title: The Age of Reason

text: Paine's "Age of Reason" sparked enough anger in Britain to initiate not only a series of government prosecutions but also a pamphlet war. Around 50 unfavorable replies appeared between 1795 and 1799 alone, and refutations were still being published in 1812. Many of them responded specifically to Paine's attack on the Bible in Part II (when Thomas Williams was prosecuted for printing Part II, it became clear its circulation had far exceeded that of Part I). Although critics responded to Paine's analysis of the Bible, they did not usually address his specific arguments. Instead, they advocated a literal reading of the Bible, citing the Bible's long history as evidence of its authority. They also issued "ad hominem" attacks against Paine, describing him "as an enemy of proper thought and of the morality of decent, enlightened people". Dissenters such as Joseph Priestley, who had endorsed the arguments of the "Rights of Man", turned away from those presented in "The Age of Reason". Even the liberal "Analytical Review" was skeptical of Paine's claims and distanced itself from the book. Paine's deism was simply too radical for these more moderate reformers and they feared being tarred with the brush of extremism.


title: The Age of Reason

text: Despite the outpouring of antagonistic replies to "The Age of Reason", some scholars have argued that Constantin Volney's deistic "The Ruins" (translations of excerpts from the French original appeared in radical papers such as Thomas Spence's "Pig's Meat" and Daniel Isaac Eaton's "Politics for the People") was actually more influential than "The Age of Reason". According to David Bindman, "The Ruins" "achieved a popularity in England comparable to "Rights of Man" itself." One minister complained that "the mischief arising from the spreading of such a pernicious publication [as "The Age of Reason"] was infinitely greater than any that could spring from limited suffrage and septennial parliaments" (other popular reform causes).


title: The Age of Reason

text: It was not until Richard Carlile's 1818 trial for publishing "The Age of Reason" that Paine's text became "the anti-Bible of all lower-class nineteenth-century infidel agitators". Although the book had been selling well before the trial, once Carlile was arrested and charged, 4,000 copies were sold in just a few months. At the trial itself, which created a media frenzy, Carlile read the entirety of "The Age of Reason" into the court record, ensuring it an even wider publication. Between 1818 and 1822, Carlile claimed to have "sent into circulation near 20,000 copies of the "Age of Reason"". Just as in the 1790s, it was the language that most angered the authorities in 1818. As Joss Marsh, in her study of blasphemy in the 19th century, pointed out, "at these trials plain English was reconfigured as itself 'abusive' and 'outrageous.' The "Age of Reason" struggle almost tolled the hour when the words 'plain,' 'coarse,' 'common,' and 'vulgar' took on a pejorative meaning." Carlile was convicted of blasphemy and sentenced to one year in prison but spent six years instead because he refused any "legal conditions" on his release.


title: The Age of Reason

text: Paine's new rhetoric came to dominate popular 19th-century radical journalism, particularly that of freethinkers, Chartists and Owenites. Its legacy can be seen in Thomas Jonathan Wooler's radical periodical "The Black Dwarf", Carlile's numerous newspapers and journals, the radical works of William Cobbett, Henry Hetherington's periodicals the "Penny Papers" and the "Poor Man's Guardian", Chartist William Lovett's works, George Holyoake"s newspapers and books on Owenism, and freethinker Charles Bradlaugh's "New Reformer". A century after the publication of "The Age of Reason", Paine's rhetoric was still being used: George William Foote's ""Bible Handbook" (1888) ... systematically manhandles chapters and verses to bring out 'Contradictions,' 'Absurdities,' 'Atrocities,' and 'Obscenities,' exactly in the manner of Paine's "Age of Reason"." The periodical "The Freethinker" (founded in 1881 by George Foote) argued, like Paine, that the "absurdities of faith" could be "slain with laughter."


title: The Age of Reason

text: "The Age of Reason", despite having been written for the French, made very little, if any, impact on revolutionary France. Paine wrote that "the people of France were running headlong into atheism and I had the work translated into their own language, to stop them in that career, and fix them to the first article ... of every man's creed who has any creed at all – "I believe in God"" (emphasis Paine's). Paine's arguments were already common and accessible in France; they had, in a sense, already been rejected.


title: The Age of Reason

text: While still in France, Paine formed the Church of Theophilanthropy with five other families, a civil religion that held as its central dogma that man should worship God's wisdom and benevolence and imitate those divine attributes as much as possible. The church had no priest or minister, and the traditional Biblical sermon was replaced by scientific lectures or homilies on the teachings of philosophers. It celebrated four festivals honoring St. Vincent de Paul, George Washington, Socrates, and Rousseau. Samuel Adams articulated the goals of this church when he wrote that Paine aimed "to renovate the age by inculcating in the minds of youth the fear and love of the Deity and universal philanthropy." The church closed in 1801, when Napoleon concluded a concordat with the Vatican.


title: The Age of Reason

text: In the United States, "The Age of Reason" initially caused a deistic "revival", but was then viciously attacked and largely forgotten. Paine became so reviled that he could still be maligned as a "filthy little atheist" by Theodore Roosevelt over one hundred years later.


title: The Age of Reason

text: At the end of the 18th century, America was ripe for Paine's arguments. Ethan Allen published the first American defense of deism, "Reason, The Only Oracle of Man" (1784), but deism remained primarily a philosophy of the educated elite. Men such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson espoused its tenets but at the same time argued that religion served the useful purpose of "social control." It was not until the publication of Paine's more entertaining and popular work that deism reached into the middling and lower classes in America. The public was receptive, in part, because they approved of the secular ideals of the French Revolution. "The Age of Reason" went through 17 editions and sold thousands of copies in the United States. Elihu Palmer, "a blind renegade minister" and Paine's most loyal follower in America, promoted deism throughout the country. Palmer published what became "the bible of American deism", "The Principles of Nature", established deistic societies from Maine to Georgia, built Temples of Reason throughout the nation, and founded two deistic newspapers for which Paine eventually wrote seventeen essays. Foner wrote, ""The Age of Reason" became the most popular deist work ever written ... Before Paine it had been possible to be both a Christian and a deist; now such a religious outlook became virtually untenable." Paine presented deism to the masses, and, as in Britain, educated elites feared the consequences of such material in the hands of so many. Their fear helped to drive the backlash which soon followed.


title: The Age of Reason

text: Almost immediately after this deistic upsurge, the Second Great Awakening began. George Spater explains that "the revulsion felt for Paine's "Age of Reason" and for other anti-religious thought was so great that a major counter-revolution had been set underway in America before the end of the eighteenth century." By 1796, every student at Harvard was given a copy of Watson's rebuttal of "The Age of Reason". In 1815, Parson Weems, an early American novelist and moralist, published "God's Revenge Against Adultery", in which one of the major characters "owed his early downfall to reading 'PAINE'S AGE OF REASON'". Paine's "libertine" text leads the young man to "bold slanders of the bible" even to the point that he "threw aside his father's good old family bible, and for a surer guide to pleasure took up the AGE OF REASON!"


title: The Age of Reason

text: Paine could not publish Part III of "The Age of Reason" in America until 1807 because of the deep antipathy against him. Hailed only a few years earlier as a hero of the American Revolution, Paine was now lambasted in the press and called "the scavenger of faction," a "lilly-livered sinical rogue," a "loathsome reptile," a "demi-human archbeast," "an object of disgust, of abhorrence, of absolute loathing to every decent man except the President of the United States [Thomas Jefferson]." In October 1805 John Adams wrote to his friend Benjamin Waterhouse, an American physician and scientist:


title: The Age of Reason

text: Adams viewed Paine's "Age of Reason" not as the embodiment of the Enlightenment but as a "betrayal" of it. Despite all of these attacks, Paine never wavered in his beliefs; when he was dying, a woman came to visit him, claiming that God had instructed her to save his soul. Paine dismissed her in the same tones that he had used in "The Age of Reason": "pooh, pooh, it is not true. You were not sent with any such impertinent message ... Pshaw, He would not send such a foolish ugly old woman as you about with His message."


title: The Age of Reason

text: "The Age of Reason" was largely ignored after 1820, except by radical groups in Britain and freethinkers in America, such as Robert G. Ingersoll and the American abolitionist Moncure Daniel Conway, who edited his works and wrote the first biography of Paine, favorably reviewed by "The New York Times". Not until the publication of Charles Darwin's "The Origin of Species" in 1859, and the large-scale abandonment of the literal reading of the Bible that it caused in Britain did many of Paine's ideas take hold. As writer Mark Twain said, "It took a brave man before the Civil War to confess he had read the "Age of Reason" ... I read it first when I was a cub pilot, read it with fear and hesitation, but marveling at its fearlessness and wonderful power." Paine's criticisms of the church, the monarchy, and the aristocracy appear most clearly in Twain's "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court" (1889).


title: The Age of Reason

text: Paine's text is still published today, one of the few 18th-century religious texts to be widely available. Its message still resonates, evidenced by Christopher Hitchens, who stated that "if the rights of man are to be upheld in a dark time, we shall require an age of reason". His ends with the claim that "in a time ... when both rights and reason are under several kinds of open and covert attack, the life and writing of Thomas Paine will always be part of the arsenal on which we shall need to depend."


