title: Thought-terminating cliché

text: Charles "Chaz" Bufe in his book "Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure?" (1997) broadly put the use of the cliché as "thought-stopping phrases (that) include any use of the language, especially repeated phrases, to ward off forbidden thoughts" in describing his interactions with the Alcoholics Anonymous aid movement. Author, show-host and doctor Robert "Bo" Bennett described the term as a substitute for "a person's actual position or argument with a distorted, exaggerated, or misrepresented version of the position of the argument" in his 2017 book "Logically Fallacious", along with a proposed logical form of the cliché; "Person 1 makes claim Y. Claim Y sounds catchy. Therefore, claim Y is true."


title: Thought-terminating cliché

text: The Southern California law review, Volume 51, Part 1 describes the use of such clichés as "to capture the vehicles of thought and communication; 'Doctrine over reality' (which includes the rewriting of history and reinterpretation of one's past)" and as a property of 'ideological totalists'.


title: Thought-terminating cliché

text: Bennett explains that exceptions are made to the use of phrases that would otherwise be considered thought-terminating, if they are used in addition to evidence or strong claims.


title: Thought-terminating cliché

text: A major criticism made by various journalists is that the use of the cliché tends to halt debate and restrict or censor freedom of speech, and it tends to be synonymous with language that would be used by totalitarian states as Lifton originally identified with Communist China. Chancellor Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany is remarked to have employed such clichés and platitudes to justify his actions prior and during the events of World War II for example.


title: Thought-terminating cliché

text: David Volodzko in "The Diplomat" in 2015 characterized China's justification for persecuting Tibetans, Uyghurs, Falun Gong, artists, journalists (including Liu Xiaobo), summed up as "for security reasons" as a thought-terminating cliché, going on to say "that's every bit as vapid as 'God moves in a mysterious way' or 'support our troops'. What it really means is that the Party is more important than the people."


title: Thought-terminating cliché

text: An example of the cliché in use provided by Chaz Bufe is "the admonition given to Catholic schoolchildren to recite the Hail Mary or rosary to ward off 'impure thoughts'. The use of repetitive chanting by the Hare Krishnas serves the same thought-stopping purpose." Christian author Ann Morisy criticized the Christian Church for their uses of such clichés coinciding with their doctrines that intentionally reduce the possibility of dialogue, stating that failure to move beyond them risks falling prey "to a new version of gnosticism" along with alienating those not of the faith. Scientology has also been criticized for using protocols, language and lexicons that use thought-terminating clichés to condition its members or to reaffirm a confirmation bias, which makes it difficult for members to think "outside the box". "The Guardian" journalist Jenna Scaramanga mentions that when certain members of Islam label something haram (sinful), that employs the use of the tactic since it states that something is forbidden and "There is no need for any more consideration of whether it is bad."


title: Thought-terminating cliché

text: The use of slogans is often considered to be a form of the cliché: "Brief, reductive labels you can stick on things, and which end thought on the subject".


title: Thought-terminating cliché

text: An article published by Gamasutra mentions that, during the debate regarding whether or not pornographic games should be available on the Steam market place, simply calling such games porn is "thought-terminating" as it does not progress debate.


title: Adaptogen

text: Adaptogens or adaptogenic substances are used in herbal medicine for the claimed stabilization of physiological processes and promotion of homeostasis.


title: Adaptogen

text: The concept of adaptogens was originally created in 1947 to describe a substance that may increase resistance to stress. The term "adaptogenesis" was later applied in the former Soviet Union to describe remedies thought to increase the resistance of organisms to biological stress. Most of the studies conducted on adaptogens were performed in the Soviet Union, Korea, and China before the 1980s. The term was not accepted in pharmacological, physiological, or mainstream clinical practices in the European Union.


title: School of Chocolate

text: School of Chocolate is a Netflix reality competition series hosted by Swiss-French pastry chef, artist and chocolatier Amaury Guichon and produced by Super Delicious Productions. Eight contestants compete against each other in a series of innovative cooking challenges, creating elaborate chocolate sculptures as they aim for the title of 'best in the class' and a monetary prize sum of $50,000. Guichon acts as both a mentor and a judge to the contestants. The series premiered on Netflix on 26 November 2021.


title: School of Chocolate

text: The series was announced in August 2021 as part of Netflix's culinary slate with Amaury Guichon set to host the competition. Adam Cohen, Cara Tapper, Joanna Vernetti, Jeanne Begley, and Andrea Richter are executive producers of the series. A trailer for the series was first released on 15 November 2021.


title: School of Chocolate

text: Mashable gave the first season a positive review, remarking on the advance away from the cut-throat traditional format of similar competitive reality shows, in the school of chocolate there is no elimination of participants from subsequent episodes.


title: Auvergne

text: Auvergne (; ; or ) is a former administrative region in central France, comprising the four departments of Allier, Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal and Haute-Loire. Since 1 January 2016, it has been part of the new region Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes.


title: Auvergne

text: The administrative region of Auvergne is larger than the historical province of Auvergne, one of the seven counties of Occitania, and includes provinces and areas that historically were not part of Auvergne. The Auvergne region is composed of the following old provinces:


title: Auvergne

text: Velay, Gévaudan, and Vivarais are often considered to be sub-provinces of the old province of Languedoc. Forez is also often considered to be a sub-province of Lyonnais. Therefore, the modern region of Auvergne is composed of the provinces of Auvergne, major part of Bourbonnais, and parts of Languedoc and Lyonnais.


title: Auvergne

text: The region is home to a chain of volcanoes known collectively as the "chaîne des Puys". The last confirmed eruption was around 4040 BCE. The volcanoes began forming some 70,000 years ago, and most have eroded, leaving plugs of hardened magma that form rounded hilltops known as "puys".


title: Auvergne

text: Auvergne has an area of , which is 4.8% of France's total area. Auvergne is one of the smallest regions in France.


title: Auvergne

text: Auvergne is known for its mountain ranges and dormant volcanoes. Together the Monts Dore and the Chaîne des Puys include 80 volcanoes. The Puy de Dôme is the highest volcano in the region, with an altitude of . The Sancy Massif in the Monts Dore is the highest point in Auvergne ().


title: Auvergne

text: The northern part is covered in hills, while the southern portion is mountainous and dotted with pastures. The Forest of Tronçais covers nearly and is the largest oak forest in Europe.


title: Auvergne

text: Auvergne has two major rivers: the Loire runs through the southeast and borders the northeast, and the Allier runs from north to south down the center of Auvergne, with branches going east and west. Over many years the Allier river has created what are known as the Allier gorges.


title: Auvergne

text: Auvergne has about 50 freshwater ponds and lakes. Some are high in the mountains and have volcanic origins. Lac de Guéry is the highest lake in Auvergne.


title: Auvergne

text: Auvergne is bordered to the north by the region of Centre-Val de Loire, and by five former administrative regions: Rhône-Alpes to the east, Languedoc-Roussillon and Midi-Pyrénées to the south, Limousin to the west, and Burgundy to the north.


title: Auvergne

text: The region of Auvergne was named after the Arverni, one of the most powerful Gallic tribes. It was composed of the Gabali, the Vellavi, and the Cadurci, whose sphere of influence included the regions of Languedoc and Aquitaine. Vercingetorix was elected king in 52 BC. His father, Celtillos, his predecessor, had been killed by his companions who opposed Celtillos' goal of making the title hereditary.


title: Auvergne

text: In the winter of 53/52 BC, Vercingetorix created alliances with all the Celtic tribes surrounding him by holding as hostages daughters or sons of the kings of each tribe. With this threat, he gained their guarantees of faithfulness and alliance. Based on reports in 2007 of excavations by archaeologists (radio programme of Yves Calvi with researchers in October 2007), the capital of the Arverni is believed to have been situated between Gergovie, Corent, Aulnat and several other significant areas within a range. Researchers estimate a population of 150,000 inhabitants living in the centre of this area, and a total of more than 400,000 inhabitants living in the region of these towns.


title: Auvergne

text: A shrine in Auvergne marks the Battle of Gergovia. Based on scholars' interpretation of books by Caesar, it took place about from present-day Clermont-Ferrand; this has not been conclusively proved. Vercingetorix beat Julius Caesar at Gergovia in 52 BC before he started chasing Caesar's troops.


title: Auvergne

text: Roman troops won a victory in Alesia (Alise-sainte-Reine) in Burgundy. Roman legionaries had set traps and established over several hundred metres. They captured Vercingetorix and took him to Rome, where he was imprisoned. Augustonemetum (as Clermont was known) was developed, probably by displacing a settlement of the Arverni. A recent find is a stone foot, measuring , from a statue high, probably representing a god or a Roman emperor. In the 5th century, Sidonius Apollinaris, an Arvernian nobleman and first bishop of Clermont, made a statement about the end of the Roman age of the Auvergne.


title: Auvergne

text: In the 7th century, the Franks and the Aquitani competed for control of the Auvergne. Conquered by the Carolingians, it was integrated for a certain time into the kingdom of Aquitania. A section known as the county of Aurillac was given to the father of Géraud d’Aurillac; this grant was made directly by the king. The counts of Auvergne, the Guilhemides, slowly obtained their independence. In the 10th century, Auvergne was subject to rivalry between the counts of Poitiers and Toulouse.


title: Auvergne

text: Under the reign of the Carolingians, the Auvergne included five secondary counties with a particular administrative system (Clermont, Turluron, Brioude, Tallende, Carlat (comitatus Cartladensis)).


title: Auvergne

text: During the Middle Age, the county of Auvergne covered the current departments of Puy-de-Dôme, the northern half of Cantal, as well as a small third in the North West of Haute-Loire, with the county of Brioude. The other part of Cantal constituted the direct territory of Aurillac Abbey, and a part of it was indentured to the viscounts of Millau, to form the .


title: Auvergne

text: The Auvergne had gone through a very strict feudal regime, synonym for a dispersion of the political power. The Bishop of Clermont removed his city from the counts’ authority, who, as a result, favoured the nearby city of Montferrand. Later, a usurpation of the power of count lead to the creation, by the legitimate robbed count, of a Dauphiné d’Auvergne, independent from the usurper count.


