title: World B. Free

text: Free played for the San Diego Clippers, Philadelphia 76ers, Golden State Warriors, Cleveland Cavaliers and Houston Rockets in the National Basketball Association. He got his name from his days in Brooklyn, where a friend nicknamed him "World" because of his 44-inch vertical leap and 360 degree dunks. Free was known for his "rainbow" jump shots, referring to the extreme arch of the ball during the shot. He was also known for taking high risk shots and playing flamboyantly. During Free's time playing for the San Diego Clippers, fans would shout "shoot, shoot, shoot" whenever Free took possession of the ball. Free averaged 20.3 points per game over 13 seasons in the NBA.


title: World B. Free

text: For both the 1978–79 and 1979–80 campaigns, George Gervin and Free were number 1 and 2 in the league in scoring. In 1979, Free led the Clippers to an improved 43–39 record, but they narrowly missed the playoffs. His best statistical season was 1979–80 with the Clippers, averaging 30.2 points per game, as well as 4.2 assists per game and 3.5 rebounds per game in 68 games. He was an All-Star that season as well, although the Clippers failed to make the playoffs again.


title: World B. Free

text: On on August 28, 1980, San Diego traded Free to Golden State for Phil Smith and a first-round pick. During the 1981-82 NBA season, Free would help the Warriors to a 45–37 record, leading the team in assists per game at 5.4 while also scoring 22.9 points per game (second on the team only to Bernard King’s 23.2 per game average). However, despite their above .500 record, they would miss the postseason.


title: World B. Free

text: During the season, Free became the 39th player in league history to surpass 15,000 career points. During that year, now on the Cavaliers, Free made the playoffs for the first time since he was on the 76ers, and averaged career-playoff-highs of 26.3 points and 7.8 assists per game, during a 3-1 first round loss to the Celtics. In that series, Free led the Cavaliers to a 105-98 Game 3 win with a postseason-career-high 32 points.


title: World B. Free

text: Free later played in the United States Basketball League (USBL) for the Miami Tropics after being waived by the Philadelphia 76ers in March 1987. He was named the USBL Playoffs MVP after leading the Tropics to the title after scoring 30 points in the championship winning game against the Rhode Island Gulls. Following the USBL season, he joined the Houston Rockets for the 1987–88 season, which was his last NBA season. For Free, the highlight of that season was November 12, 1987, when he scored 38 points against the Sacramento Kings at ARCO Arena and brought the Rockets back to win the game.


title: World B. Free

text: Free loved to go one-on-one against a defender and either whirl around him or take a jump shot. His shot was possibly his greatest strength: a soft, high-arcing lob that stayed in the air longer than the average jump shot and was very straight when he was "on" that it barely jostled the net. When he was younger, on the playgrounds of New York City, his jump shot was a flat line drive, but he was tired of having the ball blocked, so he developed a new style of shooting.


title: World B. Free

text: On December 8, 1981, a day before his 28th birthday, he legally changed his first name to World. According to Free, "the fellas back in Brownsville gave me the nickname 'World' when I was in junior high... they just started calling me 'all-world', because all-city and all-county and things like that weren't good enough. Finally they just started calling me World... I'm still the same guy I was when I was Lloyd, though. I'll say what I'm going to do, and then I'll go out and do it."


title: World B. Free

text: Currently, Free is director of player development and a community ambassador for the Philadelphia 76ers. Among other things, he greets fans at 76ers home games in his flamboyant/colorful wardrobe. Free has also led the Sixers' "Summer Hoops Tour". On November 30, 2005, Free was honored as a Cleveland Cavaliers Legend at halftime of the Cavaliers game against the Los Angeles Clippers. On March 26, 2022, Free was honored with a spot on the Cavaliers Wall of Honor along with former players Lenny Wilkens and Campy Russell and former owner Gordon Gund. Dick Vitale often uses his name in college basketball season previews to give the award for best name.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Thomas Spencer Monson (August 21, 1927 – January 2, 2018) was an American religious leader, author, and the 16th President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). As president, he was considered by adherents of the religion to be a prophet, seer, and revelator. Monson's early career was as a manager at the "Deseret News", a Utah newspaper owned by the LDS Church. He spent most of his life engaged in various church leadership positions and public service.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson was ordained an LDS apostle at age 36, served in the First Presidency under three church presidents, and was the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles from March 12, 1995, until he became President of the Church on February 3, 2008. He succeeded Gordon B. Hinckley as church president.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson received four honorary doctorate degrees, as well as the Boy Scouts of America's Silver Buffalo and the World Organization of the Scout Movement's Bronze Wolf—the highest awards in each organization. He was a member of the National Executive Board of the Boy Scouts of America, the organization's governing body.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson was chairman of the Boards of Trustees/Education of the Church Educational System, and Ronald Reagan appointed him to the U.S. President's Task Force for Private Sector Initiatives. He married Frances Beverly Johnson in the Salt Lake Temple in 1948, and together they raised their three children. Frances died on May 17, 2013.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson was born on August 21, 1927, at St. Mark's Hospital in Salt Lake City, Utah, the son of George Spencer Monson and Gladys Condie Monson. The second of six children, Monson grew up in a "tight-knit" family, with many of his mother's relatives living on the same street and the extended family frequently vacationing together. The family's neighborhood included several residents of Mexican descent, an environment in which Monson said he developed a love for the Mexican people and culture. Monson often spent weekends with relatives on their farms in Granger (now part of West Valley City), and as a teenager, he worked at a printing business his father managed.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: From 1940 to 1944, Monson attended West High School in Salt Lake City. In the fall of 1944, he enrolled at the University of Utah. Around this time he met his future wife, Frances, whose family came from a higher social class on the east side of the city. Her father, Franz Johnson, saw an immediate connection because Monson's great uncle, Elias Monson, had baptized him into the LDS Church in Sweden.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: In 1945, Monson joined the United States Naval Reserve and anticipated participating in World War II in the Pacific theater. He was sent to San Diego, California, for training, but was not stationed overseas before the end of the war. His tour of duty lasted six months beyond the end of the war, then he returned to the University of Utah. Monson graduated in 1948 with a bachelor's degree "cum laude" in business management. Monson did not serve a mission as a youth. At age 21, on October 7, 1948, he married Frances Beverly Johnson in the Salt Lake Temple. The couple eventually had three children: Thomas Lee, Ann Frances, and Clark Spencer.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: After college he rejoined the Naval Reserve with the aim of becoming an officer. Shortly after receiving his commission acceptance letter, his local bishop asked him to serve as a counselor in the bishopric. Time conflicts with bishopric meetings would have made Navy service impossible. After discussion with church apostle Harold B. Lee (his former stake president), Monson declined the commission and applied for a discharge. The Navy granted his discharge in the last group processed before the Korean War. Lee set him apart six months later as a bishop—mentioning in the blessing that he likely would not have been called if he had accepted the commission.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson briefly taught at the University of Utah, then began a career in publishing. His first job was with the "Deseret News", where he became an advertising executive. He joined the advertising operations at the Newspaper Agency Corporation at its formation in 1952. One year later, Monson transferred to the Deseret News Press, beginning as sales manager and eventually becoming general manager. While at Deseret News Press, Monson worked to publish LeGrand Richards's "A Marvelous Work And A Wonder". He also worked with Gordon B. Hinckley, the LDS Church's representative on publications, with whom he would later serve in the First Presidency. In addition to serving as a counselor to President Hinckley, President Monson also served alongside two other church presidents.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: On May 7, 1950, Monson became an LDS bishop at age 22, serving for five years in two wards. He had previously served as ward clerk, ward Young Men's Mutual Improvement Association superintendent. At the time, Monson's Salt Lake City ward contained over 1,000 people, including 85 widows whom he visited regularly, and he continued visiting these widows after completing his service as bishop. He brought them gifts during the Christmas season, including poultry he had raised himself. Monson eventually spoke at the funerals of each of these women. Also during his time as bishop, 23 men from his ward served in the Korean War. He wrote weekly personal letters to each serviceman. During his service as bishop of the 6th-7th Ward, sacrament meeting attendance in the ward quadrupled.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: On 16 June 1955, at age 27, Monson became a counselor to Percy K. Fetzer in the presidency of the Salt Lake Temple View Stake. He was replaced as bishop of the 6th-7th ward the following month. In the stake presidency, Monson oversaw the stake's Primary, Sunday School, MIA, athletics and budget, until he was moved to Holladay, Utah, in June 1957. In Holladay, Monson was assigned to a ward building committee, to coordinate ward members' volunteer service to build a meetinghouse.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: In April 1959, at age 31, Monson became president of the church's Canadian Mission (consisting of Ontario and Quebec), and served until January 1962. Monson's third child, Clark, was born during his mission presidency.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: As there were no local stakes in Ontario or Quebec at the time, Monson was responsible for both the missionaries and all LDS Church operations in the area. When he became mission president, he oversaw 130 missionaries and 55 church branches divided into nine districts. During his tenure, the number of missionaries peaked at 180. Historically, most districts and branches in the area had been presided over by full-time missionaries, but Monson placed local members as presidents of branches and districts soon after arriving.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson initiated French-speaking proselytizing efforts in Quebec. He directed increased missionary work to immigrants from the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Italy, Soviet Union and Hungary. Jacob de Jager, a future LDS general authority, was among the immigrant converts. Monson encouraged members to remain in eastern Canada, instead of migrating to Utah or Alberta as many members had done before, to help build the church's presence. To help encourage members to stay in Canada, increase the perception of permanence, and better reach potential converts, he started a major construction program for new meetinghouses. Until then, most branches had used rented halls.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Efforts made during Monson's service came to fruition when a stake was organized in Toronto on August 14, 1960. However, most of the mission's area remained in districts. A more complete presence in Ontario would not come until the dedication of the Toronto Ontario Temple in 1990, which Monson attended as a member of the First Presidency.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Immediately after returning from Canada, Monson was called to the high council of the Valley View Stake in Holladay. Two months later he was made area supervisor over nine stake missions (Winder, Wilford, Monument Park, Monument Park West, Hillside, Highland, Parleys, Sugarhouse, and Wasatch). Eight of these stakes were in Salt Lake City or its east-side suburbs, with the Wasatch Stake based in Heber City. He also joined the church's Priesthood Genealogy Committee, and later the Priesthood Home Teaching Committee.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson resumed his work with the "Deseret News" as assistant general manager of the Deseret News Press, mainly doing non-newspaper printing. A month later he was made the general manager of the Deseret News Press. At the time, it was the largest printing plant in the United States west of the Mississippi River. Monson remained in this position until 1963, when he was called as apostle.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson was sustained to the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles at general conference on October 4, 1963. He was the youngest man called to the Quorum of the Twelve in 53 years, and was 17 years younger than the next youngest member, Gordon B. Hinckley. He was ordained and set apart on October 10, 1963, by Joseph Fielding Smith.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: From 1965 to 1968, Monson oversaw church operations in the South Pacific and Australia. During this time he organized the first LDS stake in Tonga.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: With his business background, he helped oversee many church operations, including KSL Newsradio and Bonneville International. He was chairman of the Scripture Publication Committee in the 1970s that oversaw publication of the LDS Church edition of the King James Bible, and revised editions of church scriptures containing footnotes and guides. He also oversaw the church's Printing Advisory, Missionary Executive, and General Welfare committees. While an apostle, he continued his education and received a master of business administration degree from Brigham Young University in 1974.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson later oversaw church operations in Eastern Europe and helped the church gain access in the Soviet bloc. On 29 August 1982, he organized the first stake in East Germany and was instrumental in obtaining permission for the LDS Church to build a temple in Freiberg, East Germany, which was completed in 1985.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: In the mid-1950s Monson was the secretary of the Utah State Roller Club, a group of pigeon breeders. Monson was a member of the National Executive Board of Boy Scouts of America starting in 1969. From 1969 to 1988 Monson was on the Mountain Bell Board of Advisors. From 1971 to 1977, he served on the Utah State Board of Higher Education and the Utah State Board of Regents. He was a member of the board of directors of Commercial Security Bank, chairing the bank's audit committee for 20 years. In 1993, when the bank was purchased by Key Bank, Monson joined the Board of Directors of Key Bank. In 1981, Ronald Reagan appointed him to the President's Task Force on Private Sector Initiatives, serving until its completion in December 1982.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson resigned most of his positions in 1996 when church leadership determined all the general authorities should leave all business boards of directors, except for Deseret Management Corporation. From 1965 until 1996 Monson was a member of the Deseret News Publishing Company board of directors. He became chairman of the board of directors in 1977.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Following the death of church president Spencer W. Kimball in 1985, newly selected church president Ezra Taft Benson asked Hinckley and Monson to serve as his First and Second Counselors. Monson and Hinckley also served as counselors to Benson's successor, Howard W. Hunter. When Hinckley succeeded Hunter in 1995, Monson became his first counselor. He served until Hinckley's death on January 27, 2008. As the second most senior of the apostles behind Hinckley, Monson simultaneously served as President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles; Boyd K. Packer (then third in seniority) served as Acting President during that time.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson became the 16th president of the LDS Church on February 3, 2008, succeeding Hinckley, who had died seven days earlier. Monson selected Henry B. Eyring and Dieter F. Uchtdorf as his first and second counselors, respectively. When Monson was born, there were fewer than 650,000 church members in the world, most of them living in the western United States. At the time he became the church's president, there were over 13 million members worldwide, with the majority living outside the United States and Canada. As of October 2012, 31 temples announced by Monson were either under construction or in planning.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson and his counselors met with President George W. Bush on May 29, 2008, during Bush's visit to Salt Lake City. He and apostle Dallin H. Oaks met with President Barack Obama and Senator Harry Reid in the Oval Office on July 20, 2009, and presented Obama with five volumes of his personal family history records. Monson did not attend a meeting other church leaders, including Eyring and Uchtdorf, had with Obama during his visit to Utah in April 2015. A church spokesperson indicated the absence was in order to save Monson's strength for the church's general conference the following weekend. As 2015 progressed, Monson gave the closing talk at the funerals of L. Tom Perry, Boyd K. Packer, and Richard G. Scott.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: On May 23, 2017, the LDS Church said Monson would no longer be attending meetings at the church's offices on a regular basis, because of limitations incident to age. With his birthday on August 21, 2017, Monson became the seventh president of the LDS Church to be a nonagenarian. Consistent with the May 2017 statement, the LDS Church announced on September 28, 2017, that Monson would not attend the church's upcoming general conference, due to the same health and age-related limitations. He was the first church president to miss an entire general conference weekend since Ezra Taft Benson in 1992. The same reason was given when Monson did not attend the funeral of Robert D. Hales, who died on the Sunday of the church's October general conference.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson died of natural causes at the age of 90 on January 2, 2018, at his home in Salt Lake City. The following day, the LDS Church announced that a public viewing would be held on January 11, in the church's Conference Center, with funeral services scheduled the following day, also in the Conference Center. His death, along with the passing of Hales a couple months prior, created two vacancies in the Quorum of the Twelve, which were filled at the next general conference. He was succeeded as church president by Russell M. Nelson.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: After Monson's death, the obituary posted by the "New York Times", which noted several controversies during his presidency, drew negative attention. The "New York Times" was criticized for bias against Monson, with one writer citing the obituaries of Fidel Castro and Hugh Hefner in contrast. An online petition asking the "New York Times" to remove the obituary gained 188,852 signatures, to which the "New York Times" obituaries editor responded, "I think the obituary was a faithful accounting of the more prominent issues that Mr. Monson encountered and dealt with publicly during his tenure. Some of these matters — the role of women in the church, the church’s policy toward homosexuality and same-sex marriage, and more — were widely publicized and discussed, and it’s our obligation as journalists, whether in an obituary or elsewhere, to fully air these issues from both sides. I think we did that, accurately portraying Mr. Monson’s positions as leader of the church, and those of the faithful and others who questioned church policies."