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: In quantum physics, the spin–orbit interaction (also called spin–orbit effect or spin–orbit coupling) is a relativistic interaction of a particle's spin with its motion inside a potential. A key example of this phenomenon is the spin–orbit interaction leading to shifts in an electron's atomic energy levels, due to electromagnetic interaction between the electron's magnetic dipole, its orbital motion, and the electrostatic field of the positively charged nucleus. This phenomenon is detectable as a splitting of spectral lines, which can be thought of as a Zeeman effect product of two relativistic effects: the apparent magnetic field seen from the electron perspective and the magnetic moment of the electron associated with its intrinsic spin. A similar effect, due to the relationship between angular momentum and the strong nuclear force, occurs for protons and neutrons moving inside the nucleus, leading to a shift in their energy levels in the nucleus shell model. In the field of spintronics, spin–orbit effects for electrons in semiconductors and other materials are explored for technological applications. The spin–orbit interaction is at the origin of magnetocrystalline anisotropy and the spin Hall effect.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: For atoms, energy level splitting produced by the spin–orbit interaction is usually of the same order in size as the relativistic corrections to the kinetic energy and the zitterbewegung effect. The addition of these three corrections is known as the fine structure. The interaction between the magnetic field created by the electron and the magnetic moment of the nucleus is a slighter correction to the energy levels known as the hyperfine structure.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: This section presents a relatively simple and quantitative description of the spin–orbit interaction for an electron bound to a hydrogen-like atom, up to first order in perturbation theory, using some semiclassical electrodynamics and non-relativistic quantum mechanics. This gives results that agree reasonably well with observations.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: A rigorous calculation of the same result would use relativistic quantum mechanics, using Dirac equation, and would include many-body interactions. Achieving an even more precise result would involve calculating small corrections from quantum electrodynamics.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: We shall deal with the magnetic field first. Although in the rest frame of the nucleus, there is no magnetic field acting on the electron, there "is" one in the rest frame of the electron (see classical electromagnetism and special relativity). Ignoring for now that this frame is not inertial, we end up with the equation


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: where v is the velocity of the electron, and E is the electric field it travels through. Here, in the non-relativistic limit, we assume that the Lorentz factor formula_3. Now we know that E is radial, so we can rewrite formula_4.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: Also we know that the momentum of the electron formula_5. Substituting this in and changing the order of the cross product gives


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: Next, we express the electric field as the gradient of the electric potential formula_7. Here we make the central field approximation, that is, that the electrostatic potential is spherically symmetric, so is only a function of radius. This approximation is exact for hydrogen and hydrogen-like systems. Now we can say that


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: where formula_9 is the potential energy of the electron in the central field, and "e" is the elementary charge. Now we remember from classical mechanics that the angular momentum of a particle formula_10. Putting it all together, we get


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: It is important to note at this point that B is a positive number multiplied by L, meaning that the magnetic field is parallel to the orbital angular momentum of the particle, which is itself perpendicular to the particle's velocity.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: where formula_13 is the spin angular-momentum vector, formula_14 is the Bohr magneton, and formula_15 is the electron-spin g-factor. Here formula_16 is a negative constant multiplied by the spin, so the spin magnetic moment is antiparallel to the spin angular momentum.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: The spin–orbit potential consists of two parts. The Larmor part is connected to the interaction of the spin magnetic moment of the electron with the magnetic field of the nucleus in the co-moving frame of the electron. The second contribution is related to Thomas precession.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: Substituting in this equation expressions for the spin magnetic moment and the magnetic field, one gets


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: In 1926 Llewellyn Thomas relativistically recomputed the doublet separation in the fine structure of the atom. Thomas precession rate formula_19 is related to the angular frequency of the orbital motion formula_20 of a spinning particle as follows:


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: The net effect of Thomas precession is the reduction of the Larmor interaction energy by factor 1/2, which came to be known as the "Thomas half".


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: Thanks to all the above approximations, we can now evaluate the detailed energy shift in this model. Note that "L" and "S" are no longer conserved quantities. In particular, we wish to find a new basis that diagonalizes both "H" (the non-perturbed Hamiltonian) and Δ"H". To find out what basis this is, we first define the total angular momentum operator


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: It can be shown that the five operators "H", "J, L, S", and "J" all commute with each other and with Δ"H". Therefore, the basis we were looking for is the simultaneous eigenbasis of these five operators (i.e., the basis where all five are diagonal). Elements of this basis have the five quantum numbers: "formula_31" (the "principal quantum number"), formula_32 (the "total angular momentum quantum number"), "formula_33" (the "orbital angular momentum quantum number"), "formula_34" (the "spin quantum number"), and formula_35 (the ""z" component of total angular momentum").


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: for hydrogenic wavefunctions (here formula_37 is the Bohr radius divided by the nuclear charge "Z"); and


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: A crystalline solid (semiconductor, metal etc.) is characterized by its band structure. While on the overall scale (including the core levels) the spin–orbit interaction is still a small perturbation, it may play a relatively more important role if we zoom in to bands close to the Fermi level (formula_41). The atomic formula_42 (spin–orbit) interaction, for example, splits bands that would be otherwise degenerate, and the particular form of this spin–orbit splitting (typically of the order of few to few hundred millielectronvolts) depends on the particular system. The bands of interest can be then described by various effective models, usually based on some perturbative approach. An example of how the atomic spin–orbit interaction influences the band structure of a crystal is explained in the article about Rashba and Dresselhaus interactions.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: In crystalline solid contained paramagnetic ions, e.g. ions with unclosed d or f atomic subshell, localized electronic states exist. In this case, atomic-like electronic levels structure is shaped by intrinsic magnetic spin–orbit interactions and interactions with crystalline electric fields. Such structure is named the fine electronic structure. For rare-earth ions the spin–orbit interactions are much stronger than the crystal electric field (CEF) interactions. The strong spin–orbit coupling makes "J" a relatively good quantum number, because the first excited multiplet is at least ~130 meV (1500 K) above the primary multiplet. The result is that filling it at room temperature (300 K) is negligibly small. In this case, a (2"J" + 1)-fold degenerated primary multiplet split by an external CEF can be treated as the basic contribution to the analysis of such systems' properties. In the case of approximate calculations for basis formula_43, to determine which is the primary multiplet, the Hund principles, known from atomic physics, are applied:


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: The "S", "L" and "J" of the ground multiplet are determined by Hund's rules. The ground multiplet is 2"J" + 1 degenerated – its degeneracy is removed by CEF interactions and magnetic interactions. CEF interactions and magnetic interactions resemble, somehow, Stark and Zeeman effect known from atomic physics. The energies and eigenfunctions of the discrete fine electronic structure are obtained by diagonalization of the (2"J" + 1)-dimensional matrix. The fine electronic structure can be directly detected by many different spectroscopic methods, including the inelastic neutron scattering (INS) experiments. The case of strong cubic CEF (for 3"d" transition-metal ions) interactions form group of levels (e.g. "T", "A"), which are partially split by spin–orbit interactions and (if occur) lower-symmetry CEF interactions. The energies and eigenfunctions of the discrete fine electronic structure (for the lowest term) are obtained by diagonalization of the ("2L + 1)(2S + 1)"-dimensional matrix. At zero temperature ("T" = 0 K) only the lowest state is occupied. The magnetic moment at "T" = 0 K is equal to the moment of the ground state. It allows the evaluation of the total, spin and orbital moments. The eigenstates and corresponding eigenfunctions formula_44 can be found from direct diagonalization of Hamiltonian matrix containing crystal field and spin–orbit interactions. Taking into consideration the thermal population of states, the thermal evolution of the single-ion properties of the compound is established. This technique is based on the equivalent operator theory defined as the CEF widened by thermodynamic and analytical calculations defined as the supplement of the CEF theory by including thermodynamic and analytical calculations.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: Hole bands of a bulk (3D) zinc-blende semiconductor will be split by formula_45 into heavy and light holes (which form a formula_46 quadruplet in the formula_47-point of the Brillouin zone) and a split-off band (formula_48 doublet). Including two conduction bands (formula_49 doublet in the formula_47-point), the system is described by the effective eight-band model of Kohn and Luttinger. If only top of the valence band is of interest (for example when formula_51, Fermi level measured from the top of the valence band), the proper four-band effective model is


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: where formula_53 are the Luttinger parameters (analogous to the single effective mass of a one-band model of electrons) and formula_54 are angular momentum 3/2 matrices (formula_55 is the free electron mass). In combination with magnetization, this type of spin–orbit interaction will distort the electronic bands depending on the magnetization direction, thereby causing magnetocrystalline anisotropy (a special type of magnetic anisotropy).


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: If the semiconductor moreover lacks the inversion symmetry, the hole bands will exhibit cubic Dresselhaus splitting. Within the four bands (light and heavy holes), the dominant term is


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: where the material parameter formula_57 for GaAs (see pp. 72 in Winkler's book, according to more recent data the Dresselhaus constant in GaAs is 9 eVÅ; the total Hamiltonian will be formula_58). Two-dimensional electron gas in an asymmetric quantum well (or heterostructure) will feel the Rashba interaction. The appropriate two-band effective Hamiltonian is


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: where formula_60 is the 2 × 2 identity matrix, formula_61 the Pauli matrices and formula_62 the electron effective mass. The spin–orbit part of the Hamiltonian, formula_63 is parametrized by formula_64, sometimes called the Rashba parameter (its definition somewhat varies), which is related to the structure asymmetry.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: Above expressions for spin–orbit interaction couple spin matrices formula_65 and formula_66 to the quasi-momentum formula_67, and to the vector potential formula_68 of an AC electric field through the Peierls substitution formula_69. They are lower order terms of the Luttinger–Kohn k·p perturbation theory in powers of formula_70. Next terms of this expansion also produce terms that couple spin operators of the electron coordinate formula_71. Indeed, a cross product formula_72 is invariant with respect to time inversion. In cubic crystals, it has a symmetry of a vector and acquires a meaning of a spin–orbit contribution formula_73 to the operator of coordinate. For electrons in semiconductors with a narrow gap formula_74 between the conduction and heavy hole bands, Yafet derived the equation


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: where formula_76 is a free electron mass, and formula_77 is a formula_77-factor properly renormalized for spin–orbit interaction. This operator couples electron spin formula_79 directly to the electric field formula_80 through the interaction energy formula_81.


