title: Consonant cluster

text: There has been a trend to reduce and simplify consonant clusters in East Asian languages, such as Chinese and Vietnamese. Old Chinese was known to contain additional medials such as and/or , which yielded retroflexion in Middle Chinese and today's Mandarin Chinese. The word , read in Mandarin and in Cantonese, is reconstructed as "*klong" or "*krung" in Old Chinese by Sinologists like Zhengzhang Shangfang, William H. Baxter, and Laurent Sagart. Additionally, initial clusters such as "tk" and "sn" were analysed in recent reconstructions of Old Chinese, and some were developed as palatalised sibilants.


title: Consonant cluster

text: Another element of consonant clusters in Old Chinese was analysed in coda and post-coda position. Some "departing tone" syllables have cognates in the "entering tone" syllables, which feature a -p, -t, -k in Middle Chinese and Southern Chinese varieties. The departing tone was analysed to feature a post-coda sibilant, "s". Clusters of -ps, -ts, -ks, were then formed at the end of syllables. These clusters eventually collapsed into "-ts" or "-s", before disappearing altogether, leaving elements of diphthongisation in more modern varieties. Old Vietnamese also had a rich inventory of initial clusters, but these were slowly merged with plain initials during Middle Vietnamese, and some have developed into the palatal nasal.


title: Consonant cluster

text: Some consonant clusters originate from the loss of a vowel in between two consonants, usually (but not always) due to vowel reduction caused by lack of stress. This is also the origin of most consonant clusters in English, some of which go back to Proto-Indo-European times, e.g. glow from Proto-germanic *glo-, from Proto-Indo-European *gʰel-ó, where *gʰel- is a root meaning to shine, to be bright (also present in glee, gleam, glade, etc.).


title: Consonant cluster

text: Consonant clusters can also originate from assimilation of a consonant with a vowel. In many Slavic languages, the combination mi- and me- regularly gave mli- and mle-. Compare Russian zemlyá with Polish ziemia, both from Proto-Balto-Slavic *źemē.


title: Consonant cluster

text: Consonant clusters occurring in loanwords do not necessarily follow the cluster limits set by the borrowing language's phonotactics. These limits are called restraints or constraints (see also optimality theory). A loanword from Adyghe in the extinct Ubykh language, ('to well up'), violates Ubykh's limit of two initial consonants. Also, the English words "sphere" and "sphinx" , Greek loanwords, violate the rule that two fricatives may not appear adjacently word-initially.


title: Consonant cluster

text: In English, the longest possible initial cluster is three consonants, as in "split" , "strudel" , "strengths" , and "squirrel" , all beginning with the or , containing , , or , and ending with , , or ; the longest possible final cluster is five consonants, as in "angsts" in some dialects , though that is rare (perhaps owing to the fact that it is a derivative of a recent German loanword). However, the can also be considered epenthetic; for many speakers, nasal-sibilant sequences in the coda require insertion of a voiceless stop homorganic to the nasal. For speakers without this feature, the word is pronounced without the . Final clusters of four consonants, as in "sixths" , "twelfths" , "bursts" (in rhotic accents) and "glimpsed" , are more common. Within compound words, clusters of five consonants or more are possible (if cross-syllabic clusters are accepted), as in "handspring" and in the Yorkshire place-name of "Hampsthwaite" .


title: Consonant cluster

text: It is important to distinguish clusters and digraphs. Clusters are made of two or more consonant "sounds", while a digraph is a group of two consonant "letters" standing for a single sound. For example, in the word "ship", the two letters of the digraph together represent the single consonant . Conversely, the letter can produce the consonant clusters (annex), (exist), (sexual), or (some pronunciations of "luxury"). It is worth noting that often produces sounds in two different syllables (following the general principle of saturating the subsequent syllable before assigning sounds to the preceding syllable). Also note a combination digraph and cluster as seen in "length" with two digraphs , representing a cluster of two consonants: (although it may be pronounced instead, as followed by a voiceless consonant in the same syllable often does); "lights" with a silent digraph followed by a cluster , : ; and compound words such as "sightscreen" or "catchphrase" .


title: Consonant cluster

text: In Modern Hangul (Korean alphabet) there are 11 consonant-clusters: ㄳ, ㄵ, ㄶ, ㄺ, ㄻ, ㄼ, ㄽ, ㄾ, ㄿ, ㅀ, ㅄ. These come as the final consonant in a syllabic block and refer to consonant letters, not consonant sounds. They instead influence the consonant of the next syllable. However, Middle Korean did have consonant clusters, as evidenced by double consonant clusters in initial position (e.g. ᄓ and ㅯ) as well as triple consonants in both positions (e.g. ㅫ and ᇒ).


title: Consonant cluster

text: Not all consonant clusters are distributed equally among the languages of the world. Consonant clusters have a tendency to fall under patterns such as the sonority sequencing principle (SSP); the closer a consonant in a cluster is to the syllable's vowel, the more sonorous the consonant is. Among the most common types of clusters are initial stop-liquid sequences, such as in Thai (e.g. , , and ). Other common ones include initial stop-approximant (e.g. Thai ) and initial fricative-liquid (e.g. English ) sequences. More rare are sequences which defy the SSP such as Proto-Indo-European and (which many of its descendants have, including English). Certain consonants are more or less likely to appear in consonant clusters, especially in certain positions. The Tsou language of Taiwan has initial clusters such as , which doesn't violate the SSP, but nonetheless is unusual in having the labio-dental in the second position. The cluster is also rare, but occurs in Russian words such as ().


title: Consonant cluster

text: Consonant clusters at the ends of syllables are less common but follow the same principles. Clusters are more likely to begin with a liquid, approximant, or nasal and end with a fricative, affricate, or stop, such as in English "world" . Yet again, there are exceptions, such as English "lapse" .


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: The Department of Education (abbreviated as DepEd; ) is the executive department of the Philippine government responsible for ensuring access to, promoting equity in, and improving the quality of basic education. It is the main agency tasked to manage and govern the Philippine system of basic education. It is the chief formulator of Philippine education policy and responsible for the Philippine primary and secondary school systems. It has its headquarters at the DepEd Complex in Meralco Avenue, Pasig.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: The department is currently led by the secretary of education, nominated by the president of the Philippines and confirmed by the Commission on Appointments. The secretary is a member of the Cabinet. The current secretary of education is Sara Duterte. Presently, its mission is to provide quality basic education that is equitably accessible to all and lay the foundation for lifelong learning and service for the common good. It has changed its vision statement, removing a phrase that some groups deem to be "too sectarian" for a government institution.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: Philippine Education has undergone different stages of progress from the pre-Spanish era to the present.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: During the early Spanish period, education in the Philippines was religion-oriented and was primarily for the elite, especially in the first years of Spanish colonization. Access to education by Filipinos was later liberalized through the enactment of the Educational Decree of 1863, which provided for the establishment of at least one primary school for boys and girls in each town under the responsibility of the municipal government, and the establishment of a normal school for male teachers under the supervision of the Jesuits. Primary instruction was secularized and free, and the teaching of Spanish was compulsory. It was also through this decree that the 'Superior Commission of Primary Instruction' was established, the seminal agency of the Department of Education.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: The defeat of Spain by United States forces in 1898 paved the way for Aguinaldo's Republic under a Revolutionary Government. The schools maintained by Spain for more than three centuries were closed temporarily but were reopened on August 29, 1898 by the secretary of the interior. A system of free and compulsory elementary education was established by the Malolos Constitution, under Article 23. However, this first sovereign education system was interrupted in 1899 with the start of the Philippine–American War, and was finally dismantled.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: A secularized and free public school system during the first decade of American rule was established upon the recommendation of the Schurman Commission in 1900. Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship was enforced by the Taft Commission as per instructions of US President William McKinley. Chaplains and non-commissioned officers were assigned to teach using English as the medium of instruction.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: A highly centralized public school system was instituted in January 1901 by the Taft Commission, by virtue of Act No. 74. This act also established the Department of Public Instruction, headed by a General Superintendent. The implementation of this Act created a heavy shortage of teachers so the Philippine Commission authorized the Superintendent of Public Instruction to bring 500 teachers from the United States to the Philippines. They would later be popularly known as the Thomasites.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: In 1908, the Philippine Legislature approved Act No. 1870, creating the University of the Philippines.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: The Organic Act of 1916 reorganized the Department of Public Instruction, mandating that it be headed by a secretary. This act also mandated the Filpinization of department secretaries, except that of the secretary of public instruction.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: During World War II, the department was reorganized once again through the Japanese's Military Order No. 2 in February 1942, splitting the department into the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Health, Labor and Public Instruction. Under the Japanese, the teaching of Tagalog, Philippine history, and character education was given priority. Love for work and the dignity of labor were also emphasized.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: In October 1944, months after Pres. Manuel L. Quezon's death, the department was renamed as the Department of Public Instruction and Information, with Carlos P. Romulo at the helm. Upon the return and resumption of the Commonwealth Government in February 1945, its name was changed to the Department of Instruction.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: In 1947, by virtue of Executive Order No. 94 by Pres. Manuel Roxas, the department was reorganized to the Department of Education. During this period, the regulation and supervision of public and private schools belonged to the Bureau of Public and Private Schools.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: Upon the start of Martial Law in September 1972, it became the Department of Education and Culture and subsequently reorganized into the Ministry of Education and Culture in June 1978 by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 1397, due to the shift to a parliamentary system of government. Thirteen regional offices were created and major organizational changes were implemented in the educational system.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: The Education Act of 1982 created the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, which became the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) in 1987 via Executive Order No. 117 by President Corazon C. Aquino.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: The structure of DECS as embodied in EO 117 has practically remained unchanged until 1994, when the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) was established, and on August 25, 1994, when the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) was established to supervise tertiary degree programs and non-degree technical-vocational programs, respectively. The trifocal education system refocused the department's mandate to basic education which covers elementary, secondary and non-formal education, including culture and sports. CHED is responsible for tertiary education, while TESDA now administers the post-secondary, middle-level manpower training and development.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: In August 2001, the Governance of Basic Education Act was passed, renaming the DECS to the Department of Education (DepEd) and redefining the role of field offices, which include regional offices, division offices, district offices, and schools.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: The Act removed the administration of cultural and sports activities from the department. The National Historical Institute, Records Management and Archives Office, and the National Library are now administratively attached to the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA). All previous functions, programs, and activities related to sports competition were transferred to the Philippine Sports Commission (PSC). In addition, the Bureau of Physical Education and School Sports was abolished.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: At present, the Department is headed by the secretary of education, with the following undersecretaries and assistant secretaries:


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: A director is assigned to each of the 17 regions of the Philippines; the Ministry of Basic, Higher and Technical Education (Bangsamoro) (BARRM) is governed by a regional minister. A division superintendent is assigned to each of the school divisions defined by the department.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: The following agencies, councils and schools are attached to DepEd for policy and program coordination:


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) is now attached to the Office of the President, while the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) is now attached to the Department of Trade and Industry.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: The Department of Education drew flak online in November 2020 for an invitation for bidding on its website for the supply and delivery of ham and cheese for the DepEd Central Office worth . The invitation read that the cost is equivalent to 4,260 hams and 2,160 cheese supplies for the annual Christmas celebration of the central office.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: Netizens criticized the bidding as ill-timed as it was posted during the onset of Typhoon Rolly and Typhoon Ulysses, which at the time, caused extensive damage and casualties to the affected areas. In response, the department has since canceled and retracted the bidding and pledged to reallocate the funds to typhoon relief efforts and for their COVID-19 response.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines in early 2020, the Department of Education shifted schools into distant learning with the use of online and printed self-learning modules later that year. However, several of these modules were found to have incorrect and questionable content.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: In August 2020, a DepEd TV episode used for a test broadcast contained grammatical errors in the sample questionnaire for a Grade 8 English course. Later in October, a math problem on DepEd TV had also gone viral for having an incorrect solution, wherein the solution asked students to divide by zero.


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: In April 2022, a month before the 2022 Philippine presidential election, images of a Grade 11 self-learning module initially distributed in 2020 entitled ""Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person"" contained exercises that portrayed and addressed Vice President Leni Robredo in a negative light started circulating online. The learning activity in question instructed "students to identify which among the given headlines has no errors in spelling, grammar and content", and another question asked students which statements contained "substantial generalization".


title: Department of Education (Philippines)

text: After substantial media coverage of the issue, Division of City Schools – Manila released a statement apologizing for the publication and distribution of the module and has since ordered the module to be removed online and for copies of it to be recalled from students. The office also stated that the module in question did not undergo a proper review and that "more strict mechanisms" would be put in place as well. The Secretary of Education had also released a statement assuring the public that efforts will be made "to warn our officials and personnel, including teachers, against participating in partisan politics." The team responsible for the module will also be subjected to review by the Department of Education to prevent future errors from occurring the future.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Sandra Hill (born April 12, 1955, formerly Sandra Hill Pittman) is a socialite, mountaineer, author, and former fashion editor. She survived the 1996 Mount Everest disaster shortly after becoming the 34th woman to reach the Mount Everest summit and the second American woman to ascend all of the Seven Summits.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Sandy Hill grew up in Los Gatos, California. Her father ran a successful business that rented portable toilets to construction sites. She graduated from UCLA before moving to New York for her first job, working as a buyer for the now defunct Bonwit Teller. After meeting an editor at "Mademoiselle", she landed her second job as Merchandising Editor of the magazine, and, a few years later, she became Beauty Editor of "Brides" magazine. Hill then served until 1986 as president of a division of RJR Nabisco called "In Fashion" where she produced television shows about fashion and style. One of those shows was "Fashion America", which was the first TV program to feature fashion commentary, videos and runway footage. Hill has also been a contributing editor to "Vogue" and "Condé Nast Traveler", and written feature articles for other publications.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Hill was briefly married to Jerry Solomon, who worked in the sport business and was a graduate student of Columbia at the time; the couple were divorced by the time she was 23. Solomon later went on to marry figure skater Nancy Kerrigan. In July 1979, Hill married MTV co-founder and media executive Robert Pittman; who was a radio disc jockey and the Program Director of WNBC in New York when they met. They have one son, Robert T. "Bo" Pittman. The couple divorced in 1997, and Hill received a settlement of $20 million from Pittman.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Hill met snowboarder Stephen Koch while climbing Mount Everest in April 1996, and they lived together in New York until 1997.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: In 1998, Hill attended the Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation in New York to study architectural preservation and restoration. She graduated in 2000.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Hill married commodities trader Thomas Dittmer in April 2001, and they purchased a ranch and vineyard in the Santa Ynez Valley. Hill filed for divorce in 2008, and attempted unsuccessfully to legally invalidate the couple's prenuptial agreement.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Hill began mountaineering as a teenager; her first summit at age 13 was Disappointment Peak in the Teton Range. In 1992 she began a quest to become the first American woman to scale the Seven Summits, the highest peaks on each continent. She summitted Aconcagua (1992), Denali (1992), Vinson Massif (1993), Mount Elbrus (1993), Mount Kilimanjaro (1993), Mount Kosciuszko (1994), and Puncak Jaya (1995). Hill finally reached the Mount Everest summit in 1996, thus becoming the second American woman to scale the Seven Summits, following Mary "Dolly" Lefever.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Hill had attempted Everest twice before her successful ascent in 1996. In 1993, she reached on a guided expedition following the traditional South Col route. On this expedition, she wore a cross necklace custom-made by jeweler Barry Kieselstein-Cord to bury on the summit, but this ceremony did not take place. Then in 1994 she raised corporate sponsorship with $250,000 from Chesebrough-Ponds for an attempt climbing the difficult Kangshung Face, with her film production partner at the time, filmmaker David Breashears, and climbers Alex Lowe, Barry Blanchard and Steve Swenson but the expedition was turned back by avalanche danger above 25,000’.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Hill was one of the survivors of the 1996 Mount Everest disaster. As part of the Mountain Madness expedition headed by Scott Fischer, during what was her third attempt to climb Mount Everest, she made an agreement with NBC Interactive Media, to stream journalistic dispatches from Base Camp to schoolchildren in the United States. The technology required to transmit this blog included a laptop computer and a 20-pound satphone. The phone was carried as high on the mountain as Camp IV, but it didn't work there. Online, the website was referred to as The "NBC Everest Assault.” On May 10, 1996, at roughly 2:30 pm, Hill summitted and exchanged high fives with others on the peak before descending Hillary Step. Hill had been short-roped up the mountain by Lopsang Jangbu Sherpa for five to six hours at the outset of the ascent. Eighteen hours later, one of the Mountain Madness guides, Neil Beidleman descended Hilary Step with Hill and her teammates, including Tim Madsen and Charlotte Fox, to find camp. Descending, “Sandy got her crampons tangled in the ropes,” Beidleman recalls. Stopping to check on others, Beidleman then noticed Fox giving Hill a shot of dexamethasone that Hill had asked for. Beidleman asked teammate Lene Gammelgaard to trade oxygen tanks with Hill, as Gammelgaard's tank had more oxygen left and unlike Hill, she was able to walk on her own. On the way to a saddle called the South Col, Hill and others slid down the fixed lines. At the bottom, the group joined with Mike Groom, a guide from Adventure Consultants, and his clients Yasuko Namba, who was brought down the lines by Beidleman, and Beck Weathers, who had not summitted due to poor eyesight, but had been waiting for Rob Hall, an Adventure Consultants guide, to return, along with Klev Schoening from Mountain Madness and two sherpa. Groom tethered himself to Weathers after Hall had not returned from higher up the mountain. Not knowing which direction to go due to the storm, they huddled in the snow. Around midnight, stars came out as the storm subsided, prompting Beidleman, Schoening, Gammelgaard, and Groom to make it to camp and find help, leaving Namba and Weathers, who were unconscious, and Fox and Hill, who were too exhausted to continue with Madsen. Upon reaching Camp IV, the group alerted Anatoli Boukreev, a guide for Hill's team, Mountain Madness, on the location of the rest of the climbers. Reaching the group, Boukreev brought Hill tea, leaving her with Madsen, and assisted Fox to the camp before returning to Madsen who walked while Boukreev assisted Hill to Camp IV. After returning, Boukreev collapsed with exhaustion, leaving the unconscious climbers, Namba and Weathers in the snow. Miraculously, Weathers aroused from his unconscious state and frostbiten climbed to Camp IV alone. On May 12, Camp IV was evacuated for Camp III, where three days earlier, Chen Yu-Nan, an expedition member of a Taiwanese group led by Malaku Gau Ming-Ho, had fallen off the Lhotse Face from the wind without crampons or a tie-in from strong winds. Descending between Camp III and Camp II, a sherpa was hit by a falling rock. While descending to Camp III, Hill asked Fox to give her another dexamethasone shot. On May 13, they reached base camp. The morning of May 14, they hiked to Pheriche, the town below base camp, where Hill, Fox and Madsen departed in a chartered helicopter to Kathmandu.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Eight people died that night, seven from other expeditions, and the disaster was covered in numerous magazine articles and interviews with other survivors. Jon Krakauer, who was sent to climb with another expedition, and to report on the commercialization of Everest and the increasing number of rich clients without expertise, later expanded his September 1996 "Outside Magazine" article into a book with the same title, "Into Thin Air" (1997). However, Hill and the others all had previous climbing experience. Hill rebutted negative claims in various media outlets, including an interview with "Newsweek", wherein she stated, "We behaved like a team at all times." Highly visible in the media before the climb, she believed she was "pigeonholed as a rich New Yorker", which "painted such an easy picture of a villain right there."


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: In a 2006 interview with "Outside", Hill defended Boukreev's decisions on Everest and attacked the media and various authors and journalists who covered the disaster, saying that "most of what was reported in 1996 was prejudiced, sensationalist, and overblown—thrilling fiction at best—but not journalism."