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: As church president, Monson dedicated fourteen (and rededicated four) LDS Church temples: Rexburg Idaho, 2008; Curitiba Brazil, 2008; Panamá City Panamá, 2008; Twin Falls Idaho, 2008; México City México (rededication), 2008; Draper Utah, 2009; Oquirrh Mountain Utah, 2009; Vancouver British Columbia, 2010; Gila Valley Arizona, 2010; Cebu City Philippines, 2010; Kyiv Ukraine, 2010; Laie Hawaii (rededication), 2010; Kansas City Missouri, 2012; Calgary Alberta, 2012; Boise Idaho (rededication), 2012; Gilbert Arizona, 2014; Ogden Utah (rededication), 2014; and Phoenix Arizona, 2014.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: As a counselor in the First Presidency, Monson dedicated seven church temples: Buenos Aires Argentina, 1986; Louisville Kentucky, 2000; Reno Nevada, 2000; Tampico México, 2000; Villahermosa México, 2000; Mérida México, 2000; and Veracruz México, 2000. Monson attended the dedication of many other LDS Church temples as a member of the Quorum of the Twelve and the First Presidency.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: He was president of the Printing Industry of Utah and a former board member of the Printing Industries of America. A Life Scout and Explorer crew member in his youth, Monson served in several adult Scouting leadership capacities: merit badge counselor, member of the Canadian LDS Scouting Committee, chaplain at a Canadian Jamboree, and a member of the General Scouting Committee of the LDS Church. He was also a proponent of the Scouting for Food drive, and he served on the national executive board of the Boy Scouts of America from 1969 to his death. He also represented the Boy Scouts of America as a delegate to the World Conferences in Tokyo, Nairobi, and Copenhagen.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: In June 2008, Monson and his counselors in the First Presidency sent a letter to local congregations in California, urging them to support Proposition 8 by donating their time and resources, stating that, "Our best efforts are required to preserve the sacred institution of marriage." In the 2012 Utah voter list he was listed as a registered Republican voter.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: In 1966, Monson was honored as a distinguished alumnus by the University of Utah. His first honorary degree, an Honorary Doctorate of Laws, was conferred in April 1981 by Brigham Young University. He received a Doctor of Humane Letters from Salt Lake Community College in June 1996, an Honorary Doctor of Business from the University of Utah in May 2007, and an honorary doctorate degree in Humanities from Dixie State College in May 2011.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson received the Boy Scouts of America's Silver Beaver award in 1971 and Silver Buffalo award in 1978, the latter being the highest honor of the BSA. In October 1993, during the Priesthood Session of the church's general conference, Monson also received the Bronze Wolf, the highest honor and only award of the World Organization of the Scout Movement, and was recognized for his contributions when a leadership complex at the Summit Bechtel Reserve was named for him. The citation for this award says,


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: In connection with the LDS Church's centennial celebration as a chartered sponsor, the BSA announced that the "Leadership Excellence Complex", located at The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve in West Virginia, would be renamed the "Thomas S. Monson Leadership Excellence Complex" and also awarded him Scouting's Honor Medal in 2013 for saving the life of a girl who was drowning when he was 12 years old. The Salt Lake chapter of Rotary International honored Monson at its international convention with its Worldwide Humanitarian Award in 2008.


