title: Shoemaking

text: Similar exigencies at the time of the Crimean War stimulated a renewed interest in methods of mechanization and mass-production, which proved longer-lasting. A shoemaker in Leicester, Tomas Crick, patented the design for a riveting machine in 1853. His machine used an iron plate to push iron rivets into the sole. The process greatly increased the speed and efficiency of production. He also introduced the use of steam-powered rolling-machines for hardening leather and cutting-machines, in the mid-1850s.


title: Shoemaking

text: The sewing machine was introduced in 1846, and provided an alternative method for the mechanization of shoemaking. By the late 1850s, the industry was beginning to shift towards the modern factory, mainly in the US and areas of England. A shoe stitching machine was invented by the American Lyman Blake in 1856 and perfected by 1864. Entering into partnership with McKay, his device became known as the McKay stitching machine and was quickly adopted by manufacturers throughout New England. As bottlenecks opened up in the production line due to these innovations, more and more of the manufacturing stages, such as pegging and finishing, became automated. By the 1890s, the process of mechanisation was largely complete.


title: Shoemaking

text: A process for manufacturing stitchless, that is, glued, shoes—AGO—was developed in 1910.Traditional shoemakers still exist today, especially in poorer parts of the world, and create custom shoes. Current crafters, in developing regions or supply constrained areas may use surplus car or truck tire tread sections as an inexpensive and plentiful material resource with which to make strong soles for shoes or sandals. Generally, the modern machinery used includes die cutting tools to cut the shapes and grommet machines to punch holes for lacing.


title: Shoemaking

text: Early 21st century has seen a resurgence in the shoemaking profession, particularly in the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom. This has been driven in large part by broader societal preferences in favour of leather restoration rather than replacement and extends to not only shoes but also handbags and other leather fashion accessories. Meanwhile, organizations within the industry have begun leveraging e-commerce and modern logistical networks to offer consumers greater convenience through the offering of services by mail.


title: Shoemaking

text: A shoe store or shoe shop is a type of retailer that specializes in selling shoes. From slippers to athletic shoes to boots, the store could also sell shoe accessories, including insoles, shoelaces, shoe horns, shoe polish, etc. In addition, shoe stores may provide clothing and fashion accessories, such as handbags, sunglasses, backpacks, socks, and hosiery.


title: Shoemaking

text: A shoe repair shop is a type of business establishment that fixes and remodels shoes and boots. Besides a shoe repair shop, a shoe repairer could work in department stores or shoe stores.


title: Weber (unit)

text: In physics, the weber ( ; symbol: Wb) is the unit of magnetic flux in the International System of Units (SI), whose units are volt-second. A magnetic flux density of one Wb/m (one weber per square metre) is one tesla.


title: Weber (unit)

text: The weber may be defined in terms of Faraday's law, which relates a changing magnetic flux through a loop to the electric field around the loop. A change in flux of one weber per second will induce an electromotive force of one volt (produce an electric potential difference of one volt across two open-circuited terminals).


title: Weber (unit)

text: In 1861, the British Association for the Advancement of Science (known as "The BA") established a committee under William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) to study electrical units. In a February 1902 manuscript, with handwritten notes of Oliver Heaviside, Giovanni Giorgi proposed a set of rational units of electromagnetism including the weber, noting that "the product of the volt into the second has been called the "weber" by the B. A."


title: Weber (unit)

text: The International Electrotechnical Commission began work on terminology in 1909 and established Technical Committee 1 in 1911, its oldest established committee, "to sanction the terms and definitions used in the different electrotechnical fields and to determine the equivalence of the terms used in the different languages."


title: Weber (unit)

text: In 1930, TC1 decided that the magnetic field strength (H) is of a different nature from the magnetic flux density (B), and took up the question of naming the units for these fields and related quantities, among them the integral of magnetic flux density.


title: Weber (unit)

text: In 1935, TC 1 recommended names for several electrical units, including the weber for the practical unit of magnetic flux (and the maxwell for the CGS unit).


title: Weber (unit)

text: Also in 1935, TC1 passed responsibility for "electric and magnetic magnitudes and units" to the new TC24. This "led eventually to the universal adoption of the Giorgi system, which unified electromagnetic units with the MKS dimensional system of units, the whole now known simply as the SI system (Système International d'unités)."


title: Weber (unit)

text: In 1938, TC24 "recommended as a connecting link [from mechanical to electrical units] the permeability of free space with the value of "μ" = 4π H/m. This group also recognized that any one of the practical units already in use (ohm, ampere, volt, henry, farad, coulomb, and weber), could equally serve as the fourth fundamental unit. "After consultation, the ampere was adopted as the fourth unit of the Giorgi system in Paris in 1950."


title: Black feminism

text: Black feminism is a philosophy that centers on the idea that "Black women are inherently valuable, that [Black women's] liberation is a necessity not as an adjunct to somebody else's but because our need as human persons for autonomy."


title: Black feminism

text: Race, gender, and class discrimination are all aspects of the same system of hierarchy, which bell hooks calls the "imperialist white supremacist, capitalist patriarchy." Due to their inter-dependency, they combine to create something more than experiencing racism and sexism independently. The experience of being a Black woman, then, cannot be grasped in terms of being Black or of being a woman but must be illuminated via intersectionality, a term coined by legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989. Intersectionality indicates that each identity—being Black and being female—should be considered both independently and for their interaction effect, in which intersecting identities deepen, reinforce one another, and potentially lead to aggravated forms of inequality.


title: Black feminism

text: A Black feminist lens in the United States was first employed by Black women to make sense of how white supremacy and patriarchy interacted to inform the particular experiences of enslaved Black women. Black activists and intellectuals formed organizations such as the National Association of Colored Women (NACW) and the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW). Black feminism rose to prominence in the 1960s, as the civil rights movement excluded women from leadership positions, and the mainstream feminist movement largely focused its agenda on issues that predominately impacted middle-class White women. From the 1970s to 1980s, Black feminists formed groups that addressed the role of Black women in Black nationalism, gay liberation, and second-wave feminism. In the 1990s, the Anita Hill controversy brought Black feminism into the mainstream. Black feminist theories reached a wider audience in the 2010s as a result of social-media advocacy.


title: Black feminism

text: Proponents of Black feminism argue that Black women are positioned within structures of power in fundamentally different ways than White women. In the early 21st century, the tag "white feminist" gained currency to criticize feminists who avoid issues of intersectionality. Critics of Black feminism argue that divisions along the lines of race or gender weaken the strength of the overall feminist and anti-racist movements.


title: Black feminism

text: Among the notions that evolved out of the Black feminist movement are Alice Walker's womanism and historical revisionism with an increased focus on Black women. bell hooks, Kimberlé Crenshaw, Angela Davis, and Patricia Hill Collins have emerged as leading academics on Black feminism, while Black celebrities have encouraged mainstream discussion of Black feminism.


title: Black feminism

text: Slavery is the seedbed of Black feminism. This peculiar institution has been the historic differentiation amongst Black women and other feminist women in the world, being the primary dominating differentiation between Black women and all women who identify outside of the Black or Africana Diaspora. The ideology of chattel within the ethics of Slavery and U.S. laws includes Black women and their bodies which were controlled and experienced gender violence such as rape. Slave humanity was considered Black humanity within the grand scheme of U.S. laws regarding Black lives. Black women did not have an identity inside or outside of Slavery as a result of patriarchy and racism, as the two social ills ultimately created a space and community to come known as Black feminism. Black women were considered "property" and "not people", they were the least. The cannon of Black life during Antebellum America would ultimately craft the minds of White women who would become feminists, as the organizational behavior of the institution of Slavery includes racism and classism which is a part of the roots and social foundation of some White feminists as a result of their White heritage. Intersectionality is embedded within the tapestry of feminist thought, and it is here where Black women and Black men came to a point in 1869 after being exposed to feminism within the Women's Suffrage Movement.


title: Black feminism

text: The sons and daughters of Slavery include those who would give birth to the concept and contextualism of Black feminism which challenged the Women's Suffrage Movement. Perhaps the historic response of an abolitionist within the Women's Suffrage Movement creates the notion that Frederick Douglas is the first Black male feminist to create agency for the concept of Black feminism during the Women's Suffrage Movement of 1869. Although Western civilization and ideologies such as the term "coon" and "nigger" created a different world in the United States of America for West African descendants, the first true wave of feminism embodied ideas against all Black humanity; Douglas felt this wave; developing a state of mind and strong resistance to White power and White feminism within his leadership for Black equality. Black lives mattered to Frederick Douglas, and within all of his public works in history, he labored and travailed for Black humanity and freedom. The malaise of White thought and White supremacy gave birth to the daughters of racism who were a part of the Women's Suffrage Movement of 1869. Douglas was a son of liberation, one who demonstrated Black power by way of advocacy for Black women within the Women's Suffrage Movement. It was within this movement that a charlatan of equality by the name of Elizabeth Cady Stanton delivered a speech that presented Black women as inhumane, as her historic speech within the Women's Suffrage Movement honorably described White women perhaps as elitist, referring to White women in her speech as "the Daughters of Jefferson", and intentionally describing Black women as daughters of "Sambo" and "black boot". Appalled and disdain to accept the racist ideas of Stanton, perhaps Frederick Douglas took his place as a Black male feminist by writing Stanton and asking the question, "What difference is there between the daughters of Jefferson and other daughters"?


title: Black feminism

text: Black feminism has been around since the time of slavery. If defined as a way that Black women have sought to understand their position within systems of oppression, then this is exemplified in Sojourner Truth's famous speech, "Ain't I a Woman?", which was delivered in 1851 at the Women's Convention in Akron, Ohio. Truth addressed how the issues being discussed at the convention were issues that primarily impacted White women.


title: Black feminism

text: The book, "A Voice from the South" (1892), by Anna Julia Cooper has been credited as one of the first pieces of literature that expresses a Black feminist perspective. Cooper's contemporary, writer and activist, Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, proposed "some of the most important questions of race, gender, and the work of Reconstruction in the nineteenth century". According to Harper, White women needed suffrage for education, but "Black women need the vote, not as a form of education, but as a form of protection". In the 1890s Ida B. Wells, a politically driven activist, became famous for seeking to find the truth about the lynching of Black men, a subject that many White feminists avoided.