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Boukreev was given an award for heroism by the Alpine Club, and he recounted his story in the book, "The Climb: Tragic Ambitions on Everest" (1997), which was at least partly a response to Krakauer's account, in which Krakauer had laid some of the blame for the disaster on Boukreev, Hill, and a few others.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: In the August 1997 issue of "Vogue", Hill wrote about the whole experience, and went into detail about her long history as a climber and her passion for mountain climbing that developed when she was young. She talked about the difficulties she experienced during her climbs of the Seven Summits and about the real dangers she experienced during her final climb of Everest.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: David Breashears interviewed Hill in the documentary film "Storm Over Everest" (2008), which was aired on PBS "Frontline" on May 13, 2008.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Hill is the main author of the book "Fandango: Recipes, Parties, and License to Make Magic" (2007), which talks about Sandy Hill's lifestyle and includes various recipes co-authored by Stephanie Valentine and advice on how to decorate and host, using 18 parties that Hill designed and hosted as examples. The book received praise from "The New York Times" and other authors.


title: Sandy Hill (mountaineer)

text: Hill's second book, "Mountain: Portraits of High Places" (2011), is a compilation of photographs and art with rarely seen images from prominent nature photographers, including Galen Rowell, Peter Beard, Ansel Adams, and Frank Smythe.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Neolithic artifacts, uncovered by archeologists at the beginning of the 21st century, indicate that Istanbul's historic peninsula was settled as far back as the 6th millennium BCE. That early settlement, important in the spread of the Neolithic Revolution from the Near East to Europe, lasted for almost a millennium before being inundated by rising water levels. The first human settlement on the Asian side, the Fikirtepe mound, is from the Copper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BCE. It's also worth noting that in the European side, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu) there was a settlement during the early 1st millennium BCE. Modern authors have linked it to the possible Thracian toponym "Lygos", mentioned by Pliny the Elder as an earlier name for the site of Byzantium.


title: History of Istanbul

text: The history of the city proper begins around 660 BC when Greek settlers from Megara colonized the area and established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosphorus. It fell to the Roman Republic in 196 BC, and was known as Byzantium in Latin until 330, when the city, soon renamed as Constantinople, became the new capital of the Roman Empire. During the reign of Justinian I, the city rose to be the largest in the western world, with a population peaking at close to half a million people. Constantinople functioned as the capital of the Byzantine Empire, which effectively ended with the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Constantinople then became the capital of the Ottoman Turks.


title: History of Istanbul

text: The population had declined during the medieval period, but as the Ottoman Empire approached its historical peak, the city grew to a population of close to 700,000 in the 16th century, once again ranking among the world's most populous cities. With the founding of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, that country's capital moved from Constantinople to Ankara (previously Angora).


title: History of Istanbul

text: Humans have lived in the area now known as Istanbul since at least the Neolithic period. The earliest known settlement dates from 6700 BC, discovered in 2008, during the construction works of the Yenikapı subway station and the Marmaray tunnel at the historic peninsula on the European side. On the Anatolian side, the earliest known settlement is the Fikirtepe mound from the Copper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BC. In nearby Kadıköy (Chalcedon) a port settlement dating back to the Phoenicians has been discovered.


title: History of Istanbul

text: The first name of the city was "Lygos" according to Pliny the Elder in his historical accounts and it was possibly founded by Thracian tribes along with the neighboring settlement of Semystra. Only a few walls and substructures belonging to Lygos have survived to date, near the Seraglio Point, where the Topkapı Palace now stands. Lygos and Semystra were the only settlements on the European side of Istanbul. On the Asian side there was a Phoenician colony.


title: History of Istanbul

text: "Byzantion" (Βυζάντιον), Latinized as "Byzantium", was the next name of the city. The name is believed to be of Thracian or Illyrian origin and thus predates the Ancient Greek settlement. It may be derived from a Thracian or Illyrian personal name, "Byzas". Ancient Greek legend refers to a legendary king Byzas as the leader of the Megarian colonists and eponymous founder of the city.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Cape Moda in Chalcedon was the first location which the Greek settlers from Megara chose to colonize in 685 BC, before colonizing Byzantion on the European side of the Bosphorus under the command of King Byzas in 667 BC. Byzantion was established on the site of an ancient port settlement named "Lygos" During the period of Byzantion, the Acropolis used to stand where the Topkapı Palace stands today.


title: History of Istanbul

text: After siding with Pescennius Niger against the victorious Septimius Severus the city was besieged by Rome and suffered extensive damage in AD 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus and quickly regained its previous prosperity, being temporarily renamed as "Augusta Antonina" by the emperor, in honor of his son.


title: History of Istanbul

text: The location of Byzantium attracted Constantine the Great in 324 after a prophetic dream was said to have identified the location of the city; this prophecy was probably due to Constantine's final victory over Licinius at the Battle of Chrysopolis (Üsküdar) on the Bosphorus, on 18 September 324, which ended the civil war between the Roman Co-Emperors, and brought an end to the final vestiges of the Tetrarchy system, during which Nicomedia (present-day İzmit, 100 km east of Istanbul) was the most senior capital city of the Roman Empire. Byzantium (now renamed as "Nova Roma" which eventually became "Constantinopolis", i.e. "The City of Constantine") was officially proclaimed the new capital of the Roman Empire in 330. At the end of his reign in 337, Constantine declared his three sons as joint heirs of the Roman Empire in a system of co-emperorship. However, the sons could not govern together peacefully and their military rivalry split the empire on the north–south line along the Balkan Peninsula. The territory was officially split in 395 when Theodosius I (ruled, 379–395) died, leaving his son Honorius emperor of the Western Roman Empire, and his other son Arcadius emperor of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The combination of imperial power and a key location at the crossing point between the continents of Europe and Asia, and later Africa and other regions, played an important role in terms of commerce, culture, diplomacy, and strategy. It was the center of the Greek world and, for most of the Byzantine period, the largest city in Europe. Constantine's conversion to Christianity, in 312, had set the Roman Empire towards Christianization, and in 381, during the reign of Theodosius I, the official state religion of the Roman Empire became Nicene Christianity, turning Constantinople into a thriving religious center.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Throughout the fifth century, the Western Roman Empire lost most of its power through a decline in political, economic, and social situations, the last western emperor being deposed by Germanic mercenaries in AD 476; the eastern half, however, was flourishing. According to historians this flourishing Eastern Roman Empire was then classified as the Byzantine Empire to distinguish it from the Roman Empire. This empire was distinctly Greek in culture, and became the centre of Greek Orthodox Christianity after an earlier split with Rome, and was adorned with many magnificent churches, including Hagia Sophia, once the world's largest cathedral. The seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople, spiritual leader of the Eastern Orthodox Church, remains.


title: History of Istanbul

text: The most famous Byzantine emperor was Justinian (527-565). During his reign, he extended the Byzantine Empire to its largest boundaries spreading from Palestine to the tip of Spain. His other achievements include the famous Hagia Sophia church and the organized law system called the Codex which was completed in 534. However, Justinian's reign was the greatest influence of the Byzantine Empire.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Starting in the 600s, warfare kept Constantinople's power flip-flopping between decline and progression. Alliance with Europe slowly began to break away from the Byzantine Empire between the seventh-eighth centuries, when the Byzantine and Roman churches disagreed on various subjects. However, the distinguishing gap placed between the two churches involved the use of icons in the church. Icons, being images of Christian holy people such as Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints, to Byzantine Christians were more than representations; they were believed to possess holy power that affected people's daily lives While many Byzantines worshiped icons many opposed the icons because they tested the authorities of the emperor. Finally, in 726 Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (ruled, 717-741) ordered all icons to be destroyed. The destruction of icons reorganized and reoriented the Byzantine rulers in imperial power. The fierce opposition to icons clashed with the Pope's tolerance of images. The papacy was unwilling to permit sacred images and icons to be destroyed and this caused an eventual separation. Their separation caused hatred between the two churches and cooperation between the two was a struggle.


title: History of Istanbul

text: From around the 9th to 13th centuries, Constantinople developed complex relationships with an emerging and later the largest and most advanced state of that time in Europe – Kiev Rus. Constantinople played a significant role in the Kiev Rus development, culture, and politics. Many of the Kiev Princes were married to daughters of the Byzantine Emperors, and because of this connection, Eastern Europe became Eastern Orthodox after the Christianization of Kievan Rus' by Vladimir the Great of Kiev. However, these relationships were not always friendly – Constantinople was sacked several times over those 400 years by Kiev Princes, forcing Constantinople to sign increasingly favorable treaties for Kiev, the texts of which were preserved in the Primary Chronicle and other historical documents (see Rus'-Byzantine Wars). Byzantine constantly played Kiev, Poland, Bulgaria, and other European Nations of that time, against each other.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Near 1204, Constantinople began to decline in power. Because of the failure of the Third Crusade, self-confident Latin Christians decided to again try to capture the Holy City of Jerusalem in the Fourth Crusade; but this time their plan was to capture the Byzantine Empire as well. In 1204, western armies captured Constantinople and ransacked the city for treasures. The pope decried the sacking of Constantinople but ordered the crusaders to consolidate their gains in the city for a year. The crusaders chose Baldwin of Flanders to be the new Latin Emperor of Constantinople; he along with other princes and the Republic of Venice divided the Empire amongst themselves; they never made it to Jerusalem. This new Latin Empire at Constantinople lasted until 1261 when the Byzantines under the command of Michael VIII Palaeologus recaptured the city and some outlying territory. After this, Constantinople never regained its former glory. Rather than a thriving metropolis, Constantinople transformed into a collection of villages, and became a semi-ghost town with, as Ibn Battuta noted, sown fields within the city walls. The city by 1453 held less than a tenth of its former population.


title: History of Istanbul

text: The city, known alternatively in Ottoman Turkish as "Ḳosṭanṭīnīye" ( after the Arabic form ) or Istanbul (while its Christian minorities continued to call it Constantinople, as did people writing in French, English, and other European languages), was the capital of the Ottoman Empire from its conquest in 1453 until the empire's collapse in 1922.