title: Auvergne

text: However the royal power took action in the area rather early. Philippe Auguste linked the biggest part of the county to the royal territory. The royal territory of Auvergne took Riom as an administrative center. Staying in the bosom of the Capetian family, the Auvergne is given as appanage to Alphonse, Count of Poitiers, and then in 1360 as a duchy to John, Duke of Berry, who also bought the area of Carlades. His daughter Marie married John I, Duke of Bourbon, who in 1416 also became Duke of Auvergne. The Dukes of Bourbon acquired the Dauphiné of Auvergne through marriage, but in the end all their territories were confiscated by Francis I (1527)


title: Auvergne

text: One century after the Hundred Years' War, the Auvergne was plunged into religious wars. Some Calvinist militia made incursions into the highlands and took castles and Catholic villages by surprise. They returned them, subject to a ransom. Captain Merle in particular, firmly established in nearby Gévaudan, took a ransom from Issoire but failed in Saint Flour. That is how the city of Aurillac had been taken over, and its abbey was completely destroyed.


title: Auvergne

text: Around 1200, King Philip August, had not been able to fully defeat the area: the Count held out in Vic-le-Comte. In the 16th century, Catherine de' Medici, Queen of France, inherited the last part of the county from her mother, which allowed the integration of the last feudal fiefdom, in the heart of Auvergne, into the royal territory.


title: Auvergne

text: In 1665, Louis XIV temporarily set up an exceptional criminal court in Clermont and Le Puy-en-Velay, "les grands jours d’Auvergne" (The Great Days of Auvergne), in response to the complaints of the people, who were victims of violence and abuse by officials and noblemen of Auvergne. During the 18th century, the economic situation of the farmers improved considerably, due to the policies of the Auvergne intendants, who developed farming, cheese manufacturing, agriculture, glasswork, ironwork and roads.


title: Auvergne

text: Auvergne is an underpopulated area with an aging population. Auvergne is one of the least populated regions in Europe, and lies at the heart of the empty diagonal, a swath of sparsely populated territory running from northeastern to southwestern France.


title: Auvergne

text: The main communes in Auvergne are (2019 census, municipal population): Clermont-Ferrand (147,865), Montluçon (34,361), Aurillac (25,593), and Vichy (24,980).


title: Auvergne

text: The region is predominantly agricultural, with tourism slowly growing. Both beef and dairy cattle are plentiful, and there are several well-known cheeses: Bleu d'Auvergne, Cantal, Fourme d'Ambert and Saint-Nectaire.


title: Auvergne

text: Despite its small local market, the Auvergne region has developed many national and international companies, such as Michelin, Limagrain (seed), the Centre France-La Montagne group (regional daily press), Volvic mineral water (Danone group) and numerous dynamic SMEs around the two universities and high schools (engineering, medical and business) of its capital, Clermont-Ferrand.


title: Auvergne

text: Auvergne is also a relatively industrial region: the share of the working population in industry is 22% (110,000 jobs), compared to the national average of 18%. The main industry is the tyre industry, represented by Michelin, with headquarters and history is located in Clermont-Ferrand, and Dunlop, based in Montluçon. There is also a diverse range of small industries, particularly in the Puy-de-Dôme and the Haute-Loire: metallurgical (Aubert and Duval), mechanical, pharmaceutical (Merck-Chibret), food—cereals; meat (Salers, Limousin)—as well as cheese.


title: Auvergne

text: These include Thiers cutlery, metal Issoire, lace in Le Puy, and livestock as well as food in the Cantal.


title: Auvergne

text: The Auvergne is one of the premier research areas in France with more than 8,000 researchers in the fields of chemistry, tires, steel, medical and pharmaceutical sciences in agricultural research (INRA and Limagrain laboratories), in biotechnology, seismology and meteorology.


title: Auvergne

text: The food industry, with its branches mineral water, dairy products, meat products, forestry, honey, jams and candied fruit, employs over 12,000 people.


title: Auvergne

text: In 2018, the animal theme park Le Pal had 640,000 visitors, making it the most visited theme park in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. Le Pal is the fifth most visited amusement park in France and the fourth in the zoo sector.


title: Kalachakra

text: Kālacakra () is a polysemic term in Vajrayana Buddhism that means "wheel of time" or "time cycles". ""Kālacakra"" is also the name of a series of Buddhist texts and a major practice lineage in Indian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. The tantra is considered to belong to the unexcelled yoga ("anuttara-yoga") class.


title: Kalachakra

text: Kālacakra also refers both to a patron tantric deity or yidam in Vajrayana and to the philosophies and yogas of the Kālacakra tradition. The tradition's origins are in India and its most active later history and presence has been in Tibet. The tradition contains teachings on cosmology, theology, philosophy, sociology, soteriology, myth, prophecy, medicine and yoga. It depicts a mythic reality whereby cosmic and socio-historical events correspond to processes in the bodies of individuals. These teachings are meant to lead to a transformation of one's body and mind into perfect Buddhahood through various yogic methods.


title: Kalachakra

text: The Kālacakra tradition is based on Mahayana Buddhist non-dualism, which is strongly influenced by Madhyamaka philosophy, but also draws on a wide range of Buddhist and non-Buddhist (mainly Hindu) traditions (such as Vaibhāṣika, Kashmir Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Samkhya). The Kālacakra tradition holds that Kālacakra teachings were taught in India by Gautama Buddha himself. According to modern Buddhist studies, the original Sanskrit texts of the Kālacakra tradition "originated during the early decades of the 11th century CE, and we know with certainty that the "Śrī Kālacakra" and the "Vimalaprabhā" commentary were completed between 1025 and 1040 CE." Kālacakra remains an active tradition of Buddhist tantra in Tibetan Buddhism, and its teachings and initiations have been offered to large public audiences, most famously by the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso.


title: Kalachakra

text: The "Kālacakra Tantra" is more properly called the "Laghu-kālacakratantra-rāja" ("Sovereign Abridged Kālacakra") and is said to be an abridged form of an original text, the "Paramādibuddhatantra" of the Shambala king Sucandra, which is no longer extant. The author of the abridged tantra is said to have been the Shambala king Manjushriyasas. According to Vesna Wallace, the "Vimalaprabhā" (Stainless Light) of Pundarika is "the most authoritative commentary on the "Kālacakratantra" and served as the basis for all subsequent commentarial literature of that literary corpus."


title: Kalachakra

text: The Sanskrit text of the "Kālacakratantra" was first published by Raghu Vira and Lokesh Chandra in 1966, with a Mongolian text in volume 2. This 1966 edition was based on manuscripts from the British Library and the Bir Library, Kathmandu. A critical edition of the original Sanskrit text of the "Kālacakratantra" was published by Biswanath Banerjee in 1985 based on manuscripts from Cambridge, London and Patna.


title: Kalachakra

text: A further planned volume by Banerjee containing the "Vimalaprabhā" appears not to have been published. The Sanskrit texts of the "Kālacakratantra" and the "Vimalaprabhā" commentary were published on the basis of newly discovered manuscripts from Nepal (5) and India (1) by Jagannatha Upadhyaya (with Vrajavallabh Dwivedi and S. S. Bahulkar, 3 vols., 1986–1994). In 2010, Lokesh Chandra published a facsimile of one of the manuscripts that was used by Jagannatha Upadhyaya et al. in their edition.


title: Kalachakra

text: The Tibetan translation of the commentary "Vimalaprabhā" is usually studied from the 1733 Derge Kangyur edition of the Tibetan canon, vol. 40, text no. 1347. This was published by Dharma Publishing, Berkeley, US, in 1981.


title: Kalachakra

text: David Reigle noted, in a discussion in the INDOLOGY forum of 11 April 2020, that, "the Tibetan translation of the "Kālacakra-tantra" made by Somanātha and 'Bro lotsawa as revised by Shong ston is found in the Lithang, Narthang, Der-ge, Co-ne, Urga, and Lhasa blockprint recensions of the Kangyur, and also in a recension with annotations by Bu ston. This Shong revision was then further revised by the two Jonang translators Blo gros rgyal mtshan and Blo gros dpal bzang po. The Jonang revision is found in the Yunglo and Peking blockprint recensions of the Kangyur, and also in a recension with annotations by Phyogs las rnam rgyal."


title: Kalachakra

text: In the "Kālacakratantra's" cosmology, "samsara" (cyclic existence) is made up of innumerable Buddha fields and of the five elements or properties (characterized by origination, duration and destruction). The whole cosmos arises due to the collective karma of sentient beings, which produces vital winds ("vayu") that mold and dissolve the atomic particles that make up the various inanimate things of the world and the bodies of sentient beings.


title: Kalachakra

text: A key element of the "Kālacakratantra" is the correspondence between macrocosmic processes and microcosmic processes. The "Kālacakratantra" maps the various features and developmental processes of the world system to various features of the human body. The phrase "as it is outside, so it is within the body" ("yatha bahye tatha dehe") is often found in the "Kālacakratantra" to emphasize the similarities and correspondence between human beings ("inner Kālacakra") and the cosmos ("outer Kālacakra"), as well as with the enlightened Kālacakra mandala of deities ("alternative" "Kālacakra"). This correspondence comes about because both the cosmos and the bodies of sentient beings come into existence due to the efficacy of the habitual propensities of the minds of beings. In this sense, the cosmos is like a cosmic replica of a sentient being's body. Thus, one can say that the cosmos and the individual are nondual and mutually pervasive, even in terms of their conventional existence. They are interconnected and they influence each other.


title: Kalachakra

text: The basic reason for this exposition is that a proper understanding of conventional reality provides a basis for understanding ultimate reality. Regarding ultimate reality, Wallace further notes, In terms of ultimate reality, the cosmos and the individual are also of the same nature, the nature of gnosis ("jñāna"), which manifests in the form of emptiness ("sunyata-bimba"). Those who are free of the afflictive and cognitive obscurations nondually perceive the world as the form of emptiness in a nondual manner; that is, they perceive the world as an inseparable unity of form and emptiness. On the other hand, ordinary sentient beings, whose perception is influenced by the afflictive and cognitive obscurations, see the world in a dual fashion, as something other than themselves. They see the world as an ordinary place inhabited by ordinary sentient beings. But in reality, the entire cosmos, with Meru in its center, is a cosmic body of the Jina, a cosmic image or reflection ("pratima") of the Buddha, having the nature of form. As such, it is similar to the Nirmanakaya of the Buddha. Therefore, according to this tantric system, one should attend to this cosmic image of the Buddha, as one attends to the statue of the Buddha, created for the sake of worship.The tantra's section on cosmology also includes an exposition of Indian astrology. In Tibet, the Kālacakra text is also the basis of Tibetan astrological calendars.