title: Spin–orbit interaction

text: Electric dipole spin resonance (EDSR) is the coupling of the electron spin with an oscillating electric field. Similar to the electron spin resonance (ESR) in which electrons can be excited with an electromagnetic wave with the energy given by the Zeeman effect, in EDSR the resonance can be achieved if the frequency is related to the energy band splitting given by the spin–orbit coupling in solids. While in ESR the coupling is obtained via the magnetic part of the EM wave with the electron magnetic moment, the ESDR is the coupling of the electric part with the spin and motion of the electrons. This mechanism has been proposed for controlling the spin of electrons in quantum dots and other mesoscopic systems.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Richard Hallorann is a fictional character created by Stephen King from his 1977 novel "The Shining". He has telepathic abilities he called "the shining" and is the head chef at the Overlook Hotel. He meets Danny Torrance, a young boy who is also telepathic, and learns that the evil spirits of the hotel have taken control of Danny's father, Jack.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Hallorann is portrayed by Scatman Crothers in Stanley Kubrick's 1980 adaptation of the novel. He was later portrayed by Melvin Van Peebles in the 1997 miniseries adaptation, Arthur Woodley in the 2016 operatic adaptation and Carl Lumbly in the 2019 film "Doctor Sleep", an adaptation of the 2013 novel of the same name.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Hallorann first appears in "The Shining", where he is the head chef at the Overlook Hotel in Colorado. While packing away for winter one day, Hallorann meets the new caretaker, Jack Torrance and his family: his wife, Wendy and son Danny. Hallorann discovers that Danny carries the same psychic abilities as him. He tells Danny that, when Hallorann was a child, he discovered that he and his grandmother could carry conversations with each other without even moving their lips. She called this telepathy "The Shining." Hallorann warns Danny that the Overlook can be dangerous, especially to those who carry "The Shining." Later, Hallorann is contacted by Danny, who reveals that his father had become influenced by Delbert Grady and the other spirits inhabiting the hotel. Hallorann returns to the hotel in an attempt to rescue Danny and Wendy from Jack, and the three of them escape together as the hotel explodes and kills Jack.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Hallorann is mentioned in Stephen King's 1986 horror novel, "It", as being the founder of The Black Spot, a bar in Derry, Maine which catered towards African-American soldiers and veterans. The Black Spot was eventually burned down in an act of racial hatred by a group titled "The Maine Legion of White Decency". Hallorann uses his Shining ability to find survivors and rescue them, one of them being Will Hanlon, who went on to become the father of Mike Hanlon, a central character in "It". It is suggested that the arson of The Black Spot was initiated by Pennywise, the novel's main antagonist. The Black Spot was also referenced in King's novel, "Insomnia".


title: Dick Hallorann

text: In Stephen King's 2013 sequel, "Doctor Sleep", which occurs several years later, Hallorann remains close with Wendy and Danny, and becomes something of a mentor to the latter. One night, Danny wakes up to use the restroom, only to encounter Lorraine Massey, one of the spirits from The Overlook, prompting Wendy to call Hallorann for help. Hallorann reveals that, as a child, he was emotionally, physically and sexually abused by his granduncle, Andy. After Andy's death, Hallorann was haunted by his ghost, but his grandmother taught Hallorann how to lock away such ghosts in an imaginary "lockbox". Hallorann teaches Danny this technique.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Years later, Danny (now going simply by "Dan") attempts to locate Hallorann for help protecting fellow "Shiner" Abra Stone from the True Knot Cult. Dan discovers that Hallorann had died in 1999, but he is still able to communicate with and advise Dan by briefly possessing the body of Eleanor Ouellette, a woman in the hospice where Dan works.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Hallorann was portrayed by musician Scatman Crothers in Stanley Kubrick's 1980 adaptation "The Shining". While the film departs from King's novel in many ways (much to King's chagrin), one of the most notable changes is Hallorann's death. In King's novel, Hallorann survives Torrance's rampage. However in the film, Hallorann arrives at The Overlook Hotel after sensing that Danny and Wendy are in danger. Torrance subsequently strikes Halloran in the chest with an axe, killing him. His dead body is then discovered by Wendy when The Overlook attempts to trick her.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Before the role was cast, the original choice for the role of Hallorann was Slim Pickens, who worked with Kubrick on "Dr. Strangelove". However, Pickens refused to work with Kubrick again after being annoyed with the director's perfectionism during the filming of that project. The role eventually went to Crothers, who had stated that he had wanted to play the role of Hallorann before the film had even started production. Crothers had a difficult time filming with Kubrick, who had a reputation for repeating takes multiple times to get the perfect shot. For example, Kubrick did 148 takes of the scene in which Hallorann explains The Shining ability to Danny, at the end of which Crothers burst into tears. The shot of Hallorann in a state of shock and horror after being contacted by Danny while staying in Miami also took another 60 takes, which again proved strenuous to Crothers.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: In Stephen King's 1997 miniseries adaptation of the novel directed by Mick Garris, Hallorann is portrayed by Melvin Van Peebles. In this interpretation, Torrance attacks Halloran with a croquet mallet rather than an axe, and Halloran survives the encounter, as in the novel. While the miniseries itself earned mixed reviews, Van Peebles' performance as Hallorann was critically acclaimed.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Hallorann appears in the operatic adaptation of King's novel portrayed by Arthur Woodley in a baritone part. In this adaptation, he is again attacked with a mallet by Torrance, but is left unconscious and remains in The Overlook Hotel when it explodes.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Similarly to the novel, Hallorann's ghost instructs Dan to use "lockboxes" to lock away the bad apparitions. Hallorann's spirit later appears again to instruct Dan to protect Abra.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Prior to the release of "Doctor Sleep", Warner Bros. had enough confidence in the film that they hired Mike Flanagan to script a prequel focusing on the character, with the working title "Hallorann". Following the disappointing box office performance of "Doctor Sleep", however, the future of the project is unclear.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Hallorann's portrayal in the book, as well as the performance by Scatman Crothers, have been positively received by fans. While not as well acclaimed as Crothers' portrayal, Melvin Van Peebles' portrayal of Hallorann in the 1997 miniseries adaptation also received positive reviews.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: Hallorann's death in the film adaptation of "The Shining" is seen as being one of the first movies to start the trope of "The Black Guy Always Dies First In Horror Movies". This is a trope that recognises the fact that African-American or minority characters often do not survive horror movies, and are sometimes the first to be killed off. Despite being the first person killed in "The Shining", Hallorann is also the only person (aside from Jack Torrance) to die during the film, and is the only on-screen death.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: For his performance as Hallorann, Crothers won the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor in 1981, as well as Best Supporting Actor from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy or Horror for his portrayal.


title: Dick Hallorann

text: In "The Simpsons"s "Treehouse of Horror" parody of "The Shining", dubbed "The Shinning", the role of Hallorann is filled by Groundskeeper Willie, who refers to the ability to "Shine" as "The Shinning". Willie is killed by Homer Simpson, who fills in for the role of Jack Torrance. Hallorann is again parodied in the music video for "Spit It Out" by heavy metal band Slipknot. The video parodies the film as a whole, with the band's keyboardist, Craig Jones, filling in for the role of Hallorann in the narrative.


title: Robyn Crawford

text: Robyn Crawford (born December 17, 1960) is an American author, producer, and former assistant to and creative director for Whitney Houston. Her credits include "The Bodyguard" (1992), "Waiting to Exhale" (1995), "In Between" (1987), and " The Wonderful World of Disney" (1995).


title: Robyn Crawford

text: Robyn Crawford was born in Newark, New Jersey, but grew up as one of three siblings in East Orange, New Jersey. Her mother left Crawford's father due to abuse exacted. Both her mother, Janet Crawford, and her brother, Marty, were diagnosed with HIV. They both died of AIDS related illness in the ’90s.


title: Robyn Crawford

text: Crawford met Whitney Houston in 1980, when Crawford was 19 and Houston was 16, the pair having both been counselors at an East Orange summer camp.


title: Robyn Crawford

text: Crawford claims in her book "A Song for You: My Life with Whitney Houston", published in 2019, that she had a same-sex relationship with Houston that faded as they prioritized Whitney's career. Crawford left school to aid Houston's career. They lived together as a couple. Crawford was ostracised and sidelined by Houston's family and management as Houston's fame grew and her career progressed, and she married Bobby Brown.


title: Robyn Crawford

text: Crawford lives in New Jersey with her wife Lisa Hintelmann, with whom she adopted twins. She identifies as sexually fluid or queer. Lena Waithe has cited Crawford as an early inspiration.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army (, abbreviated AK; ) was the dominant resistance movement in German-occupied Poland during World War II. The Home Army was formed in February 1942 from the earlier Związek Walki Zbrojnej (Armed Resistance) established in the aftermath of the German and Soviet invasions in September 1939. Over the next two years, the Home Army absorbed most of the other Polish partisans and underground forces. Its allegiance was to the Polish government-in-exile in London, and it constituted the armed wing of what came to be known as the Polish Underground State. Estimates of the Home Army's 1944 strength range between 200,000 and 600,000. The latter number made the Home Army not only Poland's largest underground resistance movement but, along with Soviet and Yugoslav partisans, one of Europe's largest World War II underground movements.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army sabotaged German transports bound for the Eastern Front in the Soviet Union, destroying German supplies and tying down substantial German forces. It also fought pitched battles against the Germans, particularly in 1943 and in Operation Tempest from January 1944. The Home Army's most widely known operation was the Warsaw Uprising of August–October 1944. The Home Army also defended Polish civilians against atrocities by Germany's Ukrainian and Lithuanian collaborators. Its attitude toward Jews remains a controversial topic.


title: Home Army

text: As Polish–Soviet relations deteriorated, conflict grew between the Home Army and Soviet forces. The Home Army's allegiance to the Polish government-in-exile caused the Soviet government to consider the Home Army to be an impediment to the introduction of a communist-friendly government in Poland, which hindered cooperation and in some cases led to outright conflict. On 19 January 1945, after the Red Army had cleared most Polish territory of German forces, the Home Army was disbanded. After the war, particularly in the 1950s and 1960s, communist government propaganda portrayed the Home Army as an oppressive and reactionary force. Thousands of ex-Home Army personnel were deported to gulags and Soviet prisons, while other ex-members, including a number of senior commanders, were executed. After the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe, the portrayal of the Home Army was no longer subject to government censorship and propaganda.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army originated in the Service for Poland's Victory ("Służba Zwycięstwu Polski"), which General Michał Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski set up on 27 September 1939, just as the coordinated German and Soviet invasions of Poland neared completion. Seven weeks later, on 17 November 1939, on orders from General Władysław Sikorski, the Service for Poland's Victory was superseded by the Armed Resistance ("Związek Walki Zbrojnej"), which in turn, a little over two years later, on 14 February 1942, became the Home Army. During that time, many other resistance organisations remained active in Poland, although most of them, merged with the Armed Resistance or with its successor, the Home Army, and substantially augmented its numbers between 1939 and 1944.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army was loyal to the Polish government-in-exile and to its agency in occupied Poland, the Government Delegation for Poland ("Delegatura"). The Polish civilian government envisioned the Home Army as an apolitical, nationwide resistance organisation. The supreme command defined the Home Army's chief tasks as partisan warfare against the German occupiers, the re-creation of armed forces underground and, near the end of the German occupation, a general armed rising to be prosecuted until victory. Home Army plans envisioned, at war's end, the restoration of the pre-war government following the return of the government-in-exile to Poland.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army, though in theory subordinate to the civil authorities and to the government-in-exile, often acted somewhat independently, with neither the Home Army's commanders in Poland nor the "London government" fully aware of the other's situation.