title: History of Istanbul

text: On 29 May 1453, Sultan Mehmed II "the Conqueror" entered Constantinople after a 53–day siege during which his cannon had torn a huge hole in the Walls of Theodosius II. The city became the fourth and final capital of the Ottoman Empire.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Mehmed had begun the siege on 6 April 1453. He had hired engineers to build cannons and bombs for the occasion. He also acquired scholars and imams to encourage the soldiers. In accordance with Shariah (Muslim Holy Law), Mehmed gave the Byzantine emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos (1449–1453) three chances to surrender the city. He guaranteed the safety of the city's residents, with their riches, beliefs, and honor. Constantine valiantly refused the offer.


title: History of Istanbul

text: After more than a month of fighting, Mehmed's advisors were beginning to lose hope. Against their counsel, Mehmed continued to fight. The night before the final assault, he studied previous attempts to take the city to distinguish potentially successful approaches. On the morning of 29 May 1453 the sultan ordered Adzan (the call to prayer). This was not a regular prayer session for religious reasons but rather a scare tactic: the sight of the entire Ottoman army getting on their knees to pray provided an intimidating display of unity to the Byzantine forces designed to overcome their minds before their bodies.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Once the fighting started, it went on for forty-eight days. The wall was beginning to collapse when Constantine sent a letter to the pope asking for help. In response, the Papacy sent five ships full of reinforcements, weapons, and supplies. Another defense tactic involved Constantine blocking off the Golden Horn so that the Ottoman army could not get ships into it. Mehmed had his people pave a path from oiled tree branches in order to bring eighty ships overland via Galata and placed them into the Golden Horn behind the enemy ships. The Ottoman ships burnt the Byzantine ones in a naval battle.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Since the Byzantine army was still holding on after this defeat, the sultan thought it was time to set up his secret weapon, a huge mobile tower. This tower could hold many soldiers who could be at the same level as the walls of the city, making it easier for them to break into Constantinople. The first group of Ottomans who entered the city were killed almost immediately, with the effect that the other Muslims began to retreat. Witnessing this, the sultan encouraged his soldiers. Soon after the sultan's encouragement the Muslims broke the wall in two places and entered the city. In a last attempt to protect it, Constantine attacked the enemy sword raised; however, he was defeated and killed.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Finally, Constantinople was under Ottoman rule. Mehmed entered Constantinople through what is now known as the Topkapi Gate. He immediately rode his horse to the Hagia Sophia which he ordered to be sacked. He ordered that an imam meet him there in order to chant the Muslim Creed: "I testify that there is no God but Allah. I testify that Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah." He turned the Orthodox cathedral into an Islamic mosque, solidifying Turkish rule in Constantinople.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Following the sack, Mehmed's main concern with Constantinople had to do with rebuilding the city's defenses and re-population. Building projects were commenced immediately after the conquest, which included the repair of the walls, construction of the citadel, and building a new palace. Mehmed issued orders across his empire that Muslims, Christians, and Jews should resettle the city; he demanded that five thousand households needed to be deported to Constantinople by September.


title: History of Istanbul

text: By 1459, the Sultan dedicated a lot of energy to bringing prosperity to Constantinople. In several quarters of the city pious foundations were created; these areas consisted of a theological college, a school (or a Madrasa, usually connected to the mosque), a public kitchen, and a mosque. In the same year, Mehmed sent out orders that any Greeks who had left Constantinople as slaves or refugees should be allowed to return. These actions led it to become a once again thriving capital city, now of the Ottoman Empire.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Suleiman the Magnificent's reign over the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to 1566 was a period of great artistic and architectural achievements. The famous architect Mimar Sinan designed many mosques and other grand buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics and calligraphy also flourished. Many tekkes survive to this day; some in the form of mosques while others have become museums such as the Cerrahi Tekke and the Sünbül Efendi and Ramazan Efendi mosques and türbes in Fatih, the Galata Mevlevihanesi in Beyoğlu, the Yahya Efendi tekke in Beşiktaş, and the Bektaşi Tekke in Kadıköy, which now serves Alevi Muslims as a cemevi.


title: History of Istanbul

text: In the final years of the Byzantine Empire, the population of Constantinople had fallen steadily, throwing the great imperial city into the shadow of its past glory. For Mehmed II, conquest was only the first stage; the second was giving the old city an entirely new cosmopolitan social structure. Most of what remained of the Byzantine population – a mere 30,000 persons – was deported. According to the Ashikpashazade, a Turkish chronicle,


title: History of Istanbul

text: Mehmed then sent officers to all his lands to announce that whoever wished should come and take possession in Constantinople, as freehold, of houses and orchards and gardens ... Despite this measure the city was not repopulated. So then the Sultan commanded that from every land families, rich and poor alike, should be brought in by force ... and now the city began to be populous.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Mehmed took much personal interest in the creation of his new capital. On his orders, the great mosque and the college of Fatih were built on the old burial grounds of the Byzantine Emperors at the Church of the Holy Apostles. Bit by bit the great Christian city was transformed into a great Muslim city. Even so, the city was not to be entirely Muslim, at least not until the late 20th century. Slavs, Greeks, Jews, and Armenians, all of whose diverse skills were needed, were allowed to settle in a city which was to become known as "alem penah"-refuge of the universe. According to the census of 1477, there were 9,486 houses occupied by Muslims; 3,743 by Greeks; 1,647 by Jews; 267 by Christians from the Crimea, and 31 Gypsies. Mehmet also re-established Constantinople, as it was still called at that time, as the center of the Orthodox patriarchate.


title: History of Istanbul

text: There was also an Italian community in the area of the Galata Tower. Having surrendered before the fall of the city, Mehmed allowed them to preserve an element of self-government. For generations after, they supplied interpreters and diplomats for the Ottoman Court. After the conquest of Egypt in 1517, and the Sultan's acceptance of the position of Caliph, Constantinople acquired additional importance in Muslim eyes. Mosques built by Sultan Suleiman I and his successors gave the city the unique appearance it still preserves today. The individual communities, though, still lived in self-contained areas and had little in the way of social interaction, a source of future trouble.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Its city has two walls. A sovereign prince lives in the city. There are Muslims wearing headwraps and Han-Chinese. There are translators. People cultivated dry fields. It has no products.


title: History of Istanbul

text: The statement that there were translators suggests it was a multilingual, multicultural, cosmopolitan city. Although the claim that there were "Han-Chinese" is dubious.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Until the eighteenth century, living standards were at least equal to most of Europe. For example, the development of urban craftsmen's wages was on a level similar to southern and central Europe during the sixteenth to eighteenth century.


title: History of Istanbul

text: "Foundation" is "waqf" ("vakıf") in Turkish. The Grand Bazaar (1455) and Topkapı Palace (1459) were erected in the years following the Turkish conquest. Religious foundations were endowed to fund the building of mosques such as the Fatih (1463) and their associated schools and public baths. The city had to be repopulated by a mixture of force and encouragement.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Süleyman's reign was a time of great artistic and architectural achievements. The architect Sinan designed many mosques and other great buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics and calligraphy also flourished.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Sufi orders which were so widespread in the Islamic world and who had many followers who had actively participated in the conquest of the city came to settle in the capital. During Ottoman times over 100 Tekkes were active in the city alone. Many of these Tekkes survive to this day some in the form of mosques while others as museums such as the Jerrahi Tekke in Fatih, the Sunbul Effendi and Ramazan Effendi Mosque and Turbes also in Fatih, the Galata Mevlevihane in Beyoğlu, the Yahya Effendi Tekke in Beşiktaş, and the Bektashi Tekke in Kadıköy, which now serves Alevi Muslims as a Cem Evi.


title: History of Istanbul

text: As the years passed the population increased, from about 80,000 at the death of Mehmet, to 300,000 by the 18th century, and 400,000 in 1800. The capital of an empire that stretched across Europe, Asia, and Africa, it also became an important diplomatic centre, with several foreign embassies. It was only after 1922, following the war between Greece and Turkey that things began to change.


title: History of Istanbul

text: The city was modernized from the 1870s onwards with the building of bridges, the creation of a proper water system, the use of electric lights, and the introduction of trams and telephones.


title: History of Istanbul

text: In 1915, after the Ottoman entry into World War I on the side of the Central Powers, the Allies led by First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill's Royal Navy attempted an operation to capture Constantinople. It failed after the Ottoman Army repulsed the British Army and ANZAC landing force in the Gallipoli campaign. After the First World War, the Armistice of Mudros and the Treaty of Sèvres decreed that Constantinople would be occupied by Allied Forces. On 13 November 1918, the Occupation of Constantinople by Allied forces began, ending on 4 October 1923 with the Treaty of Lausanne.


title: History of Istanbul

text: When the Republic of Turkey was founded under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (then known as Mustafa Kemal Pasha) on 29 October 1923 during the Turkish War of Independence, the capital was moved from Constantinople to Angora, which became Ankara in English.


title: History of Istanbul

text: As a consequence, the population collapsed, from an estimated 1,125,000 in 1914 to about 500,000 in 1924; but the population steadily grew during the later 20th century, the metropolitan population surpassing 10 million in the year 2000.


title: History of Istanbul

text: The city's current name "İstanbul" is a shortened version with a Turkish character of the Medieval Greek phrase "εἰς τὴν Πόλιν" [is tin ˈpolin], meaning "into the city", which had long been in vernacular use by the local population. The international name "Constantinople" also remained in use until Turkey adopted the Latin alphabet in 1928 and urged other countries to use the city's Turkish name in their languages and their postal service networks. In 1929 Lloyd's agents were informed that telegrams now must be addressed to "Istanbul" or "Stamboul", but "The Times" stated that mail could still be delivered to "Constantinople". However, "The New York Times" stated that year that mail to "Constantinople" may no longer be delivered. In 1929 Turkish Nationalists advocated for the usage of Istanbul in English instead of Constantinople. The U.S. State Department began using "Istanbul" in May 1930.


title: History of Istanbul

text: With the establishment of the new Turkish Republic, built on a wave of nationalism, there was a mass exodus of much of the Greek and Armenian population from Istanbul, which had ceased to be the capital. After the pogrom of 1955, the remaining fraction also departed.


title: History of Istanbul

text: In the early years of the republic, Istanbul was overlooked in favour of Ankara, the new capital. However, starting from the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent a great structural change, as new public squares (such as Taksim Square), boulevards and avenues were constructed throughout the city; sometimes at the expense of the demolition of many historical buildings.