title: Kalachakra

text: Wallace also adds that this cosmological system based on the three Kālacakras is mainly seen by the Kālacakra literature "as a heuristic model for meditative purposes". According to Wallace, all the different paradigms outlined in the "Kālacakratantra" are contemplative models which "serve as devices for furthering one's understanding of the interconnectedness of all phenomena and for training the mind to perceive the world in a nondual fashion" and thus by using them one can "diminish the habitual propensities of an ordinary, dualistic mind."


title: Kalachakra

text: This view of interconnectedness is also applied among all human beings and all sentient beings and contains methods to train the mind so as to perceive all sentient beings as nondual from oneself. According to Wallace, the "Kālacakratantra" states that "one should look at the triple world as similar to space and as unitary." The tantra also states that "all six states of transmigratory existence are already present within every individual," and this is related to the doctrine of the three gunas.


title: Kalachakra

text: The "Kālacakratantra" revolves around the concept of time ("kāla") and cycles or wheels ("chakra"). Conventionally speaking, this refers to the cycles of the planets, to the cycles of human breathing and subtle energies in the body. Regarding the outer or external aspect of conventional reality, the wheel of time refers to the passage of days, month, and years (as well as the cycles of the zodiac) while with regard to the individual or inner aspect, it refers to "the circulation of pranas [vital airs] within the wheel of the nadis [subtle channels] in the body," which is linked with the 12 aspects of dependent origination and the 12 signs of the zodiac. These different cycles are interconnected and correspond to each other.


title: Kalachakra

text: In the first chapter, it is stated that the world emerges from emptiness and the force of time, which is a kind of power that originates the universe:Because of time ("kalat"), from the voids ("sunyesu"), originate wind, fire, water, the earth; the continents, mountains, and oceans; the constellations, the sun, the moon, the host of star-planets, and the sages; gods, bhutas, and nagas; animals that have four types of birthplace; humans and hell beings also, on the manifold earth and below -originate in the middle of void ("sunyamadhye"), like salt in water, and the egg-born in the middle of an egg."Chakra", in turn, refers to the universe and all things in it (i.e. the five aggregates, constituents and bases of the world), which exist as cyclical patterns powered by time. Kāla is also said to be knowledge ("jñana") and chakra is the knowable ("jneya"). In the universal sense then, the term "Kālacakra" is all-inclusive and refers to the unity of the basis of reality and reality itself.


title: Kalachakra

text: According to Wallace, from the point of view of ultimate reality, "Kālacakra" refers to, the nonduality of two facets of a single reality—namely, wisdom ("prajña"), or emptiness ("sunyata"), and method ("upaya"), or compassion ("karuna"). The word "time" refers to the gnosis of imperishable bliss ("aksara-sukha-jñana"), which is a method consisting of compassion; and the word "wheel" designates wisdom consisting of emptiness. Their unity is the Buddha Kālacakra.Thus, Kālacakra refers to the manifestations of cyclic existence and nirvana, as well as its causes. Kālacakra therefore represents a single unified reality (also called Adibuddha, Sahajakaya, Jñanakaya, Sahajananda and Vajrayoga). When this reality manifests itself as numerous phenomena, it is called samsara. Vesna Wallace notes how the idea of time as a universal creative reality has precursors in Vedic literature and in the Upanishads and that it is likely that they inspired the "Kālacakratantra's" theory of the wheel of time.


title: Kalachakra

text: However, the "Kālacakratantra" is clear that Kālacakra is itself empty of inherent existence (i.e. essence) and is not an independent phenomenon, but one which is dependent on conditions (a classic Madhyamaka position). As Wallace notes, the cosmic body and the body of the individual is made up of various cycles of dependent origination. Furthermore, "each cycle of dependent origination, which comprises progressively smaller cycles of dependent origination, arises in dependence upon other cycles of dependent origination and is therefore itself empty of inherent existence."


title: Kalachakra

text: The philosophical view of the "Kālacakratantra" is undoubtedly that of the Mahayana Buddhist Madhyamaka school, and the text attempts to refute all other Buddhist and non-Buddhist systems. As noted by Wallace, the "Kālacakratantra" holds that "only Madhyamikas who assert the nonduality of compassion and emptiness avoid philosophical failure."


title: Kalachakra

text: The "Kālacakratantra" summarizes its fundamental doctrines in the following passage:Identitylessness, the maturation of karma, the three realms, the six states of existence, the origination due to the twelve-limbed dependence, the Four Truths, the eighteen unique qualities of the Buddha, the five psycho-physical aggregates, the three bodies and the Sahajakaya, and animate emptiness. The system in which these are taught is the clear and definite instruction of the Vajri.According to Vesna Wallace, the Kālacakra tradition has a unique interpretation of emptiness which is not just a mere negation of inherent existence ("svabhava"), but also refers to "the absence of material constituents of the individual's body and mind." This "aspect of emptiness" ("sunyatakara"), or "form of emptiness" ("sunyata-bimba"), is, according to Wallace: a form that is empty of both inherent existence and physical particles. It is a form that is endowed with all the signs and symbols of the Buddha. That form of emptiness, also known as the "empty form," is also regarded as the "animate emptiness" ("ajada-sunyata"). Due to being animate, this emptiness is the cause of supreme and immutable bliss ("paramacala-sukha"). The non-duality of the cause and effect is the essential teaching of this tantra.


title: Kalachakra

text: the transformation of one's own gross physical body into a luminous form devoid of both gross matter and the subtle body of pranas. The transformation of one's own mind into the enlightened mind of immutable bliss occurs in direct dependence upon that material transformation. The actualization of that transformation is believed to be perfect and full Buddhahood in the form of Kālacakra, the Supreme Primordial Buddha ("paramadi-buddha"), who is the omniscient, innate Lord of the Jinas, the true nature of one's own mind and body.


title: Kalachakra

text: The supreme imperishable bliss is also defined as peace ("santa"), and pervades the bodies of sentient beings and the entire world. For beings who are in samsara, this blissful Buddha-mind also manifests as sexual bliss, during which the mind becomes free of concepts and non-dual for a brief moment. Thus, the Kālacakra tradition stresses the importance of not avoiding sexual bliss, but using it on the path, since it is a kind of facsimile of the realization of emptiness and it produces mental joy. It also stresses the importance of retaining one's semen during sexual union, as well as the importance of proper motivation and not-grasping at blissful states.


title: Kalachakra

text: The goal of Kālacakra is also described as access to gnosis or knowledge (jñana, also called "vajra-yoga", "prajñaparamita", "vidya" "spiritual knowledge" and "Mahamudra") which is defined as "the mind of immutable bliss," and the union of wisdom and method, or emptiness and compassion. Jñana is also the mind free of causal relations ("niranvaya") and empty of inherent existence. The "Adibuddhatantra" (i.e. the root "Kālacakratantra") describes jñana as follows:


title: Kalachakra

text: It has passed beyond [the designations:] "It exists" and "It does not exist." It is the cessation of existence and non-existence. It is nondual. It is the "vajra-yoga" that is non-differentiated from emptiness and compassion. It is the supreme bliss. It has transcended the reality of atoms. It is devoid of empty dharmas. It is free of eternity and annihilation. It is the vajra yoga that is without causal relations. Wallace 2001, p. 150.


title: Kalachakra

text: Jñana is a pure radiant mind, devoid of any impurities of habitual tendencies ("vasana"). It has no form and is devoid of atomic particles and is beyond subject and object. It is free of conceptualizations, and is a self-aware ("svasamvedana") natural luminosity which is partless and all-pervasive. Jñana is Buddhahood, the ultimate reality or thusness ("tathata"). It is the Dharmadhatu, which is the primordially unoriginated beginning ("adi") or atemporal source ("yoni") of all phenomena. Jñana is also beyond all classifications and transcends samsara and nirvana (though it appears/manifests as both). Since it is non-dual with emptiness, it is empty of inherent existence.


title: Kalachakra

text: Jñana also manifests as bodies, including the four bodies of the Buddha (the Sahajakaya, Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Nirmanakaya) and the bodies of sentient beings (each one of which are said to contain the four Buddha bodies in unmanifest forms). According to the "Kālacakratantra", enlightened awareness is innately present in an ordinary individual's body:


title: Kalachakra

text: Just as space does not disappear [from a jar] when water is poured into the jar, in the same way, the sky-vajri, who is the pervader of the universe and devoid of sense-objects, is within the body.


title: Kalachakra

text: However, even though all beings have this enlightened awareness, it is not actualized if one does not ascertain it and this entails the absence of mental afflictions or impurities which block recognition of enlightened awareness. These mental afflictions are also closely connected to the pranas or vital winds (which are said to cause and sustain the afflictions) and thus to an individual's psycho-physical constitution. Thus, awakening comes about through the purification of the pranas.


title: Kalachakra

text: "Kālacakra" also refers to a specific deity who appears as a fierce multi-armed blue deity in sexual union ("yab-yum") with a consort called Visvamata (or Kālacakri). The "Kālacakratantra's" first chapter introduces the deity as follows:Homage to "Kālacakra", who has as his content emptiness and compassion, without origination or annihilation of the three existences, who is regarding a consistent embodiment of knowledge and objects of knowledge as non-existence.The Kālacakra deities represent the aspects of Buddhahood: the non-dual ("advaya") union of compassion and emptiness, the union of prajña and upaya, as well as the mahasukha (great bliss) of enlightenment. Since Kālacakra "is" time and everything is the flow of time, Kālacakra knows all. Kālacakri, his spiritual consort and complement, is aware of everything that is timeless, not time-bound or out of the realm of time. The two deities are thus temporality and atemporality conjoined. Similarly, the wheel or circle (chakra) is without beginning or end (representing timelessness), thus the term Kāla-cakra includes what is timeless and time itself.


title: Kalachakra

text: One of the key topics of the "Kālacakratantra" is the Adibuddha (Primordial Buddha or First Buddha). Regarding the Adibuddha, the tantra states:To the one embraced by the Bhagavati Prajña, the one who is aspectless although possessing aspect; to the one who has the bliss of the unchanging and who has abandoned the pleasures of laughter and so forth; to the progenitor of the Buddhas, without origination and annihilation, possessing the three bodies, rightly knowing the three times - the omniscient Bhagavan Paramadhibuddha, I worship that very non-duality.Vesna Wallace notes that in this tantra, the Adibuddha is spoken of in two distinct ways. The first one is the idea that there is a being who was "the first to obtain Buddhahood by means of the imperishable bliss characterized by perfect awakening in a single moment." The "Kālacakra" literature also refers to an Adibuddha who has been awakened since beginningless time, "without beginning or end". According to Wallace, this refers to "the innate gnosis that pervades the minds of all sentient beings and stands as the basis of both samsara and nirvana."


