title: Plant pathology

text: However, disease control is reasonably successful for most crops. It is achieved by use of plants that have been bred for good resistance to many diseases, and by plant cultivation approaches such as crop rotation, use of pathogen-free seed, appropriate planting date and plant density, control of field moisture, and application of pesticides. Continuing advances in the science of plant pathology are needed to improve disease control, to keep up with the ongoing evolution and movement of plant pathogens, and to keep pace with changes in agricultural practices.


title: Plant pathology

text: Plant diseases cause major economic losses for farmers worldwide - see Economic impact. Across large regions and many crop species, it is estimated that diseases typically reduce plant yields by 10% every year in more developed settings, but yield loss to diseases often exceeds 20% in less developed settings. The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that pests and diseases are responsible for about 25% of crop loss. To solve this, new methods are needed to detect diseases and pests early, such as novel sensors that detect plant odours and spectroscopy and biophotonics that are able to diagnose plant health and metabolism.


title: Plant pathology

text: In most pathosystems, virulence is dependent on hydrolases - and the wider class of cell wall degrading proteins - that degrade the cell wall. The vast majority of CWDPs are pathogen-produced and pectin-targeted (for example, pectinesterase, pectate lyase, and pectinases). For microbes the cell wall polysaccharides are themselves a food source, but mostly just a barrier to be overcome.


title: Plant pathology

text: Many pathogens also grow opportunistically when the host breaks down its own cell walls, most often during fruit ripening.


title: Plant pathology

text: The fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually via the production of spores and other structures. Spores may be spread long distances by air or water, or they may be soil borne. Many soil inhabiting fungi are capable of living saprotrophically, carrying out the part of their life cycle in the soil. These are facultative saprotrophs.


title: Plant pathology

text: Fungal diseases may be controlled through the use of fungicides and other agriculture practices. However, new races of fungi often evolve that are resistant to various fungicides.


title: Plant pathology

text: Biotrophic fungal pathogens colonize living plant tissue and obtain nutrients from living host cells. Necrotrophic fungal pathogens infect and kill host tissue and extract nutrients from the dead host cells. Significant fungal plant pathogens include:


title: Plant pathology

text: The oomycetes are fungus-like organisms. They include some of the most destructive plant pathogens including the genus "Phytophthora", which includes the causal agents of potato late blight and sudden oak death. Particular species of oomycetes are responsible for root rot.


title: Plant pathology

text: Despite not being closely related to the fungi, the oomycetes have developed similar infection strategies. Oomycetes are capable of using effector proteins to turn off a plant's defenses in its infection process. Plant pathologists commonly group them with fungal pathogens.


title: Plant pathology

text: Some slime molds in Phytomyxea cause important diseases, including club root in cabbage and its relatives and powdery scab in potatoes. These are caused by species of "Plasmodiophora" and "Spongospora", respectively.


title: Plant pathology

text: Most bacteria that are associated with plants are actually saprotrophic and do no harm to the plant itself. However, a small number, around 100 known species, are able to cause disease. Bacterial diseases are much more prevalent in subtropical and tropical regions of the world.


title: Plant pathology

text: Most plant pathogenic bacteria are rod-shaped (bacilli). In order to be able to colonize the plant they have specific pathogenicity factors. Five main types of bacterial pathogenicity factors are known: uses of cell wall–degrading enzymes, toxins, effector proteins, phytohormones and exopolysaccharides.


title: Plant pathology

text: Pathogens such as "Erwinia" species use cell wall–degrading enzymes to cause soft rot. "Agrobacterium" species change the level of auxins to cause tumours with phytohormones. Exopolysaccharides are produced by bacteria and block xylem vessels, often leading to the death of the plant.


title: Plant pathology

text: "Phytoplasma" and "Spiroplasma" are genera of bacteria that lack cell walls and are related to the mycoplasmas, which are human pathogens. Together they are referred to as the mollicutes. They also tend to have smaller genomes than most other bacteria. They are normally transmitted by sap-sucking insects, being transferred into the plant's phloem where it reproduces.


title: Plant pathology

text: There are many types of plant viruses, and some are asymptomatic or latent. Under normal circumstances, plant viruses cause only a loss of crop yield. Therefore, it is not economically viable to try to control them, the exception being when they infect perennial species, such as fruit trees.


title: Plant pathology

text: Most plant viruses have small, single-stranded RNA genomes. However some plant viruses also have double stranded RNA or single or double stranded DNA genomes. These genomes may encode only three or four proteins: a replicase, a coat protein, a movement protein, in order to allow cell to cell movement through plasmodesmata, and sometimes a protein that allows transmission by a vector. Plant viruses can have several more proteins and employ many different molecular translation methods.


title: Plant pathology

text: Plant viruses are generally transmitted from plant to plant by a vector, but mechanical and seed transmission also occur. Vector transmission is often by an insect (for example, aphids), but some fungi, nematodes, and protozoa have been shown to be viral vectors. In many cases, the insect and virus are specific for virus transmission such as the beet leafhopper that transmits the curly top virus causing disease in several crop plants. One example is mosaic disease of tobacco where leaves are dwarfed and the chlorophyll of the leaves is destroyed. Another example is Bunchy top of banana, where the plant is dwarfed, and the upper leaves form a tight rosette.


title: Plant pathology

text: Nematodes are small, multicellular, wormlike animals. Many live freely in the soil, but there are some species that parasitize plant roots. They are a problem in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, where they may infect crops. Potato cyst nematodes ("Globodera pallida" and "G. rostochiensis") are widely distributed in Europe and North and South America and cause worth of damage in Europe every year. Root knot nematodes have quite a large host range, they parasitize plant root systems and thus directly affect the uptake of water and nutrients needed for normal plant growth and reproduction, whereas cyst nematodes tend to be able to infect only a few species. Nematodes are able to cause radical changes in root cells in order to facilitate their lifestyle. There are also beneficial nematodes that can be used as a biological control for crop-destroying pests. A promising example is the effectiveness of the nematode "Steinernema rarium" PAM25 against the "Drosophila suzuki", a type of fruit fly.


title: Plant pathology

text: There are a few examples of plant diseases caused by protozoa (e.g., "Phytomonas", a kinetoplastid). They are transmitted as durable zoospores that may be able to survive in a resting state in the soil for many years. Further, they can transmit plant viruses. When the motile zoospores come into contact with a root hair they produce a plasmodium which invades the roots.


title: Plant pathology

text: Parasitic plants such as broomrape, mistletoe and dodder are included in the study of phytopathology. Dodder, for example, can be a conduit for the transmission of viruses or virus-like agents from a host plant to a plant that is not typically a host, or for an agent that is not graft-transmissible.


title: Plant pathology

text: Some abiotic disorders can be confused with pathogen-induced disorders. Abiotic causes include natural processes such as drought, frost, snow and hail; flooding and poor drainage; nutrient deficiency; deposition of mineral salts such as sodium chloride and gypsum; windburn and breakage by storms; and wildfires. Similar disorders (usually classed as abiotic) can be caused by human intervention, resulting in soil compaction, pollution of air and soil, salinization caused by irrigation and road salting, over-application of herbicides, clumsy handling (e.g. lawnmower damage to trees), and vandalism.


title: Plant pathology

text: A disease tetrahedron (disease pyramid) best captures the elements involved with plant diseases. This pyramid uses the disease triangle as a foundation, consisting of elements such as: host, pathogen and environment. In addition to these three elements, humans and time add the remaining elements to create a disease tetrahedron.


title: Plant pathology

text: Plant disease resistance is the ability of a plant to prevent and terminate infections from plant pathogens.


title: Plant pathology

text: Structures that help plants prevent disease are: cuticular layer, cell walls and stomata guard cells. These act as a barrier to prevent pathogens from entering the plant host.


title: Plant pathology

text: Once diseases have overcome these barriers, plant receptors initiate signaling pathways to create molecules to compete against the foreign molecules. These pathways are influenced and triggered by genes within the host plant and are susceptible to being manipulated by genetic breeding to create varieties of plants that are resistant to destructive pathogens.


title: Plant pathology

text: Among defense mechanisms, chemical deterrence of pest settling and feeding, like the induction of defensive compounds, may be a key strategy for reducing herbivore damage.


title: Plant pathology

text: Before control measures can be taken, the pathogen must be detected. Ancient methods of leaf examination and breaking open plant material by hand are now augmented by newer technologies. These include molecular pathology assays such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), RT-PCR and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). Although PCR can detect multiple molecular targets in a single solution there are limits. Bertolini et al 2001, Ito et al 2002 and Ragozzino et al 2004 developed PCR methods for multiplexing six or seven plant pathogen molecular products and Persson et al 2005 for multiplexing four with RT-PCR. More extensive molecular diagnosis requires PCR arrays.


title: Plant pathology

text: A diseased patch of vegetation or individual plants can be isolated from other, healthy growth. Specimens may be destroyed or relocated into a greenhouse for treatment or study.


title: Plant pathology

text: Another option is to avoid the introduction of harmful nonnative organisms by controlling all human traffic and activity (e.g., the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service), although legislation and enforcement are crucial in order to ensure lasting effectiveness. Today's volume of global trade is providing—and will continue to provide—unprecedented opportunities for the introduction of plant pests. In the United States, even to get a better "estimate" of the number of such introductions, and thus the need to impose port and border quarantine and inspection, would require a substantial increase in inspections. In Australia a similar shortcoming of understanding has a different origin: Port inspections are not very useful because inspectors know too little about taxonomy. There are often pests that the Australian Government has prioritised as harmful to be kept out of the country, but which have near taxonomic relatives that confuse the issue. And inspectors also run into the opposite - harmless natives, or undiscovered natives, or just-discovered natives they need not bother with but which are easy to confuse with their outlawed foreign family members.


title: Plant pathology

text: X-ray and electron-beam/E-beam irradiation of food has been trialed as a quarantine treatment for fruit commodities originating from Hawaii. The US FDA (Food and Drug Administration), USDA APHIS (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service), producers, and consumers were all accepting of the results - more thorough pest eradication and lesser taste degradation than heat treatment.