title: History of Istanbul

text: In September 1955, many ethnic Greek businesses were destroyed during the Istanbul pogrom. This accelerated the departure of Greeks from the city and Turkey. Jews, Armenians, and Georgians were also targeted.


title: History of Istanbul

text: Starting from the 1970s, the population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase, as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were constructed at the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis. This sudden sharp rise in the city's population caused a large demand for housing development, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the greater metropolitan area of Istanbul.


title: History of Istanbul

text: In 2013, Taksim Square was the center of the Gezi Park protests, where protesters protested a wide range of concerns at the core of which were issues of freedom of the press, of expression, assembly, and the government's encroachment on Turkey's secularism.


title: History of Istanbul

text: In 2016, the Turkish coup d'état attempt took place. A number of rogue government units took over and were only repelled after a few hours.


title: History of Istanbul

text: In 2018, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman of Saudi Arabia sent a group of government agents to murder prominent critic, Jamal Khashoggi.


title: Marie Windsor

text: Marie Windsor (born Emily Marie Bertelsen; December 11, 1919 – December 10, 2000) was an American actress known for her femme fatale characters in the classic film noir features "Force of Evil", "The Narrow Margin" and "The Killing". Windsor's height created problems for her in scenes with all but the tallest actors. She was the female lead in so many B movies that she became dubbed the "Queen" of the genre.


title: Marie Windsor

text: The daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Lane Bertelsen, Windsor was born in 1919 in Marysvale, Utah. She was graduated from Marysvale High School in 1934, doing a "musical reading" as part of the graduation exercises. She attended Brigham Young University, where she participated in dramatic productions. She was described in a 1939 newspaper article as "an accomplished athlete ... expert as a dancer, swimmer, horsewoman, and plays golf, tennis and skis."


title: Marie Windsor

text: In 1939, Windsor was chosen from a group of 81 contestants to be queen of Covered Wagon Days in Salt Lake City, Utah. She was unofficially appointed "Miss Utah of 1939" by her hometown Chamber of Commerce, and trained for the stage under famed Hollywood actress and coach Maria Ouspenskaya. Voluptuous and leggy, but unusually tall for a starlet of her generation, Windsor felt that she was handicapped when playing opposite actors of average stature (claiming that she had to progressively bend at the knees walking across the room in scene with John Garfield). As she later recalled, a production with Forrest Tucker as co-star made her happy with finally getting male lead who was her 'own size'.


title: Marie Windsor

text: In later years, thanks to her early screen success, Windsor was able to pursue her studies more extensively, primarily with Stella Adler and also at the Lee Strasberg Theatre Institute.


title: Marie Windsor

text: Windsor worked in radio in Salt Lake City before moving to California. In California, she worked as a model for glamor photographer Paul Hesse.


title: Marie Windsor

text: In 1940, after her move to Hollywood and entering Ouspenskaya's drama school, she appeared in the play "Forty Thousand Smiths", her first use of the stage name "Marie Windsor". The next year she appeared in "Once in a Lifetime" at the Pasadena Playhouse. She also played a villain in a New York production of "Follow the Girls". Years later, in the 1980s, she returned to the stage.


title: Marie Windsor

text: After working for several years as a telephone operator, a stage and radio actress, and a bit part and extra player in films, Windsor began playing feature parts on the big screen in 1947.


title: Marie Windsor

text: Her first film contract, with Warner Bros. in 1942, resulted from her writing jokes and submitting them to Jack Benny. Windsor said she submitted the gags under the name M.E. Windsor "because I was afraid he might be prejudiced against a woman gag writer". When Benny finally met Windsor, "he was stunned by her good looks" and had a producer sign her to a contract. After a tenure with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in which the studio "signed her, put her in two small roles and then promptly forgot her", she signed a seven-year contract in 1948 with The Enterprise Studios.


title: Marie Windsor

text: The actress' first memorable role in 1948 was with John Garfield in "Force of Evil" playing seductress Edna Tucker. She had roles in numerous 1950s film noirs, notably "The Sniper", "The Narrow Margin", "City That Never Sleeps", and the Stanley Kubrick heist film, "The Killing", in which she played Elisha Cook, Jr.'s, scheming wife. She also made her first foray into science fiction with the release of "Cat-Women of the Moon" (1953). Windsor co-starred with Randolph Scott in "The Bounty Hunter" (1954).


title: Marie Windsor

text: Later, Windsor moved to television. She appeared as "The Mutton Puncher" in season 3 of Cheyenne, in 1957. She appeared in 1954 as Belle Starr in the premiere episode of "Stories of the Century". In 1962, she played Ann Jesse, a woman dying in childbirth, in the episode "The Wanted Man" of "Lawman". Windsor appeared in the first season of "Barnaby Jones;" episode "Twenty Million Alibis" (May 5, 1973).


title: Marie Windsor

text: Windsor worked consistently through the 1960s, 1979s and 1980s. She appeared on programs such as "Cheyenne", "Bat Masterson", "Tales of Wells Fargo", "Yancy Derringer", 77 Sunset Strip", "Maverick" (in the 1957 episode titled "The Quick and the Dead" with James Garner and Gerald Mohr as Doc Holliday), "The Red Skelton Hour", "Hawaiian Eye", "Perry Mason", "Bourbon Street Beat", "The F.B.I.", "The Incredible Hulk", "Rawhide", "Adam-12", "Mannix", "Charlie's Angels", "General Hospital", "Salem's Lot", and "Murder, She Wrote". Windsor remained on screen once or so annually up to the 1990s, playing her final role and going into retirement in 1991 at the age of 72.


title: Marie Windsor

text: Windsor has a star in at 1549 N. Vine Street in the Motion Pictures section of the Hollywood Walk of Fame. It was dedicated January 19, 1983.


title: Marie Windsor

text: In 1987, Windsor received the Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award for best actress for her work in "The Bar Off Melrose". She also received the Ralph Morgan Award from the Screen Actors Guild for her service on the organization's board of directors.


title: Marie Windsor

text: Windsor was married briefly to bandleader Ted Steele. They were wed April 21, 1946, in Marysvale, Utah. They divorced that same year (an item in a 1953 newspaper column says that the marriage was ended by annulment, not divorce).


title: Marie Windsor

text: In July 1950, newspaper columnist Louella Parsons reported, "Marie Windsor has set her marriage to Alex Lunciman, a Beverly Hills stock broker, for October".


title: Marie Windsor

text: She married realtor Jack Hupp, a member of the 1936 U.S. Olympic basketball team. Hupp had his own family connection with show business; he was the son of actor Earle Rodney. Hupp, with whom Windsor had a son, Richard Rodney, was inducted posthumously into the University of Southern California (USC) Athletic Hall of Fame in 2007. Hupp had a son, Chris, from a prior marriage.


title: Marie Windsor

text: Windsor was politically conservative, a member of the Screen Actors Guild, and supportive of the Motion Picture and Television Fund. A Republican, she supported Dwight Eisenhower's campaign in the 1952 presidential election.


title: Marie Windsor

text: After her acting career ended, Windsor became a painter and sculptor. Windsor was also a lifelong Mormon.


title: Marie Windsor

text: Windsor died of congestive heart failure on December 10, 2000, the day before her 81st birthday. She is interred with Hupp in her native Marysvale, Utah, at Mountain View Cemetery.


title: Access Point Name

text: An Access Point Name (APN) is the name of a gateway between a GSM, GPRS, 3G and 4G mobile network and another computer network, frequently the public Internet.


title: Access Point Name

text: A mobile device making a data connection must be configured with an APN to present to the carrier. The carrier will then examine this identifier to determine what type of network connection should be created, for example: which IP addresses should be assigned to the wireless device, which security methods should be used, and how, or if, it should be connected to some private customer network.


title: Access Point Name

text: More specifically, the APN identifies the packet data network (PDN) that a mobile data user wants to communicate with. In addition to identifying a PDN, an APN may also be used to define the type of service, (e.g. connection to Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) server, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)) that is provided by the PDN. APN is used in 3GPP data access networks, e.g. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), evolved packet core (EPC).


title: Access Point Name

text: _{\text{Network Identifier} } . \underbrace{\color{blue}\text{mnc}\langle\text{MNC}\rangle.\text{mcc}\langle\text{MCC}\rangle.\text{gprs} }_{\color{blue}\text{Operator Identifier} }</math>


title: Access Point Name

text: LTE networks use APN-FQDN format, which differs from the 2G/3G format described above as follows. "apn.epc." is inserted before "mnc", and the ".gprs" at the end becomes ".3gppnetwork.org"


title: Access Point Name

text: For example: the 2G/3G internet.mnc012.mcc345.gprs becomes internet.apn.epc.mnc012.mcc345.3gppnetwork.org .


title: White British

text: White British is an ethnicity classification used for the native white population identifying as English, Scottish, Welsh, Cornish, Northern Irish, or British in the United Kingdom Census. In the 2011 census, the White British population was 51,736,290, 81.88% of the UK total population (NB: This total includes the population estimate for Northern Ireland, where only the term 'White' is used in ethnic classification. National identity is listed separately in NI, where 40% classified themselves as British, making up a significant portion of the population, along with those specifying their national identity as Irish).


title: White British

text: For the 2011 census, in England and Wales, the White self-classification option included a subcategory of "English/Welsh/Scottish/Northern Irish/British". In Scotland, the White category included "Scottish" and "Other British" options. In Northern Ireland, the White British classification did not appear, the only choice being 'White'.


title: White British

text: The 2011 census for England, Wales and Scotland also included additional White ethnic classifications of White Irish, White Gypsy/Irish Traveller and White Other. There were calls for the 2011 national census in England and Wales to include an extra subcategory so people could identify their ethnic group as Cornish.