title: Kalachakra

text: Similarly, there is an ambiguity in the way the deity Kālacakra is explained in the tantra. According to Hammar, sometimes Kālacakra refers to the Adibuddha (which is uncreated, beyond time, eternal, the origin of the world, omniscient, non-dual and beyond causality), while sometimes the name Kālacakra refers specifically to the male figure in union with Visvamata. Regarding the difficult and complex term Adibuddha, Hammar concludes that one can see it as one way of describing Buddha-nature, "which means that there is a Buddha-seed in human beings which is always there." It can also be another way of describing sunyata (emptiness), which is also present everywhere.


title: Kalachakra

text: Some passages of the tantra also mention Sakyamuni Buddha. They note how he transformed himself into Kālacakra when he taught the tantra to Sucandra, the king of Shambala. Some passages from the tantra also equate Sakyamuni with Adibuddha.


title: Kalachakra

text: The Kālacakra deity and his consort reside in the center of the Kālacakra mandala in a palace consisting of four mandalas, one within the other: the mandalas of body, speech, and mind, and in the very center, wisdom and great bliss.


title: Kalachakra

text: The deities of the mandala are classified into various sets of families or clans ("kula") as follows:


title: Kalachakra

text: The "Kālacakratantra" contains various ideas about society, the individual's place in society and how they are interrelated. These provide a sociological theory which forms the framework for the "Kālacakratantra's" ideas on history, prophecy and soteriology. The Kālacakra system is unique in that it is the only Buddhist tantra that explores these social and caste issues at length.


title: Kalachakra

text: Like earlier Buddhist texts and traditions, the Kālacakra literature is sharply critical of traditional Indian caste divisions and Brahmanical views of the hierarchy and status of the castes as being divinely ordained and as having inherent moral qualities. Indian Buddhists replaced this model with the idea that all humans are roughly equal and that caste divisions are mere conventional designations. The "Kālacakratantra" adopts these views and also interprets them through a tantric lens. In the Kālacakra system, all people are equal since they are all empty of inherent existence, are all part of the same non-dual reality, i.e. Kālacakra and thus all have the potential for Buddhahood.


title: Kalachakra

text: The Kālacakra tradition saw attachment to caste and family as spiritual blocks and Kālacakra texts warn against social discrimination, which is based on this attachment and has negative effects on one's practice of the path. Indeed, Kālacakra texts often see the absence of attachment to social status as a prerequisite for receiving tantric teachings. Because of this, Kālacakra texts attempts to show the insubstantiality of social class and caste and thus to refute the basis for attachment to caste. According to Wallace, "to demonstrate the untenability of social discrimination, the "Kālacakratantra" at times uses a type of analysis that is similar to the one frequently applied in Buddhist refutations of the independent existence of a personal identity."


title: Kalachakra

text: The Kālacakra system also links the soteriological implications of social relationships to socio-political events. Negative events, such as the Muslim conquests of India and the decline of Buddhism in India, are linked to social segregation and divisions (based on corrupt Puranic teaching). Meanwhile, positive events such as the defeat of "the barbarian Dharma" (i.e. Islam) are linked with social and spiritual unification of all castes, outcastes and barbarians into one single vajra-family. Because the Vaisnava and Saiva Dharmas promote class prejudice ("jati-vada"), create a false sense of identity based on caste, and thus create social divisions, the Kālacakra tradition admonishes Buddhist practitioners not to admire or follow these Dharmas. The tradition also sees caste theory as being related to false theories of a self (atman), to linguistic prejudice (based around the belief in the superiority of Sanskrit) and to theories of a creator god.


title: Kalachakra

text: Due to these concerns, the tantric pledges found in the Kālacakra system involve transgressions of Indian social conventions, such as associating with and being in physical contact with all the various social classes without distinction, and seeing them as equal. This was often acted out in tantric ritual feasts known as ganachakras, wherein everyone was considered part of one vajra-family. This practice of social equality was also not meant to be limited to ritual contexts, as seems to have been the case within Saiva tantra.


title: Kalachakra

text: The Kālacakra system also explains how all of society is in a way also included within the microcosm of the individual's body, which is a manifestation of the socio-religious body. Thus, the different types of persons and castes are mapped into the physical features of a person's body and the elements which make up a sentient being (aggregates, sense faculties, etc.). According to Wallace, the interrelatedness and mutual pervasiveness of the various components of the individual's mind and body represent the social and ethnic integration of a socially and ethnically mixed society."


title: Kalachakra

text: the mutual relations and influences of the individual, the cosmos, and time parallel those in the society. Thus, the organization and functions of the different members of the social body are non-dual from the structure and functions of the different members of the bodies of the individual, the cosmos, and enlightened awareness...Just as the transformation and unification of the various components of one's own mind and body on this tantric path transform one's experience of one's natural environment, so it transforms one's experience of one's social environment. Likewise, in this tantric tradition, the unification of all the phenomenal and ultimate aspects of the vajra-family, which abolishes all dualities, is nothing other than the state of self-knowing: the state of knowing oneself as the cosmos, society, individual, and enlightened awareness; and that self-knowledge is what is meant by omniscience ("sarva-jnana") in the tradition of the "Kālacakratantra."


title: Kalachakra

text: The "Kālacakratantra" contains passages that refer to a Buddhist kingdom called "Shambhala", which is ruled by a line of Buddhist kings that preserve the Kālacakra teachings. This kingdom is said to be located near mount Kailasa and its capital is Kalāpa. It also mentions how this kingdom comes into conflict with invaders called "mleccha" (barbarians), which most scholars agree refers to Muslims and the Muslim invasions of India.


title: Kalachakra

text: According to John Newman, the Buddhists who composed the "Kalacakratantra" likely borrowed the Hindu concept of Kalki and adapted the concept. They combined their idea of Shambhala with Kalki to reflect the theo-political situation they faced after the arrival of Islam in Central Asia and western Tibet. The text prophesies a war fought by a massive army of Buddhists and Hindus, led by King Raudra Kalkin, against the Muslim persecutors. Then after the victory of good over evil and attainment of religious freedoms, Kalki ushers in a new era of peace and Sambhala will become a place of perfection. Further battles with the barbarians are described as well in later eras.


title: Kalachakra

text: Urban Hammar notes that a passage from the tantra mentions a series of figures who are said to be in the service of demonic snakes. These figures are "Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, "The white-clad one", Muhammed and Mathani." Hammar adds that "Muhammed and his teaching of Islam is presented as a barbaric teaching and consequently the main enemy of Buddhism."


title: Kalachakra

text: According to John Newman, passages from the "Vimalaprabhā" also mention a year from the Islamic calendar (403 AH, 1012-1013 CE). This supports the dating of this Kālacakra tradition text to the 11th century by Tibetan and Western scholars, as well as the link to the Indian history of that era which saw conflicts with Islamic Ghaznavid invaders. Alexander Berzin also notes that Tibetan sources mention the "barbarians" slaughtering cattle while reciting the name of their god, the veiling of women, circumcision, and five daily prayers facing their holy land, all of which leaves little doubt that the prophecy part of the text is referring to Muslims.


title: Kalachakra

text: According to the "Kālacakratantra," the battle with the barbarians will be an "illusory battle". Furthermore, some passages of the "Kālacakratantra" describes the holy war against the barbarians from a microcosmic perspective as taking place within the body and mind of the Buddhist practitioner. These verses equate the barbarians with mental defilements and bad mental states such as ignorance. They equate victory in battle to the attainment of liberation and the defeat of Mara (Death).


title: Kalachakra

text: The "Kālacakratantra" states:The fight with the mleccha-kings is actually taking place in the body of human beings. That which in the Makha district is an illusory battle with the barbarians is no battle. The "Vimalaprabhā" states:The fight takes place in the body because the battle with the mleccha king is tied to the body, in the middle of the body and because the outer is the form of illusion and the mleccha-battle in the Makha-kingdom is not the battle.Hammar concludes:A radical conclusion is given in this verse. The fight is really in the body and is a way of liberation in the Buddhist sense. In the texts, it is obvious that the inner fight has a higher value of truth than the outer. Reading what is actually written in the text, it is said that the fight in the outer world is not going to take place. The famous eschatological battle between the king of Shambhala, the Kalkin, will not take place and instead it is a method of meditation. The inner way with liberation and illumination is superior. But in the end, because maya (the illusory world) is mentioned in this context, it is possible to imagine that what happens in the outer world indeed is an illusion, but it still has a certain value of reality. The explanation written in these verses is normally not given in the Kalacakra initiations where much stress is laid on the point that everybody who participates in the initiation is going to take part in the eschatological battle by the side of the twenty-fifth king of Shambhala, the Raudra Kalkin in the year 2325. Here it seems rather to be a method of meditation.


title: Kalachakra

text: A key element of the Kālacakra teachings is an understanding of certain subtle energetic aspects of the human body. In Kālacakra (as in other tantric traditions), the human body is believed to contain certain subtle elements, mainly the three channels ("nadis", left, right and central), the vital winds ("lung, prana"), the four drops ("bindus") and six chakras. These elements function in a cyclical fashion, similar to how cosmological elements also have their cyclical movements. The "Kālacakratantra" contains detailed descriptions of these subtle body elements. In the Kālacakra system, the six chakras that lie along the central channel are as follows:


title: Kalachakra

text: These subtle elements are used during tantric meditation practice to attain immutable bliss and primordial wisdom. Alexander Berzin writes that "during the Kalachakra empowerment, visualizations of different syllables and colored discs at these spots purify both the chakras and their associated elements."


title: Kalachakra

text: According to Gen Lamrimpa: "The Kālacakra Tantra emphasizes the attainment of a buddha body by means of the empty form body, which is used to attain immutable bliss, the mind of a buddha. This differs from other highest yoga tantras, in which the buddha body is attained by transforming the extremely subtle primordial energy into the illusory body."