title: Plant pathology

text: The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) anticipates that molecular diagnostics for inspections will continue to improve. Between 2020 and 2030, IPPC expects continued technological improvement to lower costs and improve performance, albeit not for less developed countries unless funding changes.


title: Plant pathology

text: Farming in some societies is kept on a small scale, tended by peoples whose culture includes farming traditions going back to ancient times. (An example of such traditions would be lifelong training in techniques of plot terracing, weather anticipation and response, fertilization, grafting, seed care, and dedicated gardening.) Plants that are intently monitored often benefit from not only active external protection but also a greater overall vigor. While primitive in the sense of being the most labor-intensive solution by far, where practical or necessary it is more than adequate.


title: Plant pathology

text: Sophisticated agricultural developments now allow growers to choose from among systematically cross-bred species to ensure the greatest hardiness in their crops, as suited for a particular region's pathological profile. Breeding practices have been perfected over centuries, but with the advent of genetic manipulation even finer control of a crop's immunity traits is possible. The engineering of food plants may be less rewarding, however, as higher output is frequently offset by popular suspicion and negative opinion about this "tampering" with nature.


title: Plant pathology

text: Many natural and synthetic compounds can be employed to combat the above threats. This method works by directly eliminating disease-causing organisms or curbing their spread; however, it has been shown to have too broad an effect, typically, to be good for the local ecosystem. From an economic standpoint, all but the simplest natural additives may disqualify a product from "organic" status, potentially reducing the value of the yield.


title: Plant pathology

text: Crop rotation may be an effective means to prevent a parasitic population from becoming well-established. For example, protection against infection by "Agrobacterium tumefaciens", which causes gall diseases in many plants, by dipping cuttings in suspensions of "Agrobacterium radiobacter" before inserting them in the ground to take root. Other means to undermine parasites without attacking them directly may exist.


title: Plant pathology

text: Plant pathology has developed from antiquity, starting with Theophrastus in the ancient era, but scientific study began in the Early Modern period with the invention of the microscope, and developed in the 19th century.


title: Petscop

text: Petscop is a YouTube horror web series by Tony Domenico, made to resemble a YouTube Let's Play series. The videos follow "Paul", the protagonist, exploring and documenting a supposedly 'long-lost PlayStation video game', titled "Petscop". The 24-episode series ran from March 12, 2017, to September 2, 2019. The series received widespread coverage for its storytelling, authenticity, surrealism, and its active community of viewers.


title: Petscop

text: The main character, Paul, has found or received a copy of the titular unreleased game "Petscop" supposedly developed by the fictional company Garalina, uploading recordings of its early levels. Initially, the game seems like a standard PlayStation puzzle game, centering around the player character—named "Guardian"—capturing strange creatures known as "pets" by solving puzzles. Paul remarks on the unfinished nature of the game and its lack of playable content. The first four episodes are recorded by Paul for a specific, unnamed, person. Later, Paul acknowledges that his recordings have found an audience on YouTube, though he still narrates directly to the unseen character, and occasionally speaks to them on the phone.


title: Petscop

text: The game box, however, came attached with a note containing a code and instructions. By following these, Paul is able to access a dark, hidden section of the game. The new area, known as the "Newmaker Plane", is a vast grassy field, pitch dark except for a spotlight following the Guardian. The field has few landmarks, and a large network of underground tunnels. The area still loosely follows conventions of puzzle games, and Paul attempts to reverse engineer the puzzles (and the internal logic of the game) to continue progressing. As Paul finds more content, it is slowly revealed—through references to 'real-world' events and characters—that "Petscop" was designed for a specific person who did something horrible.


title: Petscop

text: The series' overarching plot involves a man named Marvin, the disappearance of his childhood friend Lina, and an incident in which Marvin kidnaps his own daughter, Care, who he believes to be Lina reborn. There is a recurring focus on "rebirthing", a failed attempt to rebirth a girl named Belle into a girl named Tiara, and a growing connection between Paul, his family's past, and the game. It is later implied that some footage is not from Paul's perspective, introducing new viewpoints from Belle and Marvin, who are all playing "Petscop" simultaneously"." Marvin solicits Paul's help to find landmarks on the Newmaker Plane, and re-enact the process of rebirthing his daughter, Care. Later, Paul realizes that the landmarks on the Newmaker Plane may have significance to real-life locations; after presumably traveling to one of the real landmarks, Paul is not heard from again, though his videos continue to be uploaded without narration.


title: Petscop

text: "Petscop" has received coverage from many news sources, such as "The New Yorker" and "Kotaku": "Kotaku"s Patricia Hernandez wrote "if this is an internet story / game, then I am in awe of how elaborate it is", and for "The New Yorker"s Alex Barron, it is "the king of creepypasta". The series' popularity was largely cultivated by its coverage by several popular YouTubers, such as Pyrocynical and The Game Theorists. The Petscop YouTube channel, as of August 2022, has over 380,000 subscribers.


title: Petscop

text: "Petscop", as a video game, is fictional, although this was obscured for the entire run of the series. Some viewers were initially unsure as to whether "Paul" and "Petscop" were real, until further into the series when it became more surrealistic. "Petscop" was not officially identified as fiction until after the finale, when creator Tony Domenico—who had remained anonymous for the series' 30-month run—revealed himself on Twitter. In his only interview, Domenico admitted that, while the story had a concrete plot, he chose to omit most of it, sometimes scrapping footage that was already done. "I hoped to get across a feeling like there's... something strange and complex happening in the background, and you just aren't getting a full view of it." In the darker sections of the game, there are many references to child abuse, childhood trauma, and irreparable corruption, making those recurring motifs throughout the series. In addition to these themes, Domenico has cited the "Marble Hornets" and "Ben Drowned" web series as influences, involving the audience by hiding things in each video. He also named the 2006 David Lynch experimental film "Inland Empire" as the strongest influence for the series and noted that "too much is lost in that translation into words".


title: Petscop

text: The series also includes allusions to Candace Newmaker and her death in rebirthing therapy. Throughout the series, the word "Newmaker" appears several times; the name of the central location, and as a title given to Rainer, the Guardian character, and/or Paul himself. In addition, there is an area known as the "Quitter's Room", the repeated question "Do you remember being born?", and a character named Tiara. Domenico has stated that while the references were intentional, he later regretted them. Other references include a quote from the book "Daisy-Head Mayzie" by Dr. Seuss, and the imagery of the character Care crying underneath a large flower, which at first appears to be growing from her head.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Historia regum Britanniae ("The History of the Kings of Britain"), originally called De gestis Britonum ("On the Deeds of the Britons"), is a pseudohistorical account of British history, written around 1136 by Geoffrey of Monmouth. It chronicles the lives of the kings of the Britons over the course of two thousand years, beginning with the Trojans founding the British nation and continuing until the Anglo-Saxons assumed control of much of Britain around the 7th century. It is one of the central pieces of the Matter of Britain.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Although taken as historical well into the 16th century, it is now considered to have no value as history. When events described, such as Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain, can be corroborated from contemporary histories, Geoffrey's account can be seen to be wildly inaccurate. It remains, however, a valuable piece of medieval literature, which contains the earliest known version of the story of King Lear and his three daughters, and helped popularise the legend of King Arthur.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Geoffrey starts the book with a statement of his purpose in writing the history: "I have not been able to discover anything at all on the kings who lived here before the Incarnation of Christ, or indeed about Arthur and all the others who followed on after the Incarnation. Yet the deeds of these men were such that they deserve to be praised for all time." He claims that he was given a source for this period by Archdeacon Walter of Oxford, who presented him with a "certain very ancient book written in the British language" from which he has translated his history. He also cites Gildas and Bede as sources. Then follows a dedication to Robert, earl of Gloucester and Waleran, count of Meulan, whom he enjoins to use their knowledge and wisdom to improve his tale.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: The "Historia" itself begins with the Trojan Aeneas, who, according to the "Aeneid" of Virgil, settled in Italy after the Trojan War. His great-grandson Brutus is banished, and, after a period of wandering, is directed by the goddess Diana to settle on an island in the western ocean. Brutus lands at Totnes and names the island, then called Albion, "Britain" after himself. Brutus defeats the giants who are the only inhabitants of the island, and establishes his capital, Troia Nova ("New Troy"), on the banks of the Thames; later it is known as Trinovantum, and eventually renamed London.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: When Brutus dies, his three sons, Locrinus, Kamber and Albanactus, divide the country between themselves; the three kingdoms are named Loegria, Kambria (North and West of the Severn to Humber) and Albany (Scotland). The story then progresses rapidly through the reigns of the descendants of Locrinus, including Bladud, who uses magic and even tries to fly, but dies in the process.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Bladud's son Leir reigns for sixty years. He has no sons, so upon reaching old age he decides to divide his kingdom among his three daughters, Goneril, Regan and Cordelia. To decide who should get the largest share, he asks his daughters how much they love him. Goneril and Regan give extravagant answers, but Cordelia answers simply and sincerely; angered, he gives Cordelia no land. Goneril and Regan are to share half the island with their husbands, the Dukes of Albany and Cornwall. Cordelia marries Aganippus, King of the Franks, and departs for Gaul. Soon Goneril and Regan and their husbands rebel and take the whole kingdom. After Leir has had all his attendants taken from him, he begins to regret his actions towards Cordelia and travels to Gaul. Cordelia receives him compassionately and restores his royal robes and retinue. Aganippus raises a Gaulish army for Leir, who returns to Britain, defeats his sons-in-law and regains the kingdom. Leir rules for three years and then dies; Cordelia inherits the throne and rules for five years before Marganus and Cunedagius, her sisters' sons, rebel against her. They imprison Cordelia; grief-stricken, she kills herself. Marganus and Cunedagius divide the kingdom between themselves, but soon quarrel and go to war with each other. Cunedagius eventually kills Marganus in Wales and retains the whole kingdom, ruling for thirty-three years. He is succeeded by his son Rivallo.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: A later descendant of Cunedagius, King Gorboduc, has two sons called Ferreux and Porrex. They quarrel and both are eventually killed, sparking a civil war. This leads to Britain being ruled by five kings, who keep attacking each other. Dunvallo Molmutius, the son of Cloten, the King of Cornwall, becomes pre-eminent. He eventually defeats the other kings and establishes his rule over the whole island. He is said to have "established the so-called Molmutine Laws which are still famous today among the English".