title: Black feminism

text: In the post slavery period, Black female intellectuals and activists, such as Sojourner Truth, Anna Julia Cooper, Ida B. Wells, Mary Church Terrell, and Frances Harper, set in motion the principles that would become the basis for Black feminism. These women accomplished things that were previously unheard of for Black women, such as giving public lectures, fighting for suffrage, and aiding those in need of help following Reconstruction. However, fissures soon developed between White feminists, even those who had been active in abolition, and pioneering Black feminists.


title: Black feminism

text: Suffrage was one of the early areas of a schism between White and Black feminists. Though feminism as a movement was at a rise in the late 1800s and early 1900s, Black women were often left behind and disregarded by the White feminists of this movement. This, however, did not stop the Black feminists, who would eventually create a separate path for themselves fighting for the cause. Out of this, the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs (NACWC) founded in 1904, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) founded in 1909, and the National Association of Wage Earners founded in 1921, were born.


title: Black feminism

text: Black writers of the early 1900s who undertook feminist themes included educator and activist Mary Church Terrell and Zora Neale Hurston. In her autobiography "A Colored Woman in a White World" (1940), Terrell chronicled her experiences with both racism and sexism. Hurston's substantial number of published works include the novel "Their Eyes Were Watching God" (1937) featuring a strong female protagonist in Janie Crawford.


title: Black feminism

text: Although the decades between the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1920) and the 1960s are not included among the "wave" periods of feminism, this was a particularly important moment in the development of Black feminist activism. During this period, a few radical Black female activists joined the Communist party or focused on union activism. Although they did not all identify as feminists, their theorizing included important works that are the foundation for theories of intersectionality—integrating race, gender, and class. In 1940, for example, Esther V. Cooper (married name Esther Cooper Jackson) wrote a M.A. thesis called "The Negro Woman Domestic Worker in Relation to Trade Unionism". And in 1949, Claudia Jones wrote "An End to the Neglect of the Problems of the Negro Woman".


title: Black feminism

text: Other feminist activism and organizing happened around different cases of racial and sexual violence. For example, Esther Cooper and Rosa Parks organized to help Recy Taylor. In 1944, Taylor was the victim of a gang rape; Parks and Cooper attempted to bring the culprits to justice. Black feminist activists focused on other similar cases, such as the 1949 arrest of and then death sentence issued to Rosa Lee Ingram, a victim of sexual violence. Defenders of Ingram included the famous Black feminist Mary Church Terrell, who was an octogenarian at the time.


title: Black feminism

text: Despite often initiating protests, organizing and fundraising events, communicating to the community, and formulating strategies, women in positions of leadership are often overlooked by historians covering the civil rights movement, which began in earnest in the 1950s. Many events, such as the Montgomery bus boycott, were made successful due to the women who distributed information. During the Montgomery bus boycott, 35,000 leaflets were mimeographed and handed out after Rosa Parks’ arrest. Georgia Gilmore, after being fired from her job as a cook and black-listed from other jobs in Montgomery due to her contributions to the boycott, organized the Club From Nowhere, a group that cooked and baked to fund the effort.


title: Black feminism

text: In the second half of the 20th century, Black feminism as a political and social movement grew out of Black women's feelings of discontent with both the civil rights movement and the feminist movement of the 1960s and 1970s. One of the foundational statements of left-wing Black feminism is "An Argument for Black Women's Liberation as a Revolutionary Force," authored by Mary Ann Weathers and published in February 1969 in Cell 16's radical feminist magazine "No More Fun and Games: A Journal of Female Liberation". Weathers states her belief that "women's liberation should be considered as a strategy for an eventual tie-up with the entire revolutionary movement consisting of women, men, and children", but she posits that "[w]e women must start this thing rolling" because:


title: Black feminism

text: Not only did the civil rights movement primarily focus on the oppression of Black men, but many Black women faced severe sexism within civil rights groups such as the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Within the movement, men dominated the powerful positions. Black feminists did not want the movement to be the struggle only for Black men's rights, they wanted Black women's rights to be incorporated too. Black feminists also felt they needed to have their own movement because the complaints of White feminists sometimes differed from their own and favored White women.


title: Black feminism

text: In the 1960s, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was highly active and focused on achieving "a social order of justice" through peaceful tactics. The SNCC was founded by Ella Baker. Baker was a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the Southern Christian Leadership Council (SCLC). When Baker served as Martin Luther King Jr.’s SCLC executive secretary, she was exposed to the hierarchical structure of the organization. Baker disapproved of what she saw as sexism within both the NAACP and the SCLC and wanted to start her own organization with an egalitarian structure, allowing women to voice their needs.


title: Black feminism

text: In 1964, at a SNNC retreat in Waveland, Mississippi, the members discussed the role of women and addressed sexism that occurred within the group. A group of women in the SNCC (who were later identified as White allies Mary King and Casey Hayden) openly challenged the way women were treated when they issued the "SNCC Position Paper (Women in the Movement)". The paper listed 11 events in which women were treated as subordinate to men. According to the paper, women in SNCC did not have a chance to become the face of the organization, the top leaders, because they were assigned to clerical and housekeeping duties, whereas men were involved in decision-making.


title: Black feminism

text: When Stokely Carmichael was elected chair of the SNCC in 1966, he reoriented the path of the organization towards Black Power and Black nationalism. While it is often argued that Black women in the SNCC were significantly subjugated during the Carmichael era, Carmichael appointed several women to posts as project directors during his tenure as chair. By the latter half of the 1960s, more women were in charge of SNCC projects than during the first half. Despite these improvements, the SNCC's leadership positions were occupied by men during the entirety of its existence, which ended in turmoil within a few years of Carmichael's resignation from the body in 1967.


title: Black feminism

text: The unofficial symbol of Black feminism in the late 60s, a combination of the raised fist of Black Power, and the astrological symbol for Venus, denoted an intersection of ideals of Black Power and militant feminism. Some ideals were shared, such as a "critique on racial capitalism, starting with slavery". Despite this, Black feminism had reasons to become independent of Black nationalism, according to some critics, because it had achieved only a niche within the generally sexist and masculinist structure of Black nationalism.


title: Black feminism

text: The second-wave feminist movement emerged in the 1960s, led by Betty Friedan. Some Black women felt alienated by the main planks of the mainstream branches of the second-wave feminist movement, which largely advocated for women's rights to work outside the home and expansion of reproductive rights. For example, earning the power to work outside the home was not seen as an accomplishment by Black women since many Black women had to work both inside and outside the home for generations due to poverty. Additionally, as Angela Davis later wrote, while Afro-American women and White women were subjected to multiple unwilled pregnancies and had to clandestinely abort, Afro-American women were also suffering from compulsory sterilization programs that were not widely included in dialogue about reproductive justice.


title: Black feminism

text: Some Black feminists who were active in the early second-wave feminism include civil rights lawyer and author Florynce Kennedy, who co-authored one of the first books on abortion, 1971's "Abortion Rap"; Cellestine Ware, of New York's Stanton-Anthony Brigade; and Patricia Robinson. These women "tried to show the connections between racism and male dominance" in society.


title: Black feminism

text: Fighting against racism and sexism across the White dominated second wave feminist movement and male dominated Black Power and Black Arts Movement, Black feminist groups of artists such as Where We At! Black Women Artists Inc were formed in the early 1970s. The "Where We At" group was formed in 1971 by artists Vivian E. Browne and Faith Ringgold. During the summer of that year, the group organized the first exhibition in history of only Black women artists to show the viewing public that was not synonymous with . In 1972 Where We At! issued a list of demands to the Brooklyn Museum protesting what it saw as the museum's ignoring of Brooklyn's Black women artists. The demands brought forth changes and years later, in 2017, the museum's exhibit "We Wanted a Revolution: Black Radical Women 1965-1985" celebrated the work of Black women artists who were part of the Black Arts and Black Power movements.


title: Black feminism

text: During the 20th century, Black feminism evolved quite differently from mainstream feminism. In the late 1900s it was influenced by new writers such as Alice Walker whose literary works spawned the term Womanism, which emphasized the degree of the oppression Black women faced when compared to White women and, for her, encompassed "the solidarity of humanity".


title: Black feminism

text: Black lesbian feminism, as a political identity and movement, arose out of a compound set of grievances involving race, gender, social class, as well as sexual orientation. Black lesbian women were often unwelcome in male-dominated Black movements, and tended to be marginalized not only in mainstream second wave feminism (as exemplified by Betty Friedan who held off making lesbian rights part of her political agenda) but also within the lesbian feminist movement itself. Here the problem was perhaps one more of class than of race. Among lesbian feminism's largely White, middle class leadership, the butch/femme sexual style, fairly common among Black and working class lesbian pairings, was often deprecated as a degrading imitation of male dominate heterosexuality.


title: Black feminism

text: During the 1970s lesbian feminists created their own sector of feminism in response to the unwillingness of mainstream second wave feminism to embrace their cause. They developed a militant agenda, broadly challenging homophobia and demanding a respected place within feminism. Some advocated and experimented with as complete a social separation from men as possible. These separatist notions were off-putting to Black lesbian feminists involved in Black Power movements and tended to deepen their feelings of alienation from a largely White-led movement. As Anita Cornwell stated, "When the shooting starts any Black is fair game. the bullets don't give a damn whether I sleep with a woman or a man".


title: Black feminism

text: In 1970, a defining moment for Black lesbian feminists occurred at the Black Panther's Revolutionary People's Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Several Black lesbian feminists confronted a group of White lesbian feminists about what they saw as a racially divisive agenda. Following this event, several groups began to include and organize around Black lesbian politics. For example, in 1973, the National Black Feminist Organization was founded and included a lesbian agenda. In 1975, the Combahee River Collective was founded out of experiences and feelings of sexism in the Black Power movements and racism in the lesbian feminist movement. The primary focus of this collective was to fight what they saw as interlocking systems of oppression and raise awareness of these systems.


title: Black feminism

text: In 1978, the National Coalition of Black Lesbians and Gay Men was founded. In addition to the multiple organizations that focused on Black lesbian feminism, there were many authors that contributed to this movement, such as Audre Lorde, Barbara Smith, Pat Parker, June Jordan, Darlene Pagano, Kate Rushin, Doris Davenport, Cheryl Clarke, Margaret Sloan-Hunter, and a number of others.