title: Home Army

text: After Germany started its invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, the Soviet Union joined the Allies and signed the Anglo-Soviet Agreement on 12 July 1941. This put the Polish government in a difficult position since it had previously pursued a policy of "two enemies". Although a Polish–Soviet agreement was signed in August 1941, cooperation continued to be difficult and deteriorated further after 1943 when Nazi Germany publicised the Katyn massacre of 1940.


title: Home Army

text: Until the major rising in 1944, the Home Army concentrated on self-defense (the freeing of prisoners and hostages, defense against German pacification operations) and on attacks against German forces. Home Army units carried out thousands of armed raids and intelligence operations, sabotaged hundreds of railway shipments, and participated in many partisan clashes and battles with German police and Wehrmacht units. The Home Army also assassinated prominent Nazi collaborators and Gestapo officials in retaliation against Nazi terror inflicted on Poland's civilian population; prominent individuals assassinated by the Home Army included Igo Sym (1941) and Franz Kutschera (1944).


title: Home Army

text: In February 1942, when the Home Army was formed from the Armed Resistance, it numbered around 100,000 members. Less than a year later, at the start of 1943, it had reached a strength of around 200,000. In the summer of 1944, when Operation Tempest began, the Home Army reached its highest membership: estimates of membership in the first half and summer of 1944 range from 200,000, through 300,000, 380,000 and 400,000 to 450,000–500,000, though most estimates average at about 400,000; the strength estimates vary due to the constant integration of other resistance organisations into the Home Army, and that while the number of members was high and that of sympathizers was even higher, the number of armed members participating in operations at any given time was smaller—as little as one per cent in 1943, and as many as five to ten per cent in 1944—due to an insufficient number of weapons.


title: Home Army

text: Home Army numbers in 1944 included a cadre of over 10,000–11,000 officers, 7,500 officers-in-training (singular: "podchorąży") and 88,000 non-commissioned officers (NCOs). The officer cadre was formed from prewar officers and NCOs, graduates of underground courses, and elite operatives usually parachuted in from the West (the Silent Unseen). The basic organizational unit was the platoon, numbering 35–50 people, with an unmobilized skeleton version of 16–25; in February 1944, the Home Army had 6,287 regular and 2,613 skeleton platoons operational. Such numbers made the Home Army not only the largest Polish resistance movement, but one of the two largest in World War II Europe. Casualties during the war are estimated at 34,000 to 100,000, plus some 20,000–50,000 after the war (casualties and imprisonment).


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army was intended to be a mass organisation that was founded by a core of prewar officers. Home Army soldiers fell into three groups. The first two consisted of "full-time members": undercover operatives, living mostly in urban settings under false identities (most senior Home Army officers belonged to this group); and uniformed (to a certain extent) partisans, living in forested regions ("leśni", or "forest people"), who openly fought the Germans (the forest people are estimated at some 40 groups, numbering 1,200–4,000 persons in early 1943, but their numbers grew substantially during Operation Tempest). The third, largest group were "part-time members": sympathisers who led "double lives" under their real names in their real homes, received no payment for their services, and stayed in touch with their undercover unit commanders but were seldom mustered for operations, as the Home Army planned to use them only during a planned nationwide rising.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army was intended to be representative of the Polish nation, and its members were recruited from most parties and social classes. Its growth was largely based on integrating scores of smaller resistance organisations into its ranks; most of the other Polish underground armed organizations were incorporated into the Home Army, though they retained varying degrees of autonomy. The largest organization that merged into the Home Army was the leftist Peasants' Battalions ("Bataliony Chłopskie") around 1943–1944, and parts of the National Armed Forces ("Narodowe Siły Zbrojne") became subordinate to the Home Army. In turn, individual Home Army units varied substantially in their political outlooks, notably in their attitudes toward ethnic minorities and toward the Soviets. The largest group that completely refused to join the Home Army was the pro-Soviet, communist People's Army ("Armia Ludowa"), which numbered 30,000 people at its height in 1944.


title: Home Army

text: Home Army ranks included a number of female operatives. Most women worked in the communications branch, where many held leadership roles or served as couriers. Approximately a seventh to a tenth of the Home Army insurgents were female.


title: Home Army

text: Notable women in the Home Army included Elżbieta Zawacka, an underground courier who was sometimes called the only female "Cichociemna". organised an intelligence network in German-occupied Belarus in 1942–1944. and Emilia Malessa were high-ranking officers described as "holding top posts" within the communication branch of the organisation. headed the distribution branch. Several all-female units existed within the AK structures, including "", an entirely female sabotage unit led by Wanda Gertz, who carried out assassinations of female Gestapo informants in addition to sabotage. During the Warsaw Uprising, two all-female units were created—a demolition unit and a sewer system unit.


title: Home Army

text: Many women participated in the Warsaw Uprising, particularly as medics or scouts; they were estimated to form about 75% of the insurgent medical personnel. By the end of the uprising, there were about 5,000 female casualties among the insurgents, with over 2,000 female soldiers taken captive; the latter number reported in contemporary press caused a "European sensation".


title: Home Army

text: Home Army Headquarters was divided into five sections, two bureaus and several other specialized units:


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army's commander was subordinate in the military chain of command to the Polish Commander-in-Chief (General Inspector of the Armed Forces) of the Polish government-in-exile and answered in the civilian chain of command to the Government Delegation for Poland.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army's first commander, until his arrest by the Germans in 1943, was Stefan Rowecki ("nom de guerre" ""Grot"", "Spearhead"). Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski (Tadeusz Komorowski, "nom de guerre" ""Bór"", "Forest") commanded from July 1943 until his surrender to the Germans when the Warsaw Uprising was suppressed in October 1944. Leopold Okulicki, "nom de guerre" "Niedzwiadek" ("Bear"), led the Home Army in its final days.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army was divided geographically into regional branches or areas ("obszar"), which were subdivided into subregions or subareas ("podokręg") or independent areas ("okręgi samodzielne"). There were 89 inspectorates ("inspektorat") and 280 (as of early 1944) districts ("obwód") as smaller organisational units. Overall, the Home Army regional structure largely resembled Poland's interwar administration division, with an "okręg" being similar to a voivodeship (see Administrative division of Second Polish Republic).


title: Home Army

text: There were three to five areas: Warsaw ("Obszar Warszawski", with some sources differentiating between left- and right-bank areas – "Obszar Warszawski prawo- i lewobrzeżny"), Western ("Obszar Zachodni", in the Pomerania and Poznań regions), and Southeastern ("Obszar Południowo-Wschodni", in the Lwów area); sources vary on whether there was a Northeastern Area (centered in Białystok – "Obszar Białystocki") or whether Białystok was classified as an independent area ("Okręg samodzielny Białystok").


title: Home Army

text: In 1943 the Home Army began recreating the organization of the prewar Polish Army, its various units now being designated as platoons, battalions, regiments, brigades, divisions, and operational groups.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army supplied valuable intelligence to the Allies; 48 per cent of all reports received by the British secret services from continental Europe between 1939 and 1945 came from Polish sources. The total number of those reports is estimated at 80,000, and 85 per cent of them were deemed to be high quality or better. The Polish intelligence network grew rapidly; near the end of the war, it had over 1,600 registered agents.


title: Home Army

text: The Western Allies had limited intelligence assets in Central and Eastern Europe. The extensive in-place Polish intelligence network proved a major resource; between the French capitulation and other Allied networks that were undeveloped at the time, it was even described as "the only [A]llied intelligence assets on the Continent". According to , for the Western Allies, the intelligence provided by the Home Army was considered to be the best source of information on the Eastern Front.


title: Home Army

text: Home Army intelligence provided the Allies with information on German concentration camps and the Holocaust in Poland (including the first reports on this subject received by the Allies), German submarine operations, and, most famously, the V-1 flying bomb and V-2 rocket. In one Project Big Ben mission (Operation Wildhorn III; Polish cryptonym, "Most III", "Bridge III"), a stripped-for-lightness RAF twin-engine Dakota flew from Brindisi, Italy, to an abandoned German airfield in Poland to pick up intelligence prepared by Polish aircraft-designer Antoni Kocjan, including of V-2 rocket wreckage from a Peenemünde launch, a "Special Report 1/R, no. 242", photographs, eight key V-2 parts, and drawings of the wreckage. Polish agents also provided reports on the German war production, morale, and troop movements. The Polish intelligence network extended beyond Poland and even beyond Europe: for example, the intelligence network organized by Mieczysław Zygfryd Słowikowski in North Africa has been described as "the only [A]llied ... network in North Africa". The Polish network even had two agents in the German high command itself.


title: Home Army

text: The researchers who produced the first Polish–British in-depth monograph on Home Army intelligence ("Intelligence Co-operation Between Poland and Great Britain During World War II: Report of the Anglo-Polish Historical Committee", 2005) described contributions of Polish intelligence to the Allied victory as "disproportionally large" and argued that "the work performed by Home Army intelligence undoubtedly supported the Allied armed effort much more effectively than subversive and guerilla activities".