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Dunvallo's sons, Belinus and Brennius, fight a civil war before being reconciled by their mother, and proceed to sack Rome. Victorious, Brennius remains in Italy, while Belinus returns to rule Britain.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Numerous brief accounts of successive kings follow. These include Lud, who renames Trinovantum "Kaerlud" after himself; this later becomes corrupted to London. Lud is succeeded by his brother, Cassibelanus, as Lud's sons Androgeus and Tenvantius are not yet of age. In recompense, Androgeus is made Duke of Kent and Trinovantum (London), and Tenvantius is made Duke of Cornwall.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: After his conquest of Gaul, Julius Caesar looks over the sea and resolves to order Britain to swear obedience and pay tribute to Rome. His commands are answered by a letter of refusal from Cassivellaunus. Caesar sails a fleet to Britain, but he is overwhelmed by Cassivellaunus's army and forced to retreat to Gaul. Two years later he makes another attempt, but is again pushed back. Then Cassivellaunus quarrels with one of his dukes, Androgeus, who sends a letter to Caesar asking him to help avenge the duke's honour. Caesar invades once more and besieges Cassivellaunus on a hill. After several days Cassivellaunus offers to make peace with Caesar, and Androgeus, filled with remorse, goes to Caesar to plead with him for mercy. Cassivellaunus pays tribute and makes peace with Caesar, who then returns to Gaul.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Cassivelaunus dies and is succeeded by his nephew Tenvantius, as Androgeus has gone to Rome. Tenvantius is succeeded in turn by his son Kymbelinus, and then Kymbelinus's son Guiderius. Guiderius refuses to pay tribute to emperor Claudius, who then invades Britain. After Guiderius is killed in battle with the Romans, his brother Arvirargus continues the defence, but eventually agrees to submit to Rome, and is given the hand of Claudius's daughter Genvissa in marriage. Claudius returns to Rome, leaving the province under Arviragus's governorship.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: The line of British kings continues under Roman rule, and includes Lucius, Britain's first Christian king, and several Roman figures, including the emperor Constantine I, the usurper Allectus and the military commander Asclepiodotus. When Octavius passes the crown to his son-in-law Maximianus, his nephew Conan Meriadoc is given rule of Brittany to compensate him for not succeeding. After a long period of Roman rule, the Romans decide they no longer wish to defend the island and depart. The Britons are immediately besieged by attacks from Picts, Scots and Danes, especially as their numbers have been depleted due to Conan colonizing Brittany and Maximianus using British troops for his campaigns. In desperation the Britons send letters to the general of the Roman forces, asking for help, but receive no reply (this passage borrows heavily from the corresponding section in Gildas' "De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae").


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: After the Romans leave, the Britons ask the King of Brittany (Armorica), , descended from Conan, to rule them. However, Aldroenus instead sends his brother Constantine to rule the Britons. After Constantine's death, Vortigern assists his eldest son Constans in succeeding, before enabling their murder and coming to power. Constantine's remaining sons Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther are too young to rule and are taken to safety in Armorica. Vortigern invites the Saxons under Hengist and Horsa to fight for him as mercenaries, but they rise against him. He loses control of much of his land and encounters Merlin.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: At this point Geoffrey abruptly pauses his narrative by inserting a series of prophecies attributed to Merlin. Some of the prophecies act as an epitome of upcoming chapters of the "Historia", while others are veiled allusions to historical people and events of the Norman world in the 11th-12th centuries. The remainder are obscure.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: After Aurelius Ambrosius defeats and kills Vortigern, becoming king, Britain remains in a state of war under him and his brother Uther. They are both assisted by the wizard Merlin. At one point during the continuous string of battles, Ambrosius takes ill and Uther must lead the army for him. This allows an enemy assassin to pose as a physician and poison Ambrosius. When the king dies, a comet taking the form of a dragon's head (pendragon) appears in the night sky, which Merlin interprets as a sign that Ambrosius is dead and that Uther will be victorious and succeed him. So after defeating his latest enemies, Uther adds "Pendragon" to his name and is crowned king.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: But another enemy strikes, forcing Uther to make war again. This time he is temporarily defeated, gaining final victory only with the help of Duke Gorlois of Cornwall. But while celebrating this victory with Gorlois, he falls in love with the duke's wife, Igerna. This leads to war between Uther Pendragon and Gorlois of Cornwall, during which Uther clandestinely lies with Igerna through the magic of Merlin. Arthur is conceived that night. Then Gorlois is killed and Uther marries Igerna. But he must war against the Saxons again. Although Uther ultimately triumphs, he dies after drinking water from a spring the Saxons had poisoned.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Uther's son Arthur assumes the throne and defeats the Saxons so severely that they cease to be a threat until after his death. In the meantime, Arthur conquers most of northern Europe and ushers in a period of peace and prosperity that lasts until the Romans, led by Lucius Hiberius, demands that Britain once again pay tribute to Rome. Arthur defeats Lucius in Gaul, intending to become Emperor, but in his absence, his nephew Mordred seduces and marries Guinevere and seizes the throne.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Arthur returns and kills Mordred at the Battle of Camlann, but, mortally wounded, he is carried off to the isle of Avalon, and hands the kingdom to his cousin Constantine, son of Cador and Duke of Cornwall.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: The Saxons returned after Arthur's death, but would not end the line of British kings until the death of Cadwallader. Cadwallader is forced to flee Britain and requests the aid of King Alan of the Amoricans. However an angel's voice tells him the Britons will no longer rule and he should go to Rome. Cadwallader does so, dying there, though leaves his son and nephew to rule the remaining Britons. The remaining Britons are driven into Wales and the Saxon Athelstan becomes King of Loegria.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Geoffrey claimed to have translated the "Historia" into Latin from "a very ancient book in the British tongue", given to him by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford. However, no modern scholars take this claim seriously. Much of the work appears to be derived from Gildas's 6th-century "De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae", Bede's 8th-century "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum", the 9th-century "Historia Brittonum" ascribed to Nennius, the 10th-century "Annales Cambriae", medieval Welsh genealogies (such as the Harleian Genealogies) and king-lists, the poems of Taliesin, the Welsh tale "Culhwch and Olwen", and some of the medieval Welsh saints' lives, expanded and turned into a continuous narrative by Geoffrey's own imagination.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: In an exchange of manuscript material for their own histories, Robert of Torigny gave Henry of Huntington a copy of "Historia Regum Britanniae", which both Robert and Henry used uncritically as authentic history and subsequently used in their own works, by which means some of Geoffrey's fictions became embedded in popular history. The history of Geoffrey forms the basis for much British lore and literature as well as being a rich source of material for Welsh bards. It became tremendously popular during the High Middle Ages, revolutionising views of British history before and during the Anglo-Saxon period despite the criticism of such writers as William of Newburgh and Gerald of Wales. The prophecies of Merlin in particular were often drawn on in later periods, for instance by both sides in the issue of English influence over Scotland under Edward I and his successors.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: The "Historia" was quickly translated into Norman verse by Wace (the "Roman de Brut") in 1155. Wace's version was in turn translated into Middle English verse by Layamon (the "Brut") in the early 13th century. In the second quarter of the 13th century, a version in Latin verse, the "Gesta Regum Britanniae", was produced by William of Rennes. Material from Geoffrey was incorporated into a large variety of Anglo-Norman and Middle English prose compilations of historical material from the 13th century onward.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Geoffrey was translated into a number of different Welsh prose versions by the end of the 13th century, collectively known as "Brut y Brenhinedd". One variant of the "Brut y Brenhinedd", the so-called "Brut Tysilio", was proposed in 1917 by the archaeologist William Flinders Petrie to be the ancient British book that Geoffrey translated, although the "Brut" itself claims to have been translated from Latin by Walter of Oxford, based on his own earlier translation from Welsh to Latin. Geoffrey's work is greatly important because it brought the Welsh culture into British society and made it acceptable. It is also the first record we have of the great figure King Lear, and the beginning of the mythical King Arthur figure.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: For centuries, the "Historia" was accepted at face value, and much of its material was incorporated into Holinshed's 16th-century "Chronicles". Modern historians have regarded the "Historia" as a work of fiction with some factual information contained within. John Morris in "The Age of Arthur" calls it a "deliberate spoof", although this is based on misidentifying Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, as Walter Map, a satirical writer who lived a century later.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: It continues to have an influence on popular culture. For example, Mary Stewart's "Merlin Trilogy" and the TV miniseries "Merlin" both contain large elements taken from the "Historia".