title: Black feminism

text: In the early 1990s, AWARE (African Woman's Action for Revolutionary Exchange) was formed in New York by Reena Walker and Laura Peoples after a plenary session on Black women's issues held at the Malcolm X Conference at the Borough of Manhattan Community College (BMCC) entitled "Black Women and Black Liberation: Fighting Oppression and Building Unity". In 1991, the Malcolm X Conference was held again at BMCC, and the theme that year was "Sisters Remember Malcolm X: A Legacy to be Transformed". It featured plenary sessions, a workshop on "Sexual Harassment: Race, Gender and Power", and was held in a much larger theater that year. Black women were a central focus and not an aside as they were prior. Speakers included Sonia Sanchez, Audre Lorde, Verniece Miller, Reena Walker, Carol Bullard (Asha Bandele), and Vivian Morrison. At the same time, Reena Walker, along with the members of AWARE, also worked in coalition with AWIDOO (American Women in Defense of Ourselves), formed by Barbara Ransby, to sign a full-page ad in "The New York Times" to stand in support of Anita Hill.


title: Black feminism

text: In 1995, Reena Walker went on to put out the call to various women and organized the group African Americans Against Violence that effectively stopped a parade that a group of reverends led by Al Sharpton were attempting to hold in Harlem for Mike Tyson. The group, including Eve and Kathe Sandler, Nsia Bandele, and Indigo Washington, worked successfully to stop the parade from happening, bringing attention to the struggle of Black women against sexism and domestic violence. A supporter of Mike Tyson, social worker Bill Jones, exclaimed "The man has paid his debt" (in regards to Tyson's rape conviction), and joined a large group of other Tyson supporters in heckling the African Americans Against Violence group, accusing them of "catering to white radical feminists".


title: Black feminism

text: A particularly imminent medium of oppression for Black women in the 1980s and '90s was hip-hop music. The New York hip-hop scene was mainly dominated my men and most producers were focused on rap superstars such as Notorious B.I.G. and Sean "Diddy" Combs. A number of female emcees can be credited for having expanded Black womanhood in music during this time; notable artists in the '80s such as MC Lyte, Queen Latifah, and Salt-N-Pepa carved out space for later black female artists. Throughout the '80s and '90s, black female rappers were classified into four categories, often seamlessly traveling between or blending a number of labels together. The categories included the wise "Queen Mother," an intelligent, Afro-centric, and activist-driven image, the beautiful and outspoken "Fly Girl," characterized by fashionable clothes and a self-sufficient attitude, the rebellious "Sista with Attitude," an intensely assertive image that threatened patriarchal stereotypes, and the revolutionary "Lesbian," which openly defied heteronormative ideals. While the first three groups emerged throughout the '80s, the "Lesbian" category was not recognized until the '90s, popularized by the release of Queen Pen's track, "Girlfriend;" until then, gay and lesbian hip-hop artists were alleged. Black female emcees used these categories, and various combinations of their respective images, to address issues that affected Black women and girls and push the boundaries of a historically misogynistic and homophobic industry.


title: Black feminism

text: In the 1990s, Lil' Kim who was signed to Biggie Smalls' Junior M.A.F.I.A. Imprint, expressed her message. She achieved an image of fierce independence and comfort with her body. She defied the presumption in hip-hop that women are there to humble the presence of men. Lil' Kim's outspokenness and unprecedented lyrics were rejected by many people who believed in the traditional sound of hip-hop. Lil' Kim stood behind her words and never apologized for who she is. Faith Evans is another female emcee who broke barriers in the hip-hop world. At just 21 years old, she was the first female artist signed to Bad Boy Records. Faith Evans spent more than 20 years in the music business fighting gender discrimination and harassment in an industry where men were the dominant content creators and producers.


title: Black feminism

text: Mary J. Blige was another artist who became an advocate of women empowerment in hip-hop. She was a legendary singer who influenced the Bad Boy Records label, although she was never signed by them. Together, these women shared a sense of freedom in the music business that allowed them to bring women together across the world. There was a new perspective in the spot light that swung the pendulum in a different direction and gave women in hip-hop a voice.


title: Black feminism

text: Hip-hop feminism, first coined by Joan Morgan in 1999, is considered to be a branch of Black feminism that Author Gwendolyn D. Pough described hip-hop feminists as people who are "immersed in hip-hop culture" and actively advocate against gender discrimination within that culture. She asserts that hip-hop feminists share the same predecessors as black feminists and womanists, inherently connecting the missions and goals of the two communities and grounding them both in the examination of racial, class, and gender-based discrimination. Writers who were figureheads for Black feminism such as Joan Morgan, Denise Cooper, and others from the Third Wave of Black feminism blended their passions for hip-hop culture and Black feminism or womanism, ultimately leading to the inception of hip-hop feminism.


title: Black feminism

text: Some argue hip-hop feminism does not simply overlap with Black feminism but is an extension or expansion of Black feminism. Dr. Whitney A. Peoples argues that examples of Black women being sexually objectified in hip-hop are hyper prominent due to deep-seated racist ideologies and stereotypes that deem Black women as sexually and morally deviant. Hip-hop feminism explores hip-hop as a vehicle for addressing the complexities of misogyny in hip-hop and any discrepancies in mainstream feminism. More than speaking out against misogyny in hip-hop, however, a key characteristic of hip-hop feminism has been said to be its mission to uplift black women and girls who partake in hip-hop culture in their everyday lives. Black women grapple with some of the complexities and influences of hip-hop culture within discourse and writing surrounding black feminists and hip-hop feminists.


title: Black feminism

text: The new century has brought about a shift in thinking away from "traditional" feminism. Third-wave feminism claimed the need for more intersectionality in feminist activism and the inclusion of Black and other ethnic minority women. Moreover, the advancement of technology fostered the development of a new digital feminism. This online activism involved the use of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Tumblr, and other forms of social media to discuss gender equality and social justice. According to NOW Toronto, the internet created a "call-out" culture, in which sexism or misogyny can be called out and challenged immediately with relative ease.


title: Black feminism

text: As an academic response to this shift, many scholars incorporated queer of color critique into their discussions of feminism and queer theory. Queer of color critiques seeks an intersectional approach to misidentifying with the larger themes of "radicalized heteronormativity and heteropatriarchy" in order to create a more representative and revolutionary critique of social categories. An example of queer of color critique can be seen in the Combahee River Collective's statement, which addresses the intersectionality of oppressions faced by Black lesbians.


title: Black feminism

text: The 2010s saw a revitalization of Black feminism. As more influential figures began to identify themselves as feminist, social media saw a rise in young Black feminists willing to bring racist and sexist situations to light. Brittney Cooper, assistant professor in the Department of Women's and Gender Studies at Rutgers University, said: "I think Black feminism is in one of the strongest moments it has seen in a while; From Melissa Harris-Perry on MSNBC, to Laverne Cox on Orange Is the New Black to Beyoncé ... we have prominent Black women [sic] identifying publicly with the term."


title: Black feminism

text: Social media served as a medium for Black feminists to express praise or discontent with organizations' representations of Black women. For example, the 2015 and 2016 Victoria's Secret Fashion Shows were commended by "Ebony" magazine for letting four Black models wear their natural hair on the runway. Black feminists on social media showed support for the natural hair movement using the hashtags #melanin and #BlackGirlmagic.


title: Black feminism

text: Black Girl Magic (#BlackGirlMagic) is a movement that was popularized by CaShawn Thompson in 2013. The concept was born as a way to "celebrate the beauty, power and resilience of Black women". Thompson began to use the hashtag #BlackGirlsAreMagic in 2013 to speak about the positive achievements of Black women. Although it was popularized on social media, the movement has inspired many organizations to host events using the title, along with support from celebrities and politicians globally.


title: Black feminism

text: Alleged instances of the "appropriation" of Black culture were commented on. For example, a 2015 Vogue Italia photo shoot involving model Gigi Hadid wearing an afro sparked backlash on Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook. Some users claimed it was problematic and racist to have a non-Black model wear an afro and a fake tan to give the appearance of Blackness when the fashion magazine could have hired a Black model instead. Kearie Daniel wrote that White people wearing certain hairstyles is a particularly touchy subject in Black feminism because of the perceived double standard that when White women wear Black hairstyles, they are deemed "trendy" or "edgy", while Black women are labelled "ghetto" or "unprofessional".


title: Black feminism

text: Black feminists also voiced the importance of increasing "representation" of Black women in television and movies. According to a 2014 study by the University of Southern California, of the 100 top films of that year, "nearly three-quarters of all characters were white", NPR reports, and only 17 of those 100 top movies featured non-White lead or co-lead actors. That number falls further when only looking at non-White women leads, considering only one-third of speaking roles were for women, according to the same study.


title: Black feminism

text: The activist movement Black Lives Matter was initially formed by Opal Tometi, Alicia Garza, and Patrisse Kahn-Cullors as a hashtag to campaign against racism and police brutality against African Americans in the United States. The movement contributed to a revitalization and re-examining of the Black feminist movement. While the deaths of Black men played a major part in the Black Lives Matter movement, Rekia Boyd, Michelle Cusseaux, Tanisha Anderson, Shelly Frey, Yvette Smith, Eleanor Bumpurs, Sandra Bland, and other women were also killed or assaulted by police officers.


title: Black feminism

text: While Black Lives Matter has been critiqued for a failure to focus on Black women's treatment by the police, it has since been better about incorporating the interlocking systems of oppression that disadvantage Black women in particular. Activism of Black feminists in Black Lives Matter has included protests against political candidates such as Bernie Sanders, Donald Trump, and Hillary Clinton, and they have used hashtags such as #oscarssowhite and #sayhername.


title: Black feminism

text: Black feminist identity politics can be defined as knowing and understanding one's own identity while taking into consideration both personal experience as well as the experiences of those in history to help form a group of like-minded individuals who seek change in the political framework of society. It also can be defined as a rejection of oppressive measures taken against one's group, especially in terms of political injustice.


