he delineated between the Soviet Union and the Western world by simply using the phrase to refer to English speakers: "There is no need for those who hang Negroes to commemorate Pushkin!" Historian Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov wrote in his 1953 book "The Reign of Stalin" that Soviet media put forth the notion that US citizens "are unanimous in pursuing an anti-colour policy, and that the average American spends his time lynching negroes." Perpetuation of the phrase during the Soviet period engendered negative feelings towards the US from members of the working class.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: During the Cold War, the leftist French publication "Combat" used the phrase to criticize the operations of the House Un-American Activities Committee, pointing out what it saw as corruption of "a nation that lynched blacks and hounded anyone accused of 'un-American' activities." Use of the phrase as a "tu quoque" fallacy grew in popularity in Russia during the 1960s, and was used as a widespread quip between Russians. In this version, an American and a Soviet car salesman argue which country makes better cars. Finally, the American asks: "How many decades does it take an average Soviet man to earn enough money to buy a Soviet car?" After a thoughtful pause, the Soviet replies: "And you are lynching Negroes!" The phrase garnered numerous iterations during the Cold War period. Its pervasiveness in Russian society reflected a strong sense of Soviet socialist patriotism. When the government faced criticism for discrimination against Jews in the Soviet Union, the idiom was used with excessively sentimental tone to complain about racism in the United States. It was used as an aphorism among fellow Soviets during the Mikhail Gorbachev period, as an answer to complaints about the lack of civil and political rights including freedom of movement. A variant used during this time as a form of reciprocity when faced with criticism over imprisonment and treatment of Refuseniks, was to put the focus on race in the United States criminal justice system. A similar phrase was used to counter complaints about Soviet transportation inefficiency.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: In 1980 then dissident and later president of the Czech Republic and writer Václav Havel characterized the phrase among "commonly canonized demagogical tricks." In scholarly research it has been described as "an increasingly powerful propaganda tool with the intensification of the Cold War".


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the term had become a synecdoche in Russia, as a reference referring to all of Soviet propaganda. During a trip to Washington, D.C., in 1999, then-prime minister of Russia Sergei Stepashin attempted to tell a joke using the phrase as a punchline at a speech before the National Press Club. He faced a disturbing quiet from the audience in response to his attempt at humor, and he later observed those in the US have difficulty understanding the Russian perspective on comedy.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: In a January 2008 article, "The Economist" popularized the term whataboutism for the repeated usage of this rhetorical tactic in the Soviet Union. The magazine wrote, that the tactic became overused, and by the time of the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, it had become a figure of speech which was used in reference to the entirety of Soviet propaganda.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: With the election of Barack Obama as US president in November 2008, "The New York Times" expressed the hope that the tactic could see decreased usage: "In Russia, for example, where Soviet leaders used to respond to any American criticism of human rights violations with 'But you hang Negroes,' analysts note that the election of Mr. Obama removes a stain."


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: In a 2009 article, Journalist George Feifer recounted that when he traveled to Moscow to cover the American National Exhibition in 1959, he faced those who were using the phrase against him. Feifer believed that: "Skilled propagandists stationed among the listeners regularly interrupted to repeat questions intended to discredit me. "Why did America tolerate shameful poverty and lynch Negroes?"" In 2011, author Michael Dobson wrote that the phrase was a form of the pot calling the kettle black, and a "famous example" of the tu quoque fallacy derived from a "famous 1960s era Russian joke."


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: During the Ferguson unrest in 2014 in Ferguson, Missouri, after a white policeman who shot and killed an unarmed black adolescent was not indicted, state-controlled press coverage in Russia was highly critical of racism in the United States. Writing for "The Moscow Times", journalist Allison Quinn posited, that coverage of the protests in Ferguson served as an optimal method to distract media from the Ukrainian crisis. Quinn said, "American racism provided a go-to argument of American hypocrisy for years under the Soviet Union, with phrases like 'Well, you lynch negroes' hurled back at the U.S. in response to any allegations of human rights violations in the Soviet Union." She compared the Ferguson unrest coverage by Russia state-controlled media to prior use of this phrase as a form of Soviet propaganda. Writing in March 2014 for the American liberal magazine "The New Republic" during the Ukrainian crisis, Julia Ioffe made a similar comparison as Quinn regarding Soviet versus the 2014 use of the technique. Ioffe wrote that the phrase took the form of a "cartoonish reply", and had been extended after the fall of Soviet Russia to a similar strategy used by Vladimir Putin.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: By 2015, the phrase had entered the common lexicon in Russia as a tool to criticize any form of US policy. Russians used the term between themselves so often it became a form of satire, as a ubiquitous rejoinder to all crises dealt with and low quality of life, including purchasing groceries or dealing with road congestion.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: In a 2015 article for the conservative magazine "National Review", correspondent Kevin D. Williamson called the phrase "a bitter Soviet-era punch line." Williamson pointed out: "There were a million Cold War variations on the joke". Reporter David Volodzko wrote for the international news magazine "The Diplomat" in 2015 about "the famous tu quoque argument". The piece said that the term was used as a way to criticize capitalism as practiced in the Western world. Writing for the British liberal political website "Open Democracy" in 2015, journalist Maxim Edwards observed: "The phrase 'and you are lynching Negroes' has entered Russian speech as a prime example of whataboutism, a hypothetical response to any American criticism of Soviet policies."