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: Two hundred and fifteen medieval manuscripts of the "Historia" survive, dozens of them copied before the end of the 12th century. Even among the earliest manuscripts a large number of textual variants, such as the so-called "First Variant", can be discerned. These are reflected in the three possible prefaces to the work and in the presence or absence of certain episodes and phrases. Certain variants may be due to "authorial" additions to different early copies, but most probably reflect early attempts to alter, add to or edit the text. Unfortunately, the task of disentangling these variants and establishing Geoffrey's original text is long and complex, and the extent of the difficulties surrounding the text has been established only recently.


title: Historia Regum Britanniae

text: The variant title "Historia regum Britanniae" was introduced in the Middle Ages, and this became the most common form in the modern period. A critical edition of the work published in 2007, however, demonstrated that the most accurate manuscripts refer to the work as "De gestis Britonum", and that this was the title Geoffrey himself used to refer to the work.


title: Borrder

text: Borrder is an upcoming Indian Tamil-language spy thriller film directed by Arivazhagan Venkatachalam and produced by Vijaya Raghavendra under the banner All in pictures. The film starring Arun Vijay, Regina Cassandra and Stefy Patel, revolves around patriotism. The film set in military backdrop is shot in Chennai, Delhi and Agra.


title: Borrder

text: Arun Vijay and debutant Stefy Patel were cast to play the lead in the film. It was first titled as 'Zindabad' but later title was changed to "Borrder". Actor Arun Vijay and director Arivazhagan Venkatachalam are working again after 2017 film "Kuttram 23". The final schedule began in December 2020.


title: Borrder

text: "Borrder" was scheduled for release theatrically on 19 November 2021, but due to floods in Chennai the release was postponed indefinitely. It was later scheduled for 5 October 2022, but was again delayed.


title: Borrder

text: The music of the film is composed by Sam C. S. and lyrics are penned by Viveka. The soundtrack is released by Think Music.


title: Set animal

text: In ancient Egyptian art, the Set animal, or sha, is the totemic animal of the god Set. Because Set was identified with the Greek monster Typhon, the animal is also commonly known as the Typhonian animal or Typhonic beast.


title: Set animal

text: Unlike other totemic animals, the Set animal is not easily identifiable in the modern animal world. Today, there is a general agreement among Egyptologists that it was never a real creature and existed only in ancient Egyptian imagination. In recent years, there have been many attempts by zoologists to find the Set animal in nature. Whether or not the animal existed is currently unknown, yet it had much significance for the Egyptians. The Set animal is one of the most frequently demonstrated animal determinatives.


title: Set animal

text: The Set animal, Gardiner E20, E21, is one of the portrayals of the god Set. The other common hieroglyph used to represent Set is a seated god with the head of the Set animal.


title: Set animal

text: The linguistic use of these hieroglyphs in the Egyptian language is as the determinative for words portraying "items with chaos", example words related to "suffering, violence, perturbation", and also for "violent storms" of the atmosphere, a "tempest".


title: Set animal

text: According to Egyptologist Richard H. Wilkinson, the first known use of the Set animal was upon the Scorpion Macehead of Scorpion II of Naqada III. It was soon thereafter portrayed mounted upon the serekhs of Seth-Peribsen and Khasekhemwy.


title: Set animal

text: According to some scientists, the Set animal hieroglyph does not actually represent a living animal. It is currently not possible to determine from what living creature the hieroglyph derived. Some Egyptian texts suggest that Set took the form of a dangerous animal, such as a bull or crocodile.


title: Set animal

text: The sha is usually depicted as a slender canid, resembling a greyhound or a jackal, with three distinguishing features: a stiff tail, often forked at the end, which stands straight up or at an angle, whether the animal is sitting, standing, or walking; its ears, also held erect, are usually depicted as squarish or triangular, narrowest at the base and widest at the squarish tops; and a long nose, often with a slight downward curve. It is normally depicted as black, but may also have been reddish.


title: Set animal

text: The Set animal is usually depicted at rest, either lying down or seated. The shape of the head often resembles a giraffe, causing confusion between the two signs. The general body shape is that of a canine.


title: Set animal

text: Drawings of the sha appear in Egyptian artwork from Naqada III until at least the period of the New Kingdom, a period of some two thousand years. Although sometimes described as a fantastic or composite animal, it was depicted in a realistic manner more typical of actual creatures. The sha is found on the ceremonial Scorpion Macehead dating to Naqada III; on the serekhs of the Second Dynasty kings Seth-Peribsen and Khasekhemwy; in Twelfth Dynasty tombs at Beni Hasan; and, in the form of Set, in the royal cartouches of the Nineteenth Dynasty pharaohs Seti I and Seti II and the Twentieth Dynasty king Setnakhte and his descendants.


title: Set animal

text: The god Set was usually depicted as a man with a head resembling that of the sha, which is why the sha is referred to by Egyptologists as the "Set animal" or "Typhonic beast". When Set was depicted as a human with only the head of the Set animal, he usually had a long, slightly curved nose, and erect ears, squared at the tops. Occasionally he was represented in animal form as the sha itself, with a long, down-turned snout, squared ears, erect forked tail and a canine-like body, although he was also depicted in the form of an onager or as a black pig. Other animals sacred to Set included the antelope, hippopotamus, wild boar, crocodile and scorpion, all of which represented strength, power, protection, or wildness. The sha was also used as a determinative in the names of Set and the goddess Nut, who may be identified with Nephthys, the wife of Set.


title: Set animal

text: Was-sceptres represent the Set-animal or Khnum. Was-sceptres were carried by gods, pharaohs and priests as a symbol of power and, in later use, control over the force of chaos (Set). The head and forked tail of the Set-animal are clearly present. "Was" scepters are often depicted in paintings, drawings and carvings of gods and remnants of real was-sceptres have been found constructed of Egyptian faience or wood.


title: Set animal

text: Both the Second Dynasty pharaohs Peribsen and Khasekhemwy, whose serekhs depict the sha, identified themselves as divine manifestations of Set on Earth, as previous kings had identified themselves with Horus. During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, Horus and Set were generally viewed as twin supporters and defenders of the god Ra, head of the Egyptian pantheon; and they were often depicted anointing the king, as the divine source of his authority. The association of Horus and Set probably reflected the reconciliation of a struggle between two royal cults. Following the unification of Egypt, Narmer and the kings of the First Dynasty embraced the worship of Horus, by adopting the Horus name as part of their official nomenclature. This name identified the king as the god's representative on Earth. Seth-Peribsen, however, chose a Set name in place of a Horus name, while Khasekhemwy's royal title invoked both of the great gods, presumably in an attempt to reconcile the followers of each cult.


title: Set animal

text: Although Set was originally viewed as the son and defender of Ra and the Egyptian kings, his reputation among the people declined along with the rise of the cult of Osiris. Originally a vegetation-god, Osiris became one of the pre‑eminent gods of the Egyptian pantheon. Worship in the Osiris cult stressed the role of Set as violence personified; the murderer of his brother and usurper of his throne who, instead of standing alongside Horus, became his eternal enemy. This view of Set was encouraged during the Second Intermediate Period, when Egypt was invaded by the Hyksos from Western Asia. Their god "Sutekh" became identified with Set; a contrary view holds that "Sutekh" is an Egyptian name only, and an epithet of Set, and was not the name the Hyksos used for their god.


title: Set animal

text: Set continued to be revered during the New Kingdom. Several kings of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties had royal names indicating their devotion to Set, and these names were written with a hieroglyphic representation of the god as a determinative. Here, Set is depicted as a seated deity with a Set animal's head.


title: Set animal

text: During the Third Intermediate Period, however, Set was deeply unpopular: his worship was abandoned, and many depictions of him were destroyed or defaced. References to and depictions of the Set animal must have suffered a similar fate.


title: Set animal

text: Hieroglyphs and artwork of Set evolved over millennia until becoming standardized, making identification a difficult process; there is debate as to which hieroglyphs actually depict Set and the associated animal.


title: Set animal

text: The "sha" has no independent mythology associated with it that could aid with identification in either reality or fantasy, outside of its association with Set.


title: Set animal

text: Although the Set animal is called the "Typhonic Beast", it is so-named because the Greeks equated Set or Sutekh with their own chaos-monster Typhon.


title: Set animal

text: Some Egyptologist speculate that it is a purely fantastic or composite animal, which never existed in nature – the opinion of E.A.W. Budge, among others.


title: Set animal

text: Depictions of the Set animal as an animal appear distinctly canine, but the precise identity of the animal has never been firmly established. It is sometimes described as a jackal or some other wild dog, although the jackal is usually identified with the god Anubis. In connection with Anubis, the jackal is never depicted with the distinguishing features of the Set animal: The stiff, typically forked tail; the squared ears; and the long, slightly curved nose. It is conceivable that these features were added to representations of the jackal as a contrivance to distinguish Set from Anubis. Early representations of the Set animal frequently omit the fork at the end of the tail, or show it resembling a more naturalistic tuft instead, so the idea of the forked tail may have been symbolic rather than intended to show a trait of an actual animal.


title: Set animal

text: Egyptologist Ken Moss suggested the Set animal is in fact the Saluki: It is one of the oldest breeds of domesticated dog, has a curved snout, and nearly identical body to the hieroglyph, and is native to the region; when the Saluki runs, its ears and tail become vertical. Further it was historic practice and remains common throughout the Levant to crop ears of hunting dogs. The Saluki is also depicted in hieroglyphs with no ostensible connection to Set, suggesting it was well known to ancient Egyptian people.


title: Set animal

text: In addition to the jackal or the Saluki, mentioned above, some scholars suggest the Set animal may be a stylized representation of some other animal, such as an African wild dog, a pig, an antelope, an okapi, a giraffe, or an aardvark; or that it might represent a species that was rare and has since become extinct. Some of the suggested animals would be known to ancient Egyptians, but rarely or never seen.


title: Set animal

text: Since Set was later represented by a donkey or a man wearing a donkey-head mask, it is possible the donkey was the inspiration for the Set animal.


title: Silkk the Shocker

text: Vyshonn King Miller (born June 18, 1975), better known by his stage name Silkk the Shocker, is an American rapper and actor. He originally went under the stage name Silkk, but later adopted Silkk the Shocker after the release of his first album. He has now signed partnership with his brother Master P and his nephew Romeo label No Limit Forever.


title: Silkk the Shocker

text: Silkk the Shocker rose to fame in the mid-late 1990s. After striking a deal with Priority, No Limit Records released Silkk's debut album "The Shocker" in August 1996, produced by Beats By The Pound, DJ Daryl, K-Lou and T-Bone. After changing his name to Silkk the Shocker, he went on to appear on numerous albums from TRU's "Tru 2 da Game", Mia X's "Unlady Like", and Mystikal's "Unpredictable". He used the Shocker alias on a few No Limit albums in 1997. Silkk would appear on Master P's 1997 hit "Make 'Em Say Uhh!" which is featured on Master P's 1997 album "Ghetto D", which became a massive hit in the US. Continuing on the success of the hit single, Silkk would release his next single with labelmate Mystikal called "It Ain't My Fault". It Ain't My Fault gained popularity and became one of the trademark songs for Silkk the Shocker. He released another single, "Just Be Straight with Me", featuring Destiny's Child. The same year Silkk was featured on the hit single "Movin' On", a song from Mya's self-titled debut album "Mýa". Charge It 2 Da Game became a big success over time, staying on the Billboard album charts for over a year. It was certified platinum after a few months.