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army also conducted psychological warfare. Its Operation N created the illusion of a German movement opposing Adolf Hitler within Germany itself.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army published a weekly "Biuletyn Informacyjny" (Information Bulletin), with a top circulation (on 25 November 1943) of 50,000 copies.


title: Home Army

text: The largest and best-known of the Operation Tempest battles, the Warsaw Uprising, constituted an attempt to liberate Poland's capital and began on 1 August 1944. Polish forces took control of substantial parts of the city and resisted the German-led forces until 2 October (a total of 63 days). With the Poles receiving no aid from the approaching Red Army, the Germans eventually defeated the insurrectionists and burned the city, quelling the Uprising on 2 October 1944. Other major Home Army city risings included Operation Ostra Brama in Wilno and the Lwów Uprising. The Home Army also prepared for a rising in Kraków but aborted due to various circumstances. While the Home Army managed to liberate a number of places from German control—for example, the Lublin area, where regional structures were able to set up a functioning government—they ultimately failed to secure sufficient territory to enable the government-in-exile to return to Poland due to Soviet hostility.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army also sabotaged German rail- and road-transports to the Eastern Front in the Soviet Union. Richard J. Crampton estimated that an eighth of all German transports to the Eastern Front were destroyed or substantially delayed due to Home Army operations.


title: Home Army

text: The Polish Resistance carried out dozens of attacks on German commanders in Poland, the largest series being that codenamed "Operation Heads". Dozens of additional assassinations were carried out, the best-known being:


title: Home Army

text: As a clandestine army operating in an enemy-occupied country and separated by over a thousand kilometers from any friendly territory, the Home Army faced unique challenges in acquiring arms and equipment, though it was able to overcome these difficulties to some extent and to field tens of thousands of armed soldiers. Nevertheless, the difficult conditions meant that only infantry forces armed with light weapons could be fielded. Any use of artillery, armor or aircraft was impossible (except for a few instances during the Warsaw Uprising, such as the "Kubuś" armored car). Even these light-infantry units were as a rule armed with a mixture of weapons of various types, usually in quantities sufficient to arm only a fraction of a unit's soldiers.


title: Home Army

text: Home Army arms and equipment came mostly from four sources: arms that had been buried by the Polish armies on battlefields after the 1939 invasion of Poland, arms purchased or captured from the Germans and their allies, arms clandestinely manufactured by the Home Army itself, and arms received from Allied air drops.


title: Home Army

text: From arms caches hidden in 1939, the Home Army obtained 614 heavy machine guns, 1,193 light machine guns, 33,052 rifles, 6,732 pistols, 28 antitank light field guns, 25 antitank rifles, and 43,154 hand grenades. However, due to their inadequate preservation, which had to be improvised in the chaos of the September Campaign, most of the guns were in poor condition. Of those that had been buried in the ground and had been dug up in 1944 during preparations for Operation Tempest, only 30% were usable.


title: Home Army

text: Arms were sometimes purchased on the black market from German soldiers or their allies, or stolen from German supply depots or transports. Efforts to capture weapons from the Germans also proved highly successful. Raids were conducted on trains carrying equipment to the front, as well as on guardhouses and gendarmerie posts. Sometimes weapons were taken from individual German soldiers accosted in the street. During the Warsaw Uprising, the Home Army even managed to capture several German armored vehicles, most notably a Jagdpanzer 38 Hetzer light tank destroyer renamed and an armored troop transport SdKfz 251 renamed .


title: Home Army

text: Arms were clandestinely manufactured by the Home Army in its own secret workshops, and by Home Army members working in German armaments factories. In this way the Home Army was able to procure submachine guns (copies of British Stens, indigenous "Błyskawicas" and "KIS"), pistols ("Vis"), flamethrowers, explosive devices, road mines, and "Filipinka" and "Sidolówka" hand grenades. Hundreds of people were involved in the manufacturing effort. The Home Army did not produce its own ammunition, but relied on supplies stolen by Polish workers from German-run factories.


title: Home Army

text: The final source of supply was Allied air drops, which was the only way to obtain more exotic, highly useful equipment such as plastic explosives and antitank weapons such as the British PIAT. During the war, 485 air-drop missions from the West (about half of them flown by Polish airmen) delivered some 600 tons of supplies for the Polish resistance. Besides equipment, the planes also parachuted in highly qualified instructors (Cichociemni), 316 of whom were inserted into Poland during the war.


title: Home Army

text: Air drops were infrequent. Deliveries from the west were limited by Stalin's refusal to let the planes land on Soviet territory, the low priority placed by the British on flights to Poland; and the extremely heavy losses sustained by Polish Special Duties Flight personnel. Britain and the United States attached more importance to not antagonizing Stalin than they did to the aspirations of the Poles to regain their national sovereignty, particularly after Hitler attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941 and the Soviets joined the Western Allies in the war against Germany.


title: Home Army

text: In the end, despite all efforts, most Home Army forces had inadequate weaponry. In 1944, when the Home Army was at its peak strength (200,000–600,000, according to various estimates), the Home Army had enough weaponry for only about 32,000 soldiers." On 1 August 1944, when the Warsaw Uprising began, only a sixth of Home Army fighters in Warsaw were armed.


title: Home Army

text: Home Army members' attitudes toward Jews varied widely from unit to unit, and the topic remains controversial. The Home Army answered to the National Council of the Polish government-in-exile, where some Jews served in leadership positions (e.g. Ignacy Schwarzbart and Szmul Zygielbojm), though there were no Jewish representatives in the Government Delegation for Poland. Traditionally, Polish historiography has presented the Home Army interactions with Jews in a positive light, while Jewish historiography has been mostly negative; most Jewish authors attribute the Home Army's hostility to endemic antisemitism in Poland. More recent scholarship has presented a mixed, ambivalent view of Home Army–Jewish relations. Both "profoundly disturbing acts of violence as well as extraordinary acts of aid and compassion" have been reported, though the majority of Holocaust survivors in an analysis by Joshua D. Zimmerman reported negative interactions with the Home Army.


title: Home Army

text: Members of the Home Army that were named Righteous Among the Nations include Jan Karski, Aleksander Kamiński, Stefan Korboński, Henryk Woliński, Jan Żabiński, Władysław Bartoszewski, Mieczysław Fogg, Henryk Iwański, and Jan Dobraczyński.


title: Home Army

text: A Jewish partisan detachment served in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, and another in . The Home Army provided training and supplies to the Warsaw Ghetto's Jewish Combat Organization. Thousands of Jews joined, or claimed to join, the Home Army in order to survive in hiding, but Jews serving in the Home Army were the exception rather than the rule. Most could not pass as ethnic Poles and would have faced deadly consequences if discovered.


title: Home Army

text: In February 1942, the Home Army Operational Command's Office of Information and Propaganda set up a Section for Jewish Affairs, directed by Henryk Woliński. This section collected data about the situation of the Jewish population, drafted reports, and sent information to London. It also centralized contacts between Polish and Jewish military organizations. The Home Army also supported the Relief Council for Jews in Poland ("Żegota") as well as the formation of Jewish resistance organizations.


title: Home Army

text: From 1940 onward, the Home Army courier Jan Karski delivered the first eyewitness account of the Holocaust to the Western powers, after having personally visited the Warsaw Ghetto and a Nazi concentration camp. Another crucial role was played by Witold Pilecki, who was the only person to volunteer to be imprisoned at Auschwitz (where he would spend three and a half years) to organize a resistance on the inside and to gather information on the atrocities occurring there to inform the Western Allies about the fate of the Jewish population. Home Army reports from March 1943 described crimes committed by the Germans against the Jewish populace. AK commander General Stefan Rowecki estimated that 640,000 people had perished in Auschwitz between 1940 and March 1943, including 66,000 ethnic Poles and 540,000 Jews from various countries (this figure was revised later to 500,000). The Home Army started carrying out death sentences for szmalcowniks in Warsaw in the summer of 1943.


title: Home Army

text: Antony Polonsky observed that "the attitude of the military underground to the genocide is both more complex and more controversial [than its approach towards "szmalcowniks"]. Throughout the period when it was being carried out, the Home Army was preoccupied with preparing for ... [the moment when] Nazi rule in Poland collapsed. It was determined to avoid premature military action and to conserve its strength (and weapons) for the crucial confrontation that, it was assumed, would determine the fate of Poland. ... [However,] to the Home Army, the Jews were not a part of 'our nation' and ... action to defend them was not to be taken if it endangered [the Home Army's] other objectives." He added that "it is probably unrealistic to have expected the Home Army—which was neither as well armed nor as well organized as its propaganda claimed—to have been able to do much to aid the Jews. The fact remains that its leadership did not want to do so." Rowecki's attitudes shifted in the following months as the brutal reality of the Holocaust became more apparent, and the Polish public support for the Jewish resistance increased. Rowecki was willing to provide Jewish fighters with aid and resources when it contributed to "the greater war effort", but had concluded that providing large quantities of supplies to the Jewish resistance would be futile. This reasoning was the norm among the Allies, who believed that the Holocaust could only be halted by a significant military action.


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army provided the Warsaw Ghetto with firearms, ammunition, and explosives, but only after it was convinced of the eagerness of the Jewish Combat Organization ("Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa", ŻOB) to fight, and after Władysław Sikorski's intervention on the Organization's behalf. Zimmerman describes the supplies as "limited but real". Jewish fighters of the Jewish Military Union ("Żydowski Związek Wojskowy", ŻZW) received from the Home Army, among other things, 2 heavy machine guns, 4 light machine guns, 21 submachine guns, 30 rifles, 50 pistols, and over 400 grenades. Some supplies were also provided to the ŻOB, but less than to ŻZW with whom the Home Army had closer ties and ideological similarities. Antoni Chruściel, commander of the Home Army in Warsaw, ordered the entire armory of the Wola district transferred to the ghetto. In January 1943 the Home Army delivered a larger shipment of 50 pistols, 50 hand grenades, and several kilograms of explosives, along with a number of smaller shipments that carried a total of 70 pistols, 10 rifles, 2 hand machine guns, 1 light machine gun, ammunition, and over 150 kilograms of explosives. The number of supplies provided to the ghetto resistance has been sometimes described as insufficient, as the Home Army faced a number of dilemmas which forced it to provide no more than limited assistance to the Jewish resistance, such as supply shortages and the inability to arm its own troops, the view (shared by most of the Jewish resistance) that any wide-scale uprising in 1943 would be premature and futile, and the difficulty of coordinating with the internally divided Jewish resistance, coupled with the pro-Soviet attitude of the ŻOB. During the 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, Home Army units tried to blow up the Ghetto wall twice, carried out diversionary actions outside the Ghetto walls, and attacked German sentries sporadically near the Ghetto walls. According to Marian Fuks, the Ghetto uprising would not have been possible without supplies from the Polish Home Army.