title: Black feminism

text: Black feminist writer Patricia Hill Collins believes that this "outsider within" seclusion suffered by Black women was created through the domestic sphere, where Black women were considered separate from the perceived White elite who claimed their dominance over them. They also felt a disconnect between the Black men's suffering and oppression. As a result of White feminists excluding Black women from their discourse, Black feminists expressed their own experiences of marginalization and empowered Black consciousness in society. Due to the diverse experiences of Black women, it is imperative to Collins to speak for and of personal accounts of Black women's oppression.


title: Black feminism

text: Identity politics have often implemented race, class, and gender as isolated categories as a means of excluding those who aren't perceived as part of the dominant group. These constructed biases formed from race, class, and gender are what feminist Kimberlé Crenshaw believes need to be used, not as a means of degradation, but as a form of empowerment and self-worth. Ignoring these differences only creates more of a divide between social movements and other feminist groups, especially in the case of violence against women where the caliber of violence is correlated with components such as race and class.


title: Black feminism

text: Another issue of identity politics is the conflict of group formations and safe spaces for Black women. In the 1970s, increased literacy among Black women promoted writing and scholarship as an outlet for feminist discourse where they could have their voices heard. As a result, Black women sought solace in safe spaces that gave them the freedom to discuss issues of oppression and segregation that ultimately promoted unity as well as a means of achieving social justice.


title: Black feminism

text: As the notion of color-blindness advocated for a desegregation in institutions, Black women faced new issues of identity politics and looked for a new safe space to express their concerns. This was met with a lot of contention, as people saw these Black female groups as exclusive and separatist. Dominant groups, especially involved in the political sphere, found these safe spaces threatening because they were away from the public eye and were therefore unable to be regulated by the higher and more powerful political groups.


title: Black feminism

text: Despite the growth in feminist discourse regarding Black identity politics, some men disagree with the Black feminist identity politics movement. Some Black novelists, such as Kwame Anthony Appiah, uphold the notion of color-blindness and dismiss identity politics as a proper means of achieving social justice. To him, identity politics is an exclusionary device implemented in Black culture and history, like hip hop and jazz, that limit outsider comprehension and access. However, writer Jeffery A. Tucker believes that identity politics serves as a foundation where such color-blindness can finally be achieved in the long run if implemented and understood within society.


title: Black feminism

text: Black feminist organizations faced some different challenges than other feminist organizations. Firstly, these women had to "prove to other Black women that feminism was not only for white women". They also had to demand that White women "share power with them and affirm diversity" and "fight the misogynist tendencies of Black Nationalism".


title: Black feminism

text: The short-lived National Black Feminist Organization was founded in 1973 in New York by Margaret Sloan-Hunter and others (The NBFO stopped operating nationally in 1975). This organization of women focused on the interconnectedness of the many prejudices faced by African-American women, such as racism, sexism, classism, and homophobia. In 1975, Barbara Smith, Beverly Smith, Cheryl L. Clarke, Akasha Gloria Hull, and other female activists tied to the civil rights movement, Black nationalism, or the Black Panther Party established, as an offshoot of the National Black Feminist Organization, the Combahee River Collective, a radical lesbian feminist group.


title: Black feminism

text: Their founding text referred to important female figures of the abolitionist movement, such as Sojourner Truth, Harriet Tubman, Frances E. W. Harper, Ida B. Welles Barnett, and Mary Church Terrell, president of the National Association of Colored Women founded in 1896. The Combahee River Collective opposed the practice of lesbian separatism, considering that, in practice, separatists focused exclusively on sexist oppression and not on other oppressions (race, class, etc.)


title: Black feminism

text: The Combahee River Collective (1974-1980) was one of the most important Black socialist feminist organizations of all time. This group began meeting in Boston in 1974, a time when socialist feminism was thriving in Boston. The name Combahee River Collective was suggested by the founder and African-American lesbian feminist, Barbara Smith, and refers to the campaign led by Harriet Tubman, who freed 750 slaves near the Combahee River in South Carolina in 1863. Smith said they wanted the name to mean something to African-American women and that "it was a way of talking about ourselves being on a continuum of Black struggle, of Black women's struggle".


title: Black feminism

text: The members of this organization consisted of many former members of other political organizations that worked within the civil rights movement, anti-war movement, labor movement, and others. Demita Frazier, co-founder of the Combahee River Collective, says these women from other movements found themselves "in conflict with the lack of a feminist analysis and in many cases were left feeling divided against [themselves]." The Combahee River Collective argued in 1974 that the liberation of Black women entails freedom for all people, since it would require the end of racism, sexism, and class oppression. Within the "Black Feminisms: Combahee River Collective Statement" of 1977, they spoke on how it is, "“...difficult to separate race from class from sex oppression because in our" [black women's’] "lives they are the most often experienced simultaneously"." The Combahee River Collective articulated this interlocking system of oppression based on sexism, heterosexism, racism, and classism is due to the lack of basic human rights provided to black women in comparison to other groups, such as white women. This is crucial to the political beliefs of black feminism due to their difference among other groups, as they tackle additional struggles others don't necessarily experience. White women fighting for feminism is distinct from black women fighting for "black" feminism, as white women need only to address one form of oppression [sexism] versus many forms of oppression, like black women. Therefore, the black feminists of the Combahee River Collective aimed for an inclusive rather than exclusive movement because, "“The major source of difficulty in our political work is that we are not just trying to fight oppression on one front or even two, but instead to address a whole range of oppressions. We do not have racial, sexual, heterosexual, or class privilege to rely upon, nor do we have even the minimal access to resources and power that groups who possess any one of these types of privilege have.”"


title: Black feminism

text: As an organization, they were labeled as troublemakers, and many said they were brainwashed by the man-hating White feminist, that they didn't have their own mind, and they were just following in the White woman's footsteps. Throughout the 1970s, the Combahee River Collective met weekly to discuss the different issues concerning Black feminists. They also held retreats throughout the Northeast from 1977 to 1979 to help "institutionalize Black feminism" and develop an "ideological separation from white feminism".


title: Black feminism

text: As an organization, they founded a local battered women's shelter and worked in partnership with all community activists, women and men, and gay and straight people, playing an active role in the reproductive rights movement. The Combahee River Collective ended their work together in 1980 and is now most widely remembered for developing the Combahee River Collective Statement, a key document in the history of contemporary Black feminism and the development of the concepts of identity.


title: Black feminism

text: Michelle Cliff believes that there is continuity "in the written work of many African American Women, ... you can draw a line from the slave narrative of Linda Brent to Elizabeth Keckley's life, to "Their Eyes were Watching God" (by Zora Neale Hurston) to "Coming of Age in Mississippi" (Anne Moody) to Sula (by Toni Morrison), to the "Salt Eaters" (by Toni Cade Bambara) to "Praise Song for the Widow" (by Paule Marshall)." Cliff believes that all of these women, through their stories, "Work against the odds to claim the 'I'".


title: Black feminism

text: Evelyn Hammonds begins her essay by reflecting, as a Black lesbian and feminist writer, on the "consistently exclusionary practices of lesbian and gay studies" that produce such problematic paucities as the presence of writers of color, articles written on Black women's sexuality by Black women that complexly examine race in representations of gender, and the visibility of Black lesbian experiences (Hammonds, 127). Hammonds articulates how Whiteness defines the canonical "categories, identities, and subject positions" of lesbian and gay studies and depends on maintaining and presupposing patterns of Black women and Black lesbian sexualities' invisibility and absence (Hammonds, 128).


title: Black feminism

text: This articulation is directly linked to Hammonds' concern about the visibility and audibility of Black queer sexualities, since Black women's sexualities are perceived as always invisible or absent, then lesbian and queer Black women and authors must follow as doubly invisible. While White sexuality as the normative sexuality has been challenged by other writers, Hammonds frames her intervention as reaching beyond the limits of this familiar critique. To effectively challenge the hegemony of Whiteness within Queer theory, Hammonds charges lack feminists with the major projects of reclaiming sexuality so that Black women and their sexualities may register as present and power relations between White women and Black women's expression of gender and sexuality becomes a part of theory making within Queer studies (Hammonds, 131).


title: Black feminism

text: The involvement of Pat Parker in the Black feminist movement was reflected in her writings as a poet. Her work inspired other Black feminist poets such as Hattie Gossett.


title: Black feminism

text: In 2018, Carol Giardian wrote an article, "Mow to Now: Black Feminism Resets the Chronology of the Founding of Modern Feminism", which explores Black women and their involvement with the organizing of the 1963 March on Washington (MOW). Particular focus is given to how this was pivotal to the shift of feminist organizing of the 1960s. Many activists are noted, including Dorothy Height, Pauli Murray, and Anna Arnold Hedgeman. Facing down powerful male figures of the Black church, they established feminist protest models that they subsequently used to inform the establishment of the National Organization for Women in 1966.


title: Black feminism

text: Other theorists and writers who have contributed to the literature of Black feminism include Moya Bailey and Trudy of Gradient Lair, who both write about the anti-Black and/or racist misogyny against Black women, also known as misogynoir, a term coined by Bailey in 2008. In 2018, both these women wrote an article named "On Misogynoir: Citation, erasure and plagiarism", which talks about the works of Black feminists often being plagiarized or erased from most literary works, also implicitly and sometimes explicitly linked to gender oppression, particularly for women of color.


title: Black feminism

text: Misogynoir is grounded in the theory of intersectionality; it examines how identities such as race, gender, and sexual orientation connect in systems of oppression. Modern-day Black activists, such as Feminista Jones, a feminist commentator, claim that "Misogynoir provides a racialised nuance that mainstream feminism wasn't catching" and that "there is a specific misogyny that is aimed at Black women and is uniquely detrimental to Black women."


title: Spikenard

text: Spikenard, also called nard, nardin, and muskroot, is a class of aromatic amber-colored essential oil derived from "Nardostachys jatamansi", a flowering plant in the honeysuckle family which grows in the Himalayas of Nepal, China, and India. The oil has been used over centuries as a perfume, a traditional medicine, or in religious ceremonies across a wide territory from India to Europe. Historically, the name "nard" has also referred to essential oils derived from other species including the closely related valerian genus, as well as Spanish lavender; these cheaper, more common plants have been used in perfume-making, and sometimes to adulterate true spikenard.