title: Silkk the Shocker

text: His second solo album was released in January 1999. The singles It Ain't My Fault 2 (feat. Mystikal) and Somebody Like Me (feat. Mya) were regularly played on MTV and BET and became two of Silkk's biggest ever hits. Despite selling over a million copies, it failed to garner critical success and acclaim due to fans and critics becoming tired of the typical No Limit tropes and sound around this time.


title: Silkk the Shocker

text: In 2001, Silkk released "My World, My Way". He dropped the singles "That's Cool" featuring Trina and "He Did That" feat. Mac, which made it to #13 on the Hot R&B/Hip Hop Singles and Tracks. "Based on a True Story", which was released in 2004 on New No Limit/Koch Records, didn't' garner much popularity.


title: Silkk the Shocker

text: On June 3, 2010, a video of Silkk freestyling over DJ Khaled's "All I Do Is Win" was posted to YouTube. Silkk released his first mixtape called "All I Do Is Win" on August 21, 2010, the mixtape marks Silkk's return to hip-hop. It was confirmed that Silkk signed with his nephew Romeo's new record label, No Limit Forever Records, and is working on his sixth studio album called "Incredible". Some of the producers on this album are Manny Streetz, Marvz, Mike Bangum of Da Beat Kadetz and JoJo Ryder. In 2010 Silkk the Shocker went on a tour with his brother Master P and nephew Romeo Miller. The tour was entitled "No Limit Forever International".


title: Silkk the Shocker

text: On November 5, 2013, Silkk announced on his Twitter account that he was still working on his upcoming sixth studio album "Incredible". On April 24, 2014, Silkk released the first single off "Incredible" entitled "Don't Give Up". On May 15, 2014, Silkk released a music video on his Vevo channel for "Don't Give Up". On May 19, 2014, Miller would release the second single off "Incredible" entitled "We Ain't Even Trippin".


title: Silkk the Shocker

text: On March 2, 2015, Silkk announced via his official YouTube channel that his new single entitled "Business" featuring No Limit Forever in-house producer BlaqNmilD would be released later in March and his album "Incredible" would be released later the same year along with a movie of the same name starring himself. On August 24, 2015, Miller would release the music video for his second single entitled "We Ain't Even Trippin"; it would be directed by T. Church. On September 4, 2015, Miller would release the third single off "Incredible" entitled "Business" featuring No Limit Forever in-house producer BlaqNmilD.


title: Silkk the Shocker

text: Silkk was featured on World Wrestling Entertainment's "WWE Wreckless Intent" album, which was released on May 23, 2006. The song he performed on the album, "I'm Comin'", has since been used as the theme song for "WWE Smackdown" wrestler Montel Vontavious Porter until his release in late 2010. Silkk also performed former SmackDown! wrestler Orlando Jordan's theme song "Do It Big".


title: Silkk the Shocker

text: In 2007, Silkk, along with comedians Lil Duval and Michael Blackson, was cast as the lead actors in the Six Five film "More Money, More Family"; the film was produced by Silkk the Shocker and Tracy McGrady and shot on location in Orange, California, using film students from nearby Chapman University, originally intended for DVD release in Wal-Mart, but the film has yet to find a distributor. On October 2, 2015, Silkk would announce via his Instagram that film production companies Grindstone Entertainment and Lionsgate Films would be distributing the movie "More Money, More Problems", and its release date would be November 3, 2015.


title: Silkk the Shocker

text: Silkk is the younger cousin of Mo B. Dick. His older brother, Kevin Miller, was killed during a robbery in 1990. Rappers C-Murder and Master P are also his older brothers. He has three children, two sons and a daughter. He is married to Junalyn "JuJu" Pattugalan, who is also the sister of Cymphonique Miller's mother.


title: Killjoys

text: Killjoys is a Canadian space adventure drama series that aired on Space (now CTV Sci-Fi) in Canada. Primarily a science fiction series, "Killjoys" follows a trio of hard-living bounty hunters—Dutch (Hannah John-Kamen), Johnny (Aaron Ashmore), and D'avin (Luke Macfarlane).


title: Killjoys

text: The series ran for five seasons, ending in 2019. It was officially ordered to series on October 7, 2013, with a 10-episode pick-up. In April 2014, it was announced that Syfy would co-produce the series, and the first season premiered June 19, 2015. In September 2017, Syfy renewed the series for a fourth and a fifth season, each to consist of 10 episodes. The fifth and final season premiered July 19, 2019, and concluded on September 20, 2019.


title: Killjoys

text: Throughout its run, the series received generally positive reviews and was nominated for various accolades, including two Canadian Screen Awards nominations and three Prix Aurora Awards nominations.


title: Killjoys

text: "Killjoys" follows a trio of hard-living bounty hunters – Dutch, John, and D'avin. Working for the Reclamation Apprehension Coalition (RAC), they work in a four planet-and-moon system known as the Quad. Taking on warrants to apprehend people or property, RAC Agents are given high authority by their agency. As part of their job, they swear to remain neutral in conflicts and owe no allegiance to any system, government, or other organizations. With their pasts coming back to haunt them, the trio will have to work hard to keep themselves, and their friends, alive.


title: Killjoys

text: On September 1, 2015, Syfy announced it would renew Killjoys for a second season of 10 episodes. Bill McGoldrick, Syfy's executive VP of original content was quoted as saying "With exciting space-based action, deep world building, and a standout cast, Killjoys has struck a nerve with viewers and critics alike. We can't wait to see what adventures Michelle Lovretta and Temple Street take Dutch, John and D'avin on in season two." David Fortier and Ivan Schneeberg, the executive producers of the show, were quoted as saying "We couldn't be more excited to bring back Killjoys and its stellar cast to audiences across the U.S. We look forward to working with the team at Syfy for a thrilling second season."


title: Killjoys

text: Starting with the fourth season, Adam Barken became the showrunner of the series, with Michelle Lovretta remaining with the production as an executive producer and writer.


title: Killjoys

text: "Killjoys" premiered June 19, 2015, in both Canada and the United States, and episodes aired simultaneously on the two channels each Friday. It premiered in UK on January 25, 2016, and in Australia on January 30, 2016. In July 2018, Ellation announced that the first through third seasons would stream exclusively on its VRV subscription service.


title: Killjoys

text: Throughout its run, the series received generally positive reviews. The first episode of the series received 286,000 overnight viewers in Canada. Charlie Jane Anders of io9 gave the show a very positive rating:


title: Killjoys

text: Noting others' negative reviews, she went on to state "[w]e don't need every television show to be "True Detective" or even "Battlestar Galactica"." Writing for Forbes.com, Merrill Barr reviewed the first four episodes in a review titled "Sci-Fi Fun With Nothing Else To Offer", opining that though enjoyable for sci-fi fans, it featured "sci-fi archetypes that aren't bringing anything new to the table", an "overly complicated" fictional universe, and was "extremely light on depth and character intrigue". Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season a score of 82% based on reviews from 17 critics and the series an overall score of 95%. On Metacritic the series has a score of 53% based on reviews from 8 critics.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: The solidus (Latin 'solid';  solidi) or nomisma (, "nómisma",  'coin') was a highly pure gold coin issued in the Late Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire. Constantine introduced the coin, and its weight of about 4.5 grams remained relatively constant for seven centuries. In the Byzantine Empire, the solidus or nomisma remained a highly pure gold coin until the 11th century, when several Byzantine emperors began to strike the coin with less and less gold. The nomisma was finally abolished by Alexius I in 1092, who replaced it with the hyperpyron, which also came to be known as a "bezant". The Byzantine solidus also inspired the originally slightly less pure dinar issued by the Muslim Caliphate. In Western Europe, the solidus was the main gold coin of commerce from late Roman times to Pepin the Short's currency reform, which introduced the silver-based pound/shilling/penny system.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: In Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the solidus also functioned as a unit of weight equal to Roman pound (approximately 4.5 grams).


title: Solidus (coin)

text: The solidus was introduced by Constantine the Great in and was composed of relatively solid gold. Constantine's solidus was struck at a rate of 72 to a Roman pound (of about 326.6 g) of gold; each coin weighed 24 Greco-Roman carats


title: Solidus (coin)