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: Michael Bohm, a US reporter who is working out of Moscow, became the target of the phrase after he appeared on "Sunday Evening With Vladimir Solovyov", which aired on the major state-run television channel Russia-1. Commentator Igor Korotchenko wrote: "people like Bohm dropped atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, they lynched Negroes." In a 2015 contribution to the Russian journal "International Affairs", Russian Federation Deputy Foreign Minister Sergei Ryabkov and editor-in-chief Armen Oganesyan lamented the likelihood a Russian rejoinder to an international treaty's publication by the US State Department would be viewed as a form of the "you lynch Negroes" response. Ryabkov and Oganesyan wrote that this reaction harmed the collaborative process as it was important for nation-states to disagree and enable discourse.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: Journalist Catherine Putz commented on the phrase in a July 2016 article for the international news magazine "The Diplomat", and compared it to use of whataboutism by businessman and politician Donald Trump: "Criticisms of human rights in the Soviet Union were often met with what became a common catchphrase: 'And you are lynching Negroes'." Writing for "ChinaFile" after Trump won the 2016 United States presidential election, James Palmer feared an increase in racism "would give a brutal new credibility to the old Soviet whataboutism whenever they were challenged on the gulag: 'But in America, you lynch Negroes'." Writing in July 2016 for the liberal Israeli newspaper "Haaretz", Israeli journalist Chemi Shalev made a similar comparison: "Trump told "[T]he New York Times" this week that America is in such a mess in terms of civil liberties that it cannot lecture foreign countries anymore, which is an echo of old Soviet propaganda that responded to American reprimands with the retort 'And you are lynching Negroes'." Shalev followed up on this analysis in a September 2016 article, writing: "Trump conducts pro-Russian propaganda along the same lines as the old retort 'And You Hang Blacks' with which the Soviets tried to deflect U.S. criticism of their human rights abuses. He isn't troubled by Putin's political opponents being murdered, because 'people get killed here too'."


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: In 2017, in response to UK's criticism of the annexation of Crimea, Russian ambassador to the UN suggested that UK should first return the Falklands and Gibraltar.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: Alternate versions of the phrase have been used in Eastern European satellite countries then-controlled by the Soviet Union, such, that it was ported for usage in Poland. The phrase also saw usage in other languages, including Czech, Hungarian, and Romanian.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: In addition to Soviet Union and its satellites, and later, Russia, similar deflecting arguments related to racism in the United States have been used by a number of politicians, diplomats and state-controlled media from countries whose human rights abuses have been criticized by the United States government, NGOs or citizens. Countries which have been said to use the "Are you lynching Negroes" rhetoric in the early 21st century include China, Iran, Syria and North Korea.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: The 1993 book "Exit from Communism", edited by Stephen Richards Graubard, argued that this saying encapsulated an overall divorce from reality: "Perhaps there are and perhaps there are not prison camps in Siberia, perhaps in the United States they do or perhaps they do not lynch blacks ... Ultimately it does not matter whether we are for real or just pretending: it is all just part of the story."


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: In her 2016 work "Security Threats and Public Perception", Elizaveta Gaufman characterized the phrase as a form of reversing someone's line of reasoning against them. Gaufman wrote that by using this phrase in an argument one was tacitly refusing to answer queries posted to them and instead responding with condemnations.


title: And you are lynching Negroes

text: It has been argued that African Americans have had a more nuanced position in this issue between the two states, highlighting their agency despite being used for propaganda gains of others. While repeatedly confronting the exploitation of African Americans by and for the gains of Soviet propaganda, African Americans have nevertheless been expanding on such use for the sake of the raised issue of racism and its institutionalization; this effect of the instrumentalisation is being often lost when discussing the issue, and has been criticized.


title: Aragonese language

text: Aragonese ( ; in Aragonese) is a Romance language spoken in several dialects by about 12,000 people as of 2011, in the Pyrenees valleys of Aragon, Spain, primarily in the comarcas of Somontano de Barbastro, Jacetania, Alto Gállego, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza/Ribagorça. It is the only modern language which survived from medieval Navarro-Aragonese in a form distinctly different from Spanish.


title: Aragonese language

text: Historically, people referred to the language as ('talk' or 'speech'). Native Aragonese people usually refer to it by the names of its local dialects such as (from Valle de Hecho) or (from the Benasque Valley).


title: Aragonese language

text: Aragonese, which developed in portions of the Ebro basin, can be traced back to the High Middle Ages. It spread throughout the Pyrenees to areas where languages similar to modern Basque might have been previously spoken. The Kingdom of Aragon (formed by the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza) expanded southward from the mountains, pushing the Moors farther south in the "Reconquista" and spreading the Aragonese language.


title: Aragonese language

text: The union of the Catalan counties and the Kingdom of Aragon which formed the 12th-century Crown of Aragon did not merge the languages of the two territories; Catalan continued to be spoken in the east and Navarro-Aragonese in the west, with the boundaries blurred by dialectal continuity. The Aragonese "Reconquista" in the south ended with the cession of Murcia by James I of Aragon to the Kingdom of Castile as dowry for an Aragonese princess.


title: Aragonese language

text: The best-known proponent of the Aragonese language was Johan Ferrandez d'Heredia, the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Rhodes at the end of the 14th century. He wrote an extensive catalog of works in Aragonese and translated several works from Greek into Aragonese (the first in medieval Europe).


title: Aragonese language

text: The spread of Castilian (Spanish), the Castilian origin of the Trastámara dynasty, and the similarity between Castilian (Spanish) and Aragonese facilitated the recession of the latter. A turning point was the 15th-century coronation of the Castilian Ferdinand I of Aragon, also known as Ferdinand of Antequera.


title: Aragonese language

text: In the early 18th century, after the defeat of the allies of Aragon in the War of the Spanish Succession, Philip V ordered the prohibition of the Aragonese language in the schools and the establishment of Castilian (Spanish) as the only official language in Aragon. This was ordered in the Aragonese Nueva Planta decrees of 1707.