title: Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro

text: There was a need to transform the fireworks display in a show of the same quality. The fireworks display was created by entrepreneurs Ricardo Amaral and Marius. From the previous 8–10 minutes the time was extended to 20 minutes and the quality and diversity of the fireworks was improved. A technical problem in fireworks 2000 required the use of ferries from New Year's Eve 2001-02. New Year's Eve has begun to compete with the Carnival, and since 1992 it has been a tourist attraction in its own right.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: After a brief refit, "Sōryū" and three other carriers of the 1st Air Fleet ("Kidō Butai") participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942. After bombarding American forces on Midway Atoll, the carriers were attacked by aircraft from the island and the carriers , , and . Dive bombers from "Yorktown" crippled "Sōryū" and set her afire. Japanese destroyers rescued the survivors but the ship could not be salvaged and was ordered to be scuttled so as to allow her attendant destroyers to be released for further operations. She sank with the loss of 711 officers and enlisted men of the 1,103 aboard. The loss of "Sōryū" and three other IJN carriers at Midway was a crucial strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to the Allies' ultimate victory in the Pacific.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: "Sōryū" was one of two large carriers approved for construction under the Imperial Japanese Navy's 1931–32 Supplementary Program (the other being her near-sister "Hiryū"). In contrast to some earlier Japanese carriers, such as and , which were conversions of battlecruiser and battleship hulls respectively, "Sōryū" was designed from the keel up as an aircraft carrier and incorporated lessons learned from the light carrier .


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: The ship had a length of overall, a beam of and a draught of . She displaced at standard load and at normal load. Her crew consisted of 1,100 officers and ratings.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: "Sōryū" was fitted with four geared steam turbine sets with a total of , each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by eight Kampon water-tube boilers. The turbines and boilers were the same as those used in the s. The ship's power and slim, cruiser-type hull, with a length-to-beam ratio of 10:1, gave her a speed of and made her the fastest carrier in the world at the time of her commissioning. "Sōryū" carried of fuel oil, which gave her a range of at . The boiler uptakes were trunked together to the ship's starboard side amidships and exhausted just below flight deck level through two funnels curved downwards.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: The carrier's flight deck was wide and overhung her superstructure at both ends, supported by pairs of pillars. "Sōryū"s island was built on a starboard-side extension that protruded beyond the side of the hull so that it did not encroach on the width of the flight deck. Nine transverse arrestor wires were installed on the flight deck and could stop a aircraft. The flight deck was only above the waterline and the ship's designers kept this distance low by reducing the height of the hangars. The upper hangar was and had an approximate height of ; the lower was and had an approximate height of . Together they had an approximate total area of . This caused problems in handling aircraft because the wings of a Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo bomber could neither be spread nor folded in the upper hangar.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by three elevators, the forward one abreast the island on the centerline and the other two offset to starboard. The forward platform measured , the middle one , and the rear . They were capable of transferring aircraft weighing up to . "Sōryū" had an aviation gasoline capacity of for her planned aircraft capacity of sixty-three plus nine spares.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: "Sōryū"s primary anti-aircraft (AA) armament consisted of six twin-gun mounts equipped with 50-caliber 12.7-centimeter Type 89 dual-purpose guns mounted on projecting sponsons, three on either side of the carrier's hull. The guns had a range of , and a ceiling of at an elevation of +90 degrees. Their maximum rate of fire was fourteen rounds a minute, but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute. The ship was equipped with two Type 94 fire-control directors to control the guns, one for each side of the ship, although the starboard director on the island could control all of the Type 89 guns.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: The ship's light AA armament consisted of fourteen twin-gun mounts for license-built Hotchkiss 25 mm (1 in) Type 96 AA guns. Three of these were sited on a platform just below the forward end of the flight deck. The gun was the standard Japanese light AA weapon during World War II, but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it largely ineffective. According to historian Mark Stille, the weapon had many faults including an inability to "handle high-speed targets because it could not be trained or elevated fast enough by either hand or power, its sights were inadequate for high-speed targets, it possessed excessive vibration and muzzle blast". These guns had an effective range of , and a ceiling of at an elevation of +85 degrees. The effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the 15-round magazines. The Type 96 guns were controlled by five Type 95 directors, two on each side and one in the bow.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: To save weight "Sōryū" was minimally armored; her waterline belt of of Ducol steel only protected the machinery spaces and the magazines. Comparable figures for "Hiryū" were over the machinery spaces and the aviation gasoline storage tanks increasing to over the magazines. "Sōryū"s waterline belt was backed by an internal anti-splinter bulkhead. The ship's deck was only 25 mm thick over the machinery spaces and thick over the magazines and aviation gasoline storage tanks.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: Following the Japanese ship-naming conventions for aircraft carriers, "Sōryū" was named "Blue (or Green) Dragon". The ship was laid down at the Kure Naval Arsenal on 20 November 1934, launched on 23 December 1935 and commissioned on 29 December 1937. She was assigned to the Second Carrier Division after commissioning. Her air group was initially intended to consist of eighteen Mitsubishi A5M ("Claude") monoplane fighters, twenty-seven Aichi D1A2 ("Susie") Type 96 dive bombers, and twelve Yokosuka B4Y ("Jean") Type 96 torpedo bombers, but the A5Ms were in short supply and Nakajima A4N1 biplanes were issued instead. On 25 April 1938, nine A4Ns, eighteen D1A2s, and nine B4Ys transferred to Nanking to support forces advancing up the Yangtze River. The air group advanced with the successful Japanese offensive, despite the defense by the Chinese Air Force and the Soviet Volunteer Group; it was transferred to Wuhu in early June and then to Anqing. Little is known of its operations there, but its primary role during this time was air defense. One fighter pilot of the group was killed after he shot down a Chinese aircraft. Leaving a few fighters and their pilots behind to serve as the nucleus of a new fighter unit, the air group returned to "Sōryū" on 10 July. The ship supported operations over Canton in September, but her aircraft saw no aerial combat. She returned home in December and spent most of the next year and a half training.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: In September–October 1940, the ship was based at Hainan Island to support the Japanese invasion of French Indochina. In February 1941, "Sōryū" moved to Taiwan to reinforce the blockade of southern China. Two months later, the 2nd Carrier Division was assigned to the First Air Fleet, or "Kido Butai", on 10 April. "Sōryū"s air group was detached in mid-July and transferred to Hainan Island to support the occupation of southern Indochina. "Sōryū" returned to Japan on 7 August and became flagship of the 2nd Division. She was relieved of that role on 22 September as she began a short refit that was completed on 24 October. The ship arrived at Kagoshima two days later and she resumed her former role as flagship of the Division.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: In November 1941 the IJN's Combined Fleet, under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, prepared to participate in Japan's initiation of war with the United States by conducting a preemptive strike against the US Navy's Pacific Fleet base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. On 22 November, "Sōryū", commanded by Captain Ryusaku Yanagimoto, and the rest of the "Kido Butai" under Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, including six fleet carriers from the First, Second, and Fifth Carrier Divisions, assembled in Hitokappu Bay at Etorofu Island. The fleet departed Etorofu on 26 November and followed a course across the north-central Pacific to avoid commercial shipping lanes. At this time "Sōryū" embarked 21 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters, 18 Aichi D3A "Val" dive bombers, and 18 Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers. From a position north of Oahu, "Sōryū" and the other five carriers launched two waves of aircraft on the morning of 8 December 1941 (Japan time).