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: In Slate.com's "80 Over 80," a list of the most powerful octogenarians, Monson placed first in 2009, and first again in 2010. In 2011, Gallup listed Monson as one of "Americans' 10 Most Admired Men".


title: Thomas S. Monson

text: Monson wrote a number of books, some of which are compilations of speeches given by him, or of quotes. Others discuss particular LDS gospel themes. He also wrote "Faith Rewarded" which is an autobiographical account about his work in leading the church in Eastern Europe.


title: Forrest Sherman-class destroyer

text: The 18 "Forrest Sherman"-class destroyers comprised the first post-war class of US destroyers. Commissioned beginning in 1955, these ships served until the late 1980s. Their weaponry underwent considerable modification during their years of service. Four were converted to guided-missile destroyers. This class also served as the basis for the guided-missile destroyers.


title: Forrest Sherman-class destroyer

text: Two ships of the class became museum ships, nine were sunk in training exercises, and the others were scrapped.


title: Forrest Sherman-class destroyer

text: Nine ships were constructed by Bath Iron Works of Bath, Maine, five were built by Bethlehem Steel at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts, two were built by Ingalls Shipbuilding at Pascagoula, Mississippi and two were built by Puget Sound Bridge and Dredging Company in Seattle, Washington. These destroyers were assigned hull numbers 931 to 951, but the series skipped over the numbers used to designate the war prizes DD-934 (the Japanese ex-"Hanazuki"), DD-935 (the German "T35"), and DD-939 (the German "Z39"). DD-927 to DD-930 were completed as destroyer leaders.


title: Forrest Sherman-class destroyer

text: At the time they entered service, these ships were the largest US destroyers ever built, long, with a standard displacement of . Originally designed under project SCB 85, they were armed with three /54 caliber guns mounted in single turrets (one forward and two aft), 4 /50 caliber AA guns in twin mounts, as well as hedgehogs and torpedoes for ASW. However, over the years, weaponry was considerably modified. The hedgehogs and guns were removed from all ships during the 1960s and 1970s. In addition the fixed torpedo tubes were replaced by two triple Mark 32 torpedo tube mounts.


title: Forrest Sherman-class destroyer

text: Four of the destroyers—, , , and —were converted to guided-missile destroyers under SCB 240, armed with Tartar missiles.


title: Forrest Sherman-class destroyer

text: Eight of the class were modernized to improve their ASW capabilities under SCB 251: "Barry", "Davis", "Jonas Ingram", "Manley", "Du Pont", "Blandy", "Hull", and "Morton"; these ships became known as the Barry sub-class. These ships were fitted with an eight cell ASROC launcher in place of the No. 2 5-inch (127 mm) gun, and with a variable-depth sonar system. Six other ship modernizations were cancelled due to Vietnam War budget constraints.


title: Forrest Sherman-class destroyer

text: As a test platform, the "Hull" carried the Navy's prototype 8"/55 caliber Mark 71 light-weight gun from 1975 to 1978 when the program was canceled, and the 5-inch mount was restored. "Hull" remains the only modern (post–World War II) destroyer-type ship to have carried an gun.


title: Forrest Sherman-class destroyer

text: Of the 18 completed, nine were disposed of in fleet training exercises, seven were sold by Defense Reutilization and Marketing Service (DRMS) for scrapping, and two became museums.


title: Color symbolism

text: Color symbolism in art and anthropology refers to the use of color as a symbol in various cultures. There is great diversity in the use of colors and their associations between cultures and even within the same culture in different time periods. The same color may have very different associations within the same culture at any time. Diversity in color symbolism occurs because color meanings and symbolism occur on an individual, cultural and universal basis. Color symbolism is also context-dependent and influenced by changes over time. Symbolic representations of religious concepts or articles may include a specific color with which the concept or object is associated. There is evidence to suggest that colors have been used for this purpose as early as 90,000 BC.


title: Color symbolism

text: Red is a primary color across all models of color space. It is often associated with love, passion, and lust but also danger. It is frequently used in relation to Valentine's Day. It can also be used to signify danger or warning but it is also associated with importance. For instance, it is used for stop signs and fire engines. In China, red is often used to symbolize good luck or happiness, and is used for many holidays or weddings.


title: Color symbolism

text: Blue is a primary color across all models of color space. It is the color of the ocean and the sky; it often symbolizes serenity, stability, inspiration, or wisdom. It can be a calming color, and symbolize reliability. In the Catholic Church, the Virgin Mary is most often depicted wearing blue, to symbolize being "full of grace" by divine favor. Blue is widely used for baby boys' clothes or bedrooms, although the reason blue is so strongly associated with boys is debated. Blue can also represent sadness and depression ("they have the blues").


title: Color symbolism

text: Yellow is a primary color in many models of color space, and a secondary in all others. It is a color often associated with sunshine or joy. It is sometimes used in association with cowardice or fear, i.e., the phrase "yellow-bellied". Children tend to like this color, and it is used to market products to children; it is also used for school buses and taxi cabs since it is such a bright, noticeable color.


title: Color symbolism

text: Green is a primary color in many models of color space, and a secondary in all others. It is most often used to represent nature, healing, health, youth, or fertility, since it is such a dominant color in nature. It can be a very relaxing color but is also used in the US to symbolize money, greed, sickness or jealousy. Saying that someone is "green" means they are inexperienced or new.


title: Color symbolism

text: Orange is a secondary color across many models of color space. It is often associated with amusement, extroversion, fire, energy, activity, taste and aroma. It is the color most closely associated with autumn. It is one of the most attention-grabbing colors in human vision, and is often used to attract the eye (traffic cones, safety vests, etc.).


title: Color symbolism

text: Black is a primary color across all models of color space. In Western culture, it is considered a negative color and usually symbolizes death, grief, or evil but also depression. People often wear black for mourning, although this practice is not as widespread as it was in the past.


title: Color symbolism

text: White is a primary color across all models of color space. It most often symbolizes perfection, faith, innocence, softness, and cleanliness. Brides often wear white dresses to symbolize purity.


title: Color symbolism

text: Pink is a prominent secondary or tertiary color in many color space models. It is associated with softness, sweetness, love, and immaturity. There is an urban legend that pink was a masculine color before the mid 20th century, based on evidence of conflicting traditions before about 1940. Del Guicide (2012) argues that pink-blue gender coding has been broadly consistent in the UK and the US since it appeared around 1890.


title: Color symbolism

text: It is only when "Knowledge" (Blue) finds "Love" (red) a new color is born: purple is the combination of both Blue and Red, a Royal Color symbolizing true wisdom or seeing the world for what it is, both light and dark, good and bad at the same time: "Aletheia". Wisdom by Knowledge (Blue) and the Passion of Emotion (Red) fused into one whole, understanding both worlds simultaneously and achieving both at the same time, there is no truer that: Aletheia.


title: Color symbolism

text: Color plays an important role in setting expectations for a product and communicating its key characteristics. Color is the second most important element that allows consumers to identify brand packaging.


title: Color symbolism

text: Marketers for products with an international market navigate the color symbolism variances between cultures with targeted advertising. The car manufacturer, Volkswagen ran a commercial in Italy with a black sheep in the middle of a larger flock symbolizing those who owned a VW Golf as someone unique and self-assured among a crowd of others who were not. In several cultures around the world, black sheep represents an outcast and is seen as something undesirable. In Italy, a black sheep represents confidence and independence. There are many additional variances in color symbolism between cultures. Cold is symbolized by blue in East Asia, the US, and Sweden while warmth is symbolized by yellow in the US and by blue in The Netherlands. Sometimes the meanings of colors are in stark opposition across geographic boundaries, requiring products marketed to specific demographics to account for those changes across different markets. For instance, feminity is symbolized by blue in The Netherlands and pink in the US, whereas masculinity is symbolized by blue in Sweden and the US, and red in the UK and France. In some instances color symbolism in marketing is constructed. For companies whose products are defined by the name of their color, their sales are susceptible to the symbolism and association of that name. In one example, a company selling a paint color named “off white” more than doubled its sales by renaming the same color as “ancient silk.”


title: Color symbolism

text: Color symbolism has changed over time. Between the 5th and 17th centuries, the color was largely related to a religious context. Blue was symbolic of heaven and white of purity. Today, purity is still symbolized by white in Australia and the USA but by blue in other countries like India. Similarly, the church influenced the perception of colors like crimson and purple. Largely because the dyes for these colors could only be sourced from precious pigments, religious figures like Madonna, Cardinals and the Virgin were seen in scarlet and purple. Today, purple symbolizes evil and infidelity in Japan, but the same is symbolized by blue in East Asia and by yellow in France. Additionally, the sacred color of Hindu and Buddhist monks is orange. The Renaissance was also a time in which black and purple were colors of mourning. Today, Mourning or death is symbolized by white in East Asia, black in the US, and blue in Iran, while happiness is symbolized by white in Australia and NZ, and yellow in China.


title: Color symbolism

text: There is a general disagreement over whether reactions to color and their symbolism are a result of cultural conditioning or of instinct. Several studies concluded that color is part of the social learning process because of the significant symbolism within the culture. High quality, trustworthiness, and dependability are symbolized by blue in the US, Japan, Korea and green and yellow in China - as well as purple in China, South Korea, and Japan. Because of these variances, critical cues vary across cultures. Warning signs are coded differently as a danger is symbolized by green in Malaysia and red in the US and Mexico. The same color of green symbolizes envy in Belgium and the US, but envy is symbolized by yellow in Germany and Russia, and purple in Mexico. Even the colors that denote powerful emotions vary. Love is symbolized by green in Japan, red and purple in China, Korea, Japan, and the USA. Unluckiness is symbolized by red in Chad, Nigeria, and Germany. Luckiness is symbolized by red in China, Denmark, and Argentina. The traditional bridal color is red in China and white in the USA. Ambition and desire are symbolized by red in India.


title: Color symbolism

text: One example in which different conceptualizations of color may lead to confusion is the coloring of upward or downward trends in financial markets; whereas in most of the world green or blue is used to denote an upward trend and red is used to denote a downward trend, in mainland China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, the reverse is true. This confusion often leads to Western media outlets using incorrect or reversed headline images to accompany reports of a major economic upturn or downturn in an Asian market.


title: Color symbolism

text: Prior to its being widely studied in a scientific context, color symbolism was theorized upon by curious individuals in other humanities. These early theoreticians include German polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (in his "Theory of Colours") and Russian abstract artist Wassily Kandinsky (in his "Concerning the Spiritual in Art", among others). Although color treatises such as these are often unscientific (Kandinsky, for instance, was heavily influenced by Theosophy), they occasionally find resonance with artists, philosophers and others working in "softer" subjects.


title: 1967 Indian general election

text: General elections were held in India between 17 and 21 February 1967 to elect 520 of the 523 members of the 4th Lok Sabha, an increase of 15 from the previous session of Lok Sabha. Elections to State Assemblies were also held simultaneously, the last general election to do so.


title: 1967 Indian general election

text: The incumbent Indian National Congress government retained power, albeit with a significantly reduced majority. Indira Gandhi was resworn in as the Prime Minister on 4 March.