title: Kalachakra

text: According to Vesna Wallace, in the "Kālacakratantra" one finds "a self-conscious absorption, or appropriation, of the modes of expression that are characteristic of the rival religious systems of India." This adoption of non-buddhist content extends to various areas of the tantra's system, including its theory, language, medicine and cosmology. Wallace argues that this is "inextricably related to Buddhist tantric conversionary efforts" and is justified by the tantra "as a skillful means for leading individuals of diverse mental dispositions to spiritual maturation." The tantra also warns that one should not grasp at one's own view in a dogmatic way, but it also states that one should be careful not to fall under the influence of other teachings "by familiarizing one-self with those teachings in order to refute them."


title: Kalachakra

text: The "Kālacakratantra" refers to and draws from many different traditions, including non-Buddhist traditions such as the Shaiva, Samkhya, Vaishnava, Jain, Vedic, and Puranic traditions. The Kālacakra mandala also includes deities which are equally accepted by Hindus, Jains and Buddhists. The ideas of these traditions are adopted and re-interpreted from a Buddhist perspective. Some examples of non-buddhist doctrines that the "Kālacakratantra" makes use of include: the Samkhya doctrines of "prakrti" and "purusha" (as well as the 25 "tattvas" and the three "gunas"), the concept of the fourth state ("turiya") possibly drawn from the Saiva Agamas, and the ten avatars of Vishnu. Also, according to Wallace, the tantra "incorporates into its mandala the diverse deities that were worshipped by both Buddhists and non-Buddhists."


title: Kalachakra

text: Vesna Wallace further notes that, The fact that the conversion of heterodox groups was one of the motivations behind the "Kālacakratantra"'s adoption of specific non-Buddhist ideas implies that its teachings pertaining to the Kalacakra worldview were not kept secret from the public; that is, they were not guarded as secret teachings intended for an initiated elite. Moreover, the Kālacakra tradition's preference for explicitly presenting its specific tantric views is a result of its openly professed conversionary endeavors.Wallace notes that a study of the Kālacakra literature shows that the teachings were meant to be accessible to non-Buddhist groups. The "Kālacakratantra" states that "one will obtain purity and all virtues by receiving the initiation" whether one is Buddhist, Saiva, Brahmana, Jaina, etc. It also says that initiation into the Kālacakra mandala is also initiation into the mandalas of all deities, including those of non-Buddhists. The tantra also states that the Kālacakra Buddha is the source and teacher of all religious systems, and thus affirms their value while also subsuming them into Buddhist tantra and providing a justification for the tantra's adoption of non-buddhist ideas. These religious systems are of course, reinterpreted in new ways. For example, the Vedic sacrifice is reinterpreted in terms of the practice of tantric yoga.


title: Kalachakra

text: However, while the "Kālacakratantra" adopts non-buddhist content, it criticizes the Brahmanical Puranic religion. According to Wallace, the text "frequently refers to the Brahmanic teachings, especially those of the Puranas, as false teachings, devoid of reasoning, creating confusion among foolish people, and composed by corrupt Brahmanic sages for the sake of promoting their own social class."


title: Kalachakra

text: Most Tibetan Buddhist lineages require initiates to practice various preliminary practices before attempting Kālacakra yoga proper. In the Jonang school for example, the common preliminaries are:


title: Kalachakra

text: Geshe Lharampa Ngawang Dhargyey notes that bodhicitta is particularly essential, along with having renunciation and right view (these three common practices are also seen as necessary by Sakya Pandita). Without these foundational Buddhist elements (which are shared with common Mahayana), tantric practice will not bear fruit. Gen Lamrimpa similarly notes that without Mahayana great compassion, one will not attain Buddhahood through tantra. Lamrimpa also notes that one must have some understanding of emptiness before receiving initiation.


title: Kalachakra

text: As in all Vajrayana practices, a disciple must undergo ritual initiation ("abhiseka)" under a qualified Vajra master to practice the Kālacakra methods. The "Kālacakratantra" states that disciples must carefully investigate one's tantric master beforehand, so as not to end up practicing a distorted teaching. The tantra also lists various qualities of a proper tantric master, such as being free of greed, having tantric pledges, and being devoid of mental afflictions ("klesa"). A corrupt teacher however is conceited, angry and greedy.


title: Kalachakra

text: There are two main sets of initiations in Kālacakra: the “Entering as a child” set and the “Supreme” set of initiations. The first of these two sets concerns preparation for the generation stage meditations of Kālacakra. The second concerns preparation for the completion stage meditations known as the Six Yogas of Kālacakra. Attendees who don't intend to carry out the practice are often only given the lower seven initiations. The tantric initiations are also said to facilitate the purification of the four drops ("bindus"). The initiations include a series of ritual acts, meditations and visualizations. The supreme initiations include visualizing oneself as the deity, engaging in sexual union with the deity's consort and experiencing sexual bliss.


title: Kalachakra

text: The tantric initiations include sets of tantric vows or pledges called samaya (such as the fourteen root downfalls etc.). If these are not kept, the practice will not bear fruit. The same applies to the bodhisattva precepts.


title: Kalachakra

text: After the preparatory steps have been taken, one can embark on the actual practice of Kālacakra, which relies on two main methods. Vesna Wallace outlines these as follows:One is a conceptual method of familiarizing oneself with the ultimate nature of one's own mind by means of autosuggestion, specifically by means of generating oneself in the form of the deities of the "kalacakra-mandala". The other method is a non conceptual method of spontaneous and direct recognition of gnosis as the ultimate nature of one's own mind. The first method, which is characteristic of the stage of generation ("utpatti krama"), is contrived and based on one's faith in the innately pure nature of one's own mind, and it uses primarily one's powers of imagination. Even though it is characterized by freedom from grasping onto one's own ordinary psycho-physical aggregates, or one's self-identity as an ordinary being, it is still characterized by holding onto the imagined self-identity. The second method, which is characteristic of the stage of completion ("sampatti krama"), draws upon the experience of imperishable bliss and the direct perception of the innately pure nature of one's own mind, which is devoid of grasping onto any identity.Unlike other anuttara-yoga tantras, the goal of Kālacakra practice is not the transformation of the vital winds (pranas) into an illusory body, rather, the Kālacakra system's goal is the "windless state" ("avata"), which is "the complete eradication of all present and future pranas." This is said to lead to the arising of the body of empty form ("the form of emptiness"), and the mind of immutable bliss.


title: Kalachakra

text: Generation stage ("bskyed rim") practices generally consist of meditative visualizations, mainly of oneself as the Kālacakra deity in union with his consort Visvamata, and of the Kālacakra mandala and attendant deities. The first part of this stage is also known as deity-yoga ("devata-yoga").


title: Kalachakra

text: This is generally preceded by classic Mahayana practices such as taking refuge, arousing bodhicitta and so on. Then the meditator "imaginatively dissolves the atomic structure of his own body and the body of the universe," in a process which is supposed to mimic the dying process. Then they meditate on empty form. Then follows the meditation on the mandala and of oneself as the deities. The various features and symbols of the mandala (including the deities) correspond to various Buddhist doctrines and to aspects of the bodies of the Buddha. For example, the four sides of the mandala correspond to the four applications of mindfulness.


title: Kalachakra

text: The visualizations are also paired with mantra recitation. There are different mantras in the system, but the main mantra is:Oṃ āḥ hūṃ ho haṃ kṣa malavaraya hūṃ phaṭThere are also various sadhanas (texts outlining the practice) of different complexities, the most complex of which can include up to 634 deities while one of the simplest ones includes nine deities. Generation stage practice is said to continue to purify the four drops.


title: Kalachakra

text: According to Geshe Lharampa Ngawang Dhargyey, there is no need to practice "samatha" ('clear stillness') separately, as the culmination of the generation stage leads to the attainment of samatha. Furthermore, this practice also facilitates the attainment of insight ("vipasyana") into the impermanent, empty and blissful nature of the visualized imagery.


title: Kalachakra

text: According to Geshe Lharampa, the main objective of the generation stage is to dispel ordinary appearances and ordinary conceptions. Everything in one's experience (what one sees, ones thoughts, etc.) is to be seen as being the mandala and deities. There are two elements of this, divine pride (the self-confidence that one actually is the deity) and clear appearance (of the visualization).


title: Kalachakra

text: The development of "divine pride" is based on some understanding of the emptiness of inherent existence of the deities that one is identifying with. Indeed, according to the "Kālacakratantra," generation stage practice is based on one's understanding of emptiness, and thus should only be done once one has had some realization into emptiness. Furthermore, it is also based on the understanding that the entire mandala is an illusion ("maya") and an ideation ("kalpana").


title: Kalachakra

text: Following the practice of deity yoga visualization, there are two further yogic practices which are part of the stage of generation: the yoga of drops ("bindu-yoga") and the subtle yoga ("suksma-yoga"). Both of these involve a sadhana on sexual bliss, most often done with an imagined consort or "gnosis-consort" ("jnana-mudra"). The yoga of drops requires generation of inner heat or candali ("tummo"), which incinerates the pranas in the channels and allows the seminal essence or bodhicitta to flow into the chakras, generating the four blisses. During the practice of the subtle yoga, a drop of purified bodhicitta enters the secret chakra and ascends up the central channel generating the four blisses and transforming the four drops into the four bodies of the Buddha.


title: Kalachakra

text: In Kālacakra, the yoga of the generation stage is seen as being characterized by ideation or imagination ("kalpana"), and thus can only indirectly induce spiritual awakening (as well as mundane siddhis). The Completion Stage yogas however are seen as free of ideation, uncontrived and non-conceptual (since their focus is the form of emptiness, not the deity's bodily form). They are thus the most important yogas for the direct attainment of the mahamudra-siddhi (i.e. "prajnaparamita") and thus of the attainment of Buddhadhood.


title: Kalachakra

text: The Kālacakra system's Completion Stage ("rdzogs rim") practices include a set of practices known as the "Six Phase Yoga" ("Ṣaḍaṅga"-"yoga, sbyor drug") also known as the "Six Vajra-Yogas". This system has a close connection to previous Indian systems of six phased yogas, the first of which appears in the "Maitri Upanishad." The practices of the six phased yoga are based on the subtle body system of channels ("nadis"), winds ("lung, prana"), drops ("bindus") and chakras, and require a foundation of generation stage practice.