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: In the first wave, eight of "Sōryū"s B5Ns were supposed to attack the aircraft carriers that normally berthed on the northwest side of Ford Island, but none were in Pearl Harbor that day; six B5Ns attacked the ships that were present, torpedoing the target ship , causing her to capsize, and the elderly light cruiser , damaging her. Two of the B5N pilots diverted to their secondary target, ships berthed alongside "1010 Pier", where the fleet flagship was usually moored. That battleship was in drydock and her position was occupied by the light cruiser and the minelayer . One torpedo passed underneath "Oglala" and struck "Helena" in one of her engine rooms; the other pilot rejected these targets and attacked the battleship . Her other ten B5Ns were tasked to drop armor-piercing bombs on the battleships berthed on the southeast side of Ford Island ("Battleship Row") and may have scored one or two hits on them. Her eight A6M Zeros strafed parked aircraft at Marine Corps Air Station Ewa, claiming twenty-seven aircraft destroyed in addition to five aircraft shot down.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: "Sōryū"s second wave consisted of nine A6M Zeros and seventeen D3As. The former attacked Naval Air Station Kaneohe Bay, losing one Zero to American anti-aircraft guns. On the return trip, the Zero pilots claimed to have shot down two American aircraft while losing two of their own. The D3As attacked various ships in Pearl Harbor, but it is not possible to identify which aircraft attacked which ship. Two of them were shot down during the attack.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: While returning to Japan, Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo, commander of the First Air Fleet, ordered that "Sōryū" and "Hiryū" be detached on 16 December to attack the defenders of Wake Island who had already defeated the first Japanese attack on the island. The two carriers reached the vicinity of the island on 21 December and launched twenty-nine D3As and two B5Ns, escorted by eighteen Zeros, to attack ground targets. They encountered no aerial opposition and launched thirty-five B5Ns and six A6M Zeros the following day. They were intercepted by the two surviving Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters of Marine Fighter Squadron VMF-211. The Wildcats shot down two B5Ns before they were shot down themselves by the Zeros. The garrison surrendered the next day after Japanese troops were landed.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: The carriers arrived at Kure on 29 December. They were assigned to the Southern Force on 8 January 1942 and departed four days later for the Dutch East Indies. The ships supported the invasion of the Palau Islands and the Battle of Ambon, attacking Allied positions on the island on 23 January with fifty-four aircraft. Four days later the carriers detached eighteen Zeros and nine D3As to operate from land bases in support of Japanese operations in the Battle of Borneo. On 30 January they destroyed two aircraft on the ground and shot down a Qantas Short Empire flying boat flying to Surabaya to pick up refugees.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: "Sōryū" and "Hiryū" arrived at Palau on 28 January and waited for the arrival of the carriers "Kaga" and "Akagi". All four carriers departed Palau on 15 February and launched air strikes against Darwin, Australia, four days later. "Sōryū" contributed eighteen B5Ns, eighteen D3As, and nine Zeros to the attack while flying Combat Air Patrols (CAP) over the carriers. Her aircraft attacked the ships in port and its facilities, sinking or setting on fire eight ships and causing three others to be beached lest they sink. The Zeros destroyed a single Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boat; one D3A was lost. The Japanese aircraft spotted a ship on the return trip but had expended all their ordnance and had to be rearmed and refueled before they could attack the vessel. Several hours later, nine of "Sōryū"s D3As located and bombed an American supply ship of , "Don Isidro", hitting her five times but failing to sink her. "Sōryū" and the other carriers arrived at Staring Bay on Celebes Island on 21 February to resupply and rest before departing four days later to support the invasion of Java. On 1 March 1942, the ship's D3As damaged the destroyer badly enough for her to be caught and sunk by Japanese cruisers. Later that day the dive bombers sank the oil tanker . The four carriers launched an airstrike of 180 aircraft against Tjilatjep on 5 March, sinking five small ships, damaging another nine badly enough that they had to be scuttled, and set the town on fire. Two days later they attacked Christmas Island before returning to Staring Bay on 11 March to resupply and train for the impending Indian Ocean raid. This raid was intended to secure newly conquered Burma, Malaya, and the Dutch East Indies against Allied attack by destroying base facilities and forces in the eastern Indian Ocean.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: On 26 March 1942, the five carriers of the First Air Fleet departed from Staring Bay; they were spotted by a Catalina about southeast of Ceylon on the morning of 4 April. Nagumo closed to within of Colombo before launching an airstrike the next morning. "Sōryū" contributed eighteen B5Ns and nine Zeros to the force. The pilots of the latter aircraft claimed to have shot down a single Fairey Fulmar of 806 Naval Air Squadron, plus seven other fighters while losing one of their own. The D3As and B5Ns inflicted some damage to the port facilities, but a day's warning had allowed most of the shipping in the harbor to be evacuated. Later that morning the British heavy cruisers and were spotted and "Sōryū" launched eighteen D3As. They were the first to attack and claimed to have made fourteen hits on the two ships, sinking both in combination with the dive bombers from the other carriers.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: On 9 April, "Sōryū" contributed eighteen B5Ns, escorted by nine Zeros, to the attack on Trincomalee. Her B5Ns were the first to bomb the port and her fighters did not encounter any British fighters. Meanwhile, a floatplane from the battleship spotted the small aircraft carrier , escorted by the Australian destroyer , and every available D3A was launched to attack the ships. "Sōryū" contributed eighteen dive bombers, but they arrived too late and instead found three other ships further north. They sank the oil tanker "British Sergeant" and the Norwegian cargo ship "Norviken" before they were attacked by eight Fulmars of 803 and 806 Naval Air Squadrons. The Royal Navy pilots claimed three D3As shot down for the loss of a pair of Fulmars; the Japanese actually lost four D3As with another five damaged. While this was going on, "Akagi" narrowly escaped damage when nine British Bristol Blenheim bombers from Ceylon penetrated the CAP and dropped their bombs from . "Sōryū" had six Zeros aloft, along with fourteen more from the other carriers, and they collectively accounted for five of the British bombers for the loss of one of "Hiryū"s Zeros. After launching the D3As that sank "Hermes" and the other ships, the First Air Fleet reversed course and headed southeast for the Malacca Strait before recovering their aircraft; they then proceeded to Japan.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: On 19 April, while transiting the Bashi Straits between Taiwan and Luzon en route to Japan, "Akagi", "Sōryū", and "Hiryū" were sent in pursuit of the American carriers and , which had launched the Doolittle Raid against Tokyo. They found only empty ocean, for the American carriers had immediately departed the area to return to Hawaii. The carriers quickly abandoned the chase and dropped anchor at Hashirajima anchorage on 22 April. Having been engaged in constant operations for four and a half months, "Sōryū," along with the other three carriers of the First and Second Carrier Divisions, was hurriedly refitted and replenished in preparation for the Combined Fleet's next major operation, scheduled to begin one month hence. While at Hashirajima, "Sōryū"s air group was based ashore at nearby Kasanohara, near Kagoshima, and conducted flight and weapons training with the other First Air Fleet carrier units.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: Concerned by the US carrier strikes in the Marshall Islands, Lae-Salamaua, and the Doolittle raids, Yamamoto was determined to force the US Navy into a showdown to eliminate the American carrier threat. He decided to invade and occupy Midway Island, an action that he was sure would draw out the American carriers. The Japanese codenamed the Midway invasion Operation "MI".


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: On 25 May 1942, "Sōryū" set out with the Combined Fleet's carrier striking force in the company of "Kaga", "Akagi", and "Hiryū", which constituted the First and Second Carrier Divisions, for the attack on Midway Island. Her aircraft complement consisted of eighteen Zeros, sixteen D3As, eighteen B5Ns, and two prototypes of the new Yokosuka D4Y dive bomber. Also aboard were three A6M Zeros of the 6th Kōkūtai intended as a portion of the aerial garrison for Midway.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: With the fleet positioned northwest of Midway at dawn (04:45 local time) on 4 June 1942, "Sōryū"s part in the 108-plane combined air raid was a strike on the airfield on Eastern Island with eighteen torpedo bombers escorted by nine Zeros. The air group suffered heavily during the attack; a single B5N was shot down by fighters, two more were forced to ditch on the return (both crews rescued), and five (including one that landed aboard "Hiryu") were damaged beyond repair. The Japanese did not know that the US Navy had discovered their "MI" plan by breaking their cipher, and had prepared an ambush using its three available carriers, positioned northeast of Midway.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: The carrier also contributed 3 Zeros to the total of eleven assigned to the initial combat air patrol (CAP) over the four carriers. By 07:00 the carrier had six fighters with the CAP that helped to defend the "Kido Butai" from the first US attackers from Midway Island at 07:10. At this time, Nagumo's carriers were attacked by six US Navy Grumman TBF Avengers from Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT-8) that had been temporarily detached from the "Hornet" to Midway, and four United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) Martin B-26 Marauders, all carrying torpedoes. The Avengers went after "Hiryū" while the Marauders attacked "Akagi". The thirty CAP Zeros in the air at this time, including the six from "Sōryū", immediately attacked the American airplanes, shooting down five of the Avengers and two of the B-26s. The surviving aircraft dropped their torpedoes, but all missed. "Sōryū" launched three more Zeros to reinforce the CAP, at 07:10.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: At 07:15 Admiral Nagumo ordered the B5Ns on "Kaga" and "Akagi" rearmed with bombs for another attack on Midway itself. This process was limited by the number of ordnance carts (used to handle the bombs and torpedoes) and ordnance elevators, preventing torpedoes from being stowed belowdeck until after all the bombs were moved up from their magazine, assembled, and mounted on the aircraft. The process normally took about an hour and a half; more time would be required to bring the aircraft up to the flight deck, and to warm up and launch the strike group. Around 07:40 Nagumo reversed his order when he received a message from one of his scout aircraft that American warships had been spotted. Depleted of ammunition, the first six of "Sōryū"s CAP Zeros landed aboard the carrier at 07:30.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: At 07:55, the next American strike from Midway arrived in the form of sixteen Douglas SBD Dauntless bombers of Marine Scout Bomber Squadron 241 (VMSB-241) under Major Lofton R. Henderson. "Sōryū"s three CAP fighters were among the nine still aloft that attacked Henderson's planes, shooting down six of them as they executed a fruitless glide-bombing attack on "Hiryū". At roughly the same time, a dozen USAAC Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses attacked the Japanese carriers, bombing from . The high altitude of the B-17s gave the Japanese captains enough time to anticipate where the bombs would land and successfully maneuver their ships out of the impact area. Four B-17s attacked "Sōryū", but they all missed.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: The CAP defeated the next American air strike from Midway, shooting down three of the eleven Vought SB2U Vindicator dive bombers from VMSB-241, which attacked the battleship "Haruna" unsuccessfully, starting at around 08:30. Although all the American air strikes had thus far caused negligible damage, they kept the Japanese carrier forces off-balance as Nagumo endeavored to prepare a response to news, received at 08:20, of the sighting of American carrier forces to his northeast. Around 08:30 "Sōryū" launched one of her D4Ys on a mission to confirm the location of the American carriers.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: "Sōryū" began recovering her Midway strike force at around 08:40 and finished shortly by 09:10. The landed aircraft were quickly struck below, while the carriers' crews began preparations to spot aircraft for the strike against the American carrier forces. The preparations were interrupted at 09:18 when the first American carrier aircraft to attack were sighted. These consisted of fifteen Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers of VT-8, led by Lieutenant Commander John C. Waldron from "Hornet". The three airborne CAP Zeros were landing aboard at 09:30 when the Americans unsuccessfully attempted a torpedo attack on "Soryū", but three of the morning's escort fighters were still airborne and joined the eighteen CAP fighters in destroying Waldron's planes. All of the American planes were shot down, leaving George H. Gay Jr.—the only surviving aviator—treading water.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: Shortly afterwards, fourteen Devastators from Torpedo Squadron 6 (VT-6) from the "Enterprise", led by Lieutenant Commander Eugene E. Lindsey, attacked. Lindsey's aircraft tried to sandwich "Kaga", but the CAP, reinforced by three more Zeros launched by "Sōryū" at 09:45, shot down all but four of the Devastators, and "Kaga" dodged the torpedoes. "Sōryū" launched another trio of CAP Zeros at 10:00 and another three at 10:15 after Torpedo Squadron 3 (VT-3) from was spotted. A Wildcat escorting VT-3 shot down one of her Zeros.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: While VT-3 was still attacking "Hiryū", American dive bombers arrived over the Japanese carriers almost undetected and began their dives. It was at this time, around 10:20, that in the words of Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully, the "Japanese air defenses would finally and catastrophically fail". At 10:25, "Sōryū" was attacked by thirteen Dauntlesses from "Yorktown"s Bombing Squadron 3 (VB-3). The carrier received three direct hits from 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs: one penetrated to the lower hangar deck amidships, and the other two exploded in the upper hangar deck fore and aft. The hangars contained armed and fueled aircraft preparing for the upcoming strike, resulting in secondary explosions and rupturing the steam pipes in the boiler rooms. Within a very short time the fires on the ship were out of control. At 10:40 she stopped and her crew was ordered to abandon ship five minutes later. The destroyers and rescued the survivors. "Sōryū" was still afloat and showed no signs of beginning to sink by early evening, so "Isokaze" was ordered to scuttle her with torpedoes so as to allow the destroyers to be used for possible operations that night. The destroyer reported at 19:15 that "Sōryū" had sunk at position . Losses were 711 crew of her complement of 1,103, including Captain Yanagimoto, who chose to remain on board. This was the highest mortality percentage of all the Japanese carriers lost at Midway, due largely to the devastation in both hangar decks.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