title: 1967 Indian general election

text: By 1967, economic growth in India had slowed – the 1961–1966 Five-Year Plan gave a target of 6% annual growth, but the actual growth rate was 2%. Under Lal Bahadur Shastri, the government's popularity was boosted after India prevailed in the 1965 War with Pakistan, but the war, along with the previous 1962 War with China, put a strain on the economy. Internal divisions were emerging in the Indian National Congress while its two popular leaders Nehru and Shastri had both died. Indira Gandhi had succeeded Shastri as leader, but a rift had emerged between her and Deputy Prime Minister Morarji Desai, who had been her rival in the 1966 party leadership contest.


title: 1967 Indian general election

text: The INC suffered setbacks in seven states, which included Gujarat, where INC won 11 out of 24 seats while Swatantra Party won 12 seats; Madras, where INC won 3 out of 39 seats and DMK won 25 seats; Orissa, where they won 6 out of 20 seats and Swatantra Party won 8 seats. Rajasthan where they won 10 out of 20 seats Swatantra Party won 8 seats, West Bengal where they won 14 out of 40, Kerala where they won only 1 out of 19. Delhi where they won 1 out of 7 while remaining 6 were won by Bharatiya Jana Sangh. The party was also ousted from power in nine states, while losing governance in Uttar Pradesh one month after the election.


title: Sam Shepard filmography

text: Sam Shepard was an American actor, screenwriter, playwright, director and author. The following is his screen filmography as an actor, screenwriter, and director. Shepard was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Chuck Yeager in the film "The Right Stuff" (1983). The following year, he was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for co-writing "Paris, Texas" (1984). For his role in the television film "Dash and Lilly" (1999), he was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie and the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film.


title: Estelle Reiner

text: Estelle Reiner (née Lebost; June 5, 1914 – October 25, 2008) was an American actress and singer, described by "The New York Times" as "matriarch of one of the leading families in American comedy". She was the wife of Carl Reiner and the mother of Rob Reiner.


title: Estelle Reiner

text: Reiner was born in the Bronx and graduated from James Monroe High School. She was a visual artist and met her future husband, Carl Reiner, while she was working in the Catskills, designing stage sets for hotel shows. She married Reiner in 1943, and had three children Rob, Lucas and Annie. She was Jewish.


title: Estelle Reiner

text: Carl Reiner's 1960s television comedy, "The Dick Van Dyke Show", recapitulated his career writing for Sid Caesar, with Carl Reiner playing the Caesar character and Dick Van Dyke portraying Reiner's real-life job as a writer in the role of Rob Petrie. The re-creation was so complete that the Petries in the show lived on Bonnie Meadow Road in suburban New Rochelle, New York, the same street as the real-life Reiners. As described by Rob Reiner, "Basically he wrote his own life" in "The Dick Van Dyke Show" and that “my mother was Mary Tyler Moore".


title: Estelle Reiner

text: In her 60s, Reiner became a cabaret singer and performed for decades until just a few years before her death. She studied the theatre with method acting pioneer Lee Strasberg and with Viola Spolin, the American Grandmother of Improvisation. She appeared in a number of film comedies, including with Dom DeLuise in the 1980 film "Fatso," as Mrs. Goodman, and in the 1983 movies "The Man With Two Brains" with Steve Martin in the role "Tourist in Elevator" and in Mel Brooks' "To Be or Not to Be" as Gruba.


title: Estelle Reiner

text: Reiner's most enduring film role was in 1989's "When Harry Met Sally...," in which director Rob Reiner cast his mother as a customer in a scene with stars Billy Crystal and Meg Ryan at Katz's Delicatessen, in which Ryan fakes what was described as "a very public (and very persuasive) orgasm". Approached by a waitress after Ryan finishes, Reiner deadpans "I'll have what she's having". The line was ranked 33rd on the American Film Institute's list of the Top 100 movie quotations, just behind "Casablanca"'s "Round up the usual suspects".


title: Estelle Reiner

text: Reiner died of natural causes on October 25, 2008 in her home in Beverly Hills, California. She was 94.


title: Van Jefferson

text: Vanchi LaShawn Jefferson Jr. (born July 26, 1996) is an American football wide receiver for the Los Angeles Rams of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Ole Miss and Florida and was drafted by the Rams in the second round of the 2020 NFL Draft.


title: Van Jefferson

text: Born in Brentwood, Tennessee, Jefferson grew up in Beverly Hills, Michigan and attended Ravenwood High School. As a junior, he caught 87 passes for 1,251 yards and 14 touchdowns. He was named first team All-State after recording 67 receptions for 1,223 yards and 13 touchdowns and initially committed to play college football at Georgia. Jefferson de-committed from Georgia in January of his senior year and ultimately signed to play at Ole Miss.


title: Van Jefferson

text: In 2015, Jefferson redshirted his true freshman season at Ole Miss. In 2016, as a redshirt freshman, he had 49 catches for 543 yards and three touchdowns. Jefferson finished his redshirt sophomore season with 42 receptions for 456 yards and one touchdown. Following the 2017 season, Jefferson announced his intent to transfer from Ole Miss after the program was sanctioned by the NCAA, ultimately choosing to continue his collegiate career at Florida.


title: Van Jefferson

text: Jefferson was granted immediate eligibility to play for Florida after transferring after receiving waivers from the NCAA and the Southeastern Conference (SEC). In 2018, his first season with the Gators, he led the team with 35 receptions, 503 receiving yards, and six touchdown receptions. As a senior, he caught 49 passes for 657 yards and six touchdowns. He caught six passes for 129 yards against Virginia in the 2019 Orange Bowl, his final career game. Jefferson finished his collegiate career with 175 receptions for 2,159 yards and 16 touchdowns in 45 games played.


title: Van Jefferson

text: Jefferson was selected by the Los Angeles Rams in the second round with the 57th overall pick in the 2020 NFL Draft. The Rams previously traded wide receiver Brandin Cooks to the Houston Texans to acquire the pick.


title: Van Jefferson

text: In Week 11, against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, he recorded his first professional receiving touchdown.


title: Van Jefferson

text: In the Divisional Round of the playoffs against the Green Bay Packers, Jefferson recorded 6 catches for 46 yards and his first playoff touchdown during the 32–18 loss.


title: Van Jefferson

text: In 2021, Jefferson saw an increase in production playing under new Rams quarterback Matthew Stafford and in light of a season-ending injury to teammate Robert Woods. Through Week 14, Jefferson had 47 receptions, 708 receiving yards and 5 touchdowns. Jefferson became a Super Bowl champion when the Rams beat the Cincinnati Bengals 23-20 in Super Bowl LVI. In the Super Bowl, Jefferson recorded 4 catches for 23 yards.


title: Van Jefferson

text: On September 24, 2022, Jefferson was placed on injured reserve. He was designated to return from injured reserve on October 24, 2022, and activated for Week 8.


title: Van Jefferson

text: On December 8, 2022, Jefferson caught the game winning touchdown pass from newly signed quarterback Baker Mayfield to beat the Las Vegas Raiders.


title: Van Jefferson

text: Jefferson has a daughter and two sons. His second son was born on February 13, 2022, after Jefferson's wife, Samaria Jefferson, went into labor during Super Bowl LVI.


title: Rebecca Solnit

text: Rebecca Solnit (born 1961) is an American writer. She has written on a variety of subjects, including feminism, the environment, politics, place, and art.


title: Rebecca Solnit

text: Solnit was born in 1961 in Bridgeport, Connecticut, to a Jewish father and Irish Catholic mother. In 1966, her family moved to Novato, California, where she grew up. "I was a battered little kid. I grew up in a really violent house where everything feminine and female and my gender was hated," she has said of her childhood. She skipped high school altogether, enrolling in an alternative junior high in the public school system that took her through tenth grade, when she passed the General Educational Development tests. Thereafter she enrolled in junior college. When she was 17, she went to study in Paris. She returned to California to finish her college education at San Francisco State University. She then received a master's degree in journalism from the University of California, Berkeley in 1984 and has been an independent writer since 1988.


title: Rebecca Solnit

text: Solnit has worked on environmental and human rights campaigns since the 1980s, notably with the Western Shoshone Defense Project in the early 1990s, as described in her book "Savage Dreams", and with antiwar activists throughout the Bush era. She has discussed her interest in climate change and the work of 350.org and the Sierra Club, and in women's rights, especially violence against women.


title: Rebecca Solnit

text: Her writing has appeared in numerous publications in print and online, including "The Guardian" newspaper and "Harper's Magazine," where she is the first woman to regularly write the Easy Chair column founded in 1851. She was also a regular contributor to the political blog TomDispatch and is (as of 2018) a regular contributor to LitHub.


title: Rebecca Solnit

text: Solnit is the author of seventeen books as well as essays in numerous museum catalogs and anthologies. Her 2009 book "A Paradise Built in Hell: The Extraordinary Communities that Arise in Disaster" began as an essay called "The Uses of Disaster: Notes on Bad Weather and Good Government" published by "Harper’s" magazine the day that Hurricane Katrina hit the Gulf coast. It was partially inspired by the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, which Solnit described as "a remarkable occasion...a moment when everyday life ground to a halt and people looked around and hunkered down". In a conversation with filmmaker Astra Taylor for "BOMB" magazine, Solnit summarized the radical theme of "A Paradise Built in Hell": "What happens in disasters demonstrates everything an anarchist ever wanted to believe about the triumph of civil society and the failure of institutional authority."


title: Rebecca Solnit

text: In 2014, Haymarket Books published "Men Explain Things to Me", a collection of short essays on feminism, including one on the phenomenon of "mansplaining." "Men Explain Things to Me" has been translated into many languages, including Spanish, French, German, Polish, Portuguese, Finnish, Swedish, Italian, Slovak, Dutch, and Turkish. Solnit has been credited with paving the way for the coining of the word "mansplaining," which has been used to refer to instances in which men "explain" things generally to women in a condescending or patronizing way, but Solnit did not use the term in her original essay. Solnit's book included illustrations from visual and performance artist Ana Teresa Fernández.