title: White British

text: The White British census classification have their ages more evenly distributed in their population pyramid and have the highest per cent female population of all ethnic-based classifications. The following numbers were based on the 2011 census conducted in each country. In England and Wales, about (28731855/45134686)*100 round 0 per cent of the White British classification are between the ages of 16 and 64 while about (7918098/45134686)*100 round 0 per cent are under 16 and (8484733/45134686)*100 round 0 per cent are over 64. All other census classifications have a higher percentage of their population under 16 and a lower percentage over 64. Of those aged 65 or over, White British are (3764312/45134686)*100 round 0 per cent male and (4720421/45134686)*100 round 0 per cent female, making them have the lowest per cent male population among all census classifications defined as "ethnic" in the census.


title: White British

text: In Scotland, about (3163911/(4445678+417109)*100) round 0 per cent of the White British classification are between the ages of 16 and 64 while about (834148/(4445678+417109)*100) round 0 per cent are under 16 and 864728/(4445678+417109)*100 round 0 per cent are over 64. Of those aged 65 or over, White British are 372209/(4445678+417109)*100 round 0 per cent male and 492519/(4445678+417109)*100 round 0 per cent female, the same percentages as in England and Wales.


title: White British

text: In Northern Ireland, about ((47351+56693+1998+2754+45504+54234+1839+2580)/(1608853+82724))*100 round 0 per cent of the White classification are between the ages of 16 and 24 while about ((179206+170432+4399+4255)/(1608853+82724))*100 round 0 per cent are under 16 and (1046450/1608853)*100 round 0 per cent are over 24. Of those aged 25 or over, white people are (501286+32033)/(1608853+82724)*100 round 0 per cent male and (545164+30993)/(1608853+82724)*100 round 0 per cent female.


title: White British

text: According to the 2011 UK Census results, White British people make up the largest percentage of the population in rural areas, such as Allerdale (99.4%) and Copeland (99.3%) in Cumbria, Ryedale (99.4%) in North Yorkshire, North Norfolk (99.2%) and North Devon (99%). Cities across the UK regions with high White British populations include Swansea (91.5%), Kingston Upon Hull (89.7%), Plymouth (92.2%), Darlington (93.7%), Belfast (96.4% - NI classification "white"), Norwich (84.7%), Liverpool (84.8%) and Chelmsford (90.0%). The highest unitary authority with a White British proportion is Redcar and Cleveland (97.6%) followed by Northumberland (97.2%), Hartlepool and County Durham (both 96.6%). The highest county is Lincolnshire (93%) followed by Nottinghamshire, Norfolk and Worcestershire, all above 92%. Within the London region, Havering has the highest White British percentage with 83.3%, followed by Bromley with 77.4%, Bexley with 77.3% and Richmond upon Thames with 71.4%.


title: White British

text: Since the 2011 UK Census was returned, London contains by far the lowest percentage of English and other White British people of all the UK regions, where they make up less than half of the population in 24 of the 32 boroughs, including: Newham (16.7%), Brent (18.0%), Ealing (30.4%), Harrow (30.9%), Tower Hamlets (31.2%), Westminster (35.2%) and Hackney (36.2%). Despite this, the White British population in London is still higher in numbers than the entirety of Wales or Northern Ireland, owing to London's high overall population. The city with the lowest White British population as a percentage is Leicester (45.1%) - also the only city below 50% without counting Westminster - while the lowest for unitary authorities is Slough (34.5%), followed by Luton (44.6%). The local ward with the lowest percentage is Southall Broadway in Ealing (3.5%), followed by Southall Green in Ealing; Green Street East, Green Street West, and East Ham North, all in Newham, which are the only wards below five percent.


title: White British

text: According to official UK Government figures from 2016, the employment rate for White British people stood at 75%, with the overall employment rate in the UK standing at 74%. UK Government figures also demonstrate that 31% of White British people work in professional and managerial occupations, higher than the Mixed (30%), Pakistani/Bangladeshi (27%) and Black (25%) groups, but lower than the Indian ethnic group (43%).


title: White British

text: At GCSE level, official UK Government statistics state that 63% of White British pupils attained A* to C grades in English and Mathematics in the 2015–16 academic year, higher than Black Caribbean (51%) and Pakistani (58%) pupils, but lower than Bangladeshi (67%), Indian (77%) and Chinese (83%) pupils. According to a report by the Sutton Trust, "White working class pupils achieve the lowest grades at GCSE of any main ethnic group, with just a quarter of boys and a third of girls achieving 5 good GCSEs."


title: White British

text: At A-Level, in the 2015–16 academic year, 11% of White British pupils achieved at least 3 'A' grades at A-Level; the only major ethnic groups to achieve the same benchmark at a higher rate were Indian (14%) and Chinese (24%) pupils.


title: White British

text: Statistically, White British are more likely to be Christian than other ethnic-based classifications. According to the 2011 UK Census, White British are 64% Christian in England and Wales, mostly Anglican in England, while the percentage for all groups is about 59%. The percentage of White British who are Christians is lower in Scotland, at 55% (mainly Presbyterian there), whereas at least 54% of all Scots are Christian. The British country with the highest percentage is Northern Ireland, where white people are 94% Christian, while 93% of all usual residents are. About 27% of the White British population in England and Wales, and 36% in Scotland reported having "no religion". In Northern Ireland, the lowest percentage of white people who reported "no religion" in the census is about 5%. The 27% and 36% per cent figures for "no religion" are about the same for all groups. About 7% of the White British in England and Wales, and Scotland declined to state any religion.


title: Karan Tacker

text: Karan Tacker (born 11 May 1986) is an Indian actor, model and host known for his portrayal of Viren Singh Vadhera in Star Plus's "Ek Hazaaron Mein Meri Behna Hai" and Farooq Ali in Hotstar's "Special OPS". In 2014, he participated in Colors TV's "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa 7".


title: Karan Tacker

text: His family is from Punjab. He acquired a degree in Business Management before joining the television space.


title: Karan Tacker

text: He first appeared in the film "Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi" in a short role in 2008. He then got his debut role in television show "Love Ne Mila Di Jodi" playing the lead role of Sameer which aired on STAR One. Karan then appeared in television show "Rang Badalti Odhani" (2010) as Shaantanu Khandelwal. He then played the lead role in Star Plus popular show "Ek Hazaaron Mein Meri Behna Hai" (2011) as Viren Singh Vadhera. The show aired last on 13 September 2013.


title: Karan Tacker

text: Karan participated in the popular dance reality show "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa" in the 7th Season of the show along with his dance partner Bhavna and was declared first runner up of the show in 2014. Karan has also hosted "Halla Bol" on Bindass (2014) and "The Voice India" (2015) that aired on &TV. Karan has also hosted many award shows and events. Karan has appeared in advertisements also. In 2017, Tacker hosted the dance couple reality show "Nach Baliye" in its ninth season.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The Western Turkic Khaganate () or Onoq Khaganate () was a Turkic khaganate in Eurasia, formed as a result of the wars in the beginning of the 7th century (593–603 CE) after the split of the Turkic Khaganate (founded in the 6th century on the Mongolian Plateau by the Ashina clan) into a western and an eastern Khaganate.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The whole confederation was called "Onoq", meaning "ten arrows". According to a Chinese source, the Western Turks were organized into ten divisions.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The khaganate's capitals were Navekat (summer capital) and Suyab (principal capital), both situated in the Chui River valley of Kyrgyzstan, to the east of Bishkek. Tong Yabgu's summer capital was near Tashkent and his winter capital Suyab.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The Western Turkic Khaganate was subjugated by the Tang dynasty in 657 and continued as its vassal until their collapse.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The first Turkic Khaganate was founded by Bumin in 552 on the Mongolian Plateau and quickly spread west toward the Caspian Sea. Within 35 years the western half and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate were independent. The Western Khaganate reached its peak under Tong Yabghu Qaghan (618–630). After Tong's murder there were conflicts between the Dulu and Nushibi factions and many short-lived Khagans, and some territory was lost. From 642 onward the expanding Tang dynasty began to interfere. The Tang destroyed the Khaganate in 657–659.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The Gokturks and Mongols were the only two empires to rule both the eastern and central steppe. The Gokturks were the first steppe empire to be in contact with three great urban civilizations: Byzantium, Persia and China. Their expansion west from modern-day Mongolia is poorly documented. Lev Gumilyov gives the following. Bumin gave the west to his younger brother Istami (553–75). The campaign probably began in the spring of 554 and apparently met little resistance. They took Semirechye and by 555 had reached the Aral Sea, probably on a line from the lower Oxus, across the Jaxartes, north of Tashkent to the western tip of the Tian Shan. They drove before them various peoples: Xionites, Uar, Oghurs and others. These seem to have merged into the Avars whom the Gokturks drove across the Volga River in 558, and who crossed the western steppe and reached Hungary by 567. The Turks then turned southeast.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: At this time the Hephthalites held the Tarim Basin , Fergana, Sogdia, Bactria and Merv, with the Persians at approximately their present border. Khosrow I made peace with the Byzantines and turned on the Hephthalites. Fighting started in 560 The Persians won a victory in 562, and the Turks took Tashkent. In 565, the Hephthalites were defeated at Qarshi and withdrew to Bactria, where fragments of this people remained until the Arab conquest. The Turks demanded the tribute formerly paid to the Hephthalites and when this was refused, they crossed the Oxus, but thought better of it and withdrew. In 571 a border was drawn along the Oxus, the Persians expanding east to Afghanistan, while the Turks gain the Sogdian merchant cities and their control of the Silk Road.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: Around 567–576 the Turks took the area between the Caspian and Black Seas. In 568 they took part of Bactria.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: Istami was followed by his son Tardush (575–603). About 581 he intervened in the eastern Gokturk civil war. In 588/89 Turks were defeated by Persians near Herat. In 599–603 he gained the eastern half of the Khaganate, but after his death the two halves were definitely split. Heshana Khagan (603–611) was driven out of Dzungaria and then defeated by Sheguy (610–617), Tardush's grandson, who conquered the Altai, reconquered Tashkent and raided Ishfahan.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: His brother Tong Yabghu Qaghan (618–630) ruled from the Tarim basin to the Caspian Sea, and met Xuanzang. He sent men to fight the Persians south of the Caucasus, and also sent his son Tardush Shad to fight in Afghanistan, where he established the Yabghus of Tokharistan, who themselves projected the Turk Shahis as far east as India.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: In the year of Tong's death the Tang dynasty defeated and annexed the Eastern Khaganate. He was murdered by his uncle Külüg Sibir (630) with Duolu support. The Nushibi put Tong's son Sy Yabgu (631–33) on the throne. However, Nushibi quickly rebelled against Sy and enthroned Ashina Nishu as Duolu Khan (633–34), followed by his brother Ishbara Tolis (634–38). There was a Dulu-Nushibi conflict and Yukuk Shad (638–42), son of the final eastern Khagan, was brought in.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The factions quarreled and the Nushibi and Emperor Taizong of Tang enthroned Irbis Seguy (642–51). The Tang dynasty demanded part of the Tarim Basin and then seized part of it until the war ended with Taizong's death. Irbis was overthrown by (Ashina Helu) Ishbara Qaghan (651–58) who, after about six years of war, was defeated at Battle of Irtysh River and captured by the Tang. After this there were several puppet Khagans. In 679–719 the old Gokturk capital of Suyab was one of the Four Garrisons of Anxi. The Tang dynasty exercised control over the area until the time of An Lushan's rebellion (756).