text: The loss of "Sōryū" and the three other IJN carriers at Midway, comprising two-thirds of Japan's total number of fleet carriers and the experienced core of the First Air Fleet, was a crucial strategic defeat and contributed significantly to the ultimate Allied victory. In an effort to conceal the defeat, the ship was not immediately removed from the Navy's registry of ships, awaiting a "suitable opportunity" before finally being struck from the registry on 10 August 1942.


title: Legal positivism

text: Legal positivism (as understood in the Anglosphere) is a school of thought of analytical jurisprudence developed largely by legal philosophers during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as Jeremy Bentham and John Austin. While Bentham and Austin developed legal positivist theory, empiricism provided the theoretical basis for such developments to occur. The most prominent legal positivist writer in English has been H. L. A. Hart, who, in 1958, found common usages of "positivism" as applied to law to include the contentions that:


title: Legal positivism

text: Historically, legal positivism is in opposition to natural law's theories of jurisprudence, with particular disagreement surrounding the natural lawyer's claim that there is a necessary connection between law and morality.


title: Legal positivism

text: The term "positivism" is derived from Latin "ponere", "positum", meaning "to put". "Positive law" is that which is man-made, i.e., defined formally.


title: Legal positivism

text: In the positivist opinion, the source of a law is the establishment of that law by some legal authority which is recognised socially. The merits of a law are a separate issue: it may be a 'bad law' by some standard, but if it was added to the system by a legitimate authority, it is still a law.


title: Legal positivism

text: "The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy" summarises the distinction between merit and source like so: "The fact that a policy would be just, wise, efficient, or prudent is never sufficient reason for thinking that it is actually the law, and the fact that it is unjust, unwise, inefficient or imprudent is never sufficient reason for doubting it. According to positivism, law is a matter of what has been posited (ordered, decided, practiced, tolerated, etc.); as we might say in a more modern idiom, positivism is the view that law is a social construction."


title: Legal positivism

text: Legal positivism does not claim that the laws so identified should be obeyed, or that necessarily there is value in having clear, identifiable rules (although some positivists may also make these claims). Indeed, the laws of a legal system may be quite unjust, and the state may be quite illegitimate; as a result, there may be no obligation to obey them. Moreover, the fact that a law has been identified by a court as valid does not provide any guidance as to whether the court should apply it in a particular case. As John Gardner has said, legal positivism is "normatively inert"; it is a theory of law, not a theory of legal practice, adjudication, or political obligation. Legal positivists believe that intellectual clarity is best achieved by leaving these questions for separate investigation.


title: Legal positivism

text: Legal positivism is distinct from legal realism. The differences are both analytically and normatively important. Both systems consider that law is a human construct. Unlike the American legal realists, positivists believe that in many instances, the law provides reasonably determinate guidance to its subjects and to judges, at least in trial courts.


title: Legal positivism

text: Niklas Luhmann asserts "We can reduce ... positive law to a formula, that law is not only posited (that is, selected) through decision, but also is valid by the power of decision (thus contingent and changeable)." However, positivists do not assert that law is made valid by anyone's decision. In Hart's opinion, the validity of law is a matter of the customary and collective practices of the courts. As for the moral validity of law, both positivists and realists maintain that this is a matter of moral "principles". "The power of decision" has no essential role in either, since individual decision rarely suffices to create a social practice of recognition, and it would be implausible to suppose that moral principles are made so by anyone's decision.


title: Legal positivism

text: The main antecedent of legal positivism is Empiricism, the thinkers of which range back as far as Sextus Empiricus, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume, and Auguste Comte. The main idea of empiricism is the claim that all knowledge of fact must be validated by sense experience or be inferred from propositions derived unambiguously from sense data. Further, empiricism is in opposition to metaphysics; for instance, Hume rejected metaphysics as mere speculation beyond what can be learnt from sense experience. The teachings of the empiricists preceded systemization of a positivist method for problems of comprehension and analysis, which was later represented by legal positivism. For example, John Locke's empiricism did not prevent him from being an advocate of natural law.


title: Legal positivism

text: Logical positivists such as Rudolf Carnap and A. J. Ayer suggested another important tenet of legal positivism: namely, that propositions and the use of words must be examined in order to understand reality. A sentence has literal significance if, and only if, it expresses something which is either tautologous or empirically verifiable.


title: Legal positivism

text: Traditionally, positivist theories of law have been developed by theorists applying the method of conceptual analysis to determine what is 'natural to say'. This approach assumes that legal concepts, being ‘settled by the classificatory machinery of human thought’, are ‘amenable only to philosophical… reflection’. Recently, researchers in the emerging field of experimental jurisprudence have challenged this assumption by exploring the relation between law and morality through systematic, psychological investigations of folk legal concepts.


title: Legal positivism

text: Legal positivism is related to empiricist and logical positivist theoretical traditions. Its methods include descriptive investigations of particular legal orders. Peter Curzon wrote that this approach "utilizes in its investigations the inductive method" which proceeds "from observation of particular facts to generalizations concerning all such facts." These investigations eschew assessments of ethics, social welfare, and morality. As Julius Stone wrote, legal positivist investigation is concerned primarily with "an analysis of legal terms, and an inquiry into the logical interrelations of legal propositions." Further, law and its authority are framed as source-based: the validity of a legal norm depends not on its moral value, but on the sources determined by a social community's rules and conventions. This source-based conception aligns with the logical positivism of Rudolf Carnap, who rejected metaphysical conjecture about the nature of reality beyond observable events.


title: Legal positivism

text: Thomas Hobbes, in his seminal work "Leviathan", postulated the first detailed notion of law based on the notion of sovereign power. As Hampton writes, "law is understood [by Hobbes] to depend on the sovereign's will. No matter what a law's content, no matter how unjust it seems, if it has been commanded by the sovereign, then and only then is it law." There is, however, debate surrounding Hobbes's status as a legal positivist.


title: Legal positivism

text: The English jurist and philosopher Jeremy Bentham is arguably the greatest historical British legal positivist. In "An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation", Bentham developed a theory of law as the expressed will of a sovereign. In 'A Fragment on Government', Bentham made a distinction between the following types of people:


title: Legal positivism

text: The philosophy of law, considered strictly, was to explain the real laws of the expositors, rather than the criticisms of the censors.


title: Legal positivism

text: John Austin partly emulated Bentham by writing "The Province of jurisprudence Determined". However, Austin differed from Bentham in a number of ways, for example, by endorsing the common law.


title: Legal positivism

text: Differences aside, Austin embraced Hobbes's and Bentham's conception of law as a sovereign command, whose authority is recognised by most members of a society; the authority of which is enforced by the use of sanctions, but which is not bound by any human superior. The criterion for validity of a legal rule in such a society is that it has the warrant of the sovereign and will be enforced by the sovereign power and its agents.


title: Legal positivism

text: Austin considered law to be commands from a sovereign that are enforced by a threat of sanction. In determining 'a sovereign', Austin recognised it is one whom society obeys habitually. This sovereign can be a single person or a collective sovereign such as Parliament, with a number of individuals, with each having various authoritative powers. Austin's theory is also somewhat brief in his explanations of Constitutions, International Law, non-sanctioned rules, or law that "gives" rights. Insofar as non-sanctioned rules and laws that "allow" persons to do things, such as contract law, Austin said that failure to obey the rules does result in sanctions; however, such sanctions are in the form of "the sanction of nullity".


title: Legal positivism

text: The British legal positivism hitherto mentioned was founded on empiricism; by contrast, Germanic legal positivism was founded on the transcendental idealism of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Whereas British legal positivists regard law as distinct from morals, their Germanic counterparts regard law as separate from both fact and morals. The most famous proponent of Germanic legal positivism is Hans Kelsen, whose thesis of legal positivism is explained by Suri Ratnapala, who writes:


title: Legal positivism

text: From this framework, Kelsen opined that the regression of validated norms cannot go on infinitely and must arrive at a first cause, which he called a "Grundnorm" (basic norm). The legal system is therefore a system of legal norms connected to each other by their common origin, like the branches and leaves of a tree.


title: Legal positivism

text: For Kelsen, "sovereignty" was an arbitrary concept: "We can derive from the concept of sovereignty nothing else other than what we have purposely put into its definition."


title: Legal positivism

text: Kelsen attracted disciples among scholars of public law worldwide. These disciples developed "schools" of thought to extend his theories, such as the Vienna School in Austria and the Brno School in Czechoslovakia. In English-speaking countries, H. L. A. Hart and Joseph Raz are perhaps the best-known authors who were influenced by Kelsen, though both schools differed from Kelsen's theories in several respects.