title: Spikenard

text: The name "nard" is derived from Latin "nardus", from Ancient Greek νάρδος ("nárdos"). This word may ultimately derive either from Sanskrit नलद ("nálada", Indian spikenard), or from Naarda, an ancient Assyrian city (possibly the modern town of Dohuk, Iraq). The "spike" in the name refers to the inflorescence or flowering stem of the plant.


title: Spikenard

text: "Nardostachys jatamansi" is a flowering plant of the honeysuckle family that grows in the Himalayas of Nepal, China, and India. In bloom, the plant grows to about 1 meter (3 ft) in height and has small, pink, bell-shaped flowers. It is found at an altitude of about . Its rhizomes can be crushed and distilled into an intensely aromatic, amber-colored essential oil with a thick consistency. Nard oil is used as a perfume, an incense, and as an herbal medicine.


title: Spikenard

text: In ancient Rome, "nardus" was used to flavor wine, and occurs frequently in the recipes of Apicius. During the early Roman empire, "nardus" was the main ingredient of a perfume ("unguentum" "nardinum").


title: Spikenard

text: Pliny's "Natural History" lists several species of "nardus" used in making perfume and spiced wine: Indian nard, a stinking nard called 'ozaenitidos' which is not used, a false nard ('pseudo-nard') with which true nard is adulterated, and several herbs local to Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean which are also called "nardus", namely Syrian nard, Gallic nard, Cretan nard (also called 'agrion' or 'phun'), field nard (also called 'bacchar'), wild nard (also called 'asaron'), and Celtic nard. Celtic nard is the only species Pliny mentions which he does not describe when listing the species of nard in book 12 of "Natural History" suggesting it is synonymous with another species, probably with the species Pliny refers to as 'hirculus', a plant Pliny attests to growing in the same region as Gallic nard and which he says is used to adulterate Gallic nard. Both are widely assumed to be cultivars or varieties of "Valeriana celtica".


title: Spikenard

text: Indian nard refers to "Nardostachys jatamansi", stinking nard possibly to "Allium victorialis", false nard to "Lavandula stoechas", Syrian nard to "Cymbopogon nardus", Gallic nard to "Valeriana celtica", Cretan nard to "Valeriana italica" (syn. "V. dioscoridis", "V. tuberosa"), and wild nard to "Asarum europaeum". Field nard, or 'bacchar', has not been conclusively identified and must not be confused with species now called "baccharises" referring to species native to North America.


title: Spikenard

text: In the Hispanic iconographic tradition of the Catholic Church, the spikenard is used to represent Saint Joseph. The Vatican has said that the coat of arms of Pope Francis includes the spikenard in reference to Saint Joseph.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: The Super Bowl LIV halftime show, officially known as the Pepsi Super Bowl LIV Halftime Show, took place on February 2, 2020, at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, as part of Super Bowl LIV. It was televised in the U.S. by Fox. It was co-headlined by Shakira and Jennifer Lopez, and included guest appearances by Bad Bunny, J Balvin, and Lopez's daughter Emme Muñiz.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: The halftime show received critical acclaim including four Primetime Emmy nominations, winning one. It was also received many other awards, winning "Best Live Performance" at the 2021 Premios Nuestra Tierra credited to Shakira.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: In August 2019, it was announced Jay-Z's company Roc Nation had entered a deal with the NFL for him and his company to produce the halftime show in the wake of his and others' backlash against the previous year's musical acts Maroon 5 and Travis Scott seen as strikebreakers to the politics around Colin Kaepernick.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: On September 26, 2019, the selection of Shakira and Jennifer Lopez to headline the show was announced; according to reports, the selection was intended to reflect the Latin culture of the host city Miami. This was the third time Latin music artists headlined the Super Bowl halftime show; Gloria Estefan headlined both the Super Bowl XXVI halftime show in 1992 and the Super Bowl XXXIII halftime show in 1999. For months, rumors Lopez might be chosen as a halftime show act had circulated; she had expressed her interest in doing so in July 2019. Jon Pareles of the "New York Times" also wrote in his review of the show that booking the two "steered the halftime show away from black-and-white racial tensions and toward the joys of motion and seduction." Multiple big acts have paired before: Aerosmith and NSYNC in 2001 and Coldplay, Beyoncé, and Bruno Mars in 2016.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Roc Nation served as producers and creative directors of the show; their producers included Dan Parise. Ricky Kirshner served as the show's executive producer and Hamish Hamilton served as director.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Adam Blackstone, the musical director of the show noted that the show intends to cement what both women represent. Calling Shakira a "global phenomenon" he says he had to think about the singer's global fan base. For Jennifer, he says the intentions were to represent her as an icon in acting, music, and dance. His vision and mission were to make the two acts feel cohesive and a part of the same show.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Tabitha and Napoleon D'umo served as the creative directors and choreographers for Lopez's half of the show, which included approximately 130 dancers. which was choreographed by Tabitha D'umo and Parris Goebel. Jaquel Knight, Nadine Eliya, and Maite Marcos were the creative directors and choreographers of Shakira's half. In mid-January, the producers announced they would recruit approximately 600 field team members to assist with the performance. Ultimately, 670 team field members were enlisted.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Among the equipment used for the show were 565 ROE CB5 tiles, 8 Brompton SX40 4K LED processors, 22 Brompton Tessera XD data distribution boxes using 8x optical fiber runs, 4 4K video feeds—two main and two for backup—and 8 LED techs. The pyrotechnics for the show used 5,350 pieces of product, which were launched from 32 roof locations and 16 special locations, using 80 firing modules. A FireOne control system was used. Twenty-four 30W Arctos Systems lasers were used in the show.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Reviewer Chris Willman of "Variety" wrote "Costumers deserve almost as much credit as the choreographers here." Shakira's set had three costume changes; each piece was custom-made by Norwegian designer Peter Dundas. Her first was a red, cropped bustier with a cross-straps top that was paired with a removable corset and fringed skirt, each of which were covered with 123,000 Swarovski crystals in three shades of red. This was paired with crystal-accented leather cuffs and knee-high boots that were made by the designer Daniel Jacob. The boots were covered with 30,000 Swarovski crystals and took ten days to create. Shakira then made a mid-performance costume change to reveal a fringed, feathered skirt that was previously hidden under a sarong. Her final costume was an entirely new ensemble consisting of a bomber jacket covered in gold sequin embroidery and gold-and-white Swarovski crystals on a matching gold sequin crop top, which she wore with matching high-waisted hot pants and Dundas-customized Adidas Superstar sneakers.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Lopez's stylists were Rob Zangardi and Mariel Haenn, her makeup artist was Scott Barnes, and her hairstylist was Chris Appleton. Her set involved five costume changes; all of her looks and those of her dancers were custom-designed by Versace and approved by Donatella Versace: Lopez was the face of Versace's Spring 2020 campaign. Haenn noted; "Every look has to be layered one on top of the other because she never really leaves the stage". Lopez's first outfit was a Swarovski crystal-and-gold-studded, biker-inspired black leather Medusa bodysuit paired with a pink satin ball gown skirt. Her backup dancers also wore black leather biker jackets paired with pleated miniskirts trimmed with black lace. During the set she tore off her skirt to reveal black leather chaps. Lopez later took off this outfit to reveal a custom-made body-hugging silver catsuit coated in crystals and tiny mirrored panels. She next changed into a metal-mesh-and-crystal-fringed bustier with bondage-harness details, topped by a feather cape around her shoulders that depicted the U.S. flag on the outside and the Puerto Rican flag on the inside. Lopez later revealed that the Puerto Rican flag's inclusion in the show was a secret, "The flag — I didn't even show it to anybody until the last minute because I didn't want anybody telling me I couldn't do it", adding: "I just had the American flag on the outside and during rehearsals".


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Shakira, standing on a platform on the stage and wearing a "tiny red sequin dress", opened the show dancing "Dare (La La La)". She started her set with a performance of "She Wolf", surrounded by a group of dancers, the segued into a performance of "Empire", during which she played an electric guitar and included elements of "Inevitable" and Led Zeppelin's "Kashmir". She then wrapped a rope around her wrists, sang part of the first verse of "Ojos Así", and then did a belly dancing using part of "Move" by Said Mrad with added strings. This was followed by a performance of "Whenever, Wherever", after which guest artist Bad Bunny joined her on stage. Shakira and Bad Bunny performed a cover of his song "I Like It" then they sang a mash up of Shakira's "Chantaje" and Bunny's "Callaíta" together. In the final section of Shakira's set, she performed "Hips Don't Lie", during which she crowd surfed, danced mapalé, and wagged her tongue in an Arabic tradition known as zaghrouta.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Jennifer Lopez then appeared for the beginning of her set wearing a black leather bodysuit. After rising from a "skyscraper-turned-stripper pole", she performed and opens up with a one second sample of Frankie Cutlass Hip Hop classic song “Puerto Rico” then "Jenny from the Block" then "Ain't It Funny (Murder Remix)", while backed by dancers. Following a performance of "Get Right", Lopez changed her costume for a "sparkling" catsuit and sang "Waiting for Tonight" while pole dancing; her pole-dance routine included a "tabletop move with the dancers writhing underneath". She was then joined on stage by J Balvin, who performed "Que Calor" and "Mi Gente", which were mashed up with Lopez's songs "Booty", "El Anillo" and "Love Don't Cost a Thing" as she danced above. Lopez then performed "On the Floor".


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Shakira returned to play drums while Lopez's daughter Emme Muñiz appeared on stage to sing "Let's Get Loud" with an excerpt from Bruce Springsteen's "Born in the U.S.A." as Lopez was in front of an all-female choir. During this section of Lopez's set, she wore a feather cape depicting both the Puerto Rican and American flags while children on the field appeared in "cage like structures", which was interpreted as a statement on the U.S.-Mexico border crisis.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Shakira, who was now clothed in a "short golden outfit", subsequently performed "Waka Waka (This Time for Africa)" during a dance routine of champeta. Lopez then returned to the stage to perform "Aguanile" by Héctor Lavoe as a "Vegas-style salsa number" and was joined by Colombian salsa dance group Swing Latino. Both of the headlining acts ended their performance with "synchronized shimmies".