title: Kalachakra

text: According to the Kālacakra tradition, Sakyamuni Buddha manifested as the Kālachakra deities and taught the Kālachakra root tantra at a stupa in Dharanikota (near modern Amaravathi, Andhra Pradesh). He did this while supposedly bilocating (appearing in two places at once) at the same time as he was also delivering the Prajñāpāramitā sutras at Griddhraj Parvat in Bihar.


title: Kalachakra

text: Along with King Suchandra, ninety-six minor kings and emissaries from Shambhala were also said to have received the teachings. The "Kālacakra" thus passed directly to the kingdom of Shambhala, where it was held exclusively for hundreds of years. Later Kings of Shambhala, Mañjushrīkīrti and Pundarika, are said to have condensed and simplified the teachings into the "Śri Kālacakra" or "Laghutantra" and its main commentary, the "Vimalaprabha", which remain extant today as the heart of the Kālacakra literature. Fragments of the original tantra have survived; the most significant fragment, the "Sekkodesha", was commented upon by Naropa.


title: Kalachakra

text: Mañjuśrīkīrti is said to have been born in 159 BCE and ruled over Shambhala and 100,000 cities. In his domain lived 300, 510 mleccha barbarians with heretical beliefs in Nimai sinta (sun). He expelled all these heretics from his dominions but they accepted Buddhism and pleaded that they be allowed to return. He accepted their petitions and taught them the "Kālacakra" teachings. In 59 BCE he abdicated his throne to his son, Puṇḍārika, and died soon afterwards, entering the saṃbhogakāya of Buddhahood.


title: Kalachakra

text: There are currently two main textual traditions of Kālacakra in Tibetan-Buddhism, the Ra lineage () of Ra Lotsawa and the Dro lineage () of Drolo Sherap Drak. In both traditions, the "Kālacakratantra" and its related commentaries were returned to India in 966 CE by an Indian pandit. In the Ra tradition this figure is known as Chilupa, and in the Dro tradition as Kālacakrapada the Greater. Chilupa is said to have set out to receive the Kālacakra teachings in Shambhala, along the journey to which he encountered a manifestation of Mañjuśrī, who gave him the Kālacakra initiation. He then disseminated the Kālacakra teachings in India.


title: Kalachakra

text: According to Vesna Wallace, the propagation of the Kālacakra teachings in India date to the 11th century.


title: Kalachakra

text: According to Tāranātha, seventeen distinct lineages of Kālacakra that came from India to Tibet were recorded and compiled by the Jonang master, Kunpang Chenpo. The main two lineages of these that are practised today are the Dro lineage and the Ra lineage, both lineages were founded by disciples of an Indian master named Nalandapa.


title: Kalachakra

text: The Ra lineage became particularly important in the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism, where it was held by such prominent masters as Sakya Pandita (1182–1251), Drogön Chögyal Phagpa (1235–1280), Butön Rinchen Drup (1290–1364), and Dölpopa Shérap Gyeltsen (1292–1361). The latter two, both of whom also held the Dro lineage, are particularly well known expositors of the "Kālacakra" in Tibet, the practice of which is said to have greatly informed Dölpopa's exposition of "shentong" philosophy. A strong emphasis on "Kālacakra" practice and exposition of the shentong view were the principal distinguishing characteristics of the Jonang school that traces its roots to Dölpopa.


title: Kalachakra

text: Today, Kālacakra is practiced by all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, although it is most prominent in Gelug and Jonang. It is the main tantric practice for the Jonangpa, whose school persists to this day with a small number of monasteries in Kham, Qinghai and Sichuan.


title: Kalachakra

text: Butön Rinchen Drup had considerable influence on the later development of the Gelug and Sakya traditions of Kālacakra while Dölpopa and Tāranātha were the main figures who developed the Jonang tradition on which the Kagyu, Nyingma, and the Tsarpa branch of the Sakya draw. The Jonang tradition mainly use the texts of Jonang masters Bamda Gelek Gyatso and Tāranātha to teach Kālacakra. The Nyingma and Kagyu rely on the Kālacakra works of Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso and Jamgon Kongtrul, both of whom took a strong interest in the Jonang Kālacakra tradition. The Tsarpa branch of the Sakya maintain the practice lineage for the six branch yoga of Kālacakra in the Jonang tradition.


title: Kalachakra

text: There were many other influences and much cross-fertilization between the different traditions, and indeed the 14th Dalai Lama asserted that it is acceptable for those initiated in one Kālacakra tradition to practice in others.


title: Kalachakra

text: One of the main promoters of Kālacakra in Tibet were scholar-yogis of the Jonang school, such as Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361) and Tāranātha (1575–1634). In fact, the Jonang tradition specializes in Kālacakra, its practice (especially that of the six vajra yogas), its philosophy and its rituals. This began with the work of Kunpang Thukje Tsöndru (1243-1313) who synthesized seventeen different transmission lineages of the Kālacakra sixfold vajrayoga into the Jonang Kālacakra tradition. Jonang is particularly important in that it has preserved this complete Kālacakra system (which has now entered other schools like Kagyu and Nyingma).


title: Kalachakra

text: In the 17th century, the government of the 5th Dalai Lama outlawed the Jonang school, closing down or forcibly converting most of its monasteries and banning their writings. The Jonang tradition has survived and is now officially recognized by the Tibetan Government in exile as a fifth school of Tibetan Buddhism. Khenpo Kunga Sherab Rinpoche and Khentrul Rinpoche are contemporary Jonangpa Kālacakra masters.


title: Kalachakra

text: The Dalai Lamas have had specific interest in the Kālacakra practice, particularly the First, Second, Seventh, Eighth, and the current (Fourteenth) Dalai Lamas. The present Dalai Lama has given over thirty Kālacakra initiations all over the world, and is the most prominent Kālacakra lineage holder alive today. Billed as the "Kālacakra for World Peace," they draw tens of thousands of people. Generally, it is unusual for tantric initiations to be given to large public assemblages, but the Kālacakra has always been an exception.


title: Kalachakra

text: The 14th Dalai Lama's 33rd Kalachakra ceremony was held in Leh, Ladakh, India, from July 3 to July 12, 2014. About 150,000 devotees and 350,000 tourists were expected to participate in the festival.


title: Kalachakra

text: The Dalai Lama, Kalu Rinpoche, and others have stated that the public exposition of this tantra is necessary in the current degenerate age. The initiation may be received simply as a blessing for the majority of those attending, however, many of the more qualified attendees do take the commitments and subsequently engage in the practice.


title: Kalachakra

text: Kirti Tsenshab Rinpoche (1926–2006), the 9th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu, Jhado Rinpoche and the late Gen Lamrimpa (d. 2003) were also among prominent Gelugpa Kālacakra masters.


title: Kalachakra

text: The Kālacakra tradition practiced in the Karma Kagyu and Shangpa Kagyu schools is derived from the Jonang tradition and was largely systematized by Jamgon Kongtrul, who wrote the text that is now used for empowerment. The 2nd and 3rd Jamgon Kongtrul (1954–1992) were also prominent Kālacakra lineage holders, with the 3rd Jamgon Kongtrul giving the initiation publicly in North America on at least one occasion (Toronto 1990).


title: Kalachakra

text: The chief Kālacakra lineage holder for the Kagyu lineage was Kalu Rinpoche (1905–1990), who gave the initiation several times in Tibet, India, Europe and North America (e.g., New York 1982). Upon his death, this mantle was assumed by his heart son, Bokar Tulku Rinpoche (1940–2004), who in turn passed it on to Khenpo Lodro Donyo Rinpoche. Bokar Monastery, of which Donyo Rinpoche is now the head, features a Kālacakra stupa and is a prominent retreat center for Kālacakra practice in the Kagyu lineage.


title: Kalachakra

text: Tenga Rinpoche was also a prominent Kagyu holder of the Kālacakra; he gave the initiation in Grabnik, Poland in August, 2005. Lopon Tsechu performed Kālacakra initiations and build Kālacakra stupa in Karma Guen buddhist center in southern Spain. Another prominent Kālacakra master is the Second Beru Khyentse.


title: Kalachakra

text: Chögyam Trungpa, while not a noted Kālacakra master, became increasingly involved later in his life with what he termed Shambhala teachings, derived in part from the Kālacakra tradition, in particular, the mind terma which he received from the Kalki.


title: Kalachakra

text: Among the prominent recent and contemporary Nyingma Kālacakra masters are Dzongsar Khyentse Chökyi Lodrö (1894–1959), Dilgo Khyentse (1910–1991), and Penor Rinpoche (1932–2009).


title: Kalachakra

text: Sakya Trizin, the present head of the Sakya lineage, has given the Kālacakra initiation many times and is a recognized master of the practice.


title: Kalachakra

text: The Sakya master H.E. Chogye Trichen Rinpoche is one of the main holders of the Kālacakra teachings. Chogye Rinpoche is the head of the Tsharpa School, one of the three main schools of the Sakya tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. Chogye Trichen Rinpoche is the holder of six different Kālacakra initiations, four of which, the Bulug, Jonang, Maitri-gyatsha, and Domjung, are contained within the Gyude Kuntu, the Collection of Tantras compiled by Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo and his disciple Loter Wangpo. Rinpoche has offered all six of these empowerments to Sakya Trizin, the head of the Sakya School of Tibetan Buddhism. Rinpoche has given the Kālacakra initiation in Tibet, Mustang, Kathmandu, Malaysia, the United States, Taiwan, and Spain, and is widely regarded as a definitive authority on Kālacakra. In 1988 he traveled to the United States, giving the initiation and complete instructions in the practice of the six-branch Vajrayoga of Kālacakra according to the Jonangpa tradition in Boston.