title: Legal positivism

text: Hart liked Austin's theory of a sovereign, but claimed that Austin's command theory failed in several important respects. Among the ideas developed in Hart's book "The Concept of Law" (1961) are:


title: Legal positivism

text: A pupil of Hart, Joseph Raz was important in continuing Hart's arguments of legal positivism since Hart's death. This included editing in 1994 a second edition of Hart's "The Concept of Law", with an additional section including Hart's responses to other philosophers' criticisms of his work.


title: Legal positivism

text: Raz also argued, contrary to Hart, that the validity of a law can "never" depend on its morality. However, Raz came to accept that law may depend upon morality in certain circumstances.


title: Legal positivism

text: Legal positivism in Germany has been famously rejected by Gustav Radbruch in 1946 where prosecution of Nazi supporters faced a challenge of assessing actions that were legally compliant with Nazi Germany law. Radbruch argued that when "discrepancy between the positive law and justice reaches a level so unbearable", it effectively becomes "erroneous law" and must not be followed unconditionally.


title: Farokh Engineer

text: Farokh Maneksha Engineer (born 25 February 1938) is an Indian former cricketer. He played 46 Test matches for India, played first-class cricket for Bombay in India from 1959 to 1975 and for Lancashire County Cricket Club in England from 1968 to 1976. Engineer was the last from his community to play for India, as not a single Parsee male has represented the country after him.


title: Farokh Engineer

text: Engineer was born into a Parsi family in Mumbai. His father Maneksha was a doctor by profession, while mother Minnie was a housewife. He studied at the Don Bosco High School in Matunga and then studied at Podar College, Matunga where Dilip Vengsarkar, Sanjay Manjrekar, and Ravi Shastri also studied and who also went on to play for their country. Engineer’s love for sports came from his father who played tennis and was himself a club cricketer. His older brother, Darius, was also a good club cricketer and inspired the young Farokh to take up the sport. Engineer initially wanted to be a pilot, right from his childhood days, he was passionate about flying. He qualified for a private pilot's license at Bombay Flying Club and used to fly Piper Cherokees or Tiger Moths quite low and would often dive under bridges. His mother did not want him to be a pilot, and so he continued concentrating on his cricket. He was a mischievous kid, and once during a lecture in class he was talking to his classmate, Shashi Kapoor. His professor threw a duster at him, and to everyone's surprise, Engineer caught the duster. His brother Darius took Farokh to the East Stand of the Brabourne Stadium, where he saw Denis Compton fielding and started calling to him. Compton was impressed by him and gave him a piece of chewing gum which he saved as his prized possession for many years. His father enrolled him in Dadar Parsi Colony Sporting Club where he learnt the nuances of the game from the seniors and later became a regular member of the team.


title: Farokh Engineer

text: Engineer began keeping wicket at the Dadar Parsi Colony team, after being encouraged by his brother to take it up. Darius himself played for Mysore in Ranji Trophy. He spun the ball so viciously that his fingers used to bleed, this inspired young Farokh to take up the game. The wicket-keeper back then would never even try and stop the ball down the leg side. In the first match that he kept wickets, he was involved in two leg-side stumpings which was absolutely unheard of during those days. Farokh became a regular member of the club mainly due to his wicket-keeping skills. His life was simple. Farokh used to attend his college in the morning and by the afternoon, he would take a train from Dadar to Churchgate and go to the Cricket Club of India. Engineer played his debut first-class match in December 1958 for the Combined Universities side against the touring West Indies, while playing for Bombay University. The West Indies side plundered the Combined University side mainly because of two fiery pace bowlers, Wes Hall and Roy Gilchrist. Engineer scored 0 and 29 in that game. Farokh wanted to get into the Bombay team, during that time the Bombay team was the prepotent of the Domestic Teams, as most of the players were already Test Cricketers. Bombay then had Naren Tamhane, as their wicketkeeper, before Tamhane's place was usurped by Farokh Engineer, no Indian wicketkeeper had played more Tests than Tamhane (21).


title: Farokh Engineer

text: After the Joshi and Tamhane battle which went on till '60-61, which was the last year for both of them, Indian cricket witnessed another rivalry, between Kunderan and Engineer, both who loved batting more than keeping. Both crowd pullers, Kunderan 'hooked' them on while Engineer 'drove' them crazy. Kunderan rose to fame with a run-a-minute, 71 at Madras against the Aussies in '59-'60, playing outrageous strokes. He also scored a double century on his debut in the Ranji Trophy match for Railways against Jammu-Kashmir. Engineer rose to fame with a seven-catch haul in a Ranji match in '60-'61 (Bombay vs Delhi), equalling Limaye's '57-'58 record. Both Engineer and Kunderan were similar in the sense that they had a knack of taking difficult catches while dropping easier ones. The China war put Kunderan temporarily out of business as the team which he represented, Railways and Services were withdrawn from the competition; he just played one Ranji match. Engineer forged ahead; he even started to open. But in 1964, when England toured India, Kunderan came back following an injury to Engineer, where he had a chipped finger, and scored nearly a double century as an opener (194) and also hit a 100 and 55 to take his series tally to 525 runs. His keeping though slipped a bit. The selectors kept him out of all the three Tests against Australia in 1964, but he was not even replaced by Engineer, he was replaced by K.S. Indrajitsinhji. Engineer resumed battle with Kunderan in the 1965 series against New Zealand. Kunderan played in only one Test as an opener, with Engineer performing the role of the wicketkeeper. Kunderan's chance came again in '66-'67 against the West Indies when he blasted 79 runs with 15 fours in the first Test. Next Test he opened and hit 39 in 45 minutes before Hall yorked him. The selectors felt that his keeping was not up to the mark and in spite of Kunderan scoring 104 in 2 hrs with 4 sixes and 11 fours two days after the second Test in a tour match against the West Indies, it was Engineer who played in the next Test in Chennai. Engineer silenced the critics and the public outcry against Kunderan's exclusion by nearly scoring a century before lunch (94). He went on to score 109 and thereafter he never looked back at Kunderan, who he had left behind. The game of musical chairs between the two continued till 1966–67, when Kunderan packed his bags and settled in Scotland.


title: Farokh Engineer

text: Engineer was to make his debut in Test cricket at Mumbai in December 1960, against England led by Captain Ted Dexter. Chairman of Selectors, Lala Amarnath chose Engineer over Kunderan for his superior keeping skills. Farokh was all set to debut on his home ground, The Brabourne Stadium. On the eve of the Test match, Engineer was practising his shots against short bowling. One of Raj Singh Dungarpur's deliveries took the top edge of his bat and hit him on his right eye. Farokh was out of the Test match. Thus, Kunderan played at Bombay but scored only five runs. Engineer was fit for the second Test at Kanpur and made his debut. He scored an important 33 and played for the remainder of the series. When the side toured the West Indies next, Engineer was the first-choice wicketkeeper. He played in the first three matches before an injury forced him out of the playing eleven. He was among the few Indian Batsman who were not afraid of the fast bowling duo of Wes Hall and Charlie Griffith who tormented the Indian players during the series. When England toured India led by M. J. K. Smith, in the winter of 1963, Farokh was the first choice as the wicket-keeper, but illness kept Farokh out of the first test match in Mumbai, and Kunderan who was in the reserves, got a chance and scored a brilliant knock of 192. This helped Kunderan seal his place in the playing eleven as a wicketkeeper-batsman, who could also open the innings. With the brilliance of Kunderan, Engineer was ignored by the selectors when Australia arrived in India to play a three-Test series in 1964. It was only in March 1965, when New Zealand toured India, under John Reid, that Engineer could manage to make a comeback to the national side. This time he also decided to open the innings, in addition to keeping wicket. Soon he came to be regarded as a full-fledged opening batsman and selectors started looking around for a good partner for him at the top of the batting order. Engineer's best innings as a batsman came during the third Test of the series against the visiting West Indians at Chennai in 1967. He had not played in the first two Tests which the visitors won. The deadly Hall-Griffith combo was supported by Gary Sobers and Lance Gibbs but Engineer was not at all intimidated by these top-class performers and nearly scored a century before lunch on the opening day of the match. This knock brought Engineer back into the national side and helped him cement his place there for the next four years. During the period from 1967 till 1970, Engineer was a member of the playing eleven in all matches that India played. He opened the innings as well except during the short Test series against the touring New Zealand side in 1969 when India experimented with many young players. This was also the period when the famous spin quartet was making its impact felt for the first time in international cricket and Engineer's presence behind the stumps was a vital factor, his performances with the bat and behind the stumps during the tour of England in 1967 saw him secure a contract to play for Lancashire. He moved to Lancashire in 1968, he also stopped playing for Mumbai in Ranji Trophy, while making himself available for the national side. Engineer's short shrift with domestic cricket was not appreciated by the selectors. When the Indian side to tour the West Indies in 1971 was chosen, Merchant insisted that Engineer was not chosen because he had not played any Domestic Cricket. Pochiah Krishnamurthy of Hyderabad was the wicketkeeper during this series but it soon became evident he was not in the same league as Engineer. Hence when the squad to tour England was selected in April 1971, Engineer was included, despite Engineer informing the selectors that he would be available only for the Test matches and not for the rest of the tour because of his commitments with Lancashire. This series proved crucial for Engineer as he played two important innings in the third Test at The Oval that India won. Engineer had moved to his position in the middle order during the tour of England in 1971. He continued to bat in that position during the series at home against England led by Tony Lewis. However, in the last Test at Mumbai, he was asked to bat at the top of the order again and he responded with a career-best knock of 121 in the first innings. During the tour of England in 1974, he was one of the few batsmen to put up a fight during the second and third Tests that India lost. During the home series against the West Indies in 1974-75, there were reports in the media that Engineer would be asked to lead the side in the second Test at Delhi after captain Pataudi was ruled out and stand-in skipper Sunil Gavaskar suffered a fracture to his thumb. Engineer was also congratulated by a senior Board official on the night before the match. But some last-minute developments put paid to his hopes and it was S Venkataraghavan who went out for toss the next day. But Engineer kept his composure and got on with his job, contributing substantially with the bat in the third Test at Kolkata, where India won by 85 runs. In the next test at Chennai, Engineer was brilliant behind the stumps, diving full length to catch an edge off the bat of Viv Richards and effecting a lightning-quick stumping to remove Clive Lloyd. Unfortunately, he failed with the bat and was dismissed for a pair in the Mumbai Test, which turned out to be his final appearance in Test matches.