text: (189 mg each), or about 4.5 grams of gold per coin. By this time, the solidus was worth 275,000 increasingly debased denarii, each denarius containing just 5% silver (or one twentieth) of the amount it had three and a half centuries beforehand. With the exception of the early issues of Constantine the Great and the odd usurpers, the solidus today is a much more affordable gold Roman coin to collect, compared to the older aureus, especially those of Valens, Honorius and later Byzantine issues.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: The solidus was maintained essentially unaltered in weight, dimensions and purity, until the 10th century. During the 6th and 7th centuries "lightweight" solidi of 20, 22 or 23 "siliquae" (one "siliqua" was 1/24 of a solidus) were struck along with the standard weight issues, presumably for trade purposes or to pay tribute. The lightweight solidi were especially popular in the West, and many of these lightweight coins have been found in Europe, Russia and Georgia. The lightweight solidi were distinguished by different markings on the coin, usually in the exergue for the 20 and 22 "siliquae" coins, and by stars in the field for the 23 "siliquae" coins.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: Despite the Eastern half of the Roman Empire being predominantly Greek speaking, the words on the coinage continued to be struck in Latin well into the eighth century. The letters on the coinage began to lose their Classical Latin look under the emperor Heraclius, but until the reign of Constantine VI the coins continued to feature Latin text, being finally replaced with Greek script in the early years of the ninth century.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: In theory, the solidus was struck from pure gold, but because of the limits of refining techniques, in practice - the coins were often about 23k fine (95.8% gold). In the Greek-speaking world during the Roman period, and then in the Byzantine economy, the solidus was known as the νόμισμα ("nomisma", plural "nomismata"). In the 10th century Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas (963–969) introduced a new lightweight gold coin called the "tetarteron nomisma" that circulated alongside the solidus, and from that time the solidus ("nomisma") became known as the ἱστάμενον νόμισμα ("histamenon nomisma"), in the Greek speaking world. Initially it was difficult to distinguish the two coins, as they had the same design, dimensions and purity, and there were no marks of value to distinguish the denominations. The only difference was the weight. The "tetarteron nomisma" was a lighter coin, about 4.05 grams, reminiscent of the lightweight solidi of the 6th and 7th centuries, but the "histamenon nomisma" maintained the traditional weight of 4.5 grams. To eliminate confusion between the two, from the reign of Basil II (975–1025) the solidus ("histamenon nomisma") was struck as a thinner coin with a larger diameter but with the same weight and purity as before. From the middle of the 11th century, the larger diameter "histamenon nomisma" was struck on a concave (cup-shaped) flan, while the smaller "tetarteron nomisma" continued to be struck on a smaller flat flan.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: Former money changer Michael IV the Paphlagonian (1034–41) assumed the throne of Byzantium in 1034 and began the slow process of debasing both the "tetarteron nomisma" and the "histamenon nomisma". The debasement was gradual at first, but then accelerated rapidly: about 21 carats (87.5% pure) during the reign of Constantine IX Monomachos (1042–1055), 18 carats (75%) under Constantine X Doukas (1059–1067), and 16 carats (66.7%) under Romanos IV Diogenes (1068–1071). After Romanos lost the disastrous Battle of Manzikert to the Turks, the empire's ability to generate revenue deteriorated further and the solidus continued to be debased. The coin's purity reached 14 carats (58%) under Michael VII Doukas (1071–1078), 8 carats (33%) under Nikephoros III Botaneiates (1078–1081) and 0 to 8 carats during the first eleven years of the reign of Alexios I Komnenos (1081–1118). Alexios reformed the coinage in 1092 and eliminated the solidus ("histamenon nomisma") altogether. In its place he introduced a new gold coin called the "hyperpyron nomisma" at about 20.5k fine (85%). The weight, dimensions and purity of the "hyperpyron nomisma" remained stable until the Sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204. After that time the exiled Empire of Nicea continued to strike a debased "hyperpyron nomisma". Michael VIII Palaiologos recaptured Constantinople in 1261, and under him the restored Byzantine Empire continued to strike the debased "hyperpyron nomisma" until the joint reign of John V Palaiologos and John VI (1347–1354), who struck the final Byzantine gold coins. After that time the "hyperpyron nomisma" continued as a unit of account, but it was no longer struck in gold.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: From the 4th to the 11th centuries, "solidi" were minted mostly at the Constantinople mint. However, certain branch mints were active producers of solidi. In the Roman Empire during the 4th century, Trier, Rome, Milan, and Ravenna were the main producers of gold coins in the West, while Constantinople, Antioch, Thessaloniki, and Nicomedia struck gold coins in the East. The Germanic invasions of the early fifth century led to the closure of many provincial mints, and by 410 the only mints that struck gold solidi were Rome, Ravenna, Constantinople, and Thessalonica. The Fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 saw the end of official Roman coinage in the West, though Germanic successor kingdoms such as the Ostrogothic Kingdom and the Franks continued to strike imitative solidi, with the portrait and title of the emperor in Constantinople.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: Justinian I's reconquests in the Western Empire reopened several mints, which began to strike gold solidi. His reconquest of the Vandal Kingdom reopened the mint at Carthage, where a great number of solidi were struck. In the early seventh century, the mint at Carthage began to strike small "globular" solidi, about half the size of a normal solidus but much thicker. These "globular" solidi were only struck in Carthage, and the mint continued to produce great quantities of solidi until its conquest by the Arabs in 698. Justinian's conquests also allowed for imperial mints to begin coining solidi in Italy, with the mints at Ravenna and Rome once again striking official Roman coins. Under Justinian, Antioch in Syria started to mint solidi again after a 150-year hiatus, and a few solidi were struck at Alexandria in Egypt, though these are very rare today.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: The mint at Syracuse grew beginning in the mid-seventh century during the reign of Constans II, who briefly moved the empire's capital to the city. During the 8th and 9th centuries, the Syracuse mint produced a large number of "solidi" that failed to meet the specifications of the coins produced by the imperial mint in Constantinople. The Syracuse "solidi" were generally lighter (about 3.8g) and only 19k fine (79% pure).


title: Solidus (coin)

text: Although imperial law forbade merchants from exporting solidi outside imperial territory, this was very loosely enforced, and many solidi have been found in Russia, Central Europe, Georgia, and Syria. In particular, it seems as if the light-weight solidi were meant for foreign trade. In the 7th century they became a desirable circulating currency in Arabian countries. Since the solidi circulating outside the empire were not used to pay taxes to the emperor, they did not get reminted, and the soft pure-gold coins quickly became worn.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: Through the end of the 7th century, Arabian copies of solidi – dinars minted by the caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, who had access to supplies of gold from the upper Nile – began to circulate in areas outside the Byzantine Empire. These corresponded in weight to only , but matched the weight of the lightweight (20 "siliquae") solidi that were circulating in those areas. The two coins circulated together in these areas for a time.The solidus was not marked with any face value throughout its seven-century manufacture and circulation. Fractions of the solidus known as "semissis" (half-solidi) and "tremissis" (one-third solidi) were also produced. The fractional gold coins were especially popular in the West where the economy had been significantly simplified and few purchases required a denomination so large as the solidus.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: The word "soldier" is ultimately derived from "solidus", referring to the solidi with which soldiers were paid.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: In medieval Europe, where the only coin in circulation was the silver penny ("denier"), the solidus was used as a unit of account equal to 12 "deniers". Variations on the word "solidus" in the local language gave rise to a number of currency units:


title: Solidus (coin)

text: In the French language, which evolved directly from common or vulgar Latin over the centuries, "solidus" changed to "soldus", then "solt", then "sol" and finally "sou". No gold "solidi" were minted after the Carolingians adopted the silver standard; thenceforward the "solidus" or "sol" was a paper accounting unit equivalent to one-twentieth of a pound ("librum" or "livre") of silver and divided into 12 "denarii" or "deniers". The monetary unit disappeared with decimalisation and introduction of the franc during the French Revolution (1st republic) in 1795, but the coin of 5 centimes, the twentieth part of the franc, inherited the name "sou" as a nickname: in the first half of the 20th century, a coin or an amount of 5 francs was still often referred to as "cent sous".


title: Solidus (coin)

text: To this day, in French around the world, "solde" means the balance of an account or invoice, or sales ("seasonal rebate"), and is the specific name of a soldier's salary. Although the "sou" as a coin disappeared more than two centuries ago, the word is still used as a synonym of money in many French phrases: "avoir des sous" is being rich, "être sans un sou" is being poor (same construction as "penniless").


title: Solidus (coin)

text: In Canadian French, and are commonly employed terms for the Canadian cent. and are also regularly used. The European French is not used in Quebec. In Canada one hundredth of a dollar is officially known as a cent (pronounced /sɛnt/) in both English and French. However, in practice, a feminine form of , (pronounced /sɛn/) has mostly replaced the official "" outside bilingual areas. Spoken use of the official masculine form of cent is uncommon in francophone-only areas of Canada. Quarter dollar coins in colloquial Quebec French are sometimes called (thirty cents), because of a series of changes in terminology, currencies, and exchange rates. After the British conquest of Canada in 1759, French coins gradually fell out of use, and became a nickname for the halfpenny, which was similar in value to the French . Spanish pesos and U.S. dollars were also in use, and from 1841 to 1858 the exchange rate was fixed at $4 = £1 (or 400¢ = 240d). This made 25¢ equal to 15d, or 30 halfpence i.e. . In 1858, pounds, shillings, and pence were abolished in favour of dollars and cents, and the nickname began to be used for the 1¢ coin, but the term for a 25¢ coin has endured.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: In the vernacular Quebec French and are also frequently used to refer to money in general, especially small amounts.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: This word is still in common use today in Italy in its plural with the same meaning as the English equivalent "money". The word , like the French mentioned above, means the balance of an account or invoice; the German is a loan word with the same meaning. It also means "seasonal rebate".


title: Solidus (coin)

text: In the Italian speaking regions, the word "soldo", on top of its modern uses in Italian, is still currently used in its archaic meaning: the pay soldiers receive, this is also true in French speaking Switzerland, Swiss soldiers will receive "il soldo" - "la solde".


title: Solidus (coin)

text: In Italian the verb Soldare (Assoldare) means hiring, more often soldiers (Soldati) or mercenaries, deriving exactly from the use of the word as described above.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: As with "soldier" in English, the Spanish and Portuguese equivalent is "soldado" (almost the same pronunciation). The name of the medieval Spanish "sueldo" and Portuguese "soldo" (which also means salary) were derived from "solidus"; the term "sweldo" in most Philippine languages (Tagalog, Cebuano, etc.) is derived from the Spanish.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: The Spanish and Portuguese word "saldo", like the French "solde", means the balance of an account or invoice. It is also used in some other languages, such as German and Afrikaans.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: Some have suggested that the Peruvian unit of currency, the "sol", is derived from "solidus", but the standard unit of Peruvian currency was the "real" until 1863. Throughout the Spanish world the dollar equivalent was 8 reales ("pieces of eight"), which circulated legally in the United States until 1857. In the US, the colloquial expression "two bits" for a quarter dollar, and the stock market currency "real" last used for accounting, traded in of a U.S. dollar until 2001, still echoes the legal usage in the US in the 19th century.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: The Peruvian "sol" was introduced at a rate of 5.25 per British Pound, or just under four shillings (the legacy "soldus"). The term "soles de oro" was introduced in 1933, three years after Peru had actually abandoned the gold standard. In 1985 the Peruvian sol was replaced at one thousand to one by the "inti", representing the sun god of the Incas. By 1991 it had to be replaced with a new "sol" at a million to one, after which it remained reasonably stable.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: King Offa of Mercia began minting silver pennies on the Carolingian system . As on the continent, English coinage was restricted for centuries to the penny, while the "scilling", understood to be the value of a cow in Kent or a sheep elsewhere, was merely a unit of account equivalent to 12 pence. The Tudors minted the first shilling coins. Prior to decimalisation in the United Kingdom in 1971, the abbreviation "s." (from "solidus") was used to represent shillings, just as "d." ("denarius") and £ ("libra") were used to represent pence and pounds respectively.