title: Rebecca Solnit

text: In 2019, Solnit rewrote a new version of Cinderella, also for Haymarket Books, called "Cinderella Liberator". In this feminist revision, Solnit reclaims Ella from the cinders and gives both the prince ("Prince Nevermind" in her version) and Ella new futures that involve thinking for themselves, acting out free will, starting businesses, and becoming friends, rather than dependent lovers. As Syreeta McFadden argued for NBC News, Cinderella has long been retold, changing with the times. Solnit's book uses Arthur Rackham’s original silhouetted drawings of Cinderella.


title: Rebecca Solnit

text: Solnit has received two NEA fellowships for Literature, a Guggenheim Fellowship, a Creative Capital Award, a Lannan literary fellowship, and a 2004 "Wired" Rave Award for writing on the effects of technology on the arts and humanities. In 2010, "Utne Reader" magazine named Solnit as one of the "25 Visionaries Who Are Changing Your World". Her "The Faraway Nearby" (2013) was nominated for a National Book Award, and shortlisted for the 2013 National Book Critics Circle Award.


title: Rebecca Solnit

text: "New York Times" book critic Dwight Garner called Solnit "the kind of rugged, off-road public intellectual America doesn't produce often enough. ... Solnit's writing, at its worst, can be dithering and self-serious, Joan Didion without the concision and laser-guided wit. At her best, however [...] she has a rare gift: the ability to turn the act of cognition, of arriving at a coherent point of view, into compelling moral drama."


title: Rebecca Solnit

text: For "River of Shadows," Solnit was honored with the 2004 National Book Critics Circle Award in Criticism and the 2004 Sally Hacker Prize from the Society for the History of Technology, which honors exceptional scholarship that reaches beyond the academy toward a broad audience. Solnit was also awarded Harvard's Mark Lynton History Prize in 2004 for "River of Shadows". Solnit was awarded the 2015-16 Corlis Benefideo Award for Imaginative Cartography by the North American Cartographic Information Society Solnit's book, "Call Them By Their True Names: American Crises", won the 2018 Kirkus Prize for Nonfiction. She won the 2019 Windham–Campbell Literature Prize in Non-Fiction.


title: Rebecca Solnit

text: Solnit credits Eduardo Galeano, Pablo Neruda, Ariel Dorfman, Elena Poniatowska, Gabriel García Márquez, Virginia Woolf, and Henry David Thoreau as writers who have influenced her work.


title: Destiny's Child discography

text: American R&B girl group Destiny's Child has released five studio albums, five compilation albums, two remix albums, one extended play, twenty-three singles, including four as featured artists and two promotional singles, and three video albums.


title: Destiny's Child discography

text: Destiny's Child first charted in November 1997, and released their self-titled debut album in the United States in February 1998 and it peaked at number 67 on the "Billboard" 200. It earned a platinum certification in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The album's lead single, "No, No, No", reached number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and was certified platinum by the RIAA. Second album, "The Writing's on the Wall", was released in July 1999, and was their breakthrough release peaking at number 5 on the "Billboard" 200. The first and third single, "Bills, Bills, Bills" and "Say My Name", peaked atop the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The album eventually sold over eight million copies in the United States, gaining eight-times platinum certification by the RIAA. Destiny's Child then released the theme song for "Charlie's Angels". Titled "Independent Women Part 1", it spent eleven consecutive weeks at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming the longest running number one of that year.


title: Destiny's Child discography

text: The group's third album, "Survivor", was released in the spring of 2001 and reached number one on "Billboard" 200. The title track reached number 2 in the US and follow-up single "Bootylicious" was their fourth number one song. In March 2002, a remix compilation titled "This Is the Remix" was released. After a three-year hiatus working on solo projects, the group reunited to record their fifth and final studio album, "Destiny Fulfilled", released in November 2004. The album reached number two in the US and was certified three-time platinum. Four singles were released from the album: "Lose My Breath", "Soldier", "Girl", and "Cater 2 U". The first two singles reached number three in US. A final greatest hits album, "#1's", was released in October 2005 following their split. Destiny's Child has sold over 60 million records worldwide, and "Billboard" magazine ranks the group as one of the greatest female acts of all time, and inducted the group in 2008 into the All time Hot 100 Artist.


title: Diane Chambers

text: Diane Chambers is a fictional character in the American television situation comedy show "Cheers", portrayed by Shelley Long and created by Glen and Les Charles. After her fiancé Sumner Sloan abandons her in the Cheers bar in the pilot episode, Diane works as a bar waitress. She has an on-off relationship with the womanizing bartender Sam Malone (Ted Danson) and a one-year relationship with Frasier Crane (Kelsey Grammer), who later becomes a main character of the series and "Frasier". When Long left the series during the fifth season, the producers wrote her character out. After that, they added her permanent replacement Rebecca Howe, a businesswoman played by Kirstie Alley, in the sixth season. Shelley Long made a special guest appearance as Diane in the series finale, as well as in "Frasier" as a one-time figment of Frasier's imagination, and as the actual Diane in the crossover episode "The Show Where Diane Comes Back".


title: Diane Chambers

text: Other actresses auditioned for the role of Diane Chambers. Producers decided to give Long the role primarily for her scenes with Ted Danson as Sam. For her performance as Diane, Long won an Emmy Award in 1983 for an Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series and two Golden Globe Awards in 1983 and 1985 for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries or Television Film and Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy Television Series, respectively.


title: Diane Chambers

text: Diane Chambers premiered in "Cheers" in 1982 as a former teaching assistant and graduate student who works as a cocktail waitress. In the 1982 series pilot "Give Me a Ring Sometime", Diane arrived with her fiancé Professor Sumner Sloane (Michael McGuire). When he abandoned Diane at Cheers, she realized that he would not return and took a job as a waitress at Cheers. Her mother Helen (Glynis Johns) appeared in one episode, "Someone Single, Someone Blue" (1983), and the narrative indicated that her father, Spencer, had died. Diane was said to have attended Bennington College and pursued graduate studies at Boston University. She was known for intellectually-minded, long-winded commentaries and academic interests (particularly poetry, psychology) which created tensions with her co-workers and in the bar culture, opening up many comedic possibilities.


title: Diane Chambers

text: Diane had on-and-off relationships with womanizing bartender Sam Malone, a former professional athlete and a foil to her intellectual persona. When Sam and Diane ended one of their relationships at the end of the second season, Diane went to a psychiatric hospital in the following season and met psychiatrist Frasier Crane, and the two set off to marry in Europe at the end of that season. The fourth season opened as Diane jilted Frasier at the wedding altar. In the fifth season, after Sam ended his relationship with politician Janet Eldridge (Kate Mulgrew), Sam proposed to Diane, who repeatedly rejected his proposals until she finally agreed in "Chambers vs. Malone" (1987). In the season finale, "I Do, Adieu" (1987), Diane was offered the chance to fulfill her dream of becoming a writer, causing Sam and Diane to halt their wedding. Diane left Boston, promising Sam that she would return in six months. In the series finale, "One for the Road" (1993), Diane returned as an award-winning cable television writer. They tried to rekindle their romance and planned to leave Boston together for Los Angeles. However, they reconsidered their relationship and then amicably broke it off. Diane returned to Los Angeles without Sam.


title: Diane Chambers

text: Diane appeared three times in the "Cheers" spin-off, "Frasier". She appeared as a dream figure from Frasier's mind in "Adventures In Paradise (Part 2)" (1994) and later again in "Don Juan In Hell" (2001). Diane visited Seattle in "The Show Where Diane Comes Back" (1996). In Los Angeles, she lost her job by accidentally setting Jane Seymour's hair on fire on the set of "Dr. Quinn Medicine Woman". She also lost her friends, boyfriend, beach house, and financial support for her upcoming play, and traveled to Seattle to ask Frasier for help. During a rehearsal of her play—inspired by her experiences at Cheers—Frasier became verbally angry with Diane's rose-tinted portrayal of herself and her inaccurate depiction of him. After the rehearsal, Diane reconciled with Frasier about abandoning him in Europe and then decided to postpone the play and to move back to Los Angeles.


title: Diane Chambers

text: According to Shelley Long, Diane looks more intelligent than she really is. She uses books and academics to communicate with others, usually unsuccessfully. After a series of events which bring her scorn and ridicule, Diane realizes that she knows little about the real world and the bar, and must learn about the world without using books.


title: Diane Chambers

text: Wendie Malick auditioned for the role of Diane; she later appeared in "Frasier" as Ronny Lawrence. Bess Armstrong was offered a role, but she turned it down. Long was initially reluctant to audition, expecting to be offered the role straight out. The producers took a meeting with her and were able to coax her into reading for the part; according to Glen Charles when Long read "that was it, we knew that we wanted her."


title: Diane Chambers

text: Before the final decision was made, the list of actresses was narrowed down to three: Long, Lisa Eichhorn, and Julia Duffy. The three actresses were paired with the three finalists for the role of Sam (Long was paired with Ted Danson), and each pair auditioned in front of the producers and NBC executives. The NBC executives praised the test scenes between Long and Danson, so the creators chose Long. Julia Duffy later appeared as one of Diane's friends in "Any Friend of Diane's", a 1982 episode of "Cheers".


title: Diane Chambers

text: When the character was conceived, Diane was to be an executive businesswoman who would have a "love-hate" relationship with ex-baseball player Sam Malone (Ted Danson); their relationship was inspired by the romantic movies of Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn. Instead, she became a pretentious graduate student. When Long left the series in 1987, the producers reverted to the original concept for Diane to use with Diane's replacement Rebecca Howe (Kirstie Alley).


title: Diane Chambers

text: In mid-1984, Shelley Long was married to stockbroker Bruce Tyson and was pregnant with his child. The press speculated that the storyline of Diane's love child would have either Sam or Frasier as its father. However, the producers found the pregnancy idea undesirable and scrapped it. Instead, Diane became without child, and scenes of Diane and Frasier in Europe were filmed before Long's pregnancy manifested. During the third season, Long was filmed from either above her waist or standing behind the bar to disguise her pregnancy. In March 1985, she gave birth to a baby girl. Les Charles said that he felt, if her character was pregnant with Sam's child and did not marry Sam, she would be seen as unsympathetic, and he did not want the character to marry Sam because it would change the show into a domestic comedy.