title: Farokh Engineer

text: Engineer was one of the first Indians to play as a professional in county cricket. Engineer played for English County club Lancashire from 1968 to 1976, which he played alongside West Indian great Clive Lloyd. When he made his debut, Lancashire had not won a major honour since 1950. After the 1967 tour of England, renowned cricket commentator John Arlott wanted Engineer to play for his beloved Hampshire. At the same time, Worcestershire and Somerset were also interested in Engineer, but Engineer finally decided on Lancashire for its great history and beautiful ground. By the time he left them after 1976, the team had won the Gillette Cup four times and the John Player League twice. Post-retirement, he decided to reside in Lancashire and also served as its vice-president. He got used to life in Manchester. He was provided with a house and a car to commute daily, the club also found a house for Engineer in Timperley, a suburb in South Manchester. Later, Engineer became a revered figure in Lancashire which had become his second home. Lancashire were the undisputed one-day kings in the 1970s and Engineer, became their popular talisman. His benefit match at Lancashire fetched him £26000, an astonishing sum for the era. During a county match between Derbyshire and Lancashire, Umpire Dickie Bird led both the teams off the field, at Buxton in June 1975. It was the first time in history that snow had stopped a first-class match, "Crazy country. What kind of summer is this?" said West Indies skipper Clive Lloyd as he waded through the snow. Farokh became a fan favorite in Lancashire. So much so, that once a cop stopped him for speeding on the streets of Manchester but let him off, saying: "My father would kill me if I booked you." Farokh's stay at Lancashire, was because of Old Trafford's beauty and the crowd support they received, he recollects that during his time in Lancashire, fans would come from miles to see the team play, from the Old Trafford dressing room the team could see Warwick Road railway station and before the game, they would see packed trains emptying the passengers on the platform, the players also received regular fan mails, their lockers would be stuffed full of requests for autographs and invitations to parties. The John Player Sunday League was a revolution. Farokh's favorite innings in that competition was against Glamorgan at Southport, where he scored 78*.


title: Farokh Engineer

text: A bollywood film titled "83" has been released in 2021 about the event of India's first world cup win, in England in 1983. The film features Boman Irani as Engineer and is directed and produced by Kabir Khan and Anurag Kashyap respectively.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: The pharyngeal reflex or gag reflex is a reflex muscular contraction of the back of the throat, evoked by touching the roof of the mouth, the back of the tongue, the area around the tonsils, the uvula, and the back of the throat. It, along with other aerodigestive reflexes such as reflexive pharyngeal swallowing, prevents objects in the oral cavity from entering the throat except as part of normal swallowing and helps prevent choking, and is a form of coughing. The pharyngeal reflex is different from the laryngeal spasm, which is a reflex muscular contraction of the vocal cords.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: In a reflex arc, a series of physiological steps occur very rapidly to produce a reflex. Generally a sensory receptor receives an environmental stimulus, in this case from objects reaching nerves in the back of the throat, and sends a message via an afferent nerve to the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS receives this message and sends an appropriate response via an efferent nerve (also known as a motor neuron) to effector cells located in the same initial area that can then carry out the appropriate response.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: The gag reflex involves a brisk and brief elevation of the soft palate and bilateral contraction of pharyngeal muscles evoked by touching the posterior pharyngeal wall. Touching the soft palate can lead to a similar reflex response. However, in that case, the sensory limb of the reflex is the CN V (trigeminal nerve). In very sensitive individuals, much more of the brain stem may be involved; a simple gag may enlarge to retching and vomiting in some.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: Swallowing unusually large objects or placing objects in the back of the mouth may cause the pharyngeal reflex. Some people, for instance sword swallowers, have learned how to suppress it. In contrast, triggering the reflex is sometimes done intentionally to induce vomiting, by those who have bulimia nervosa.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: According to one study, one in three people lacks a gag reflex. However, on the other end of the spectrum are people with a hypersensitive gag reflex. This hypersensitivity can lead to issues in various situations, from swallowing a pill or large bites of food to visiting the dentist. Hypersensitivity is generally a conditioned response, usually occurring following a previous experience. There are a variety of ways to desensitize one's hypersensitivity, from relaxation to numbing the mouth and throat to training one's soft palate to get used to being touched.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: Anti-nausea medicines, sedatives, local and general anaesthetics, herbal remedies, behavioural therapies, acupressure, acupuncture, laser, and prosthetic devices can be used to manage exaggerated gag reflex during dental treatment. Studies showed with very low‐certainty evidence that acupuncture and laser at the P6 point (located in the wrist) reduced gagging without sedation. However, there was no difference when practiced with sedation. Therefore, more research needs to be carried out regarding these interventions.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: In certain cases, absence of the gag reflex and pharyngeal sensation can be a symptom of a number of severe medical conditions, such as damage to the glossopharyngeal nerve, the vagus nerve, or brain death.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: In unilateral (one-sided) glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX- sensory component) damage, there will be no gag response when touching the pharyngeal wall on the same side of the damaged nerve.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: With one-sided vagal nerve (CN X- motor component) damage, the soft palate will elevate and pull toward the intact side regardless of the side of the pharynx that is touched. This is because the sensory component is intact on both sides, but only the motor nerves supplying one side of the soft palatine and pharyngeal muscles is working, therefore the contraction of the muscles in the reflex is asymmetrical.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: If both CN IX and X are damaged on one side (not uncommon), stimulation of the normal side elicits only a unilateral response, with deviation of the soft palate to that side; no consensual response is seen. Touching the damaged side produces no response at all.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: At one point, it was thought that a lack of the gag reflex in stroke patients was a good predictor for dysphagia (difficulty with swallowing) or laryngeal aspiration (food or drink entering the larynx), and was therefore commonly checked for. However, in one study, 37% of healthy people did not have a gag reflex, yet all subjects except for one still retained an intact pharyngeal sensation. These results suggest that the muscles that control the gag reflex remain independent of those that control normal swallowing. Since this reflex is commonly not found in healthy people, its predictive value in determining the risk for swallowing disorders is severely limited. Pharyngeal sensation, on the other hand, as seen by this study, is rarely absent, and could prove better at predicting future problems with swallowing.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: Closely related to the gag reflex, in which food or other foreign substances are forced back out of the pharynx, swallowing generally pushes food through the digestive system into the stomach. This reflex in particular functions as a protective system for the upper respiratory tract as it not only forces the glottis to close, thereby preventing any substances getting into the airways, but also clears the pharynx of any residual substances by a swallow.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: This particular reflex is simply one of several aerodigestive reflexes, including also the pharyngoglottal closure reflex (in which no swallowing occurs yet the glottis still closes) and the pharyngo-upper esophageal sphincter contractile reflex, which occurs mainly during gastroesophageal reflux episodes. All either forcibly close the glottis or allow the pharynx to remove particles into the digestive tract that may have been forced back up by both this tract and the upper respiratory tract. These reflexes can also protect the airways from any food or liquids that may spill over from the hypopharynx. The hypopharynx is the bottom part of pharynx, and can be considered the first area where the digestive tract splits from the airways. However, if the maximum capacity of fluids that the hypopharynx can safely hold is exceeded, then this excess fluid spills into the larynx and from there into the lungs. Therefore, these reflexes prevent levels reaching this maximum volume.


title: Pharyngeal reflex

text: Since both the digestive system and the respiratory system are connected by the pharynx, there are many problems and diseases that occur when the body is unable to regulate passage of food and air into the appropriate tracts. Perhaps the most preventable cause of damage to these reflexes originates from smoking. One study has shown that, when compared to non-smokers, the threshold volumes (the lowest volume at which one of these reflexes is triggered) for both the pharyngo-upper esophageal sphincter contractile reflex and reflexive pharyngeal swallowing is increased.


title: Mark IV tank

text: The Mark IV (pronounced "Mark four") was a British tank of the First World War. Introduced in 1917, it benefited from significant developments of the Mark I tank (the intervening designs being small batches used for training). The main improvements were in armour, the re-siting of the fuel tank and ease of transport. A total of 1,220 Mk IV were built: 420 "Males", 595 "Females" and 205 Tank Tenders (unarmed vehicles used to carry supplies), which made it the most numerous British tank of the war. The Mark IV was first used in mid 1917 at the Battle of Messines Ridge. It remained in British service until the end of the war, and a small number served briefly with other combatants afterwards.


title: Mark IV tank

text: The director of the Tank Supply Department, Albert Gerald Stern, first intended to fit the Mark IV with a new engine and transmission. Production of battle tanks was halted until the new design was ready, necessitating the use of the Mark II and III as interim training tanks. Failing to complete development soon enough to start production in time to have 200 tanks ready for the promised date of 1 April 1917, Stern was ultimately forced to take a Mark IV into production in May 1917 that was only slightly different from the Mark I tank.


title: Mark IV tank

text: The Mark IV Male initially carried three Lewis machine guns – one in the cab front and one in each sponson – and a QF 6 pdr 6 cwt gun in each sponson, with its barrel shortened as it had been found that the longer original was apt to strike obstacles or dig into the ground. The sponsons were not mirror images of each other, as their configuration differed to allow for the 6 pdr's gun-layer operating his gun from the left and the loader serving the gun from the right. The guns had a 100 degree arc of fire but only the starboard gun could fire straight ahead. The Female had five Lewis guns but no 6-pounders.