title: Solidus (coin)

text: Under the influence of the old long S , the abbreviations "£sd" eventually developed into the use of a slash , which gave rise to that symbol's ISO and Unicode name "solidus".


title: Solidus (coin)

text: The French term "sou" was borrowed into Vietnamese as the word "xu" / "su" (樞). The term is usually used to simply mean the word "coin" often in compound in the forms of "đồng xu" (銅樞) or "tiền xu" (錢樞). The modern Vietnamese đồng is nominally divided into 100 "xu".


title: Napa, California

text: Napa is the largest city and county seat of Napa County and a principal city of Wine Country in Northern California. Located in the North Bay region of the Bay Area, the city had a population of 77,480 as of the end of 2021. Napa is a major tourist destination in California, known for its wineries, restaurants, and arts culture.


title: Napa, California

text: The name "Napa" was probably derived from the name given to a southern Nappan village whose native people shared the area with elk, deer, grizzlies and cougars for many centuries, according to Napa historian Kami Santiago.


title: Napa, California

text: At the time of the first recorded exploration into Napa Valley in 1823, the majority of the inhabitants consisted of Native American Indians. Padre José Altimira, founder of Mission San Francisco Solano in Sonoma, led the expedition. Spanish priests converted some natives; the rest were attacked and dispersed by Mexican soldiers.


title: Napa, California

text: Prior to the American Conquest of California, Napa Valley was in California's District of Sonoma. At the time, its boundaries also included Lake County to the north. By this time, the indigenous people were either working as field laborers or living in small bands in the hills surrounding the valley. Tensions between the white settlers and Native Americans broke into war in 1850, resulting in soldiers hunting down and killing all the natives they could find, driving the remainder north toward Clear Lake. By 1870, the Native American population consisted of only a few laborers and servants working for the white settlers.


title: Napa, California

text: The City of Napa was founded by Nathan Coombs in 1847. General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo had paid to survey for a township downriver at Soscol Landing where riverboats could turn around prior to Napa's founding. Instead, the Napa town site was surveyed on property Coombs had received from Nicolas Higuera, original holder of the Rancho Entre Napa, a Mexican land grant. The first record of a ship navigating the river was the "Susana" in 1842, though by 1850 the "Dolphin" became the first passenger steamship to navigate the Napa River in order to open another path of commerce.


title: Napa, California

text: In the mid-1850s, Napa's Main Street rivaled that of many larger cities, with as many as 100 saddle horses tied to the fences on an average afternoon. John Patchett opened the first commercial winery in the county in 1859. The "Napa Valley Register", founded by J.I. Horrell and L. Hoxie Strong, made its debut on August 10, 1863, with weekly publications until becoming a daily newspaper in 1872.


title: Napa, California

text: The California Gold Rush of the late 1850s expanded Napa City. A tent city was erected along Main Street. Many cattle ranches were maintained, and the lumber industry had greatly expanded. Sawmills in the valley were in operation cutting up timber that was hauled by team to Napa, and then shipped out on the river to Benicia and San Francisco.


title: Napa, California

text: In 1858 the great silver rush began in Napa Valley, and miners eagerly flocked to the eastern hills. In the 1860s, mining carried on, in a large scale, with quicksilver mines operating in many areas of Napa County. The most noted mine was the Silverado Mine, near the summit of Mount Saint Helena. At this time, the first wave of rural, foreign laborers from coastal villages of China's Canton province arrived in California, and at Napa County mines. A settlement for Chinese laborers in Napa was established in the early 1860s. At its peak from the 1880s to the early 1900s the Chinese population grew to a population of over 300 people.


title: Napa, California

text: In 1869, F. A. Sawyer established Sawyer Tanning Company in Napa and was joined in the business by his father B. F. Sawyer a year later. It went on to become the largest tannery west of the Mississippi River. The world-famous Nappa leather or Napa leather was invented by Emanuel Manasse in Napa in 1875 while working at the Sawyer Tanning Company.


title: Napa, California

text: The Napa State Hospital received its first patients in 1876. The Napa Valley Opera House became popular after its debut on February 13, 1880, with a production of Gilbert and Sullivan's "HMS Pinafore" but, it later languished and was closed for many years. It was reestablished in the 1980s.


title: Napa, California

text: Napa had become the primary business and economic center for the Napa Valley by the dawn of the 20th century. The San Francisco, Napa and Calistoga Railway was established in 1905 for passenger and freight service. The railroad carried passengers from ferry boats in Vallejo to stops in Napa and other locations in the valley.


title: Napa, California

text: As agricultural and wine interests developed north of the city limits, much of the light industry, banking, commercial and retail activity in the county evolved within the city of Napa and in earlier times along the Napa River through the historic downtown. Napa Glove Factory was established in 1903 and was the largest plant of its kind west of Chicago.


title: Napa, California

text: Edwin Pridham and Peter L. Jensen invented the moving-coil loudspeaker in 1915 in their Napa workshop while working on an improvement for the telephone receiver. Pridham and Jensen went on to found the Magnavox Company in 1917. In the late 19th century and early 20th century Napa was known for having a sizable red-light district, with brothels primarily concentrated on and around Clinton Street.


title: Napa, California

text: Following studies made by the U.S. Department of the Interior in 1930-40s, the U.S. Congress authorized channel improvements on Napa River and construction of a dam on Conn Creek as part of the Flood Control Act of 1944, though funding was never approved. The City of Napa funded and built the dam in order to create the water conservation reservoir Lake Hennessey in 1948, however flooding continued to be a problem.


title: Napa, California

text: The 1986 Napa River flood revived public interest in finding a remedy. After a plan to widen the river channel proposed by the Army Corps of Engineers was presented in 1995 and roundly rejected, a group of special interests called Friends of the River formed, which built consensus on a "living river" plan. Voters in the County of Napa narrowly approved an increase of sales tax in a March 1998 election to fund the Napa River Flood Project. In 2005, the Napa River again flooded the entire downtown area and destroyed 1,000 homes across the county.


title: Napa, California

text: An ambitious redevelopment plan encompassing several blocks of downtown Napa's retail property was undertaken by the city in the early 1970s, though it did little to improve the city's economy. Downtown Napa finally began to recover and emerge from a long economic slumber in the 2000s, triggered by a significant growth in Main Street restaurants and hotels. The redevelopment of First and Main streets and the Napa Mill complex helped to stimulate investments along the Napa riverfront.


title: Napa, California

text: The Napa area was struck by a magnitude 6.1 earthquake centered northwest of nearby American Canyon. In October 2017 the Atlas Fire and Partrick Fires burned several parts of Napa County. See also October 2017 Northern California wildfires


title: Napa, California

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (1.69%) is water. Napa was the first location in California to be part of the North Coast American Viticultural Area. Renowned for its wine due to the Mediterranean climate, surprisingly only about 9% of Napa's acres are planted to grapes.


title: Napa, California

text: The Napa River traverses the city on its journey to the San Pablo Bay. The city has conducted a variety of waterfront development along the banks of the river, including certain fill operations governed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers regulations. The Napa River Flood Project has been in progress since the late 1990s, with the goal of mitigating the risk of flooding along a stretch of the river and of Napa Creek.


title: Napa, California

text: Napa has a Mediterranean climate similar to many other parts of Northern California. Winters are chilly and wet, and summers are warm and dry. During the summer months rain is rare. Occasionally there may be a day or two of light rain in June and September. Heat waves do occur with the temperatures rising above 100 °F. Wildfires are typically a problem during the summer months. The fall is pleasant and many people come to visit Napa at this time. The winters are quite wet and cool and flooding can be a major problem. Nighttime temperatures often drop below freezing. The rainy season is from October to April and occasionally into May. Snow is rare. The hottest temperature recorded in Napa was on September 6, 2022, while the coldest temperature recorded was on December 22, 1990. The most rainfall in one year was in 1983 and the least amount of rainfall was in 2013. The most rainfall in one month was in December 1955.


title: Napa, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Napa had a population of 76,915. The population density was . The racial makeup of Napa was 57,754 (75.1%) White, 486 (0.6%) African American, 637 (0.8%) Native American, 1,755 (2.3%) Asian, 144 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 13,256 (17.2%) from other races, and 2,883 (3.7%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 28,923 persons (37.6%).


title: Napa, California

text: The Census reported that 75,678 people (98.4% of the population) lived in households, 568 (0.7%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 669 (0.9%) were institutionalized.


title: Napa, California

text: There were 28,166 households, out of which 9,826 (34.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,862 (49.2%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,201 (11.4%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,571 (5.6%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,694 (6.0%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 221 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 7,457 households (26.5%) were made up of individuals, and 3,278 (11.6%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.69. There were 18,634 families (66.2% of all households); the average family size was 3.25.


title: Napa, California

text: The population was spread out, with 18,848 people (24.5%) under the age of 18, 6,724 people (8.7%) aged 18 to 24, 20,933 people (27.2%) aged 25 to 44, 19,919 people (25.9%) aged 45 to 64, and 10,491 people (13.6%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.8 males.


title: Napa, California

text: There were 30,149 housing units at an average density of , of which 16,148 (57.3%) were owner-occupied, and 12,018 (42.7%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.3%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.7%. 41,591 people (54.1% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 34,087 people (44.3%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Napa, California

text: Napa's economy is characterized by its position as one of the principal cities of Wine Country, resulting in a significant portion of jobs in the city relating to wineries, restaurants, hotels, and other hospitality industries.


title: Napa, California

text: The Napa Valley Business Park is located adjacent to the Napa County Airport in an unincorporated area of Napa County. Employers in the area include The Doctors Company and Treasury Wine Estates.


title: Napa, California

text: The town's comprehensive annual financial report for the fiscal year that ended June 30, 2020, lists the top ten employers in the City of Napa as the following:


title: Napa, California

text: In the California State Legislature, Napa is in , and in . In the United States House of Representatives, Napa is in .


title: Napa, California

text: CA-29 runs through Napa, connecting to Vallejo and the East Bay Area to the south and the Napa Wine Country to the north. CA-12 runs to the south of the city, connecting to Fairfield and Interstate 80 to the east and Sonoma and US-101 to the west.