title: Home Army

text: A year later, during the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, the Zośka Battalion liberated hundreds of Jewish inmates from the Gęsiówka section of the Warsaw concentration camp.


title: Home Army

text: Because it was the largest Polish resistance organization, the Home Army's attitude towards Jewish fugitives often determined their fate. According to Antony Polonsky the Home Army saw Jewish fugitives as security risks. At the same time, AK's "paper mills" supplied forged identification documents to many Jewish fugitives, enabling them to pass as Poles. Home Army published a leaflet in 1943 stating that "Every Pole is obligated to help those in hiding. Those who refuse them aid will be punished on the basis of...treason to the Polish Nation". Nevertheless, Jewish historians have asserted that the main cause for the low survival rates of escaping Jews was the antisemitism of the Polish population.


title: Home Army

text: Attitudes towards Jews in the Home Army were mixed. A few AK units actively hunted down Jews, and in particular two district commanders in the northeast of Poland (Władysław Liniarski of Białystok and Janusz Szlaski of Nowogródek) openly and routinely persecuted Jewish partisans and fugitives; however, these were the only two provinces, out of seventeen, where such orders were issued by provincial commanders. The extent of such behaviors in the Home Army overall has been disputed; Tadeusz Piotrowski wrote that the bulk of the Home Army's antisemitic behavior can be ascribed to a small minority of members, often affiliated with the far-right National Democracy (ND, or "Endecja") party, whose National Armed Forces organization was mostly integrated into the Home Army in 1944. Adam Puławski has suggested that some of these incidents are better understood in the context of the Polish–Soviet conflict, as some of the Soviet-affiliated partisan units that AK units attacked or was attacked by had a sizable Jewish presence. In general, AK units in the east were more likely to be hostile towards Jewish partisans, who in turn were more closely associated with the Soviet underground, while AK units in the west were more helpful towards the Jews. The Home Army had a more favorable attitude towards Jewish civilians and was more hesitant or hostile towards independent Jewish partisans, whom it suspected of pro-Soviet sympathies. General Rowecki believed that antisemitic attitudes in eastern Poland were related to Jewish involvement with Soviet partisans. Some AK units were friendly to Jews, and in Hanaczów Home Army officers hid and protected an entire 250-person Jewish community, and supplied a Jewish Home Army platoon. The Home Army leadership punished a number of perpetrators of antisemitic violence in its ranks, in some cases sentencing them to death.


title: Home Army

text: Most of the underground press was sympathetic towards Jews, and the Home Army's Bureau of Information and Propaganda was led by operatives who were pro-Jewish and represented the liberal wing of Home Army; however, the bureau's anti-communist sub-division, created as a response to communist propaganda, was led by operatives who held strong anti-communist and anti-Jewish views, including the "Żydokomuna" stereotype. The perceived association between Jews and communists was actively reinforced by Operation Antyk, whose initial reports "tended to conflate communists with Jews, dangerously disseminating the notion that Jewish loyalties were to Soviet Russia and communism rather than to Poland", and which repeated the notion that antisemitism was a "useful tool in the struggle against Soviet Russia".


title: Home Army

text: Although the Lithuanian and Polish resistance movements had common enemies—Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union—they began working together only in 1944–1945, after the Soviet reoccupation, when both fought the Soviet occupiers. The main obstacle to unity was a long-standing territorial dispute over the Vilnius Region.


title: Home Army

text: The Lithuanian Activist Front ("Lietuvos Aktyvistų Frontas", or LAF) had cooperated with Nazi operations against Poles during the German occupation. In autumn 1943, the Home Army performed retaliatory operations against the Nazis' Lithuanian supporters, mainly the Lithuanian "Schutzmannschaft" battalions, the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force, and the Lithuanian Secret Police, killing hundreds of mostly Lithuanian policemen and other collaborators during the first half of 1944. In response, the Lithuanian Sonderkommando, who had already killed hundreds of Polish civilians since 1941 (particularly the Ponary massacre), intensified their operations against the Poles.


title: Home Army

text: In April 1944, the Home Army in the Vilnius Region attempted to open negotiations with Povilas Plechavičius, commander of the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force, and proposed a non-aggression pact and cooperation against Nazi Germany. The Lithuanian side refused and demanded that the Poles either leave the Vilnius region (disputed between Poles and Lithuanians) or subordinate themselves to the Lithuanians' struggle against the Soviets. In the May 1944 Battle of Murowana Oszmianka, the Home Army dealt a substantial blow to the Nazi-sponsored Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force, which resulted in a low-level civil war between anti-Nazi Poles and pro-Nazi Lithuanians that was encouraged by the German authorities; it culminated with the June 1944 massacres of Polish and Lithuanian civilians in the villages of Glitiškės (Glinciszki) and Dubingiai (Dubinki) respectively.


title: Home Army

text: Postwar assessments of the Home Army's activities in Lithuania have been controversial. In 1993, the Home Army's activities there were investigated by a special Lithuanian government commission. Only in recent years have Polish and Lithuanian historians been able to approach consensus, though still differing in their interpretations of many events.


title: Home Army

text: In the Southeastern part of occupied Polish territories, there have been long-standing tensions between the Polish and Ukrainian populations. Poland's plans to restore its prewar borders were opposed by the Ukrainians, and some Ukrainian groups' collaboration with Nazi Germany had discredited their partisans as potential Polish allies. While the Polish government-in-exile considered tentative plans about providing a limited autonomy for Ukrainians, in 1942 the staff of the Home Army of Lviv recommended deporting 1–1.5 million Ukrainians to the Soviet Union and settling the remainder in other parts of Poland once the war ended. The situation escalated the next year when the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (Українська повстанська армія, "Ukrayins'ka Povstans'ka Armiya", UPA), a Ukrainian nationalist force and the military arm of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (Організація Українських Націоналістів, "Orhanizatsiya Ukrayins'kykh Natsionalistiv", OUN), directed most of its attacks against Poles and Jews. Stepan Bandera, one of UPA's leaders, and his followers concluded that the war would end in the exhaustion of both Germany and the Soviet Union, leaving only the Poles—who laid claim to East Galicia (viewed by the Ukrainians as western Ukraine, and by the Poles as "Kresy")—as a significant force, and therefore the Poles had to be weakened before the war's end.


title: Home Army

text: The OUN decided to attack Polish civilians, who constituted about a third of the population of the disputed territories. It equated Ukrainian independence with ethnic homogeneity, which meant the Polish presence had to be completely removed. By February 1943 the OUN began a deliberate campaign of killing Polish civilians. In massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, beginning in the spring of 1943, 100,000 Poles were killed. OUN forces targeted Polish villages, which prompted the formation of Polish self-defense units (e.g., the Przebraże Defence) and fights between the Home Army and the OUN. The Germans encouraged both sides against each other; Erich Koch said: "We have to do everything possible so that a Pole, when meeting a Ukrainian, will be ready to kill him, and conversely, a Ukrainian will be ready to kill the Pole." A German commissioner from Sarny, when local Poles complained about massacres, answered: "You want Sikorski, the Ukrainians want Bandera. Fight each other." On 10 July 1943, Zygmunt Rumel was sent to talk with local Ukrainians with the goal of ending the massacres; the mission was unsuccessful, and the Banderites killed the Polish delegation. On 20 July that year the Home Army command decided to establish partisan units in Volhynia. Several formations were created, most notably, in January 1944, the 27th Home Army Infantry Division. Between January and March 1944, the division fought 16 major battles with the UPA, expanding its operational base and securing Polish forces against the main attack. One of the largest battles between the Home Army and the UPA took place in , where local self-defence forces managed to fend off two attacks. In March 1944 the Home Army also carried out reprisal attack against UPA in the village of Sahryń, remembered as "Sahryń massacre", ended in ethnic cleansing operations in which about 700 Ukrainian civilians were killed.


title: Home Army

text: The Polish government-in-exile in London was taken by surprise; it did not expect Ukrainian anti-Polish actions of such magnitude. There is no evidence that the Polish government-in-exile contemplated a general policy of revenge against the Ukrainians, but local Poles, including Home Army commanders, engaged in retaliatory actions. Polish partisans attacked the OUN, assassinated Ukrainian commanders, and carried out operations against Ukrainian villages. Retaliatory operations aimed at intimidating the Ukrainian population contributed to increased support for the UPA. The Home Army command tried to limit operations against Ukrainian civilians to a minimum. According to Grzegorz Motyka, the Polish operations resulted in 10,000 to 15,000 Ukrainian deaths in 1943–47, including 8,000-10,000 on territory of post-war Poland. From February to April 1945, mainly in "Rzeszowszczyzna" (the Rzeszów area), Polish units (including affiliates of the Home Army) carried out retaliatory attacks in which about 3,000 Ukrainians were killed; one of the most infamous ones is known as the Pawłokoma massacre.


title: Home Army

text: By mid-1944, most of the disputed regions were occupied by the Soviet Red Army. Polish partisans disbanded or went underground, as did most Ukrainian partisans. Both the Poles and the Ukrainians would increasingly concentrate on the Soviets as their primary enemy – and both would ultimately fail.


title: Home Army

text: Home Army relations with the Soviet Red Army grew worse as the war progressed. The Soviet Union invaded Poland on 17 September 1939 after the German invasion that began on 1 September 1939; even though the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Soviets saw Polish partisans loyal to the Polish government-in-exile more as a potential obstacle to Soviet plans to control postwar Poland than as a potential ally. On orders from the Soviet "Stavka" (high command) issued on 22 June 1943, Soviet partisans engaged Polish partisans in combat; it has also been claimed that they attacked the Poles more frequently than the Germans.


title: Home Army

text: In late 1943 the actions of Soviet partisans, who had been ordered to destroy Home Army forces, even resulted in limited uneasy cooperation between some Home Army units and German forces. While the Home Army still treated the Germans as the enemy and conducted operations against them, some Polish units in the Nowogródek and Wilno areas accepted them when the Germans offered arms and supplies to the Home Army to be used against the Soviet partisans. However, such arrangements were purely tactical and indicated no ideological collaboration, as demonstrated by France's Vichy regime or Norway's Quisling regime. The Poles' main motive was to acquire intelligence on the Germans and to obtain much-needed equipment. There were no known joint Polish–German operations, and the Germans were unsuccessful in recruiting the Poles to fight exclusively against the Soviet partisans. Furthermore, most cooperative efforts between local Home Army commanders and the Germans were condemned by Home Army headquarters.