title: Mark IV tank

text: The decision to standardise on the Lewis gun was due to the space available within the tanks. Despite its vulnerable barrel and a tendency to overheat or foul after prolonged firing, the Lewis had the advantage that it used compact pan magazines which could hold up to 96 rounds. The Hotchkiss was fed from a rigid strip which was trimmed down to only 14 rounds for tank use; no sooner had the machine gunner guided the fall of shot onto the target than it was time to change the strip and the process repeated. It was not until a flexible 50 round strip was fully developed in May 1917 that the Hotchkiss would become the standard machine gun for tanks again. The changes caused delays, such as adapting the design for the bulky Lewis cooling barrel, and later, problems when the Hotchkiss strips had to be stored in positions designed for Lewis gun magazines.


title: Mark IV tank

text: At the 1917 Battle of Cambrai, Mark IV tanks were equipped with fascines, bundles of brushwood bound with chains, about long and in diameter carried on the roof of the cab. They were dropped into trenches to allow the tank to cross over more easily.


title: Mark IV tank

text: A large number of these tanks were also used for development work. In an attempt to improve trench-crossing capability, the "tadpole tail", an extension to the rear track horns, was introduced. However, it proved insufficiently rigid and does not appear to have been used in combat. Other experimental versions tested radios, mortars placed between the rear horns, and recovery cranes. Some of these devices were later used on operational tanks. Mark IVs were also the first tanks fitted with "unditching beams" by field workshops. A large wooden beam, reinforced with sheet metal, was stored across the top of the tank on a set of parallel rails. If the tank became stuck, the beam was attached to the tracks (often under fire) and then the tracks would drag it beneath the vehicle, providing grip.


title: Mark IV tank

text: The Mark IV was built by six manufacturers: Metropolitan (the majority builder), Fosters of Lincoln, Armstrong-Whitworth, Coventry Ordnance Works, William Beardmore & Company and Mirrlees, Watson & Co., with the main production being in 1917. The first order was placed for 1,000 tanks with Metropolitan in August 1916. It was then cancelled, reinstated and then modified between August and December 1916. The other manufacturers, contracted for no more than 100 tanks each, were largely immune to the conflict between Stern and the War Office.


title: Mark IV tank

text: The Mark IV was first used in large numbers on 7 June 1917, during the British assault on Messines Ridge. Crossing dry but heavily cratered terrain, many of the 60-plus Mark IVs lagged behind the infantry, but several made important contributions to the battle. By comparison, at the Third Battle of Ypres (also known as Passchendaele) from 31 July, where the preliminary 24-day long barrage had destroyed all drainage and heavy rain had soaked the field, the tanks found it heavy going and contributed little; those that sank into the swampy ground were immobilised and became easy targets for enemy artillery.


title: Mark IV tank

text: Nearly 460 Mark IV tanks were used during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917, showing that a large concentration of tanks could quickly overcome even the most sophisticated trench systems.


title: Mark IV tank

text: In the aftermath of the German spring offensive on the Western Front, the first tank-to-tank battle was between Mk IV tanks and German A7Vs in the Second Battle of Villers-Bretonneux in April 1918.


title: Mark IV tank

text: About 40 captured Mark IVs were employed by the Germans as "Beutepanzerwagen" (the German word "Beute" means "loot" or "booty") with a crew of 12. These formed four tank companies from December 1917. Some of these had their six pounders replaced by a German equivalent.


title: Mark IV tank

text: The last Mark IV to see service, briefly, was "Excellent", a Mark IV male retained by the naval gunnery school HMS "Excellent" on Whale Island in Portsmouth harbour. In 1940 it was restored to operational status and driven to the mainland, where its new career was allegedly brought to an early end after damaging a car.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The Junior Eurovision Song Contest (often shortened to JESC, Junior Eurovision or Junior EuroSong) is an international song competition which has been organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) annually since 2003. It is held in a different European city each year, however the same city can host the contest more than once.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The competition has many similarities to the Eurovision Song Contest from which its name is taken. Each participating broadcaster sends an act, the members of which are aged 9 to 14 on the day of the contest, and an original song lasting three minutes at most to compete against the other participating entries. Each entry represents the country served by the participating broadcaster. Viewers from all around the world are invited to vote for their favourite performances by online voting, and a national jury from each participating country also vote. The overall winner of the contest is the entry that receives the most points after the scores from every country have been collected and totalled. The most recent winner is Lissandro of , who won the in Yerevan, Armenia, with his song "".


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: In addition to the countries taking part, the 2003 contest was also broadcast in Estonia, Finland and Germany (who would not debut until the 2020 contest), followed by Andorra in 2006, Bosnia and Herzegovina (from 2006 to 2011) and Iceland in 2021, however these countries have yet to participate. Since 2006, the contest has been streamed live on the Internet through the official website of the contest. Australia was invited to participate in the contest, while Kazakhstan was invited in the contest, making it the only major Eurovision event to feature multiple associate member broadcasters.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The origins of the contest date back to 2000 when Danmarks Radio held a song contest for Danish children that year and the following year. The idea was extended to a Scandinavian song festival in 2002, MGP Nordic, with Denmark, Norway and Sweden as participants. In 2001 and 2002, Polish broadcaster Telewizja Polska (TVP) hosted two pilot editions of an international song contest for children in Konin with the name () in 2001 and () in 2002 but the whole project was called . TVP went on to hold further editions in Konin between 2003 and 2006, some time of which after Poland's initial withdrawal from Junior Eurovision Song Contest. In 2006, returned as () and was hosted by Dominika Rydz and Weronika Bochat, who represented Poland in Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2004 as part of girl group KWADro.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: In November 2002, the EBU picked up the idea for a song contest featuring children and opened the competition to all member broadcasters making it a pan-European event. The working title of the programme was "Eurovision Song Contest for Children", branded with the name of the EBU's long-running and already popular song competition, the Eurovision Song Contest. Denmark was asked to host the first edition after experience with MGP Nordic in that country.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: After a successful first contest in Copenhagen, the second faced several location problems. The event originally should have been organised by British broadcaster ITV in Manchester. ITV then announced that due to financial and scheduling reasons, the contest would not take place in the United Kingdom. It is also thought that another factor to their decision was the previous year's audience ratings for ITV which were below the expected amount. The EBU approached Croatian broadcaster HRT, who had won the previous contest, to stage the event in Zagreb, though it later emerged that HRT had 'forgotten' to book the venue in which the contest would have taken place. It was at this point, with five months remaining until the event would be held, that Norwegian broadcaster NRK stepped in to host the contest in Lillehammer.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Broadcasters have had to bid for the rights to host the contest since 2004 to avoid such problems from happening again. Belgium was therefore the first country to successfully bid for the rights to host the contest in 2005.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: All contests have been broadcast in widescreen and in high definition. All have also had a CD produced with the songs from the show. Between 2003 and 2006, DVDs of the contest were also produced though this ended due to lack of interest.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: As of 2008, the winner of the contest is decided by 50% televote and 50% national jury vote. The winners of all previous contests had been decided exclusively by televoting. Between 2003 and 2005 viewers had around 10 minutes to vote after all the songs had been performed. Between 2006 and 2010 the televoting lines were open throughout the programme. Since 2011 viewers vote after all the songs had been performed. Profits made from the televoting during the 2007 and 2008 contests were donated to UNICEF.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Prior to 2007, a participating broadcaster's failure in not broadcasting the contest live would incur a fine. Now broadcasters are no longer required to broadcast the contest live, but may transmit it with some delay at a time that is more appropriate for children's television broadcast.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The 2007 contest was the subject of the 2008 documentary "Sounds Like Teen Spirit: A Popumentary". The film followed several contestants as they made their way through the national finals and onto the show itself. It was shown at the Toronto International Film Festival 2008 and was premiered in Ghent, Belgium and Limassol, Cyprus where the 2008 contest was held.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The format of the contest has remained relatively unchanged over the course of its history in that the format consists of successive live musical performances by the artists entered by the participating broadcasters. The EBU claims that the aim of the programme is "to promote young talent in the field of popular music, by encouraging competition among the [...] performers".


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The programme was always screened on a Saturday night in late November/early December and lasts approximately two hours fifteen minutes. Since 2016, the contest is screened on an early Sunday evening.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Traditionally the contest will consist of an opening ceremony in which the performers are welcomed to the event, the performances of the entries, a recap of the songs to help televoting viewers decide which entries to vote for, an interval act usually performed after the televoting has closed, the results of the televoting or back-up jury voting which is then followed by the declaration of the winner and a reprise of the winning song. At various points throughout the show, networks may opt out for a few minutes to screen a commercial break.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Since 2008 the winning entry of each contest has been decided by a mixture of televoting and national juries, each counting for fifty per cent of the points awarded by each country. The winners of all previous contests had been decided exclusively by televoting. The ten entries that have received the most votes in each country are awarded points ranging from one to eight, then ten and twelve. These points are then announced live during the programme by a spokesperson representing the participating country (who, like the participants, is aged between ten and fifteen). Once all participating countries have announced their results, the country that has received the most points is declared the winner of that year's contest.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Until 2013 the winners receive a trophy and a certificate. Since 2013 contest the winner, runner-up and third place all win trophies and certificates.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Originally, unlike its adult version, the winning country did not receive the rights to host the next contest. From 2014 until 2017, the winning country had first refusal on hosting the following contest. Italy used this clause in 2015 to decline hosting the contest that year after their victory in 2014. On 15 October 2017, the EBU announced a return to the original system in 2018, claiming that it would help provide broadcasters with a greater amount of time to prepare, ensuring the continuation of the contest into the future. However, from 2019 onwards all contests have been hosted by the previous year's winning country.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The contest usually features two presenters, one man and one woman, who regularly appear on stage and with the contestants in the green room. The presenters are also responsible for repeating the results immediately after the spokesperson of each broadcaster to confirm which country the points are being given to. Between 2003 and 2012, the spokespersons gave out the points in the same format as the adult contest, behind a backdrop of a major city of that country in the national broadcaster's television studio. From 2013 onwards, the spokespersons give the points from their country on the arena stage, as opposed to the adult contest where spokespersons are broadcast live from their respective country (with the exception of 2020, due to travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic).