title: Diane Chambers

text: In December 1986, Long decided to leave "Cheers" for a movie career and family; she said that she and Danson had "done some really terrific work at "Cheers"". Her decision was so surprising that it became national news and greatly worried the show's cast and crew, who believed that the Sam-Diane relationship was fundamental to "Cheers" success.


title: Diane Chambers

text: In February 1987, the creators decided to find a female lead replacement who did not resemble Shelley Long. During production of "I Do, Adieu," the producers developed ideas to separate Sam and Diane. Many ideas of writing out Diane were attempted, but they decided she would leave Boston for a writing career. James Burrows said they intended "Cheers" to be a comedy about comedy set in the bar, but the "Sam and Diane" romance dominated the show for five years and would have made the bar a minor role and less relevant if Long had not left the show in 1987. When Long decided to leave "Cheers", producers made plans to revise the show without losing its initial premise; they credited Long's departure for saving the series from cancellation. Long said:


title: Diane Chambers

text: Long's replacement Kirstie Alley debuted as businesswoman Rebecca Howe in the sixth season and became a main cast member thereafter.


title: Diane Chambers

text: Before her appearance in the series finale, Shelley Long appeared as herself in the special 200th episode in 1990, which was hosted by John McLaughlin and other cast members. Long's return was rumored in 1989, but a spokesperson for Paramount Television dismissed these rumors.


title: Diane Chambers

text: Shelley Long received one Emmy in 1983 and two Golden Globes for her performance as Diane Chambers in the series "Cheers", categorized as a Best Supporting Actress (Series, Miniseries or Television Film) in 1983 and a Best Actress (Television Series Musical or Comedy). Long was nominated as Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for the series finale "One for the Road" in 1993.


title: Diane Chambers

text: In 1990, Robert Bianco praised Diane and Shelley Long for making the show a "classic", and was devastated when she left the show, along with Nicholas Colasanto's death. In 1993, John Carman from "San Francisco Chronicle" said Long's guest appearance in the series finale was neither well-performed nor well-aged. In 1999, Diane was rated number 33 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Characters list. In 2011, Kim Potts from "The Huffington Post" ranked her 30th in his list of 100 "Greatest TV Women" of all-time.


title: Diane Chambers

text: According to a telephone survey of 1,011 people conducted by the Times Mirror Center for the People and the Press (now Pew Research Center) on April 1–4, 1993, Sam Malone was the favorite "Cheers" character of 26%, Diane Chambers was favored by 4%, Rebecca Howe was favored by 6%, and Frasier Crane was favored by 1%. The survey also asked whom Sam should marry; 21% voted Diane Chambers, 19% voted Rebecca Howe, 48% voted Sam to stay single, and 12% had no opinion on this matter.


title: Six-star rank

text: In the United States Armed Forces, a six-star rank is a proposed rank immediately superior to a five-star rank, possibly to be worn by the General of the Armies or Admiral of the Navy; however, this correlation was never officially recognized by the military or by Congress.


title: Six-star rank

text: As Congress was trying to create the rank of Fleet Admiral in 1944, the Navy wanted to re-establish and elevate Admiral of the Navy to be equivalent to General of the Armies, but they could not legally do so without a congressional act. The Navy's chief of naval personnel, Vice Admiral Randall Jacobs, testified before the Committee on Naval Affairs of the House of Representatives, recommending that the rank of Admiral of the Navy should be made equivalent to General of the Armies, but a previous bill submitted for its re-establishment on 25 February 1944, failed to be passed into law. Congress passed Pub.L. on 14 December 1944, creating the rank of fleet admiral, without re-establishing the rank of Admiral of the Navy.


title: Six-star rank

text: As such, the rank of Admiral of the Navy continued to be inactive. By 1955, the Navy concluded that the rank was honorary. And while they held to the belief that it was equivalent to General of the Armies, the Navy amended its regulations to establish fleet admiral as its highest achievable rank, adhering to the standard set by the law.


title: Six-star rank

text: On 21 January 1955, a draft resolution was proposed to the U.S. Senate to authorize the then-U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower to appoint Douglas MacArthur, then a five-star General of the Army, to be elevated to the "six-star rank" of General of the Armies of the United States in recognition of the great services to his country", with "such appointment to take effect as of the seventy-fifth anniversary of his birth, January 26, 1955." The proposal had little chance of passing and was never voted on.


title: Six-star rank

text: The rank of General of the Armies had previously been granted, in 1919, to active-duty four-star General John J. Pershing. The markings used to identify Pershing's new ranking as higher than general was a bank of four gold (rather than silver) stars.


title: Six-star rank

text: In 1976, as part of commemorations for the U.S. Bicentennial, General George Washington was posthumously promoted to the rank of General of the Armies of the United States. Although the law did not actually specify the number of stars, some U.S. newspapers and members of Congress described this as a "six-star rank". His appointment had been to serve as "General and Commander in Chief of the Army of the United Colonies".


title: Brian Koppelman

text: Brian William Koppelman (born April 27, 1966) is an American showrunner. Koppelman is the co-writer of "Ocean's Thirteen" and "Rounders", the producer for films including "The Illusionist" and "The Lucky Ones", the director for films including "Solitary Man" and the documentary "This Is What They Want" for ESPN as part of their "30 for 30" series, and the co-creator, showrunner, and executive producer of Showtime's "Billions" and "Super Pumped: The Battle for Uber."


title: Brian Koppelman

text: Koppelman was born on April 27, 1966 in Roslyn Harbor, New York, the son of Brenda "Bunny" Koppelman and Charles Koppelman. Koppelman is Jewish. His father was a producer and media executive. Koppelman holds degrees from Tufts University and Fordham University School of Law.


title: Brian Koppelman

text: He first started managing local Long Island bands as a teenager. He would also book bands at a local nightclub. Through booking acts, he came into contact with Eddie Murphy and helped arrange Murphy's first record deal. As a student at Tufts University, he discovered singer/songwriter Tracy Chapman and executive-produced her first album. He was later brought to Giant Records by president Irving Azoff. During his career, Koppelman was an A&R representative for music labels Elektra Records, Giant Records, SBK Records and EMI Records.


title: Brian Koppelman

text: In 1997, Koppelman wrote the original screenplay for "Rounders" with his writing partner, David Levien. Koppelman has described his approach to writing as a team as having only one rule: no video games in the office. In 2001, Koppelman wrote, produced, and directed his first film, "Knockaround Guys", which film critic Roger Ebert gave 3 out of 4 stars. Since then, Koppelman has worked on a dozen films, including having written "Ocean's Thirteen" and directed an ESPN "30 for 30" documentary, "This Is What They Want".


title: Brian Koppelman

text: In 2009, Koppelman co-directed "Solitary Man" starring Michael Douglas. The film was included in both A. O. Scott's "The New York Times" "Year End Best" list, Roger Ebert's "Year End Best" list, and holds a "Fresh" rating of 81% at the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes.


title: Brian Koppelman

text: Koppelman was a contributor and essayist at Grantland.com, a website that was dedicated to sports and pop culture. Additionally, since March 2014, Koppelman has hosted a weekly podcast, "The Moment", on ESPN Radio.


title: Brian Koppelman

text: In October, 2013, Koppelman received significant media attention for releasing a series of videos on the platform Vine in which he gives screenwriting advice in six seconds or less called "Six Second Screenwriting Lessons". His "Screenwriting, in Six Seconds or Less" Vine from July 31, 2014, generated over 15 million loops in less than nine days. He has also written a short story, "Wednesday is Viktor's", for the anthology "Dark City Lights: New York Stories (Have a NYC)", published in 2015. Koppelman has a chapter giving advice in Tim Ferriss' book Tools of Titans.


title: Brian Koppelman

text: Showtime's drama "Billions", created by Koppelman with "The New York Times" columnist Andrew Ross Sorkin and writing partner David Levien, and starring Paul Giamatti and Damian Lewis, premiered to strong reviews in 2016.


title: Brian Koppelman

text: Koppelman has been involved in several lawsuits regarding his work, namely Grosso v. Miramax Film Corp., Cayuga Nations v. Showtime Networks Inc., and Shull v. Sorkin. Both Grosso and Shull claimed that Koppelman stole their ideas and copyright work in his creation of "Rounders" and "Billions" respectively. All cases have since been dismissed. Shull's case was recently dismissed a second time.


title: Brian Koppelman

text: In 2013, Tufts University awarded Koppelman their P.T. Barnum Award for success in Media/Arts. In 2014, Koppelman won an Emmy Award for his "30 for 30" documentary.


title: Brian Koppelman

text: In 1992, Koppelman married novelist Amy Levine at the Central Synagogue in Manhattan. His sister is Jennifer Koppelman Hutt, who hosts a Sirius Satellite Radio show called "Just Jenny". Regarding religion, Koppelman describes himself as culturally Jewish, but from a philosophical standpoint he identifies himself as an atheist.


title: Brian Koppelman

text: Of his five-year practice of Transcendental Meditation Koppelman said in 2016: "For me it was a way to control anxiety, and I found that the physical manifestations of anxiety just dissipated by about 85 or 90 percent ... So that was a gigantic life change, to not feel a fluttering stomach, to not get a stress headache and things like that."