title: Kalachakra

text: Tantric iconography including sharp weapons, shields, and corpses similarly appears in conflict with those tenets of non-violence but instead represent the transmutation of aggression into a method for overcoming illusion and ego. Both Kālacakra and his dharmapala protector Vajravega hold a sword and shield in their paired second right and left hands. This is an expression of the Buddha's triumph over the attack of Mara and his protection of all sentient beings. Symbolism researcher Robert Beer writes the following about tantric iconography of weapons and mentions the charnel ground:Many of these weapons and implements have their origins in the wrathful arena of the battlefield and the funereal realm of the charnel grounds. As primal images of destruction, slaughter, sacrifice, and necromancy these weapons were wrested from the hands of the evil and turned - as symbols - against the ultimate root of evil, the self-cherishing conceptual identity that gives rise to the five poisons of ignorance, desire, hatred, pride, and jealousy. In the hands of siddhas, dakinis, wrathful and semi-wrathful yidam deities, protective deities or dharmapalas these implements became pure symbols, weapons of transformation, and an expression of the deities' wrathful compassion which mercilessly destroys the manifold illusions of the inflated human ego.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Carlos Roque Monzón (7 August 1942 – 8 January 1995), nicknamed Escopeta ("Shotgun" in Spanish), was an Argentine professional boxer who held the undisputed world middleweight championship for 7 years. He successfully defended his title 14 times against 11 different fighters and is widely regarded as not only one of the best middleweights in history but also one of the greatest boxers of all time pound-for-pound. Known for his speed, punching power and relentless work rate, Monzon ended his career with a record of 87-3-9-1 with 59 knockouts, each one of his losses were early in his career and were avenged. Inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1990, he was chosen by "The Ring" magazine in 2002 as the 11th greatest fighter of the last 80 years and voted him as the best middleweight title holder of the last 50 years in 2011. As of January 2018, Monzón holds the 2nd longest unified championship reign in middleweight history at 9 consecutive defenses. Monzón spent five and a half years in prison for killing his wife Alicia by throwing her off a balcony, and admitted that he had hit every single woman that he had dated.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Argentinians adored Monzón throughout his career. His glamorous and violent life was avidly followed both by the media and Argentine people. He was, however, accused many times of domestic violence by his two wives and many mistresses, and of beating paparazzi. Charged with killing his second wife Alicia Muñiz in 1988, the former champion was sentenced to 11 years in jail. He died in a January 1995 car crash while on his way back to jail after receiving a weekend furlough.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Monzón was born in the city of San Javier, Argentina, to a family of Mocoví descent. His parents were Roque Monzón and Amalia Ledesma. Monzón was raised in poverty with his twelve siblings. When Monzón was six years old, his family moved to Barranquitas Oeste, a poor neighborhood of Santa Fe, the capital of Santa Fe Province. To help out his family, he quit school in the third grade, working different jobs, such as shoeshiner, paperboy and milkman. As a youngster, he showed an interest in boxing.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: When he was sixteen, he met Zulema Encarnación Torres, with whom he had his first son, Carlos Alberto Monzón. Later, on 11 May 1962, he married Mercedes Beatriz García, nicknamed 'Pelusa'. They were so poor that they did not have enough money to buy the marriage license. They had three kids: Silvia Beatriz, Abel Ricardo and Carlos Raúl (who was adopted).


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Monzón had his first amateur fight on 2 October 1959. This first fight ended in a draw. Three years later, after a 73-6-8 amateur record, he became a professional. His first professional bout was held on 6 February 1963. He knocked out his opponent in the second round. In 1966, he won the Argentine middleweight title. In 1967, he won the South American middleweight title. After this success, Argentine boxing promoter Juan Carlos Lectoure pushed him into the international boxing scene by organizing fights with foreign boxers such as Douglas Huntley, Charles Austin, Johnny Brooks, Harold Richardson, Tommy Bethea, Bennie Briscoe (a ten-round tie) Manoel Severino and Eddy Pace.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: World middleweight champion Nino Benvenuti had long had a distinguished career that included championships in 2 divisions and 2 wins in 3 bouts vs all-time great Emile Griffith. He had lost the year before to American Tom Bethea in Australia, but in an actual title fight in Yugoslavia, he avenged that loss.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Nobody expected Monzón to beat Benvenuti in their title match (very few knew of him). Yet Monzón applied pressure from the start, and in the 12th, a right hand landed perfectly on Benvenuti's chin, and the title changed hands. Monzón also beat Benvenuti in a rematch, this time in only three rounds in Monte Carlo when Benvenuti's seconds threw in the towel.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: In 1971, Monzón became only the second man to stop former three-time world champion Emile Griffith in 14 rounds, and later out-pointed him over 15 in a close fight (before the fight Monzón had to spar three rounds and run three miles in order to make the weight). Monzón then scored a win over tough Philadelphian Bennie Briscoe in their rematch, over-coming a shakey 9th round, in which Briscoe almost scored a knockout; a knockout in five rounds over European champion Tom Bogs, a knockout in seven rounds over Cuban-Mexican José "Mantequilla" Nápoles in Paris, France and a 10-round knockout of tough Tony Licata of New Orleans at the Madison Square Garden, in what would turn out to be Monzón's only fight in the United States.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Monzón's middleweight championship title was lifted in 1975 by the WBC for not defending it against mandatory challenger Rodrigo Valdez. Valdez, a Colombian, won the WBC's title, while Monzón kept the WBA's championship. In 1976, they finally met, this time, world champion vs. world champion.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Valdez's brother had been shot to death one week prior to the fight and he did not feel like fighting. Still, the fight went on, as they were both under contract. It took place in Monte Carlo. Monzón handed Valdez a beating, winning a 15-round unanimous decision and unifying the world title once again. Facing a lack of good challengers, Monzón was offered a high purse to again fight the Colombian.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: The second fight was different. Monzón-Valdez II is a classic. Valdez came out roaring this time. In the second round, right cross to the chin put Monzón down for the first and only time in his career. Valdez built a lead through the first part of the fight. Monzón, however, mounted a brilliant comeback and outboxed Valdez for the last 8 rounds, winning a unanimous decision to retain the title and score his 14th title defense.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Monzón retired after the second Valdez fight defense. His record stood at 87 wins, only three losses, nine draws and one no contest. Of his wins, 59 came by knockout. His only losses were by points and early in his career. In 2003, he was named by the Ring Magazine as one of the 100 greatest punchers of all time. On the independent computer-based ranking of boxrec.com, he is listed as the second best middleweight boxer of all time.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Always known for his overhand right, following Monzón's victory over Mantequilla Nápoles, Angelo Dundee said: "Monzón is the complete fighter. He can box, he can hit, he can think, and he is game all the way."


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Before retirement, in 1974, he starred in "La Mary", a hit movie directed by Daniel Tinayre. After retirement, he participated as an actor in a couple of Argentine movies, which were not very successful, and TV shows.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Monzón was tremendously popular throughout his career. During Monzón's fights, Argentina would stand still, cities had no traffic, and all TV sets and radios were tuned to the fight. While filming "La Mary", he met famous Argentine actress and model Susana Giménez. They started a tumultuous relationship, which led to Monzón's divorce. Since then, his glamorous and sometimes violent life was avidly followed by the media. He toured Latin America and Europe with Argentine models and actresses.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: While still a champion, a darker side of Monzón began to emerge. In 1973, Monzón was shot in the leg by his then wife of 11 years, Mercedes Beatriz García, with whom he had a daughter and two sons (one of whom was adopted). The shooting required seven hours of surgery to remove the bullet from Monzón's leg. In 1975, he began a very publicized romance with Susana Giménez; they had previously met in the 1974 thriller "La Mary", directed by Daniel Tinayre, where the two played husband and wife. Monzón hated paparazzi who detailed his affairs. He went to Italy with Giménez to participate in a movie, and started increasingly traveling with her to locations in Brazil and the rest of Latin America, allowing himself be seen with her, although still legally married. He was accused of domestic violence and of beating paparazzi.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Monzón was repeatedly detained by the police. Giménez began wearing sunglasses more often, presumably to hide her bruises, and many times, paparazzi had to be hospitalized from the beatings suffered at the hands of Monzón, who had unpredictable violent outbreaks. During this period, Monzón and Mercedes Beatriz Garcia finally divorced.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: Susana Giménez left him in 1978. After the breakup, Monzón's private life was fairly low key for a number of years. In 1979, he met Uruguayan model Alicia Muñiz, with whom he had an on-and-off relationship for many years. They eventually married and had a son together, Maximiliano Roque. But his violent behavior continued. On February 14, 1988, while vacationing in the resort city of Mar del Plata, after a heated argument, he beat Muñiz. According to the investigation after this incident, he strangled her into unconsciousness, picked her up, and pushed her off the second floor balcony, killing her, during which he followed her in the fall, injuring his shoulder. On July 3, 1989, Monzón was found guilty of homicide. He received an 11-year prison sentence.


title: Carlos Monzón

text: In January 1995, Monzón was given a weekend furlough while serving his term in Cárcel de Las Flores, Santa Fe Province, to visit his family and children. On 8 January 1995, when on his way to returning to jail after the weekend, he and a passenger, Gerónimo Domingo Mottura, were killed instantly when their vehicle rolled over near Santa Rosa de Calchines. The other passenger, Monzón's sister-in-law Alicia Guadalupe Fessia, was injured.


title: Progressive education

text: Progressive education, or protractivism, is a pedagogical movement that began in the late 19th century and has persisted in various forms to the present. In Europe, progressive education took the form of the New Education Movement. The term "progressive" was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional curricula of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the university and strongly differentiated by social class. By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in modern experience. Most progressive education programs have these qualities in common:


title: Progressive education

text: Progressive education can be traced back to the works of John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, both of whom are known as forerunners of ideas that would be developed by theorists such as John Dewey. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, Locke believed that "truth and knowledge… arise out of observation and experience rather than manipulation of accepted or given ideas". He further discussed the need for children to have concrete experiences in order to learn. Rousseau deepened this line of thinking in Emile, or On Education, where he argued that subordination of students to teachers and memorization of facts would not lead to an education.


title: Progressive education

text: In Germany, Johann Bernhard Basedow (1724–1790) established the Philanthropinum at Dessau in 1774. He developed new teaching methods based on conversation and play with the child, and a program of physical development. Such was his success that he wrote a treatise on his methods, "On the best and hitherto unknown method of teaching children of noblemen".


title: Progressive education

text: Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744–1811) was the founder of the Schnepfenthal institution, a school dedicated to new modes of education (derived heavily from the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau). He wrote "Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children", one of the first books translated into English by Mary Wollstonecraft.


title: Progressive education

text: Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He founded several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto was "Learning by head, hand and heart". His research and theories closely resemble those outlined by Rousseau in Emile. He is further considered by many to be the "father of modern educational science" His psychological theories pertain to education as they focus on the development of object teaching, that is, he felt that individuals best learned through experiences and through a direct manipulation and experience of objects. He further speculated that children learn through their own internal motivation rather than through compulsion. (See Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation). A teacher's task will be to help guide their students as individuals through their learning and allow it to unfold naturally.