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Despite the Junior Eurovision Song Contest being modelled on the format of the Eurovision Song Contest, there are many distinctive differences that are unique to the children's contest. For instance, each country's entry must be selected through a televised national final (unless circumstances prevent this and permission is gained from the EBU). Each country's performance is also allowed a maximum of eight performers on stage, as opposed to the original number of six in the Eurovision Song Contest. From 2005 to 2015 every contestant was automatically awarded 12 points to prevent the contestants scoring zero points, although ending with 12 points total was in essence the same as receiving zero, however, no entry has ever received "nul points" in total scoring.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The song must be written and sung in the national language (or one of the national languages) of the country being represented. However, they can also have a few lines in a different language. The same rule was in the adults' contest from 1966 to 1972 and again from 1977 to 1998. This rule was later changed so that up to 25% of a song could be in a different language, usually English. This rule was changed again in 2017, now allowing up to 40% to be in English.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Originally the competition was open to children between the ages of 8 and 15, however in 2007 the age range was narrowed so that only children aged 10 to 15 on the day of the contest were allowed to enter. In 2016 the age range was changed again. From now on children aged 9 to 14 on the day of the contest are allowed to enter.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The song submitted into the contest cannot have previously been released commercially and must last 3 minutes at most. The rule stating that performers also must not have previously released music commercially was active from 2003 to 2006. This rule was dropped in 2007 thus allowing already experienced singers and bands in the competition. As a result, NRK chose to withdraw from the contest.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Since 2008, adults have been allowed to assist in the writing of entries. Previously, all writers had to be aged 10 to 15.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The contest is produced each year by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU). The original executive supervisor of the contest was Svante Stockselius who also headed the Steering Group that decides on the rules of the contest, which broadcaster hosts the next contest and oversees the entire production of each programme. In 2011, he was succeeded by Sietse Bakker. In 2013, Vladislav Yakovlev took over the position. Yakovlev was dismissed without any clear reason after three contests, and was replaced by Jon Ola Sand, who had been Executive Supervisor for the Eurovision Song Contest since . On 30 September 2019, Sand announced his intention to step down as Executive Supervisor and Head of Live Events after the Eurovision Song Contest 2020, which was later cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Martin Österdahl was named his successor, starting with the 2020 contest.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Steering Group meetings tend to include the Heads of Delegation whose principal job is to liaise between the EBU and the broadcaster they represent. It is also their duty to make sure that the performers are never left alone without an adult and to "create a team atmosphere amongst the [performers] and to develop their experience and a sense of community."


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The table below lists all Executive Supervisors of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest since the first edition (2003):


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The former generic logo was introduced for the 2008 contest in Limassol, to create a consistent visual identity. Each year of the contest, the host country creates a sub-theme which is usually accompanied and expressed with a sub-logo and slogan. The theme and slogan are announced by the EBU and the host country's national broadcaster.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The generic logo was revamped in March 2015, seven years after the first generic logo was created. The logo was used for the first time in the 2015 contest in Sofia.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Each contest since 2005 has had a slogan, chosen by the host broadcaster. Based on the slogan, the theme and the visual design are developed.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: All active member broadcasters of the EBU are permitted to take part in the contest, though the contest has been broadcast in several non-participating countries.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Participation in the contest tends to change dramatically each year. The original Scandinavian broadcasters left the contest in 2006 because they found the treatment of the contestants unethical, and revived the MGP Nordic competition, which had not been produced since the Junior Eurovision Song Contest began. The is the only country to have taken part every year since the first contest in 2003.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: 40 countries have competed at least once. Listed are all the countries that have ever taken part in the competition alongside the year in which they made their debut:


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Overall, twelve countries have won the contest since the inaugural edition in . Five have won the contest once: , , , , and the . Six have won the contest twice: , , , , (the first, and so far only, country to win back to back) and ; while is the only country to have won three times. Both Croatia and Italy achieved their wins on their debut participation in the contest.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The tradition of interval acts between the songs in the competition programme and the announcement of the voting has been established since the inaugural contest in 2003. Interval entertainment has included such acts as girl group Sugababes and rock band Busted (), Westlife in , juggler Vladik Myagkostupov from the world-renowned Cirque du Soleil () and singer Katie Melua in .


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Former Eurovision Song Contest participants and winners have also performed as interval acts, such as Dima Bilan and Evridiki in , Ani Lorak (), Alexander Rybak in and Sirusho (). Emmelie de Forest and the co-host that year, Zlata Ognevich, performed in . 2015 host Poli Genova and Jedward were two of the interval acts in . winner Duncan Laurence and the intended Polish entrant Alicja Szemplińska performed as interval acts in the . runner-up Barbara Pravi performed as an interval act in the . Armenian entrant Rosa Linn performed as an interval act in the .


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The winners of Junior Eurovision from 2003 to 2009 performed a medley of their entries together on stage during the 2010 interval. As part of the 2022 interval, eleven previous winners performed in a medley of all the winning songs to date, for the occasion of the 20th edition of the event. The other eight winning songs were performed by the Tavush Diocese Children’s Choir.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The previous winner has performed on a number of occasions since 2005, and from 2013 all participants have performed a "common song" together on stage during the interval. Similar performances took place in 2007 and 2010 with the specially-commissioned UNICEF songs "One World" and "A Day Without War" respectively, the latter with Dmitry Koldun. The official charity song for the contest was "We Can Be Heroes", the money from the sales of which went to the Dutch children's charity KidsRights Foundation.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: The event in Limassol, Cyprus finished with the presenters inviting everyone on stage to sing "Hand in Hand", which was written especially for UNICEF and the Junior Eurovision Song Contest that year.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Ruslana was invited to perform at the 2013 contest, which took place in her country's capital Kyiv. Nevertheless, on the day of the contest she withdrew her act from the show, due to the violence shown by the Ukrainian authorities against the Euromaidan protesters.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Since (with the exceptions of 2012, 2014 and 2017), the opening of the show has included a "Parade of Nations" or the "Flag Parade", similar to the Olympic Games opening ceremony. The parade was adopted by the Eurovision Song Contest in 2013 and has continued every year since.


title: Junior Eurovision Song Contest

text: Below is a list of former participants of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest who have gone on to participate at the senior version of the contest. Since , the winner of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest has been invited as a guest at the adult contest the following year.


title: God (word)

text: The English word god comes from the Old English ', which itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic '. Its cognates in other Germanic languages include ' (both Gothic), ' (Old Norse), ' (Old Saxon, Old Frisian, and Old Dutch), and ' (Old High German).


title: God (word)

text: The Proto-Germanic meaning of ' and its etymology is uncertain. It is generally agreed that it derives from a Proto-Indo-European neuter passive perfect participle '. This form within (late) Proto-Indo-European itself was possibly ambiguous, and thought to derive from a root "*" "to pour, libate" (the idea survives in the Dutch word, 'Giet', meaning, to pour) (Sanskrit ', see '), or from a root "*" ("*") "to call, to invoke" (Sanskrit ""). Sanskrit "hutá" = "having been sacrificed", from the verb root "hu" = "sacrifice", but a slight shift in translation gives the meaning "one to whom sacrifices are made."


title: God (word)

text: Depending on which possibility is preferred, the pre-Christian meaning of the Germanic term may either have been (in the "pouring" case) "libation" or "that which is libated upon, idol" — or, as Watkins opines in the light of Greek "poured earth" meaning "tumulus", "the Germanic form may have referred in the first instance to the spirit immanent in a burial mound" — or (in the "invoke" case) "invocation, prayer" (compare the meanings of Sanskrit ") or "that which is invoked".


title: God (word)

text: A significant number of scholars have connected this root with the names of three related Germanic tribes: the Geats, the Goths and the Gutar. These names may be derived from an eponymous chieftain Gaut, who was subsequently deified. He also sometimes appears in early Medieval sagas as a name of Odin or one of his descendants, a former king of the Geats ('), an ancestor of the Gutar ('), of the Goths (') and of the royal line of Wessex ("Geats") and as a previous hero of the Goths (').


title: God (word)

text: Some variant forms of the name Odin such as the Lombardic ' may point in the direction that the Lombardic form actually comes from Proto-Germanic '. Wōdanaz or Wōđinaz is the reconstructed Proto-Germanic name of a god of Germanic paganism, known as Odin in Norse mythology, Wōden in Old English, Wodan or Wotan in Old High German and Godan in the Lombardic language. Godan was shortened to God over time and was adopted/retained by the Germanic peoples of the British isles as the name of their deity, in lieu of the Latin word Deus used by the Latin speaking Christian church, after conversion to Christianity.


title: God (word)

text: During the complex christianization of the Germanic tribes of Europe, there were many linguistic influences upon the Christian missionaries. One example post downfall of the western Roman Empire are the missionaries from Rome led by Augustine of Canterbury. Augustine's mission to the Saxons in southern Britain was conducted at a time when the city of Rome was a part of a Lombardic kingdom. The translated Bibles which they brought on their mission were greatly influenced by the Germanic tribes they were in contact with, chief among them being the Lombards and Franks. The translation for the word "deus" of the Latin Bible was influenced by the then current usage by the tribes for their highest deity, namely "Wodan" by Angles, Saxons, and Franks of north-central and western Europe, and "Godan" by the Lombards of south-central Europe around Rome. There are many instances where the name Godan and Wodan are contracted to God and Wod. One instance is the wild hunt (a.k.a. Wodan's wild hunt) where Wod is used.