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Disposal of human corpses, also called final disposition, is the practice and process of dealing with the remains of a deceased human being. Disposal methods may need to account for the fact that soft tissue will decompose relatively rapidly, while the skeleton will remain intact for thousands of years under certain conditions.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Several methods for disposal are practiced. A funeral is a ceremony that may accompany the final disposition. Regardless, the manner of disposal is often dominated by spirituality with a desire to hold vigil for the dead and may be highly ritualized. In cases of mass death, such as war and natural disaster, or in which the means of disposal are limited, practical concerns may be of greater priority.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Ancient methods of disposing of dead bodies include cremation practiced by the Romans, Greeks, Hindus, and some Mayans; burial practiced by the Chinese, Japanese, Bali, Jews, Christians, and Muslims, as well as some Mayans; mummification, a type of embalming, practiced by the Ancient Egyptians; and the sky burial and a similar method of disposal called Tower of Silence practiced by Tibetan Buddhists, some Mongolians, and Zoroastrians.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: A modern method of quasi-final disposition, though still rare, is cryonics; this being putatively near-final, though nowhere close to demonstrated.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Some cultures place the dead in tombs of various sorts, either individually, or in specially designated tracts of land that house tombs. Burial in a graveyard is one common form of tomb. In some places, burials are impractical because the groundwater is too high; therefore tombs are placed above ground, as is the case in New Orleans, Louisiana, US. Elsewhere, a separate building for a tomb is usually reserved for the socially prominent and wealthy; grand, above-ground tombs are called mausoleums. The socially prominent sometimes had the privilege of having their corpses stored in church crypts. In more recent times, however, this has often been forbidden by hygiene laws.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Burial was not always permanent. In some areas, burial grounds needed to be reused due to limited space. In these areas, once the dead have decomposed to skeletons, the bones are removed; after their removal they can be placed in an ossuary.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: A ground burial is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objects in it, and covering it over. Humans have been burying their dead for over 100,000 years of civilization. Burial practices and rites varied from culture to culture in the past and still vary to this day. Burial is often seen as indicating respect for the dead. It has been used to prevent the odor of decay, to give family members closure, and prevent them from witnessing the decomposition of their loved ones.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Cremation is also an old custom; it was the usual mode of disposing of a corpse in ancient Rome (along with graves covered with heaped mounds, also found in Greece, particularly at the Karameikos graveyard in Monastiraki). Vikings were occasionally cremated in their longships, and afterwards the location of the site was marked with standing stones.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Since the latter part of the twentieth century, despite the objections of some religious groups, cremation has become increasingly popular. Jewish law ("Halakha") forbids cremation, believing that the soul of a cremated person will be unable to find its final repose. The Roman Catholic Church forbade it for many years, but since 1963 the church has allowed it, as long as it is not done to express disbelief in bodily resurrection. The church specifies that cremated remains be either buried or entombed; they do not allow cremated remains to be scattered or kept at home. Many Catholic cemeteries now have columbarium niches for cremated remains, or specific sections for those remains. Some denominations of Protestantism allow cremation; the more conservative denominations generally do not. The Eastern Orthodox Church and Islam also forbid cremation.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Among Hindus, Jains, Sikhs and some sects of Buddhists such as those found in Japan, cremation is common.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Immurement of corpses is the permanent storage in an above-ground tomb or mausoleum. A tomb is generally any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes. A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb, or the tomb may be considered to be within the mausoleum. One of the most famous immurements sites is the Taj Mahal located in Agra, India. The Taj Mahal was built by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, Empress Mumtaz Mahal. Both of their bodies were buried in this building.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Sky burial allows dead bodies to be eaten by vultures on open grounds or on top of specially built tall towers away from human sight. Sky burials can be followed by optional automatic cremations of the skeletons left behind, or the bones can then be stored or buried, as practiced by some groups of Native Americans in protohistoric times. Sky burials were practiced by the ancient Persians, Tibetans and some Native Americans in protohistoric times. Specifically, the conditions of a shallow active layer as well as the lack of firewood led the Tibetans to practice "jhator" or "giving alms to the birds". The zoroastrians in Mumbai and Karachi placed bodies on "Towers of Silence", where birds then could decompose the bodies. Sky burials can provide benefits to the environment, since it does not produce air pollution and the decomposition of the body occurs fairly quickly, when compared to other forms of disposal practices. Exposures, which can be a form of sky burial, are where the corpse is stripped of its flesh, leaving only the bones. The bones can then either be cremated or buried whole, as stated above.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: "Burial at sea" in past generations has meant the deliberate disposal of a corpse into the ocean, wrapped and tied with weights to make sure it sinks. It has been a common practice in navies and seafaring nations; in the Church of England, special forms of funeral service were added to the Book of Common Prayer to cover it. In today's parlance, "burial at sea" may also refer to the scattering of ashes in the ocean, while "whole body burial at sea" refers to the entire uncremated body being placed in the ocean at great depths. Laws vary by jurisdictions.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: The concept may also include ship burial, a form of burial at sea in which the corpse is set adrift on a boat.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Composting, or natural organic reduction (NOR), turns organic matter into soil conditioner that is unrecognizable as human remains. For human corpses, it can be performed by placing the body in a mix of wood chips, allowing thermophile microbes to decompose the body. In the United States, human composting has been legalized in five states: Washington, Colorado, Vermont ("from 1 January 2023"), Oregon, and California ("in 2027"). The first such composting facility, based Kent, Washington, accepted bodies in December 2020. It developed from an earlier composting idea, formulated by architect Katrina Spade of Seattle, Washington, as the Urban Death Project.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Dissolution involves the breaking down of the body by solvation, e.g. in acid or a solution of lye, followed by disposal as liquid.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: A specific method is alkaline hydrolysis (also called Resomation). Advocates claim the process is more environmentally friendly than both cremation and burial, due to emissions and embalming fluids respectively. On the other hand, many find the idea of being "poured down the drain" to be undignified.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Human remains of archaeological or medical interest are often kept in museums and private collections. This practice is controversial (See NAGPRA). In the cases of Native Americans in the United States, possession of remains and related objects is regulated by the NAGPRA Act of 1990.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Different religions and cultures have various funeral rites that accompany the disposal of a body. Some require that all parts of the body are buried together. If an autopsy has occurred, removed parts of the body are sewn back into the body so that they may be buried with the rest of the corpse.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: When it is not possible for a body to be disposed of promptly, it is generally stored at a morgue. Where this is not possible, such as on a battlefield, body bags are used. In the Western world, embalming of the body is a standard part of preparation. This is intended to temporarily preserve the corpse throughout the funeral process.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Mummification is the drying bodies and removing of organs. The most famous practitioners were ancient Egyptians. In the Egyptian practices, bodies are embalmed using resins and organs are removed and placed in jars. Bodies are then wrapped in bandages and placed in tombs, along with the jars of organs. Many nobles and highly ranked bureaucrats had their corpses embalmed and stored in luxurious sarcophagi inside their funeral mausoleums. Pharaohs stored their embalmed corpses in pyramids or the Valley of the Kings.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: However, the Chinchorro mummies of Chile are to date the oldest mummies on Earth. The Chinchorro mummification process included the Black Mummy technique, as well as the Red Mummy technique.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Many jurisdictions have enacted regulations relating to the disposal of human bodies. Although it may be entirely legal to bury a deceased family member, the law may restrict the locations in which this activity is allowed, in some cases expressly limiting burials to property controlled by specific, licensed institutions. Furthermore, in many places, failure to properly dispose of a body is a crime. In some places, it is also a crime to fail to report a death, and to fail to report the disposal of the body.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Certain conditions such as necrosis can cause parts of the body such as limbs or internal organs to die without causing the death of the individual. In such cases the body parts are usually not given a funeral. Surgical removal of dead tissue is usually necessary to prevent gangrenous infection. Surgically removed body parts are typically disposed of as medical waste, unless they need to be preserved for cultural reasons, as described above.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: In some cases, a body is disposed of in such a way as to prevent, hinder, or delay discovery of the body, to prevent identification of the body, or to prevent autopsy. In such cases, the deceased is considered a missing person as long as a body is not identified, unless death is so likely that the person is declared legally dead.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: This often occurs as part of a murder or voluntary manslaughter. In other cases, an individual who did not intend to cause death may still feel guilt about a death (e.g. by involuntary manslaughter or an accident) and may attempt to prevent discovery of the body. This can exacerbate any legal consequences associated with the death.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Other motives for concealing death or the cause of death include insurance fraud or the desire to collect the pension of the deceased. An individual may commit suicide in such a way as to obscure the cause of death, allowing beneficiaries of a life insurance policy to collect on the policy.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Disposal of this type happens for various reasons, including the main difference between a burial at sea and a burial on land: the difficulty in recovering the body. Sometimes this difference is desired to dispose of bodies outside of the law.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: While a corpse properly buried at sea is unlikely to reappear, many criminals are unable to ensure the permanent disposals of a body, and evidence of the body may reappear. This is rarely as spectacular as the freshly caught shark in the Sydney Coogee Aquarium that vomited up a surgically separated human arm, leading to a murder investigation. That victim was determined to be James Smith, but the three murder suspects were acquitted.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Many criminals dispose of bodies in a river, hoping that the body is carried away. However, this method will most likely lead to a quick detection of the body, because the body gets entangled at the side of the river, or stopped at a dam, or is simply seen floating by others. A disposal in large lakes or oceans is more likely to hide the body, but a decomposing body can develop a strong positive buoyancy due to the decomposing gases being trapped underneath the skin. This may bring the body up to the surface, or at least increase the movement across the ocean floor due to wave actions. Many bodies have washed up at the shore. Bodies have also been discovered in the nets or lines of fishermen, and occasionally, bodies are also discovered by divers.


title: Disposal of human corpses

text: Very cold water with little oxygen may even preserve bodies, allowing for an easier identification, as for example Margaret Hogg, the "Wasdale Lady in the Lake" in Wast Water lake in the Wasdale area (see National Trust Properties in England). She was found after eight years, with her body preserved like wax.


title: Roman Gaul

text: Roman Gaul refers to Gaul under provincial rule in the Roman Empire from the 1st century BC to the 5th century AD.


title: Roman Gaul

text: The Roman Republic's influence began in southern Gaul. By the mid-2nd century BC, Rome was trading heavily with the Greek colony of Massilia (modern Marseille) and entered into an alliance with them, by which it agreed to protect the town from local Gauls, including the nearby Aquitani and from sea-borne Carthaginians and other rivals, in exchange for land that it wanted in order to build a road to Hispania, to assist in troop movements to its provinces there. The Mediterranean settlements on the coast continued to be threatened by the powerful Gallic tribes to the north and in 122 BC the Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus campaigned in the area and defeated the Allobroges followed by Quintus Fabius Maximus against the Arverni under King Bituitus in 121 BC.