title: Progressive education

text: Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel (1782–1852) was a student of Pestalozzi who laid the foundation for modern education based on the recognition that children have unique needs and capabilities. He believed in "self-activity" and play as essential factors in child education. The teacher's role was not to indoctrinate but to encourage self-expression through play, both individually and in group activities. He created the concept of kindergarten.


title: Progressive education

text: Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) emphasized the connection between individual development and the resulting societal contribution. The five key ideas which composed his concept of individual maturation were Inner Freedom, Perfection, Benevolence, Justice, and Equity or Recompense. According to Herbart, abilities were not innate but could be instilled, so a thorough education could provide the framework for moral and intellectual development. In order to develop a child to lead to a consciousness of social responsibility, Herbart advocated that teachers utilize a methodology with five formal steps: "Using this structure a teacher prepared a topic of interest to the children, presented that topic, and questioned them inductively, so that they reached new knowledge based on what they had already known, looked back, and deductively summed up the lesson's achievements, then related them to moral precepts for daily living".


title: Progressive education

text: John Melchior Bosco (1815–1888) was concerned about the education of street children who had left their villages to find work in the rapidly industrialized city of Turin, Italy. Exploited as cheap labor or imprisoned for unruly behavior, Bosco saw the need for creating a space where they would feel at home. He called it an 'Oratory' where they could play, learn, share friendships, express themselves, develop their creative talents and pick up skills for gainful self-employment. With those who had found work, he set up a mutual-fund society (an early version of the Grameen Bank) to teach them the benefits of saving and self-reliance. The principles underlying his educational method that won over the hearts and minds of thousands of youth who flocked to his oratory were: 'be reasonable', 'be kind', 'believe' and 'be generous in service'. Today his method of education is practiced in nearly 3000 institutions set up around the world by the members of the Salesian Society he founded in 1873.


title: Progressive education

text: While studying for his doctorate in Göttingen in 1882–1883, Cecil Reddie was greatly impressed by the progressive educational theories being applied there. Reddie founded Abbotsholme School in Derbyshire, England, in 1889. Its curriculum enacted the ideas of progressive education. Reddie rejected rote learning, classical languages and corporal punishment. He combined studies in modern languages and the sciences and arts with a program of physical exercise, manual labour, recreation, crafts and arts. Schools modeling themselves after Abbotsholme were established throughout Europe, and the model was particularly influential in Germany. Reddie often engaged foreign teachers, who learned its practices, before returning home to start their own schools. Hermann Lietz an Abbotsholme teacher founded five schools (Landerziehungsheime für Jungen) on Abbotsholme's principles. Other people he influenced included Kurt Hahn, Adolphe Ferrière and Edmond Demolins. His ideas also reached Japan, where it turned into "Taisho-era Free Education Movement" (Taisho Jiyu Kyoiku Undo)


title: Progressive education

text: Education according to John Dewey is the "participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race" (Dewey, 1897, para. 1). As such, education should take into account that the student is a social being. The process begins at birth with the child unconsciously gaining knowledge and gradually developing their knowledge to share and partake in society.


title: Progressive education

text: For Dewey, education, which regulates "the process of coming to share in the social consciousness," is the "only sure" method of ensuring social progress and reform (Dewey, 1897, para. 60). In this respect, Dewey foreshadows Social Reconstructionism, whereby schools are a means to reconstruct society. As schools become a means for social reconstruction, they must be given the proper equipment to perform this task and guide their students.


title: Progressive education

text: The American teacher Helen Parkhurst (1886–1973) developed the Dalton Plan at the beginning of the twentieth century with the goal of reforming the then current pedagogy and classroom management. She wanted to break the teacher-centered lockstep teaching. During her first experiment, which she implemented in a small elementary school as a young teacher in 1904, she noticed that when students are given freedom for self-direction and self-pacing and to help one another, their motivation increases considerably and they learn more. In a later experiment in 1911 and 1912, Parkhurst re-organized the education in a large school for nine- to fourteen-year-olds. Instead of each grade, each subject was appointed its own teacher and its own classroom. The subject teachers made assignments: they converted the subject matter for each grade into learning assignments. In this way, learning became the students' own work; they could carry out their work independently, work at their own pace and plan their work themselves. The classroom turned into a laboratory, a place where students are working, furnished and equipped as work spaces, tailored to meet the requirements of specific subjects. Useful and attractive learning materials, instruments and reference books were put within the students' reach. The benches were replaced by large tables to facilitate co-operation and group instruction. This second experiment formed the basis for the next experiments, those in Dalton and New York, from 1919 onwards. The only addition was the use of graphs, charts enabling students to keep track of their own progress in each subject.


title: Progressive education

text: In the nineteen-twenties and nineteen-thirties, Dalton education spread throughout the world. There is no certainty regarding the exact numbers of Dalton schools, but there was Dalton education in America, Australia, England, Germany, the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, India, China and Japan.


title: Progressive education

text: Rudolf Steiner (1869–1925) first described the principles of what was to become Waldorf education in 1907. He established a series of schools based on these principles beginning in 1919. The focus of the education is on creating a developmentally appropriate curriculum that holistically integrates practical, artistic, social, and academic experiences. There are more than a thousand schools and many more early childhood centers worldwide; it has also become a popular form of homeschooling.


title: Progressive education

text: Maria Montessori (1870–1952) began to develop her philosophy and methods in 1897. She based her work on her observations of children and experimentation with the environment, materials, and lessons available to them. She frequently referred to her work as "scientific pedagogy", arguing for the need to go beyond observation and measurement of students, to developing new methods to transform them. Although Montessori education spread to the United States in 1911 there were conflicts with the American educational establishment and was opposed by William Heard Kilpatrick. However Montessori education returned to the United States in 1960 and has since spread to thousands of schools there.


title: Progressive education

text: In 1914 the Montessori Society in England organised its first conference. Hosted by Rev Bertram Hawker, who had set up, in partnership with his local elementary school in the Norfolk coastal village of East Runton, the first Montessori School in England. Pictures of this school, and its children, illustrated the 'Montessori's Own Handbook' (1914). Hawker had been impressed by his visit to Montessori's Casa dei Bambini in Rome, he gave numerous talks on Montessori's work after 1912, assisting in generating a national interest in her work. He organised the Montessori Conference 1914 in partnership with Edmond Holmes, ex-Chief Inspector of Schools, who had written a government report on Montessori. The conference decided that its remit was to promote the 'liberation of the child in the school', and though inspired by Montessori, would encourage, support and network teachers and educationalists who sought, through their schools and methods, that aim. They changed their name the following year to New Ideals in Education. Each subsequent conference was opened with reference to its history and origin as a Montessori Conference recognising her inspiration, reports italicized the members of the Montessori Society in the delegate lists, and numerous further events included Montessori methods and case studies. Montessori, through New Ideals in Education, its committee and members, events and publications, greatly influenced progressive state education in England. (references to be added).


title: Progressive education

text: In July 1906, Ernest Thompson Seton sent Robert Baden-Powell a copy of his book "The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians". Seton was a British-born Canadian-American living in the United States. They shared ideas about youth training programs. In 1907 Baden-Powell wrote a draft called "Boy Patrols". In the same year, to test his ideas, he gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds and held a week-long camp in August on Brownsea Island in England. His organizational method, now known as the Patrol System and a key part of Scouting training, allowed the boys to organize themselves into small groups with an elected patrol leader. Baden Powell then wrote "Scouting for Boys" (London, 1908). The Brownsea camp and the publication of "Scouting for Boys" are generally regarded as the start of the Scout movement which spread throughout the world. Baden-Powell and his sister Agnes Baden-Powell introduced the Girl Guides in 1910.


title: Progressive education

text: Traditional education uses extrinsic motivation, such as grades and prizes. Progressive education is more likely to use intrinsic motivation, basing activities on the interests of the child. Praise may be discouraged as a motivator. Progressive education is a response to traditional methods of teaching. It is defined as an educational movement which gives more value to experience than formal learning. It is based more on experiential learning that concentrate on the development of a child's talents.


title: Progressive education

text: 21st century skills are a series of higher-order skills, abilities, and learning dispositions that have been identified as being required for success in the rapidly changing, digital society and workplaces. Many of these skills are also defining qualities of "progressive education" as well as being associated with deeper learning, which is based on mastering skills such as analytic reasoning, complex problem solving, and teamwork. These skills differ from traditional academic skills in that they are not primarily content knowledge-based.


title: Progressive education

text: Hermann Lietz founded three Landerziehungsheime (country boarding schools) in 1904 based on Reddie's model for boys of different ages. Lietz eventually succeeded in establishing five more Landerziehungsheime. Edith and Paul Geheeb founded Odenwaldschule in Heppenheim in the Odenwald in 1910 using their concept of progressive education, which integrated the work of the head and hand.


title: Progressive education

text: "The names of Pestalozzi, Froebel and Spencer shine with no less brilliance than the names of the greatest inventors of the twentieth century. For they discovered more than the unknown forces of nature; they discovered the unknown half of humanity: children." His Orphan's Home in Warsaw became a model institution and exerted influence on the educational process in other orphanages of the same type.


title: Progressive education

text: The Quaker school run in Ballitore, Co Kildare in the 18th century had students from as far away as Bordeaux (where there was a substantial Irish émigré population), the Caribbean and Norway. Notable pupils included Edmund Burke and Napper Tandy.


title: Progressive education

text: Sgoil Éanna, or in English St Enda's was founded in 1908 by Pádraig Pearse on Montessori principles. Its former assistant headmaster Thomas MacDonagh and other teachers including Pearse; games master Con Colbert; Pearse's brother, Willie, the art teacher, and Joseph Plunkett, and occasional lecturer in English, were executed by the British after the 1916 Rising. Pearse and MacDonagh were two of the seven leaders who signed the Irish Declaration of Independence. Pearse's book "The Murder Machine" was a denunciation of the English school system of the time and a declaration of his own educational principles.


title: Progressive education

text: In Sweden, an early proponent of progressive education was Alva Myrdal, who with her husband Gunnar co-wrote "Kris i befolkningsfrågan" (1934), a most influential program for the social-democratic hegemony (1932–1976) popularly known as "Folkhemmet". School reforms went through government reports in the 1940s and trials in the 1950s, resulting in the introduction in 1962 of public comprehensive schools ("grundskola") instead of the previously separated parallel schools for theoretical and non-theoretical education.