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: The halftime show was critically acclaimed. Jon Pareles of "The New York Times" lauded the performance, calling it an improvement over the previous years halftime. He called the show "a no-nonsense affirmation of Latin pride and cultural diversity in a political climate where immigrants and American Latinos have been widely demonized", called Shakira and Lopez "Latina superwomen, smiling pop conquistadoras backed by phalanxes of dancers", and calling the show "euphoria with a purpose". David Bauder of the Associated Press wrote Lopez and Shakira "infused the Super Bowl halftime show with an exuberance and joy that celebrated their Latina heritage". He also wrote, "Their breathless athleticism matched that of the football players waiting in the locker room" but called J Balvin's and Bad Bunny's guest appearances "superfluous". Greg Kot of the "Chicago Tribune" wrote, "Prince's 2007 Super Bowl performance is still king of halftime, but Shakira and J Lo were certainly the most undeniable performance since then". Bobby Olivier of NJ.com described the halftime show as "high-octane, relentless Latin pop fun", adding it was "a blazing performance that should challenge Lady Gaga and Beyoncé as some of the best halftime sets of the past decade or so".


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Chuck Arnold of the "New York Post" described the performance as "electric". Greg Evans of "Deadline Hollywood" wrote, "In a high-energy mix of music, dance and sequins, Lopez and Shakira (and several teams worth of back-up dancers) delivered a spectacle-style show [that is] not without its statements". Alex Suskind of "Entertainment Weekly" said the performance was "a punchy, political, and flat-out electric 14-minute performance that doubled as a salute to Latin culture and celebration of both stars’ careers". Patrick Ryan of "USA Today" hailed the performance as "one of the best Super Bowl halftime shows in memory." "The Hollywood Reporter" called the show the most "lively, and smile inducing" halftime show.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: There were also criticisms. John J. Moser of "The Morning Call" called it the "sexiest halftime show in memory", but also said it was not the "edgiest or most contemporary" halftime show in recent years. Jeff Miers of "The Buffalo News" wrote, "the Super Bowl halftime show has not really been about music, per se, in a long while. The J-Lo/Shakira throwdown carried that tradition forward, emphasizing spectacle, bombast and flash over music—in this case, an only mildly Latin-flavored pop-dance hybrid". On Shakira's role in the show, Naomi Fry of "The New Yorker" wrote, "she looked and sounded great, moving fleetly between monster bangers". She also wrote, "Lopez's voice isn't her strongest asset, and she spent minutes at a time dancing rather than singing, but her showmanship was unparalleled", calling the pace of her performance "furious." In "Vibe", Desire Thompson praised Shakira's "cultural homages" which were "the most prominent" during the show, referring to her inclusion of mapalé, champeta and zaghrouta.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: The reaction was more negative particularly among conservative and Christian audiences. Leah Barkoukis of Townhall.com commented; "If it was a mix of hypersexual entertainment with a bonus political statement you were looking for in Super Bowl LIV’s halftime show, then 2020’s big game didn't disappoint". Evangelist Franklin Graham said the performance was "showing young girls that sexual exploitation of women is okay". Jeanne F. Mancini, president of anti-abortion rally March for Life, said the show was "[e]mbarrassing for everyone [she was] with—looking away, etc". In a "USA Today" op-ed, Gil Smart stated the show "should have come with a parental warning" and that "to some, the show was a joyful, Miami-infused explosion of dance and high-energy music that got you out of your seat ... To others, it looked a lot like softcore porn". Despite this criticism from some conservative outlets, some prominent Republicans from Florida, including political strategist and commentator Ana Navarro, Senators Marco Rubio and Rick Scott, and former governor Jeb Bush, praised the show. An investigation by Dallas-Fort Worth television station WFAA found viewers filed more than 1,300 complaints to the FCC over the content.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Dee Snider of Twisted Sister accused the National Football League (NFL) of neglecting heavy metal and hard rock music. However, hard rock acts have made appearances in past Super Bowl halftime shows, such as The Who, Aerosmith, The Rolling Stones, Tom Petty, and Bruce Springsteen.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: In the United States, the Super Bowl LIV halftime show attracted 103 million viewers, an increase of 4% on the previous year. The viewership was slightly higher than the game itself, which was viewed by an average of 99.9 million television viewers. Social media activity relating to the show showed a significant spike; over 1 million tweets mentioned Lopez and Shakira, a 431% increase from the previous year's 127,576 mentions of Maroon 5. Of the 1,114,545 tweets mentioning the show, 69% expressed a positive sentiment; 38% of tweets expressed joy and 8% expressed love. Shakira's name generated over 2.6 million tweets which accumulated more tweets than the Super Bowl as a whole (1.85 million) placing her at number one on trending topics. Her zaghrouta during the show resulted in a viral internet meme.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: Both Lopez's and Shakira's music also experienced increased sales. According to an initial sales report by Nielsen Music, the songs performed in the show experienced a 1,013% sales increase in the U.S. on February 2, increasing to 16,000 digital downloads—up from just over 1,000 the previous day. According to Alpha Data, the spike in songs sales was 1,000% and the songs performed increased 1,374% in sales over the previous day, selling more than 17,000 copies. According to Nielsen Music, of the songs performed in the show, "Whenever, Wherever" was the best-selling, garnering 4,000 downloads, a 1,194% increase over the prior day. The next-best-selling song was "Hips Don't Lie", which garnered 2,000 downloads, an increase 1,126% over the previous day. Alpha Data also said "Whenever, Wherever" was the biggest-selling of the show's songs in sales on the day of the performance, with 4,000 downloads, a 1,349% increase over the previous day. It also found in regards to all industry-wide song sales on the day of the performance, the song was the third-best-selling song; "Hips Don't Lie" was the fourth-best selling; and "Waka Waka (This Time for Africa)" was the tenth-best-selling song. Alpha Data reported "She Wolf" had a 3,000% increase in sales on the day of the show, the greatest percentage increase of any of the songs performed. It also reported Lopez saw 6,000 in sales of her songs that were included in the show on the day of the performance. "On the Floor" sold 1,600 copies on the day of the performance.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: The artists' music also experienced a spike on streaming platforms. Amazon reported Amazon Alexa requests for Lopez's music on Amazon Music rose 426% and that requests for Shakira rose 303%. Compared with the previous Sunday, streams of Lopez's tracks on Amazon Music rose 432% while streams of Shakira's tracks rose 150%. On Spotify, streams for Lopez's music rose more than 335%, and Shakira's music rose by approximately 230%. The song with the greatest increase in streams on Spotify was Shakira's "Empire", with an increase of 2,135%. Alpha Data found that "Hips Don't Lie" was the most streamed of the songs included in the show, with 1.8 million on-demand audio streams on the day of and the day following the performance. "She Wolf" saw a 500% increase in sales in the 24 hours after the show. Alpha Data reported that Lopez's "On the Floor" was streamed 830,000 within 24 hours of the show. As for overall streams "Billboard" reported that the song catalogs of the two performers earned 31.1 million on-demand streams (audio and video combined) on Feb. 2 and Feb. 3 -- up 193% as compared to their streaming sum on Jan. 31 and Feb. 1 (10.6 million). Lopez's songs amassed 10.1 million streams on Feb. 2–3, up 149% versus the 4.06 million they collected on Jan. 31 and Feb. 1. Shakira's songs earned 20.98 million streams on Feb. 2 and Feb. 3, up 221% as compared to the 6.53 million they earned on Jan. 31 and Feb. 1.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: "Rolling Stone" and "Forbes" reported after the broadcast, Shakira's catalogue benefited the most across music charts. The official video of the show on YouTube had 30 million views in its first 24 hours, entering the top 20 of most viewed videos and topping the channel's "trending" charts in many countries. Within four days, it had over 100 million views and became the seventh-fastest-growing music-related video of all time, and also became the most-watched Super Bowl halftime performance of all time on YouTube, overtaking the Super Bowl 50 halftime show, which had 82 million views at the time it was overtaken. As of October 2022, the performance has accumulated more than 250 million views. Shakira was Google's most searched artist in the US in 2020. On June 23, 2021, the posted video now has 210 million views, becoming the only NFL Super Bowl in history to reach this milestone.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: In 2021, TicketSource revealed that the 2020 Super Bowl halftime show starring Shakira and Jennifer Lopez is the world's most popular halftime show in history. Similarly, it is considered as the most popular female performance in history. The show came second to only Queen's 1985 Live Aid performance as the world's most popular live performance in history. The halftime show is also the most viewed Super Bowl halftime show on YouTube. Peaking with 12.1 million viewers, it is also the most viewed halftime in Canada in history.


title: Super Bowl LIV halftime show

text: A documentary film based on the show titled "" was directed by Amanda Micheli. It premiered on the 2022 Tribeca Film Festival on June 8 and was released on Netflix on June 14, 2022.


title: Dale Murphy

text: Dale Bryan Murphy (born March 12, 1956) is an American former professional baseball player. During an 18-year career in Major League Baseball (MLB) (–), he played as an outfielder, catcher, and first baseman for the Atlanta Braves, Philadelphia Phillies, and Colorado Rockies; Murphy is best noted for his many years with the Braves. His entire MLB career was spent in the National League (NL), during which time he won consecutive Most Valuable Player (MVP) awards (–), the Silver Slugger Award for four straight years (1982–), and the Gold Glove Award for five straight years (1982–). Murphy is a member of the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame, Georgia Sports Hall of Fame, and World Sports Humanitarian Hall of Fame.


title: Dale Murphy

text: Dale Murphy was born in Portland, Oregon, on March 12, 1956 to parents Charles and Betty. He had a sister, Sue. Murphy played American Legion Baseball and attended Woodrow Wilson High School.


title: Dale Murphy

text: In 1976, Murphy began his major league career with a nineteen-game stint catching with the Atlanta Braves. He appeared in only eighteen games the following season. In 1978, Murphy played first base mostly; at the plate he had a .226 batting average, though he also showed hints of his future power by hitting 23 home runs.