title: God (word)

text: The earliest uses of the word God in Germanic writing is often cited to be in the Gothic Bible or Wulfila Bible, which is the Christian Bible as translated by Ulfilas into the Gothic language spoken by the Eastern Germanic, or Gothic, tribes. The oldest parts of the Gothic Bible, contained in the Codex Argenteus, are estimated to be from the fourth century. During the fourth century, the Goths were converted to Christianity, largely through the efforts of Bishop Ulfilas, who translated the Bible into the Gothic language in Nicopolis ad Istrum in today's northern Bulgaria. The words "guda" and "guþ" were used for God in the Gothic Bible.


title: God (word)

text: "God" entered English when the language still had a system of grammatical gender. The word and its cognates were initially neuter but underwent transition when their speakers converted to Christianity, "as a means of distinguishing the personal God of the Christians from the impersonal divine powers acknowledged by pagans." However, traces of the neuter endured. While these words became syntactically masculine, so that determiners and adjectives connected to them took masculine endings, they sometimes remained morphologically neuter, which could be seen in their inflections: In the phrase, "guþ meins", "my God," from the Gothic Bible, for example, "guþ" inflects as if it were still a neuter because it lacks a final "-s", but the possessive adjective "meins" takes the final "-s" that it would with other masculine nouns.


title: God (word)

text: "God" and its cognates likely had a general, predominantly plural or collective sense prior to conversion to Christianity. After conversion, the word was commonly used in the singular to refer to the Christian deity, and also took on characteristics of a name.


title: God (word)

text: The word "god" was used to represent Greek "theos" and Latin "deus" in Bible translations, first in the Gothic translation of the New Testament by Ulfilas. For the etymology of "", see "*".


title: God (word)

text: Greek " " (') means god in English. It is often connected with Greek "θέω" ("theō"), "run", and "θεωρέω" ("theoreō"), "to look at, to see, to observe", Latin ' "holidays", ' "temple", and also Armenian ' "gods". Alternative suggestions (e.g. by De Saussure) connect ' "smoke, spirit", attested in Baltic and Germanic words for "spook" and ultimately cognate with Latin ' "smoke." The earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek "te-o" (plural "te-o-i"), written in Linear B syllabic script.


title: God (word)

text: The development of English orthography was dominated by Christian texts. Capitalized, "God" was first used to refer to the Abrahamic God and may now signify any monotheistic conception of God, including the translations of the Arabic ', Persian "Khuda", Indic "Ishvara" and the Maasai '.


title: God (word)

text: In the English language, capitalization is used for names by which a god is known, including 'God'. Consequently, its capitalized form is not used for multiple gods or when referring to the generic idea of a deity.


title: God (word)

text: Pronouns referring to a god are also often capitalized by adherents to a religion as an indication of reverence, and are traditionally in the masculine gender ("He", "Him", "His" etc) unless specifically referring to a goddess.


title: Nadine Nicole

text: Nadine Nicole Heimann (born September 15, 1983), known professionally as Nadine Nicole, is an American actress.


title: Nadine Nicole

text: Nicole was born in Rochester, Michigan to a German father and a Filipina mother, and is the oldest of three children (sister Lorraine and brother Eric). She attended Fordham University in New York City for two years, then moved to Los Angeles. She is friends with "The Young and the Restless" co-stars Christel Khalil, Mishael Morgan and Bryton James.


title: Nadine Nicole

text: Nicole was initially best-known as one of the primary characters of here TV's LGBT horror series "Dante's Cove", where in 2005–07 she played Van, a lesbian holding the supernatural powers of the so-called Tresum. More recently, she played Clarissa Mao in "The Expanse", first as a recurring character (season 3, 2018), then as a guest (season 4, 2019), then as a regular (seasons 5–6, 2020–21).


title: Nadine Nicole

text: She has also had several recurring roles. In 2014–2016 she played Gwen on the CBS soap opera "The Young and the Restless". In 2014 she appeared as commitment-phobic travel writer Julia in Alex Burunova's award-winning indie film "Lonely Planet", shot in Barcelona. In 2017 she was in the Hulu series "Casual". In 2019 she appeared in NBC's "The Village".


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: Patrick John Miguel van Aanholt (; born 29 August 1990) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays as a left-back for club Galatasaray and the Netherlands national team.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: He began his professional career at Chelsea, where he was used sparingly, spending time on loan at five other clubs. He joined Sunderland for around £1.5 million in 2014 and was transferred to Crystal Palace in January 2017, for a fee rising to £14 million.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: Van Aanholt represented the Netherlands at numerous youth levels before making his full international debut in 2013. He played for the senior side at UEFA Euro 2020.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: Van Aanholt was born in 's-Hertogenbosch to parents from Curaçao. He is the cousin of fellow Dutch international Leroy Fer.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: Van Aanholt joined Chelsea's youth ranks in 2007, making his professional debut while on loan at Coventry City on 9 August 2009 in a 2–1 Football League Championship win over Ipswich Town. He was later recalled to Chelsea in December due to the exit of many players due to the African Nations Cup.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: Van Aanholt was first selected for Chelsea in an FA Cup tie away to Preston North End in the 2009–10 edition of the Cup, wearing the squad number 52, but did not make an appearance, remaining on the bench. He made his Chelsea debut on 24 March 2010 in a 0–5 away win at Portsmouth, replacing Yuri Zhirkov at left-back after 71 minutes. He then made his home debut, on 27 March 2010, against Aston Villa in a 7–1 victory, again as a substitute. On 29 January 2010, Van Aanholt joined Newcastle United on a one-month loan deal after regular left back José Enrique suffered an injury. He provided cover for the Spaniard, sustaining Newcastle's productive left flank alongside Jonás Gutiérrez. Van Aanholt played his last game in the 1–2 away victory at Watford.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: Van Aanholt scored his first career goal on 22 September 2010 in the 4–3 defeat to former club Newcastle in the League Cup. On 26 January 2011, he joined Leicester City on loan until the end of the season. He made his debut in a 1–0 win over Sheffield United on 1 February 2011, and suffered a torn muscle in his thigh at the end of the month after playing six games. Van Aanholt scored his first senior league goal in a 4–0 victory over Burnley on 9 April 2011.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: On transfer deadline day, 31 August 2011, Van Aanholt signed for Wigan Athletic on a season-long loan deal. Van Aanholt's loan spell, originally a season-long arrangement, was later terminated by mutual consent between all three parties. During this uneventful loan spell, Van Aanholt played three league matches and one League Cup tie for the "Latics", but did not feature in their first team after 1 October.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: On 6 January 2012, Van Aanholt returned to Chelsea during a season-long loan at Wigan. Nine days later, he signed for Dutch club Vitesse on loan until the end of the season, alongside fellow Chelsea teammates Tomáš Kalas and Ulises Dávila. On 11 July 2012, Van Aanholt rejoined Vitesse on a new loan deal for the 2012–13 season. On 7 July 2013, the Vitesse loan deal was extended for the 2013–14 season. He made his first start of the 2013–14 season in a 1–1 first leg draw away at Petrolul Ploiești in the UEFA Europa League, a match in which he was booked in the 86th minute. He went on to start eight of the next nine league fixtures for Vitesse, including earning an assist in a 1–1 draw at Roda JC.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: On 7 December 2013, Van Aanholt netted Vitesse's fifth goal in a 2–6 away victory over PSV, keeping Vitesse at the top of the Eredivisie table.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: On 25 July 2014, Van Aanholt left Chelsea and signed for Sunderland for an undisclosed fee, believed to be between £1.5–2 million, on a four-year contract. He made his competitive debut on 16 August as Sunderland began their Premier League campaign away to West Bromwich Albion, assisting Sebastian Larsson for the final goal of a 2–2 draw. On 3 November, as Sunderland won 1–3 at Crystal Palace; Van Aanholt set up the opening goal for Steven Fletcher, but was later stretchered off in the first-half with a shoulder injury and replaced by Wes Brown. Van Aanholt scored his first goal for Sunderland on his return from injury on 4 January 2015, the only goal in an FA Cup third round win over Leeds United.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: On 28 November 2015, Van Aanholt scored the first goal in a 2–0 win at home against Stoke City. He scored his second of the season on 16 January 2016, where he gave Sunderland the lead against Tottenham Hotspur, although Sunderland would go on to lose 4–1. His third of the season came the following week, on 23 January 2016, where he scored the equaliser in a 1–1 draw at home to AFC Bournemouth. He scored his fourth goal of the season when he opened the scoring with a 25-yard free-kick in a 3–0 win against Everton. The result sealed Sunderland's Premier League safety, and relegated local rivals Newcastle United, along with Norwich City.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: On 8 June 2016, Van Aanholt put pen to paper, signing a new four-year deal, keeping him at the club until the year 2020.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: On 13 August 2016, in the opening game of the season, Van Aanholt conceded an early penalty, as Sunderland fell to a 2–1 defeat at Manchester City. He scored his first goal of the season on 21 August 2016 in a 1–2 Premier League defeat to Middlesbrough On 1 October, he came off the bench to score a late equaliser in a 1–1 draw at home to West Brom. Van Aanholt scored his third goal of the season on 17 December to give Sunderland a 1–0 home win against Watford.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: On 30 January 2017, it was confirmed that Van Aanholt had moved to Crystal Palace on a four-and-a-half-year deal for an initial fee of £9 million, rising to £14 million, rejoining his former Sunderland manager Sam Allardyce. He was given the number 3 shirt. Van Aanholt made his first appearance for Palace in a 2–0 win at Bournemouth on 31 January. His home debut, a 0–4 loss to former club Sunderland at Selhurst Park, came four days later.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: On 25 February 2017, Van Aanholt scored his first goal for Crystal Palace in a 1–0 victory against relegation rivals Middlesbrough.


title: Patrick van Aanholt

text: On 24 August 2019, Van Aanholt scored a last minute winner against Manchester United in an away game which Crystal Palace won 2–1. Van Aanholt became the first away player to score a last minute winner at Old Trafford in the Premier League.