title: Roman Gaul

text: The Romans respected and feared the Gallic tribes. In 390 BC, the Gauls had sacked Rome, which left an existential dread of barbarian conquest the Romans never forgot. In 109 BC, Italy had been invaded from the north and saved by Gaius Marius only after several bloody and costly battles. Around 62 BC, when a Roman client state, the Arverni, conspired with the Sequani and the Suebi nations east of the Rhine to attack the Aedui, a strong Roman ally, Rome turned a blind eye. The Sequani and the Arverni sought Ariovistus's aid and defeated the Aedui in 63 BC at the Battle of Magetobriga.


title: Roman Gaul

text: As 58 BC dawned, most of Gaul was still under independent rule. It was beginning to urbanize and shared many aspects of Roman civilization. Into this picture came the rising general Julius Caesar, who had ensured himself the position of Governor of both Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul. He sought to pay off debts and find glory for himself, and so began a series of aggressive campaigns to conquer the Gallic tribes.


title: Roman Gaul

text: The wars began with conflict over the migration of the Helvetii in 58 BC, which drew in neighboring tribes and the Germanic Suebi. By 57 BC, Caesar had resolved to conquer all of Gaul, and led campaigns in the east, where the Nervii nearly defeated him. In 56 BC, Caesar defeated the Veneti in a naval battle and took most of northwest Gaul. In 55 BC, he sought to boost his public image, and undertook first of their kind expeditions across the Rhine river and the English Channel. Upon his return from Britain, Caesar was hailed as a hero, though he had achieved little beyond landing because his army had been too small. The next year, he went back with a proper army and invaded Britain. However, tribes rose up on the continent, and the Romans suffered a humiliating defeat. 53 BC saw a draconian campaign against the Gauls in an attempt to pacify them. This failed and the Gauls staged a mass revolt under the leadership of Vercingetorix in 52 BC. Gallic forces won a notable victory at the Battle of Gergovia, but the Romans' indomitable siege works at the Battle of Alesia utterly defeated the Gallic coalition.


title: Roman Gaul

text: In 51 BC and 50 BC there was little resistance and Caesar's troops were mostly mopping up. Gaul was conquered, although it would not become a Roman province until 27 BC, and resistance would continue until as late as 70 AD. There is no clear end-date for the war, but the imminent Roman Civil War led to the withdrawal of Caesar's troops in 50 BC. Caesar's wild successes in the war had made him extremely wealthy and provided a legendary reputation. The Gallic Wars were a key factor in Caesar's ability to win the Civil War and declare himself dictator, in what would eventually lead to the end of the Roman Republic and the establishment of the Roman Empire.


title: Roman Gaul

text: At the end of the Gallic Wars, the Gauls had not been entirely subjugated and were not yet a formal part of the Empire, but that task was not Caesar's and he left that to his successors. Gaul would not be made formally into Roman provinces until the reign of Augustus in 27 BC. Several rebellions happened subsequently and Roman troops were kept stationed throughout Gaul. There may have been unrest in the region as late as 70 AD.


title: Roman Gaul

text: Massilia was allied to Pompey in Caesar's civil war, which led to its eventual defeat at the Siege of Massilia in 49 BC after which it lost its territories but was allowed to keep nominal autonomy, due to ancient ties of friendship and support of Rome.


title: Roman Gaul

text: In 40 BC, during the Second Triumvirate, Lepidus was given responsibility for Gallia Narbonensis (along with Hispania and Africa), while Mark Antony was given the balance of Gaul.


title: Roman Gaul

text: In 22 BC, imperial administration of Gaul was reorganised establishing the provinces of Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Belgica and Gallia Lugdunensis. Parts of eastern Gaul were incorporated into the provinces Raetia (15 BC) and Germania Superior (AD 83).


title: Roman Gaul

text: Generals Marcus Antonius Primus and Gnaeus Julius Agricola were both born in Gaul, as were emperors Claudius and Caracalla. Emperor Antoninus Pius also came from a Gaulish family.


title: Roman Gaul

text: In the Crisis of the Third Century around 260, Postumus established a short-lived Gallic Empire, which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia, in addition to Gaul itself. Germanic tribes, the Franks and the Alamanni, invaded Gaul at this time. The Gallic Empire ended with Emperor Aurelian's victory at Châlons in 274.


title: Roman Gaul

text: In 286–7 Carausius, commander of the Classis Britannica, the fleet of the English Channel, declared himself Emperor of Britain and northern Gaul. His forces comprised his fleet, the three legions stationed in Britain and also a legion he had seized in Gaul, a number of foreign auxiliary units, a levy of Gaulish merchant ships, and barbarian mercenaries attracted by the prospect of booty. In 293 emperor Constantius Chlorus isolated Carausius by besieging the port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and invaded Batavia in the Rhine delta, held by his Frankish allies, and reclaimed Gaul.


title: Roman Gaul

text: A migration of Celts from Britain appeared in the 4th century in Armorica led by the legendary king Conan Meriadoc. They spoke the now extinct British language, which evolved into the Breton, Cornish, and Welsh languages.


title: Roman Gaul

text: The Goths, who had sacked Rome in 410, established a capital in Toulouse and in 418 succeeded in being accepted by Honorius as "foederati" and rulers of the Aquitanian province in exchange for their support against the Vandals.


title: Roman Gaul

text: The Roman Empire had difficulty responding to all the barbarian raids, and Flavius Aëtius had to use these tribes against each other in order to maintain some Roman control. He first used the Huns against the Burgundians, and these mercenaries destroyed Worms, killed king Gunther, and pushed the Burgundians westward. The Burgundians were resettled by Aëtius near Lugdunum in 443. The Huns, united by Attila, became a greater threat, and Aëtius used the Visigoths against the Huns. The conflict climaxed in 451 at the Battle of Châlons, in which the Romans and Goths defeated Attila.


title: Roman Gaul

text: The Roman administration finally collapsed as remaining Roman troops withdrew southeast to protect Italy. Between 455 and 476 the Visigoths, the Burgundians, and the Franks assumed control in Gaul. However, certain aspects of the ancient Celtic culture continued after the fall of Roman administration and the Domain of Soissons, a remnant of the Empire, survived from 457 to 486.


title: Roman Gaul

text: In 486, the Franks defeated the last Roman authority in Gaul at the Battle of Soissons. Almost immediately afterwards, most of Gaul came under the rule of the Merovingians, the first kings of a proto-France.


title: Roman Gaul

text: In 507, the Visigoths were pushed out of most of Gaul by the Frankish king Clovis I at the Battle of Vouillé. They were able to retain Narbonensis and Provence after the timely arrival of an Ostrogoth detachment sent by Theodoric the Great.


title: Roman Gaul

text: Certain Gallo-Roman aristocratic families continued to exert power in episcopal cities (such as the Mauronitus family in Marseilles and Bishop Gregory of Tours). The appearance of Germanic given and family names becomes noticeable in Gallia/Francia from the middle of the 7th century on, most notably in powerful families, indicating that the centre of gravity had definitely shifted.


title: Roman Gaul

text: The Gallo-Roman (or Vulgar Latin) dialect of the late Roman period evolved into the dialects of the Oïl languages and Old French in the north, and into Occitan in the south.


title: Roman Gaul

text: The name "Gallia" and its equivalents continued in use, at least in writing, until the end of the Merovingian period in the 750s. Slowly, during the ensuing Carolingian period (751–987), the expression "Francia", then "Francia occidentalis" spread to describe the political reality of the kingdom of the Franks ("regnum francorum").


title: Roman Gaul

text: Before 22 BC Gaul had three geographical divisions, one of which was divided into multiple Roman provinces:


title: Roman Gaul

text: The Romans divided these huge provinces into "civitates" corresponding more or less with the pre-Conquest communities or polities sometimes described misleadingly as "tribes," such as the Aedui, Allobroges, Bellovaci, and Sequani (see List of Celtic tribes) but the civitates were too large and in turn were divided into smaller units, "pagi", a term that eventually became the modern French word "pays". These administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and these "civitates" would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses, which would remain in place—with slight changes—until the French Revolution.


title: Roman Gaul

text: In the five centuries between Caesar's invasion and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Gaulish language and cultural identity underwent a syncretism with the Roman culture of the new governing class, and evolved into a hybrid Gallo-Roman culture that eventually permeated all levels of society. Gauls continued writing some inscriptions in the Gaulish language, but switched from the Greek alphabet to the Latin alphabet during the Roman period. Current historical research suggests that Roman Gaul was "Roman" only in certain (albeit major) social contexts, the prominence of which in material culture has hindered a better historical understanding of the permanence of many Celtic elements. The Roman influence was most apparent in the areas of civic religion and administration. The Druidic religion was suppressed by Emperor Claudius I, and in later centuries Christianity was introduced. The prohibition of Druids and the syncretic nature of the Roman religion led to disappearance of the Celtic religion. It remains to this day poorly understood: current knowledge of the Celtic religion is based on archaeology and via literary sources from several isolated areas such as Ireland and Wales.


title: Roman Gaul

text: The Romans easily imposed their administrative, economic, artistic (especially in terms of monumental art and architecture) and literary culture. They wore the Roman tunic instead of their traditional clothing. Surviving Celtic influences also infiltrated back into the Roman Imperial culture in the 3rd century. For example, the Gaulish tunic—which gave Emperor Caracalla his surname—had not been replaced by Roman fashion. Similarly, certain Gaulish artisan techniques, such as the barrel (more durable than the Roman amphora) and chain mail were adopted by the Romans.


title: Roman Gaul

text: The Celtic heritage also continued in the spoken language (see History of French). Gaulish spelling and pronunciation of Latin are apparent in several 5th century poets and transcribers of popular farces. The last pockets of Gaulish speakers appear to have lingered until the 6th or 7th century. Gaulish was held to be attested by a quote from Gregory of Tours written in the second half of the 6th century, which describes how a shrine "called 'Vasso Galatae' in the Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground. Throughout the Roman rule over Gaul, although considerable Romanization in terms of material culture occurred, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and continued to be spoken, coexisting with Latin.


title: Roman Gaul

text: Germanic placenames were first attested in border areas settled by Germanic colonizers (with Roman approval). In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Franks settled in northern France and Belgium, the Alemanni in Alsace and Switzerland, and the Burgundians in Savoie.