title: Dale Murphy

text: Murphy switched to the outfield in 1980, a move that would help initiate a decade of highly productive play in the National League. Beginning in left field, he soon switched to center field, the position at which he would find his greatest success. By 1982, the most decorated year of Murphy's career, the former catcher had transformed himself into an All-Star MVP outfielder who appeared in each of Atlanta's 162 games. His turnaround as a fielder was equally stark. In 1978, Murphy led all National League first basemen in errors. In 1982, spending time at each of the three outfield positions, he won the first of five consecutive Gold Gloves, as well as the first MVP award by a Brave since 1957, when Hank Aaron won the award with the then-Milwaukee Braves.


title: Dale Murphy

text: Playing in the decade before the Braves began their dominance of the National League East, Murphy also made his only postseason appearance in 1982. Although he performed well, the eventual World Series-champion St. Louis Cardinals eliminated the Braves in the 1982 National League Championship Series. The league's most valuable player failed to translate his regular season preeminence into October success, hitting safely only three times and scoring one run. Murphy rebounded from the postseason sweep with another MVP award in 1983. This time period ultimately proved the high-water era of Murphy's career. Each year during the four season span from 1982 to 1986 he won a Gold Glove, appeared in the All-Star Game, and placed in the top ten in MVP voting.


title: Dale Murphy

text: In 1988, however, despite being voted to what would be his final All-Star appearance, Murphy's production began an inexorable slide downward. Murphy saw his batting average free-fall from .295 in 1987 to .226 in 1988. Only once more, in 1991, would Murphy bat above .250. Once a consistent source of power at the plate, he never again hit 25 home runs or more in a season.


title: Dale Murphy

text: During his 15th season with the Braves, Murphy was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies on August 3, 1990. Murphy's time with the Phillies was mostly uneventful. A degenerative, arthritic condition in his left knee limited Murphy to only 18 games in the 1992 season with the Phillies, although he did hit two home runs in that time to bring his career total to 398. He was released by the Phillies at the end of 1993 Spring Training and, on the same day, signed a Minor League contract with the Colorado Rockies for their inaugural season. He was used mostly as a pinch hitter.


title: Dale Murphy

text: After going 0-for-3 with a strikeout in the Rockies' 8-0 road loss to the Los Angeles Dodgers on May 21, 1993 (a rare start and, even more rare, only the fourth time all season he was in a game from the first pitch to the final out), Murphy did not play in the next 4 games. On the morning of May 27, 1993, while the Rockies were in Houston to begin a series with the Astros, he suddenly announced his retirement from baseball at age 37. He explained the Rockies were needing to make a 25-man roster move and informed him ahead of time he was going to be released. The team gave him the chance to retire instead of being released, which he did.


title: Dale Murphy

text: Murphy finished at 398 career home runs, failing to homer for the Rockies in 49 plate appearances and reach the 400-homer milestone. At the time of his retirement, he was 27th on the all-time home run list and 4th among active players, two behind Andre Dawson of the Boston Red Sox.


title: Dale Murphy

text: Murphy finished his career with 398 home runs, 1,266 RBI, and a .265 lifetime batting average. His MVP awards in 1982 and 1983 make him one of only four outfielders in MLB history with consecutive MVP years; at the time, he was the youngest to have accomplished the feat. His many honors include seven All-Star appearances, five Gold Gloves, and four Silver Sluggers. Murphy led the National League in home runs and runs batted in (RBI) twice; he also led the major leagues in home runs and RBI over the 10-year span from 1981 to 1990.


title: Dale Murphy

text: During the 1980s, Murphy led the National League in games, at bats, runs, hits, extra base hits, RBIs, runs created, total bases, and plate appearances. His 308 home runs during the decade is second only to Mike Schmidt's 313. He also accomplished a 30–30 (30 home runs with 30 stolen bases) season in 1983. Murphy played in 740 consecutive games, at the time the 11th longest such streak in baseball history. His jersey number ("3") was retired by the Atlanta Braves on June 13, 1994, in his honor as opposed to that of even Babe Ruth, who wore Boston Braves number 3 during the partial season with which his career concluded. Murphy was inducted into both the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame and the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame in 1997.


title: Dale Murphy

text: Murphy's clean-living habits off the diamond were frequently noted in the media. A devout member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), Murphy did not drink alcoholic beverages, would not allow women to be photographed embracing him, and paid his teammates' dinner checks as long as alcoholic beverages were not on the tab. He also refused to give television interviews unless he was fully dressed. Murphy had been introduced to the LDS Church early in his career by teammate Barry Bonnell.


title: Dale Murphy

text: For several years the "Atlanta Constitution" ran a weekly column, wherein Murphy responded to young fans' questions and letters. In 1987 he shared "Sports Illustrated" magazine's "Sportsmen and Sportswomen of the Year" award with seven others, characterized as "Athletes Who Care", for his work with numerous charities, including the Make-a-Wish Foundation, the Georgia March of Dimes and the American Heart Association.


title: Dale Murphy

text: One of his more memorable incidents was reminiscent of a scene from the classic black-and-white baseball film "The Pride of the Yankees":


title: Dale Murphy

text: Before a home game against San Francisco on June 12, 1983, Murphy visited in the stands with Elizabeth Smith, a six-year-old girl who had lost both hands and a leg when she stepped on a live power line. After Murphy gave her a cap and a T shirt, her nurse innocently asked if he could hit a home run for Elizabeth. "I didn't know what to say, so I just sort of mumbled 'Well, O.K.,' " says Murphy. That day he hit two homers and drove in all the Braves' runs in a 3–2 victory.


title: Dale Murphy

text: He was ultimately granted several honors because of his integrity, character, and sportsmanship, including the Lou Gehrig Memorial Award (1985), "Sportsman of the Year" (1987), Roberto Clemente Award (1988), Bart Giamatti Community Service Award (1991), and World Sports Humanitarian Hall of Fame (1991 induction).


title: Dale Murphy

text: Despite his reputation as a star five-tool player superstar and multiple MVP awards, Murphy has not been elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. He first appeared on the writers' ballot in 1999. He has failed to gain election, joining Barry Bonds, Roger Maris, and Juan González as the only Hall of Fame-eligible recipients of multiple MVP awards not in the Hall. His failed candidacy has drawn particular notice due to his reputation as a clean-living player whose career was immediately followed by baseball's scandal-plagued "steroids era".


title: Dale Murphy

text: Baseball writer Rob Neyer feels that the former MVP's candidacy has been hurt by a career that "got a late start and suffered an early end." Stuart Miller, baseball writer for "The New York Times", also notes the "sharp decline" in production that plagued Murphy after the age of 31 in arguing, "Players who were great for a short time do not receive much [Hall of Fame] recognition." Finding "one of baseball's best players in the 1980s" to be "undervalued", Miller nonetheless writes that the Brave great "is typically considered a 'close but no' guy." Statistician Bill James says of Murphy, "It certainly wouldn't offend me to have him in the Hall of Fame. I just wouldn't advocate it." James set a metric for Hall induction as 300 Win Shares, a statistic weighing what players contribute to their team's victories. Murphy has 253 Win Shares. James ranks eight Hall of Famers below Murphy.


title: Dale Murphy

text: A writer for the "Charlotte Observer" wrote, "Murphy's incredible nine-year run in Atlanta was every bit as good as anyone else during his era". Neyer notes that the explosion of power during the steroids-fueled era that began after Murphy's retirement may have caused Murphy's numbers to pale in comparison for many voters. Some have argued that Murphy's reputation for clean living may encourage voters to "look more favorably on what Murphy did without using performance-enhancing drugs." (Murphy has asserted that Barry Bonds "without a doubt" used performance-enhancing drugs.) "Sports Illustrated"'s Joe Posnanski has endorsed Murphy as an "emotional pick … a larger-than-life character who signed every autograph, spoke up for every charity and played brilliant baseball every day for mostly doomed teams." The Baseball Project, a supergroup composed of Peter Buck, Mike Mills, Scott McCaughey, Steve Wynn and Linda Pitmon, wrote the song “To The Veterans Committee” advocating his election and praising him for meeting the voting criteria: ability, integrity, sportsmanship, character, and contributions to the team(s) on which the player played.


title: Dale Murphy

text: Although he continued to earn the requisite 5% to remain on the ballot, Murphy averaged only 13.6% over the first twelve years of voting. (Election to the hall requires 75%.) In the first decade of his eligibility, he "peaked at 23% in 2000 and fell to 11.5% in 2009." Moreover, as writers may only vote for ten players each year, some have argued that the candidacy of stars from the 1980s, such as Murphy, will become imperiled as a wave of more recently retired players with more statistically impressive credentials becomes eligible in the 2010s. Noting his low vote totals, Murphy has said, "Since I'm not that close [to election] … I don't think about it that much." On January 9, 2013, in his 15th and final appearance on the Hall of Fame ballot, Murphy secured 18.9% of the vote, falling well short of the 75% necessary to enter the Baseball Hall of Fame on the BBWAA ballot. Since Murphy's removal from the BBWAA ballot, his Hall of Fame candidacy has been considered twice by the Modern Era Baseball Committee, in 2018 and 2020, and once by the Contemporary Baseball Era Players Committee in 2022.


title: Dale Murphy

text: In 2005, Murphy started a non-profit organization called the iWontCheat Foundation to promote ethical behavior, and deter steroid use and cheating in youth athletics. Since 2008 all players from the participating teams at the Little League World Series wear the "I WON'T CHEAT!" embroidered patch above the Little League Baseball logo on the left sleeve of their jerseys.


title: Dale Murphy

text: In 2008, he was appointed to the National Advisory Board for the national children's charity, Operation Kids. Murphy serves as a national advisor to . Murphy is a long time supporter of Operation Smile and also currently serves on the organization's Board of Governors.


title: Dale Murphy

text: During the 2012 MLB season, Murphy was a part of the Atlanta Braves TV broadcasting crew and participated in the telecast of at least 14 games.


title: Dale Murphy

text: In 2017 he opened a restaurant, Murph's, in Atlanta near Truist Park, where the Braves have played since the 2017 season. He lives in Alpine, Utah.