title: Napa, California

text: Napa is also served by several airports: Oakland and San Francisco International to the south, Sonoma County northwest, and Sacramento International Airport northeast. Napa County Airport to the south, also serves as a small public airport.


title: Napa, California

text: Valley Intercity Neighborhood Express, more commonly known by the acronym "VINE Transit", is the public transportation service for Napa as well as for Napa County. It is managed under the Napa County Transportation and Planning Agency and is operated by Veolia Transportation. In addition to providing service to Napa, the VINE has extensive service throughout the county and has connections to other public transportation systems in the nearby counties.


title: Napa, California

text: Evans Transportation provides daily service to and from Oakland International Airport and San Francisco International Airport daily from Napa at their main office on CA-29.


title: Do Your Ears Hang Low?

text: "Do Your Ears Hang Low?" (Roud 15472) is a traditional children's song that is often sung in schools, at camps and at birthday parties. The melody is usually an abridged version of "Turkey in the Straw", but it can also be sung to the tune of the "Sailor's Hornpipe" or "The Parade of the Wooden Soldiers". A common belief is that the lyrics refer to the long ears of a hound, but it appears considerably more likely that the song originated as the vulgar "Do Your Balls Hang Low?", and was later sanitized.


title: Do Your Ears Hang Low?

text: The origin of the song is most likely George Washington Dixon's "Zip Coon", penned in 1838. Variant versions with vulgar lyrics include "Do Your Balls Hang Low?" and "Do Your Boobs Hang Low?" Some authors regard these as parody versions of the campfire song, but, according to folklorists such as Ed Cray, the evidence strongly suggests that "Do Your Balls Hang Low?" came first, and that "Do Your Ears Hang Low?" is a sanitized version.


title: Do Your Ears Hang Low?

text: The earliest apparent report of "Do Your Balls Hang Low?" is said to date from about 1900. The song is known to have been sung by British soldiers on the Western Front during the First World War. Lyn MacDonald reports that, on one occasion in 1916, General Douglas Haig heard it being sung by a column of soldiers as they marched past on their way to the Somme. He immediately called for his horse and rode to the head of the column to remonstrate with the battalion commander, only to find the colonel singing as heartily as his men. Haig congratulated him on his fine voice, but added: "I like the "tune", but you must know that in any circumstances those words are inexcusable!"


title: Do Your Ears Hang Low?

text: In the United Kingdom, a shorter version with differences in the lyrics is heard, commonly sung in Cubs and Brownies events:


title: Kyūjō incident

text: The was an attempted military coup d'état in the Empire of Japan at the end of the Second World War. It happened on the night of 14–15 August 1945, just before the announcement of Japan's surrender to the Allies. The coup was attempted by the Staff Office of the Ministry of War of Japan and many from the Imperial Guard to stop the move to surrender.


title: Kyūjō incident

text: The officers murdered Lieutenant General Takeshi Mori of the First Imperial Guards Division and attempted to counterfeit an order to the effect of permitting their occupation of the Tokyo Imperial Palace (""). They attempted to place Emperor Hirohito under house arrest, using the 2nd Brigade Imperial Guard Infantry. They failed to persuade the Eastern District Army and the high command of the Imperial Japanese Army to move forward with the action. Due to their failure to convince the remaining army to oust the Imperial House of Japan, they performed ritual suicide. As a result, the communiqué of the intent for a Japanese surrender continued as planned.


title: Kyūjō incident

text: On July 26, 1945 (Berlin time), the Potsdam Conference issued a declaration on the terms for the surrender of Japan. When the Potsdam Declaration was received in Japan over shortwave, the Minister for Foreign Affairs Shigenori Tōgō brought a copy to the Emperor of Japan, Hirohito. After going over the declaration point by point, the emperor asked Tōgō if those terms "were the most reasonable to be expected in the circumstances". Tōgō said that they were. The emperor said, "I agree. In principle they are acceptable." In late July, however, the other ministers were not ready to accept the declaration.


title: Kyūjō incident

text: On August 9, 1945, the Japanese government, responding to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, to the declaration of war by the Soviet Union and to the effective loss of the Pacific and Asian-mainland territories, decided to accept the Potsdam Declaration. On the same day the Supreme Council for the Direction of War opened before the Japanese Imperial court. In the Council the Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki, the Navy Minister Mitsumasa Yonai, and the Minister for Foreign Affairs Shigenori Tōgō suggested to Hirohito that the Japanese should accept the Potsdam Declaration and unconditionally surrender.


title: Kyūjō incident

text: After the closure of the air-raid shelter session, Suzuki mustered the Supreme Council for the Direction of War again, now as an Imperial Conference, which Emperor Hirohito attended. From midnight of August 10, the conference convened in an underground bomb shelter. Hirohito agreed with the opinion of Tōgō, resulting in the acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration. Subsequently, the Japanese envoy to Switzerland and Sweden communicated the decision to the Allies.


title: Kyūjō incident

text: The War Ministry knew the decision of the conference and stirred up a fierce reaction from many officers who intended continued resistance. At 9 o'clock, in the session held at the Ministry of War, the staff officers complained to the Minister Korechika Anami, and not all of them heeded Anami's explanations. After midnight on 12 August a San Francisco radio station (KGEI) relayed the reply from the Allies, and there was a suggestion that the Allies had decided, against the requisition for the protection of the Kokutai from the Imperial Japanese government, that the authority of the sovereignty of the Japanese government and the Emperor would be subordinated to the headquarters of the Allies, a military occupational system that was also applied to the fallen German Reich. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs interpreted this sentence as restricting sovereignty, but the Japanese Army interpreted it more as enslavement. From 3 o'clock the attendees of the imperial families council basically agreed to the surrender of Japan, yet the cabinet council which was supposed to be held at the same time did not concur. Also, the Supreme Council for the Direction of War tangled with the problem of protection for the Kokutai. After these proceedings, some Army officers decided that a coup d'état was needed for protection of the Kokutai. At this time, the core group of these officers had already prepared some troops in Tokyo (, "heiryoku shiyō keikaku", literally “military force usage plan”).


title: Kyūjō incident

text: Late on the night of August 12, 1945, Major Kenji Hatanaka, along with Lieutenant Colonels Masataka Ida, Masahiko Takeshita (Anami's brother-in-law), and Masao Inaba, and Colonel Okikatsu Arao, the Chief of the Military Affairs Section, spoke to War Minister Korechika Anami (the army minister and "most powerful figure in Japan besides the Emperor himself"), and asked him to do whatever he could to prevent acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration. General Anami refused to say whether he would help the young officers in treason. As much as they needed his support, Hatanaka and the other rebels decided they had no choice but to continue planning and to attempt a coup d'état on their own. Hatanaka spent much of August 13 and the morning of August 14 gathering allies, seeking support from the higher-ups in the Ministry, and refining his plot.


title: Kyūjō incident

text: Shortly after the Imperial Conference on the night of August 13–14 at which the surrender finally was decided, Anami had two conversations in which he expressed opposition to the surrender. He asked Yoshijirō Umezu, the Chief of the Army General Staff, if "the war should be continued even at the risk of launching a coup d'état", to which Umezu concluded, "There is nothing we can do now but to comply with the Emperor's decision." Anami then confronted a Colonel Saburo Hayashi in a washroom and asked about "the possibility of attacking a large American convoy rumored to be outside of Tokyo." Hayashi dashed Anami's suggestion by reaffirming the Imperial decision while noting the presence of the convoy was only a rumor. Finally, his brother-in-law Lieutenant Colonel Masahiko Takeshita confronted Anami, first suggesting Anami resign, which would topple the government; then suggesting he support the "coup". To the first, Anami noted that the fall of the government would not stop the Imperial edict, while to the second, he replied that he wished to go to the Army Ministry first.


title: Kyūjō incident

text: At the Army Ministry, Anami announced compliance with the Imperial edict. Then a group of senior army officers including Anami gathered in a nearby room. All those present were concerned about the possibility of a "coup d'état" to prevent the surrender—some of those present may have even been considering launching one. After a silence, General Torashirō Kawabe, Deputy Chief of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff, proposed that all senior officers present sign an agreement to carry out the emperor's order of surrender—"The Army will act in accordance with the Imperial Decision to the last." It was signed by all the high-ranking officers present, including Anami, Hajime Sugiyama, Yoshijirō Umezu, Kenji Doihara, Torashirō Kawabe, Masakazu Kawabe, and Tadaichi Wakamatsu. This written accord by the most senior officers in the Army, in addition to Anami's announcement, acted as a formidable firebreak against any attempt to incite a coup d'état in Tokyo.


title: Kyūjō incident

text: Around 21:30 on August 14, Hatanaka's rebels set their plan into motion. The Second Regiment of the First Imperial Guards had entered the palace grounds, doubling the strength of the battalion already stationed there, presumably to provide extra protection against Hatanaka's rebellion. But Hatanaka, along with Lt. Col. Jirō Shiizaki, convinced the commander of the Second Regiment, Colonel Toyojirō Haga, of their cause, by telling him (untruthfully) that Anami, Umezu, and the commanders of the Eastern District Army and Imperial Guards Divisions were all in on the plan. Hatanaka also went to the office of General Shizuichi Tanaka, commander of the Eastern region of the army, to try to persuade him to join the coup. Tanaka refused, and ordered Hatanaka to go home. Hatanaka ignored the order.


title: Kyūjō incident

text: Originally, Hatanaka hoped that simply occupying the palace and showing the beginnings of a rebellion would inspire the rest of the Army to rise up against the move to surrender. This notion guided him through much of the last days and hours and gave him the blind optimism to move ahead with the plan, despite having little support from his superiors. Having set all the pieces into position, Hatanaka and his co-conspirators decided that the Guard would take over the palace at 02:00. The hours until then were spent in continued attempts to convince their superiors in the Army to join the coup. At about the same time, General Anami killed himself, leaving a message that read, "I—with my death—humbly apologize to the Emperor for the great crime." Whether the crime involved losing the war, or the coup, remains unclear.