title: Home Army

text: With the Eastern Front entering Polish territories in 1944, the Home Army established an uneasy truce with the Soviets. Even so, the main Red Army and NKVD forces conducted operations against Home Army partisans, including during or directly after Poland's Operation Tempest, which the Poles had envisioned to be a joint Polish–Soviet operation against the retreating Germans which would also establish Polish claims to those territories. The Home Army helped Soviet units with scouting assistance, uprisings, and assistance in liberating some cities (e.g., Operation Ostra Brama in Vilnius, and the Lwów Uprising), only to find that Home Army troops were arrested, imprisoned, or executed immediately afterwards. Unbeknownst to the Poles, Operation Tempest had been fatally flawed from the start due to Joseph Stalin's intention of ensuring that an independent Poland would never re-emerge after the war.


title: Home Army

text: Long after the war, Soviet forces continued engaging many Home Army soldiers, who received the moniker of "cursed soldiers".


title: Home Army

text: The Home Army was officially disbanded on 19 January 1945 to avoid civil war and armed conflict with the Soviets. However, many former Home Army units decided to continue operations. The Soviet Union, and the Polish communist government that it controlled, viewed the underground, still loyal to the Polish government-in-exile, as a force to be extirpated before they could gain complete control of Poland. Future Secretary General of the Polish United Workers' Party, Władysław Gomułka, is quoted as saying: "Soldiers of the AK are a hostile element which must be removed without mercy." Another prominent Polish communist, Roman Zambrowski, said that the Home Army had to be "exterminated."


title: Home Army

text: The first Home Army structure designed primarily to deal with the Soviet threat had been NIE, formed in mid-1943. Its aim was not to engage Soviet forces in combat, but to observe them and to gather intelligence while the Polish Government-in-Exile decided how to deal with the Soviets; at that time, the exiled government still believed in the possibility of constructive negotiations with the Soviets. On 7 May 1945 NIE was disbanded and transformed into the Armed Forces Delegation for Poland ("Delegatura Sił Zbrojnych na Kraj"), but it was disbanded on 8 August 1945 to stop partisan resistance.


title: Home Army

text: The first Polish communist government formed in July 1944—the Polish Committee of National Liberation—declined to accept jurisdiction over Home Army soldiers; as a result, for over a year Soviet agencies such as the NKVD took responsibility for disarming the Home Army. By the end of the war, around 60,000 Home Army soldiers were arrested, 50,000 of whom were deported to Soviet gulags and prisons; most of these soldiers had been taken captive by the Soviets during or after Operation Tempest when many Home Army units tried to work together with the Soviets in a nationwide uprising against the Germans. Other Home Army veterans were arrested when they approached Polish communist government officials after having been promised amnesty. Home Army soldiers stopped trusting the government after a number of broken promises in the first few years of communist control.


title: Home Army

text: The third post-Home Army organization was Freedom and Independence ("Wolność i Niezawisłość", WiN). Its primary goal was not fighting; rather, it was designed to help Home Army soldiers transition from partisan to civilian life; while secrecy was necessary in light of increasing persecution of Home Army veterans by the communist government. WiN was in great need of funds to pay for false documents and provide resources for the partisans, many of whom had lost their homes and life savings in the war. WiN was far from efficient: it was viewed as an enemy of the state, starved of resources, and a vocal faction advocated armed resistance against the Soviets and their Polish proxies. In the second half of 1945, the Soviet NKVD and the newly created Polish secret police, the Department of Security ("Urząd Bezpieczeństwa", UB), managed to convince several Home Army and WiN leaders that they wanted to offer amnesty to Home Army members, and gained information about large numbers of Home Army and WiN people and resources in the following months. By the time the (imprisoned) Home Army and WiN leaders realised their mistake, the organizations had been crippled, with thousands of their members arrested. WiN was finally disbanded in 1952. By 1947 a colonel of the communist forces declared that "The terrorist and political underground [had] ceased to be a threatening force, though there [were] still men of the forests" to be dealt with.


title: Home Army

text: The persecution of the Home Army was only part of the Stalinist repressions in Poland. In 1944–56, approximately 2 million people were arrested; over 20,000, including Pilecki, organizer of the resistance in Auschwitz, were executed in communist prisons, and 6 million Polish citizens (every third adult Pole) were classified as "reactionary" or "criminal elements", and were subjected to spying by state agencies.


title: Home Army

text: Most Home Army soldiers were captured by the NKVD or by Poland's UB political police. They were interrogated and imprisoned on various charges such as "fascism". Many were sent to Gulags, executed, or "disappeared". For example, all the members of "Batalion Zośka", which had fought in the Warsaw Uprising, were locked up in communist prisons between 1944 and 1956. In 1956 an amnesty released 35,000 former Home Army soldiers from prisons.


title: Home Army

text: Even then, some partisans remained in the countryside, and were unwilling or unable to rejoin the community; they became known as the cursed soldiers. Stanisław Marchewka "Ryba" was killed in 1957, and the last AK partisan, Józef "Lalek" Franczak, was killed in 1963 – almost two decades after World War II had ended. It was only four years later, in 1967, that Adam Boryczka—a soldier of AK and a member of the elite, Britain-trained Cichociemny ("Silent Unseen") intelligence and support group—was released from prison. Until the end of the People's Republic of Poland, Home Army soldiers remained under investigation by the secret police, and it was only in 1989, after the fall of communism, that the sentences of Home Army soldiers were finally declared null and void by Polish courts.


title: Home Army

text: Many monuments to the Home Army have since been erected in Poland, including the Polish Underground State and Home Army Monument near the Sejm building in Warsaw, unveiled in 1999. The Home Army is also commemorated in the Home Army Museum in Kraków and in the Warsaw Uprising Museum in Warsaw.


title: Mabel Albertson

text: Mabel Ida Albertson (July 24, 1901 – September 28, 1982) was an American actress of television, stage, radio and film who portrayed Phyllis Stephens in the TV sitcom "Bewitched".


title: Mabel Albertson

text: Mabel Ida Albertson was born on July 24, 1901, in Haverhill, Massachusetts, to Flora (Craft) and Leopold Albertson, who were Russian-born Jewish immigrants. Her younger brother was actor Jack Albertson who was best known for playing Grandpa Joe in Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory. Albertson's mother, a stock actress, supported the family by working in a shoe factory.


title: Mabel Albertson

text: Albertson traced her show business career back to age 13, when she was paid $5 per performance to play piano behind palm trees for a reader. She later moved to California and became involved with the Pasadena Playhouse.


title: Mabel Albertson

text: She "moved directly into professional stage work in stock, vaudeville, and night clubs, appearing with Jimmy Durante."


title: Mabel Albertson

text: Albertson portrayed Phyllis Stephens, Darrin's neurotic, interfering mother, on the television sitcom "Bewitched", who invariably ended her stays at the Stephens' home by saying to her husband, "Frank, take me home. I have a sick headache." She also played the mother of Jack Benny (seven years her senior) on several episodes of his television series.


title: Mabel Albertson

text: She appeared in at least one episode of the courtroom drama series "Perry Mason": as Carrie Wilson in the Season 6, 1962 episode titled "The Case of the Hateful Hero". Albertson also guest-starred as the mother of Marilyn Munster's would-be suitor in the first broadcast episode of "The Munsters", "Munster Masquerade".


title: Mabel Albertson

text: Dragnet 1967 "The Bullet" Albertson played Jessie Gaynor, and she played the mother of Barbara and Margaret Whiting in "Those Whiting Girls". She also played the dean of a women's college in an episode of "The Tab Hunter Show", Susannah's mother in "Accidental Family", Alice's mother in "Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice", Donald Hollinger's mother on "That Girl", Irene Brady in "The Tom Ewell Show", Howard Sprague's mother on "The Andy Griffith Show", Miss Ramsey on "Hazel", Mrs. White on "The Lucy Show" episode "Lucy and the Missing Stamp", Eileen Ruby, Harry Ruby's wife, in "Make Room For Daddy" episode "Danny Goes On USO Tour", Dick Van Dyke's mother on "The New Dick Van Dyke Show", and Ethel Kendricks on the "Mary Tyler Moore Show" episode "Anyone Who Hates Kids and Dogs", Gertrude Mills on "The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show". "Rawhide" Season 2 Episode 24 as Kalla, Gypsy Queen. In the 1957 episode of Gunsmoke, "Cows and Cribs", she played Ma Smalley, a kindly boarding house owner. In the 1963 episode of Gunsmoke, "Kate Heller", she played the title character, as well as “Gody Baines” in a 1961 episode (Long, Long Trail). In 1966 she played Madam Adella in the "Bonanza" episode "A Dollar's Worth of Trouble". In Season 1 (1952/53) of "Adventures of Superman", she played Kate White, Perry White's sister in the episode "Drums of Death" originally aired January 16, 1953.


title: Mabel Albertson

text: Albertson was heard on "Dress Rehearsal", "Joe Rines' Dress Rehearsal", and the "Phil Baker Show". She was also a writer for radio programs.


title: Mabel Albertson

text: A memorable early film role for Albertson was as a proper banker's wife who is repulsed by the bucolic title characters in "Ma and Pa Kettle at Waikiki" (1955). She was also seen in "She's Back on Broadway", "So This Is Love", "About Mrs. Leslie", "Forever, Darling", "The Long, Hot Summer", "Don't Give Up the Ship", "On a Clear Day You Can See Forever" and as Mrs. Van Hoskins, a wealthy woman whose jewels are stolen, in the screwball comedy film "What's Up, Doc?" (1972).


title: Mabel Albertson

text: According to her former daughter-in-law, Cloris Leachman, Mabel Albertson died on September 28, 1982, of Alzheimer's disease at St. John's Hospital, after suffering seven years of poor health in Santa Monica, California at age 81. Her ashes were scattered into the Pacific Ocean.