title: Dale Murphy

text: Murphy has written three books. The first, "The Scouting Report on Professional Athletics", elaborates details of the professional athlete's lifestyle. Murphy discusses balancing career and family, working with agents, managing business affairs, serving one's community, and preparing for retirement. In his second book, an autobiography titled "Murph", he talked about his religious faith. He discussed the struggles of his early baseball career and how he overcame problems. In 2007 Murphy wrote his third book, "The Scouting Report for Youth Athletics", in response to what he saw as the increase in negative behavior in youth sports resulting from poor examples set by professional athletes. Included with each book is a 50-page insert which includes contributions from, among others, Peyton Manning, Dwyane Wade, Tom Glavine, and Danica Patrick. In a question-and-answer format, they discuss the lessons they learned from youth sports and how they apply the lessons today. There is also a physician-penned section about illegal performance-enhancing drug use in sports.


title: Dale Murphy

text: Murphy and his wife, Nancy, have eight children: sons Chad, Travis, Shawn, Tyson, Taylor, Jake, and McKay and daughter Madison.


title: Giga-

text: Giga ( or ) is a unit prefix in the metric system denoting a factor of a short-scale billion or long-scale milliard (10 or ). It has the symbol G.


title: Giga-

text: "Giga" is derived from the Greek word ("gígas"), meaning "giant". The "Oxford English Dictionary" reports the earliest written use of "giga" in this sense to be in the Reports of the IUPAC 14th Conférence Internationale de Chimie in 1947: "The following prefixes to abbreviations for the names of units should be used: G giga 10×."


title: Giga-

text: When referring to information units in computing, such as gigabyte, giga may sometimes mean (2); this causes ambiguity. Standards organizations discourage this and use giga- to refer to 10 in this context too. "Gigabit" is only rarely used with the binary interpretation of the prefix. The binary prefix "gibi" has been adopted for 2, while reserving "giga" exclusively for the metric definition.


title: Giga-

text: In English, the prefix "giga" can be pronounced (a hard "g" as in "giggle"), or (a soft "g" as in "gigantic", which shares "giga" Ancient Greek root).


title: Giga-

text: A prominent example of this latter pronunciation is found in the pronunciation of "gigawatts" in the 1985 film "Back to the Future".


title: Giga-

text: According to the American writer Kevin Self, a German committee member of the International Electrotechnical Commission proposed "giga" as a prefix for 10 in the 1920s, drawing on a verse (evidently "Anto-logie") by the German humorous poet Christian Morgenstern that appeared in the third (1908) edition of his (Gallows Songs). This suggests that a hard German was originally intended as the pronunciation. Self was unable to ascertain when the (soft "g") pronunciation came into occasional use, but claimed that as of 1995 it had returned to (hard "g").


title: Giga-

text: In 1998, a poll by the phonetician John C. Wells found that 84% of Britons preferred the pronunciation of "gigabyte" starting with (as in "gig"), 9% with (as in "jig"), 6% with ("guy"), and 1% with (as in "giant").


title: Giga-

text: The notation can represent 1,073,741,824 (2) bytes or 1,000,000,000 bytes. Under the IEC 60027-2 A.2 and ISO/IEC 80000 standards, the correct notation of 2 is "gibi" (symbol Gi). distinction So one gibibyte () is 1,073,741,824 bytes or . Despite international standards, the use of = 2 B is widespread. A laptop advertised as having has 8,589,934,592 bytes of memory: , or .


title: Religion in Greece

text: Religion in Greece is dominated by Christianity, in particular the Greek Orthodox Church, which is within the larger communion of the Eastern Orthodox Church. It represented 90% of the total population in 2015 and is constitutionally recognized as the "prevailing religion" of Greece. Religions with smaller numbers of followers include Islam (comprising 2% of the population), Catholicism (comprising less than 1% of the population), Evangelicalism, Hellenic Paganism, Sikhism and Hinduism. Also a small number of Greek Atheists exists, not self-identifying as religious. Religion is key part of identity for most Greeks, with 76% of Greeks in a 2015-17 survey saying that their nationality is defined by Christianity. Statistics on metaphysics and worldview, do not concern narrowly only the hyponym religion.


title: Religion in Greece

text: The Church of Greece, a member of the Eastern Orthodox Communion, is accorded the status of "prevailing religion" in Greece's constitution. Since 1850, Greek Orthodoxy within Greece is handled by the Church. Its members comprise between 88% and 95-98% of the population, the most recent Pew report gave a percentage of 90% as 2015 numbers.


title: Religion in Greece

text: The status of the Orthodox church as the "prevailing religion" is largely based on the role the church played for the preservation of the Greek nation through the years of the Ottoman Empire but also for the role the church played in the Greek War of Independence. As a result, many attribute to the modern Greek nation an ethnoreligious identity.


title: Religion in Greece

text: Furthermore, the mainstream Orthodox clergy's salaries and pensions are paid for by the State at rates comparable to those of teachers. All Greek students in primary and secondary schools in Greece attend Christian Orthodox instruction, although there is an exemption system for students who do not want to attend, as long as the exemption is requested by both parents.


title: Religion in Greece

text: Catholics made up less than 1% of the total population in 2015. The Catholic community has increased in size in recent years due to immigration and today number over 200,000.


title: Religion in Greece

text: Roman Catholic Greeks number approximately 50,000 and are found all over Greece; the majority, however, live in the Cyclades and the Ionian Islands. The presence of Catholics in the Greek islands is mostly a heritage from the time of the Venetian domination from the Middle Ages. The Catholic community has increased in size in recent years due to immigration and today number over 200,000.


title: Religion in Greece

text: Catholic Greeks of the Byzantine Rite (Uniates or Unites) number approximately 6,000 nationwide and mostly live in Athens.


title: Religion in Greece

text: Protestants, including Greek Evangelical Church and Free Evangelical Churches, stand at about 30,000. The Free Apostolic Church of the Pentecost was founded by Leonidas Feggos in 1965. The official church, Eastern Orthodox, and the State reluctantly gave permission for Pentecostal churches to operate legally. The process of receiving permission from the Ministry of Education and Religion to operate as a church is becoming easier. Assemblies of God, the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel and other Pentecostal churches of the Greek Synod of Apostolic Church have 12,000 members. The Independent Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost is the biggest Protestant denomination in Greece with 120 churches. There are no official statistics about Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, but the Orthodox Church estimates the followers at 20,000.


title: Religion in Greece

text: The presence of Armenians in Greece dates back centuries (from the Byzantine period), when Armenians settled in Thessalia, Macedonia, Thrace and the islands of Crete and Corfu for various reasons such as war or business.


title: Religion in Greece

text: The Armenians in Greece acquired the character of a community after the 1920s, when 70,000 to 80,000 survivors of the Armenian genocide fled to Greece. Today, emigration to North America has diminished the Armenian population of Greece. The number now counts for roughly 20,000-35,000 Greco-Armenians.


title: Religion in Greece

text: The number of citizens of Greece who are Muslims is estimated to be at 97,604 people or 0.95% of the total population, according to the 1991 census. They live mostly in Western Thrace and are primarily of Turkish, Slavonic (Pomak) and Romani descent. Immigrant Muslims are estimated between 200,000-300,000. and approximately half of them live in Athens. In 2015, Islam was the religion of 2% of the total population of Greece.


title: Religion in Greece

text: The Jewish community in Greece currently amounts to roughly 5,500 people, concentrated mainly in Athens, Thessaloniki, Larissa, Volos, Chalkis, Ioannina, Trikala and Corfu, while very few remain in Kavala and Rhodes. It is composed largely of two groups, the Romaniotes, Jewish communities dating back to Antiquity, and the Ladino-speaking Sephardim, who arrived from Spain and settled chiefly in Thessaloniki during Ottoman times.


title: Religion in Greece

text: The number of the followers is not so high amongst the Greeks but it has increased during the last decades because of the immigration of people from East Asia, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia in Greece. Sri Lankan and Southeast Asian migrant workers working in Greece were usually sent back to their home country to be cremated, due to cremation being banned in Greece until 2006. Today there are three religious centers, in Athens, Thessaloniki and Corinth.


title: Religion in Greece

text: Hinduism in Greece has a small following. There is a small Hindu community in Athens. There are 25 PIOs and 12 NRIs in the city. On March 1, 2006, the Greek government passed a law allowing cremation. The law was welcomed by the Indian community in Athens.


title: Religion in Greece

text: Sikhs have been in Greece since the World Wars, as part of the British Indian Army. Guru Nanak is also known to have passed through Greece during one of his journeys. However, actual immigration to Greece began in the 1970s. It reached its peak during the 1990s-2000s. As of 2017, Sikhs are estimated to number 20,000-25,000. There are eight Gurudwaras in Greece, most of them based in Central Greece and only one being in Crete. Gurudwaras are often officially documented as personal properties, community centres or libraries, due to the paperwork needed and also due to the lack of recognition of Sikhs by the Greek Government. Sikhs often face racism and discrimination by the Greek public, who confuse them with Muslims, as well as legal challenges, mostly due to the distinct appearance (The Five Ks). Sikhs are not allowed to wear their turbans and ride motorcycles without helmets, as in the United Kingdom, where their contributions in the war efforts were recognized and they were allowed to not wear helmets. Young Sikhs often face difficulties when recruited for the mandatory conscription in Greece, due to their long hair, beard and turbans. Sikhism is still not an officially recognized in Greece and Sikhs are often not included in censuses. Media coverage of Sikhs is minimal and their religion is often reported as "a mix of Hinduism and Islam", while it has a separate belief system and many differences. Sikh Gurudwaras have faced numerous attacks including gunshots and molotov cocktails. On March 1, 2006, the Greek government passed a law allowing cremation, a move welcomed by both Sikhs and Hindus. Since the financial crisis of 2007–2008, many Sikhs have migrated to other countries, such as the United Kingdom, Canada, and Germany.


title: Religion in Greece

text: Over 2000 people are members of the Supreme Council of Ethnic Hellenes, the foremost organisation of Hellenic ethnic religion. Over 100,000 people are "sympathisers". On 9 April 2017 the Hellenic ethnic religion was officially recognized by the Greek state.


title: Religion in Greece

text: Other minor faiths in Greece include Jehovah's Witnesses (who number about 28,000), Seventh-day Adventists, Mormons and Scientologists. Groups that constitute less than 1 percent of the population includes those of the Baháʼí Faith.