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The Tang campaigns against the Western Turks, were a series of military campaigns conducted during the Tang dynasty against the Western Turkic Khaganate in the 7th century CE. Early military conflicts were a result of the Tang interventions in the rivalry between the Western and Eastern Turks in order to weaken both. Under Emperor Taizong, campaigns were dispatched in the Western Regions against Gaochang in 640, Karasahr in 644 and 648, and Kucha in 648.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The wars against the Western Turks continued under Emperor Gaozong, and the khaganate was annexed after General Su Dingfang's defeat of Qaghan Ashina Helu in 657.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The Western Turks attempted to capture the Tarim Basin in 670 and 677, but were repelled by the Tang. In 679, the Tang general Pei Xingjian led an army as far as Tokharistan, as he was also escorting back to Persia the last Sasanian pretender to the throne, Narsieh. Pei Xingjian fought successfully against an invasion of Anxi led by Western Turkic Khan Ashina Duzhi, and numerous minor Turkic chieftains in the region then pledged their loyalty to the Tang dynasty. Meanwhile, general Pei Xingjian lost interest in reinstalling the Persian King and left Narsieh in the Anxi Protectorate alone, although Narsieh was still able to maintain his many servants and a high quality of life, and would continue on to fight against the Muslim Arabs for twenty years. Upon returning to Tang, Pei was appointed the minister of rituals and Great general of the right flank guards.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: In 679, Turkic chieftain Ashide Wenfu rebelled. Protectorate general Xiao Siye, a noble from Lanling Commandery, was defeated by Ashide. Pei then took over the command from Xiao and decisively won a battle against the Turks in an ambush. Ashide fled. Not long after the first defeat, Ashide Wenfu gathered his troops and united them with the troops of another chieftain Ashina Funian. Pei saw the distrust and suspicions between the two chieftains and exploited this weakness by driving a wedge between them. Eventually, Ashina Funian murdered Ashide Wenfu out of the fear of Tang's revenge against him. When Funian was brought to the Tang court, he was executed regardless of the fact that he surrendered his troops. Pei had promised Ashina that he would not be put to death, however, the court did not respect Pei's promise. Due to this incident, Pei retired. Ashina's death, according to New Book of Tang, was a scheme against Pei Xingjian by his very own clansman Pei Yan who was jealous about his victories in the West.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: In 682, Pei was again put in charge of pacifying yet another Turkic rebellion against the Tang dynasty. However, he died of old age before the troops were sent out. The imperial court rewarded him the posthumous name Xian (獻) which means "Dedication", as well as the supreme military honorary title Taiwei (太尉).


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The areas controlled by the Tang dynasty came under the dynasty's cultural influences and the Turkic influence of the ethnically Turkic Tang soldiers stationed in the region. Indo-European prevalence in Central Asia declined as the expeditions accelerated Turkic migration into what is now Xinjiang. By the end of the 657 campaign, the Tang had reached its largest extent. The Turks, Tibetans, Muslim Arabs and the Tang competed for control over Central Asia until the collapse of the Tang in the 10th century.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The Second Turkic Empire defeated the fragmented Western Turks in 712, and absorbed the tribes into the new empire.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: During the late 6th century, the Turks consolidated their geopolitical position in Central Asia, as the lynchpin in trade between East Asia and Western Asia – in which Persia and Byzantium were the dominant powers. For much of this period, Istämi ruled the Khaganate from a winter camp near Karashar. A timeline of the westward expansion of the Turks under Istämi might be reconstructed as follows:


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: A first Turk legation (or embassy) to reach Constantinople visited Justin II in 563. A Sogdian merchant named led a Turco-Sogdian legation to Constantinople in 568, pursuing trade and an alliance against the Avars and Persians. A Byzantine official named Zemarchus accompanied Maniakh on his return journey; and later left a pioneering account of the Turks. Maniakh now proposed to bypass the Persians and re-open a direct route north of the Caspian Sea. If trade on this route later increased (uncertain) it would have benefited Khorezm and the Black Sea cities and might have had something to do with the later rise of the Khazars and Rus' people.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The Turks' control of the Sogdian merchant cities along the Oxus from the late 6th century on gave the Western Turks substantive control of the central part of the Silk Road. A Chinese general complained that the:


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: Denis Sinor saw the Byzantine alliance as a Sogdian scheme to benefit themselves at the expense of the Turks. A related fact is that the Eastern Turks extracted a large amount of silk as booty from the Chinese, which had to be marketed westward. Before 568, Maniakh, a leading merchant, visited the Sassanian Persian court, in a bid to open up trade; this proposal was refused, apparently because the Persians wanted to restrict trade by and with the Byzantines. The members of a second Turk legation to Persia were reportedly poisoned. From 569, the Turks and Persia were at war, until the Turks were defeated near Merv; hostilities ceased in 571.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: In 576, Valentinus led a Byzantine mission to a Turxanthos whose camp was west of the Caspian. Valentinus wanted action against the Persians and Turxanthos complained that Byzantium was harboring the Avars. Valentinus then went east to meet Tardu. What caused this hostility is not clear. In 576–77 a Turk general called Bokhan and an Utigur called Anagai captured the Crimean Byzantine town of Panticapaeum and failed at a siege of Chersonesus. This marks the westernmost extent of Turk power.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The Turk-Byzantine alliance was revived in the 620s during the last great Byzantine-Persian war before the Arab conquests. In 627 Tong Yabghu Qaghan sent out his nephew Böri Shad. The Turks stormed the great fortress of Derbent on the Caspian coast, entered Azerbaijan and Georgia, did a good bit of looting and met Heraclius who was besieging Tiflis. When the siege dragged on, the Turks left and Heraclius went south and won a great victory over the Persians. The Turks returned, captured Tiflis and massacred the garrison. On behalf of the Byzantines, a Turk general named Chorpan Tarkhan then conquered most of Armenia.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The first statement dates their origin back to the beginning of the First Turkic Qaghanate with Istämi, younger brother of Tumen (Bumen), who had brought with him the ten tribes, probably from the Eastern Qaghanate in Mongolia and travelled west to expand the Qaghanate. The exact date for the event was not recorded, and the shanyu here referred to might be Muhan Khan.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The second statement attributes it to Dielishi, who took over the throne in 635 and began to strengthen the state by further affirming the initial ten tribes and two tribal wings, in contrast with the rotation of rule between the Tumen (through Apa) and Istämi (through Tardu) lineages in the Western Qaghanate. Thereafter, the name "ten tribes" (十姓) became a shortened address for the Western Turks in Chinese records. Those divisions did not include the five major tribes, who were active further east of the ten tribes.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The earlier tribes consisted of eight primary tribes ruled by eight chiefs-in-command: the five Duolu (咄陆) tribes, and the three Nushibi (弩失毕) tribes. Syriac and Greek sources (John of Ephesus, Menander Protector) also confirmed that initially, the Western Turkic Khaganate were divided into eight tribes during Istämi's lifetime and at his death.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The ruling elites were divided into two groups and the relationship between the two groups were tense: the more aristocratic Duolu shads held the title "churs", and the lower-ranking Nushibi in west were probably initially made up of Tiele conscripts and their shads held the title . During the reformation the more powerful Nushibi tribes such as A-Xijie and Geshu were sub-divided into two tribal groups with a greater and lesser title under a fixed tribal name, resulting in the attested "On Oq" & 十箭 "shíjiàn" "ten arrows").


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: Turkic delegates appear together with Chinese envoys in the 7th century CE murals of Afrasiab in Samarkand. The Chinese delegates (left in the mural) form an embassy to the king of Samarkand, carrying silk and a string of silkworm cocoons. The Turkic delegates (right in the mural), are recognizable by their long plaits. They do not carry presents, as they are simply escorting the Chinese envoys.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: The scenes depicted in the Afrasiyab murals may have been painted in 648–651 CE, as the Western Turkic Khaganate was in its last days, before its fall in 657 CE, and the Han Dynasty was increasing its territory in Central Asia. They are recognizable by their long plaits.


title: Western Turkic Khaganate

text: In the mural, the Western Turks are ethnic Turks, "Nushibis", rather than Turkicized Sogdians, as suggested by the marked Mongoloid features and faces without beards. They are the most numerous ethnic group in the mural, and are not ambassadors, but rather military attendants. Their depiction offers a unique glimpse into the clothing of the Turks of the 6–7th century CE. They typically wear three or five long long plaits, often gathered together into a one single long plait. They have ankle-length monochromic sleeved coats with two lapels. This fashion for the collar is first seen in Khotan near Turfan, a traditional Turkic land, in the 2nd–4th century CE. They have low black sharp-nosed boots. They wear gold bracelets with lapis lazuli or pearls. On Western Turkic coins, "the faces of the governor and governess are clearly mongoloid (a roundish face, narrow eyes), and the portrait have definite old Türk features (long hair, absence of headdress of the governor, a tricorn headdress of the governess)".


title: Bones Hyland

text: Nah’Shon “Bones” Hyland (born September 14, 2000) is an American professional basketball player for the Denver Nuggets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the VCU Rams before being drafted 26th overall in the 2021 NBA draft by the Nuggets.


title: Bones Hyland

text: Hyland was born in Southport, North Carolina. Hyland started playing basketball after watching his older brother and a friend playing at the park. He was nicknamed "Bizzy Bones" or "Bones" in part due to his slender build. Hyland attended St. Georges Technical High School in Middletown, Delaware. During his junior year, his 11-month-old cousin and grandmother died in a house fire. Hyland escaped by jumping from his second-floor bedroom and suffered a torn patellar tendon, sidelining him for six months. As a senior, he averaged 26.6 points, 6.6 rebounds, 4.6 assists and 3.4 steals per game, leading his team to the semifinals of the state tournament. He was named Delaware Player of the Year and earned first team All-State honors. A four-star recruit, he committed to playing college basketball for VCU over offers from Saint Joseph's, Rhode Island, La Salle, Boston College, UConn and Temple.


title: Bones Hyland

text: On January 18, 2020, Hyland scored a freshman season-high 21 points and five three-pointers in a 91–63 win over St. Bonaventure. As a freshman, he averaged nine points, 2.2 rebounds and 1.8 assists per game, earning Atlantic 10 All-Rookie Team accolades. He shot 43.4 percent from three-point range and set a program freshman record with 63 three-pointers. In his sophomore season debut on November 25, Hyland scored 23 points, making five three-pointers, in an 85–69 victory over Utah State. On December 9, he scored 30 points, shooting 7-of-12 from three-point range, in a 95–59 win over North Carolina A&T. Six days later, Hyland posted a career-high 31 points in a 93–68 victory over Western Carolina. On March 5, 2021, he recorded 30 points and 10 rebounds in a 73–68 win against Dayton at the Atlantic 10 tournament quarterfinals. As a sophomore, Hyland averaged 19.5 points, 4.7 rebounds, 2.1 assists and 1.9 steals per game, and was named Atlantic 10 Player of the Year. On April 17, 2021, he declared for the 2021 NBA draft, forgoing his remaining college eligibility.


title: Bones Hyland

text: On July 29, 2021, Hyland was drafted with the 26th overall pick in the 2021 NBA draft by the Denver Nuggets, becoming VCU's first draft pick in 11 years. On January 15, 2022, Hyland scored a career-high 27 points and had 10 rebounds in a 133–96 win against the Los Angeles Lakers. On April 24, in the first round of the playoffs, Hyland helped the Nuggets to a 126-121 Game 4 victory over the Golden State Warriors, with 15 points and 7 assists.


title: Krio language

text: Sierra Leonean Creole or Krio is an English-based creole language that is lingua franca and de facto national language spoken throughout the West African nation of Sierra Leone. Krio is spoken by 90 percent of the country's population, and it unites the different ethnic groups in the country, especially in their trade and social interaction with each other.<ref name="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/181"></ref> Krio is the primary language of communication among Sierra Leoneans at home and abroad, and has also heavily influenced Sierra Leonean English. The language is native to the Sierra Leone Creole people, or Krios, a community of about 104,311 descendants of freed slaves from the West Indies, Canada, United States and the British Empire, and is spoken as a second language by millions of other Sierra Leoneans belonging to the country's indigenous tribes. English is Sierra Leone's official language, and Krio, despite its common use throughout the country, has no official status.


title: Krio language

text: The Krio language is an offshoot of the languages and variations of English brought by the Nova Scotian Settlers from North America, Maroons from Jamaica, and the numerous liberated African slaves who settled in Sierra Leone.


title: Krio language

text: All freed slaves—the Jamaican Maroons, African-Americans, and Liberated Africans—influenced Krio, but the Jamaican Maroons, Igbo, Yoruba and Akan Liberated Africans were the most influential. It seems probable that the basic grammatical structure and vowel system of Krio is an offshoot of Jamaican Maroon Creole spoken by the Maroons, as there are well-documented and important direct historical connections between Jamaica


title: Krio language

text: and Sierra Leone. The language was also influenced by African American Vernacular English while the majority of the African words in Krio come from the Akan, Yoruba and Igbo.


title: Krio language

text: As an English-based creole language, the Sierra Leone Krio is distinct from a pidgin as it is a language in its own right, with fixed grammatical structures and rules. Krio also draws from other European languages, like Portuguese and French, e.g. the Krio word /, which means wealth or to acquire wealth, is derived from the Old French word 'gentry', and the Krio word , which means 'child', indirectly comes from the Portuguese word meaning 'small' and often used to mean children in Portuguese.


title: Krio language

text: In Sierra Leone, the Krio Language is spoken by people with different degrees of fluency, as well as regional changes to the Krio. Many of the speakers of Sierra Leone Krio live in or close to the capital city, Freetown. As of 2007, there were close to 350,000 individuals who spoke Krio as a primary language. Even more individuals were using it as a main language for communication purposes in the country as a whole.


title: Krio language

text: One theory suggests the early roots of Krio go back to the Atlantic slave trade era in the 17th and 18th centuries when an English-based "pidgin" language (West African Pidgin English, also called Guinea Coast Creole English) arose to facilitate the coastal trade between Europeans and Africans. This early pidgin later became the lingua franca of regional trade among West Africans themselves and likely spread up the river systems to the African interior. After the founding of Freetown, this preexisting pidgin was incorporated into the speech of the various groups of freed slaves landed in Sierra Leone between 1787 and about 1855. The pidgin gradually evolved to become a stable language, the native language of descendants of the freed slaves (which are now a distinct ethnic and cultural group, the Creoles), and the lingua franca of Sierra Leone.


title: Krio language

text: Most ethnic and cultural Creoles live in and around Freetown, the capital of Sierra Leone, and their community accounts for about 3% to 6% of Sierra Leone's total population (Freetown is the province where the returned slaves from London and Nova Scotia settled). However, because of their cultural influence in Sierra Leone, especially during the period of colonial rule, their language is used as the lingua franca among all the ethnic groups in Sierra Leone.


title: Krio language

text: The Sierra Leone Creole people acted as traders and missionaries in other parts of West Africa during the 19th century, and as a result, there are also Krio-speaking communities in The Gambia, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Senegal, and Guinea. As a result of Sierra Leone Creole migratory patterns, in the Gambia, the Gambian Creoles or Aku community speak Krio. The Fernando Po Creole English language of Equatorial Guinea is also largely a result of Sierra Leone Creole migrants. A small number of liberated Africans returned to the land of their origins, such as the Saros of Nigeria who not only took their Western names with them but also imported Krio words like "sabi" into Nigerian Pidgin English.


title: Krio language

text: During the period of colonial rule, Sierra Leoneans (particularly among the upper class) were discouraged from speaking Krio; but after independence from the United Kingdom in 1961, writers and educators began promoting its use. In the 1960s, Thomas Decker translated some of Shakespeare's plays into Krio, and composed original poetry in the language. In the 1980s, the New Testament was translated into Krio. Beginning with the involvement of Lutheran Bible Translators, Krio-language translations of the New Testament and Old Testament were published in 1986 and 2013.


title: Krio language

text: While English is Sierra Leone's official language, the Ministry of Education began using Krio as the medium of instruction in some primary schools in Freetown in the 1990s. Radio stations now broadcast a wide variety of programs in Krio. Sierra Leonean politicians also routinely give public speeches in the language.


title: Krio language

text: Krio is an English-based creole from which descend Nigerian Pidgin English and Cameroonian Pidgin English and Pichinglis. It is also similar to English-based creole languages spoken in the Americas, especially the Gullah language, Jamaican Patois (Jamaican Creole), and Bajan Creole, but it has its own distinctive character. It also shares some linguistic similarities with non-English creoles, such as the French-based creole languages in the Caribbean.


title: Krio language

text: Krio contains seven monophthongs in its inventory of vowels, all of which can be nasalized. Most nasal vowels occur in words derived from English, in cases where an oral vowel precedes a nasal consonant. The nasal consonant is deleted and the vowel is nasalized.


title: Krio language

text: "Consonant cluster reduction" is a common process in phonology. It is typically applied to lexical items in English containing two or more consonants in a row including an initial "s". Some examples include:


title: Krio language

text: Replacing a stop for a fricative, known as "stopping substitution", is also common in words of English origin. Some examples include:


title: Krio language

text: There is also evidence of the influence of West African languages in the presence of the labiovelar plosives /kp/ and /gb/, as in:


title: Krio language

text: Krio is a tonal language and makes contrastive use of tone in both African and English words. Examples of minimal pairs of words distinguished by tone patterns are:


title: Krio language

text: Verbs do not conjugate according to person or number, but reflect their tense. Tense, aspect and mood are marked by one or more tense or aspect markers. The tense markers are 'bin' for the past tense and 'go' for the future, the absence of either shows the present tense. Aspect is shown by 'dòn' for perfective and 'de' for imperfective. Infinitive is marked by 'fòr' and conditional by a combination of 'bin' and 'go'. Tendency is marked by 'kin' and 'nòbar'. The verbal paradigm is as follows:


title: Krio language

text: The hortative is marked by 'lè' e.g. 'lè wi go, lè wi tòk' and the optative by 'mè' e.g. 'mè yu Kingmara kam, mè yu Will bi duo'


title: Krio language

text: E.g. "Yu de go?": 'Are you going' vs "yu de go": 'you are going.' Additionally the question particles 'ènti' and 'nòoso' can be used at the start or end of the phrase respectively.


title: Krio language

text: There is no distinction between masculine and feminine in any person and, unlike Standard English, there is a second person plural form. However, there are the hints of nominative, accusative and genitive cases.


title: Krio language

text: Krio uses the Latin script but without Qq and Xx and with three additional letters from the African reference alphabet, Ɛɛ (open E), Ŋŋ (eng), and Ɔɔ (open O). Three tones can be distinguished in Krio and are sometimes marked with grave (à), acute (á), and circumflex (â) accents over the vowels for low, high, and falling tones respectively but these accents are not employed in normal usage. An alternative orthography with Latin letters only has been devised by Thomas Decker.