title: Matthew 7:15

text: Matthew 7:15 is the fifteenth verse of the seventh chapter of the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament and is part of the Sermon on the Mount. This verse begins the section warning against false prophets.


title: Matthew 7:15

text: False prophets are frequently referred to in the New Testament, sheep were an important part of life in the Galilee of Jesus' era, and the metaphor of the pious as a flock of sheep is a common one in both the Old and New Testaments. Wolves were regarded as greedy and malevolent predators who were a threat to the innocent, and such wolf metaphors are also found in several other parts of the Bible. Schweizer feels this metaphor may be linked to the traditional description of the prophets being clad in skins.


title: Matthew 7:15

text: It is an open question who, if anyone, this verse is directed against. At the time the gospel was written the Christian communities had several opponents, who may be being targeted by the author of Matthew in this verse. Davies and Allison note several groups that scholars have proposed. There are several false prophets mentioned in the literature of the period such as Simon Magus and Bar Kokhba, but the text has no hint that it referring to one of these in particular. France notes that the wording refers to the prophets coming to you implies that these prophets are from outside the community of disciples. The Pharisees are the primary opponent of the righteous through the Gospel of Matthew, and this could be another attack on them. However, seems to make clear that the false prophets are Christian, rather than Jewish. This also could rule out other Jewish sects active in this period such as the Essenes and Zealots. While in later years Christian groups such as the Gnostics would become prominent rivals to mainstream Christianity, Gnosticism was not yet a major concern at the time this Gospel was written. Scholars who see a rivalry between the Jewish Christianity of Mathew and the wider gospel of St. Paul have read this verse as an attack on Pauline Christianity. Schweizer supports the notion that the idea of false prophets is closely attached to eschatology, and that this passage refers to events expected to occur in the end times, not to any current rivals. False prophets were a frequent concern in the Old Testament, such as in Jeremiah. France believes that even without any current threats the history in the Old Testament would lead Jesus to be concerned about the dangers of false prophets. The figures in - are themselves surprised to be judged harshly, but the word "inwardly" makes clear that prophets in this verse are knowing deceivers of the faithful.


title: Matthew 7:15

text: Additionally, some Christians interpret this passage as referring to not a single false prophet, but any false teachers within the Christian church who preach against the Gospel.


title: Matthew 7:15

text: The metaphor of 'a wolf in sheep's clothing' has become a common English expression. It is alluded to in "Romeo and Juliet", where a character is called a "wolvish ravening lamb." See The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing for some other cultural uses of the phrase.


title: Matthew 7:15

text: Pseudo-Chrysostom: The Lord had before commanded His Apostles, that they should not do their alms, prayers, and fastings before men, as the hypocrites; and that they might know that all these things may be done in hypocrisy, He speaks saying, Take heed of false prophets.


title: Matthew 7:15

text: Augustine: When the Lord had said that there were few that find the strait gate and narrow way, that heretics, who often commend themselves because of the smallness of their numbers, might not here intrude themselves, He straightway subjoins, Take heed of false prophets.


title: Matthew 7:15

text: Chrysostom: Having taught that the gate is strait, because there are many that pervert the way that leads to it, He proceeds, Take heed of false prophets. In the which that they might be the more careful, He reminds them of the things that were done among their fathers, calling them false prophets; for even in that day the like things fell out.


title: Matthew 7:15

text: Pseudo-Chrysostom: What is written below that the Law and the Prophets were until John, (Mat. 11:13.) is said, because there should be no prophecy concerning Christ after He was come. Prophets indeed there have been and are, but not prophesying of Christ, rather interpreting the things which had been prophesied of Christ by the ancients, that is by the doctors of the Churches. For no man can unfold prophetic meaning, but the Spirit of prophecy. The Lord then knowing that there should be false teachers, warns them of divers heresies, saying, Take heed of false prophets. And forasmuch as they would not be manifest Gentiles, but lurk under the Christian name, He said not ‘See ye,’ but, Take heed. For a thing that is certain is simply seen, or looked upon; but when it is uncertain it is watched or narrowly considered. Also He says Take heed, because it is a sure precaution of security to know him whom you avoid. But this form of warning, Take heed, does not imply that the Devil will introduce heresies against God's will, but by His permission only; but because He would not choose servants without trial, therefore He sends them temptation; and because He would not have them perish through ignorance, He therefore warns them beforehand. Also that no heretical teacher might maintain that He spoke here of Gentile and Jewish teachers and not of them, He adds, who come to yon in sheep's clothing. Christians are called sheep, and the sheep's clothing is a form of Christianity and of feigned religion. And nothing so casts out all good as hypocrisy; for evil that puts on the semblance of good, cannot be provided against, because it is unknown. Again, that the heretic might not allege that He here speaks of the true teachers which were yet sinners, He adds, But inwardly they are ravening wolves. But Catholic teachers should they indeed have been sinners, are spoken of as servants of the flesh, yet not as ravening wolves, because it is not their purpose to destroy Christians. Clearly then it is of heretical teachers that He speaks; for they put on the guise of Christians, to the end they may tear in pieces the Christian with the wicked fangs of seduction. Concerning, such the Apostle speaks, I know that after my departure there will enter among you grievous wolves, not sparing the flock. (Acts 20:29.)


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: Akwa Ibom State is a state in the South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria, bordered on the east by Cross River State, on the west by Rivers State and Abia State, and on the south by the Atlantic Ocean. The state takes its name from the Qua Iboe River which bisects the state before flowing into the Bight of Bonny. Akwa Ibom was split from Cross River State in 1987 with its capital Uyo and with 31 local government areas.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: Of the 36 states, Akwa Ibom is the 30th largest in area and fifteenth most populous with an estimated population of nearly 5.5 million as of 2016. Geographically, the state is divided between the Central African mangroves in the coastal far south and the Cross–Niger transition forests in the rest of the state. Other important geographical features are the Imo and Cross rivers which flow along Akwa Ibom's eastern and western borders, respectively while the Kwa Ibo River bisects the state before flowing into the Bight of Bonny. In the southeast corner of the state is the Stubb's Creek Forest Reserve, a heavily threatened wildlife reserve that contains declining crocodile, putty-nosed monkey, red-capped mangabey, and Sclater's guenon populations along with potentially extirpated populations of African leopard and Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee. Offshore, the state is also biodiverse as there are large fish populations along with various cetacean species including bottlenose dolphins, pantropical spotted dolphins, humpback whales, and killer whales.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: Modern-day Akwa Ibom State has been inhabited by various ethnic groups for hundreds of years, primarily the closely related Ibibio, Anaang, and Obolo - Oron peoples in the North-East, North-West, and Southern zones of the state, respectively. In the pre-colonial period, what is now Akwa Ibom State was divided into various city-states like the Ibom Kingdom and Akwa Akpa before the latter become a British protectorate in 1884 as a part of the Oil Rivers Protectorate. In the early 1900s, the British actually gained formal control of the area before incorporating the protectorate (now renamed the Niger Coast Protectorate) into the Southern Nigeria Protectorate which later merged into British Nigeria; after the merger, much of modern-day Akwa Ibom became a centre of anti-colonial resistance during the Women's War and political activism through the Ibibio State Union.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: After independence in 1960, the area of now-Akwa Ibom was a part of the post-independence Eastern Region until 1967 when the region was split and the area became part of the South-Eastern State. Less than two months afterwards, the Igbo-majority former Eastern Region attempted to secede as the state of Biafra; in the three-year long Nigerian Civil War, now-Akwa Ibom was hard-fought over in the prelude to the Invasion of Port Harcourt while people from Akwa Ibom were persecuted by Biafran forces as they were mainly non-Igbo. At the war's end and the reunification of Nigeria, the South-Eastern State was reformed until 1976 when it was renamed Cross River State. Eleven years later, Cross River State was divided with western Cross River being broken off to form the new Akwa Ibom State.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: Economically, Akwa Ibom State is based around the production of crude oil and natural gas as highest oil-producing state in the country, with Ibeno, Mbo and Eastern Obolo as oil-producing LGAs. Key minor industries involve agriculture as the state has substantial cocoyam, yam, and plantain crops along with fishing and heliciculture. Despite its vast oil revenues, Akwa Ibom has the seventeenth highest Human Development Index in the country in large part due to years of systemic corruption.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: The region of the state was created out of Cross River State on September 23, 1987, by the then Military Administration of General Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: No central government existed among the people of what is now Akwa Ibom State, prior to the British invasion in 1904. Instead, the Annang, Oron, Efik, Ibono-Obolo and Ibibio were all autonomous groups.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: Although several Scottish missionaries arrived in Calabar in 1848, and Ibono in 1887, the British did not firmly establish control of the area until 1904. In that year, the Enyong Division was created encompassing the area of the current state of Akwa Ibom, with headquarters at Ikot Ekpene, an Annang city described by the noted Africanist Kaanan Nair, as the cultural and political capital of Annang and Ibibio.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: The creation of Enyong Division for the first time, allowed the numerous ethnic groups to come together. This further provided a venue for the creation of the Ibibio Welfare Union, later renamed Ibibio State Union. This social organization was first organized as a local development and improvement forum for educated persons and groups who were shut out from the colonial administration in 1929. Nonetheless, some historians have wrongly pointed to the union to buttress their argument about the homogeneity of groups in the area. The Obolo Union, comprising Ibono and Andoni stock, was another strong socioeconomic and cultural organization that thrived in the region. The Ibono people have fought wars to maintain their unique identity and territory in the region more than any other group.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: When Akwa Ibom state was created in 1987, Uyo was chosen as the state capital to spread development to all regions of the state.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: Politics in Akwa Ibom state are dominated by the three main ethnic groups: the Ibibio, Annang and Oron. Of these three, the Ibibio remain the majority and have held sway in the state since its creation. For the past eight years, between May 29, 2007 - May 28, 2015, the Annang people held sway, since the governor for those eight years, was from Ikot Ekpene senatorial district.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: Like their Efik neighbors of Cross River State, people of Akwa Ibom speak various dialects of the Ibibio-Efik languages, which belong to the Benue–Congo language family, forming part of the Niger–Congo group of languages.


title: Akwa Ibom State

text: The following table lists languages of Akwa Ibom State, and the local government areas in which they are spoken: