title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: I can certify that Dr Munthe never was trained by my father"; and, further, that "[although Munthe] may have [incidentally] followed, like hundreds of others, some courses of Charcot, ...he was not trained by him and certainly never had the intimacy of which he boasts [in his recently reviewed work, "Memories and Vagaries"]. ...I was, myself, a student at the Salpetriere then, and can certify that he was not one of his students and that my father never knew him. Everything he says about professor Charcot is false...


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: Bengt Jangfeldt, in his 2008 biography, "Axel Munthe: The Road to San Michele", states that "Charcot is not mentioned in a single letter of Axel's out of the hundreds that have been preserved from his Paris years" (p. 96).


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: One of Charcot's greatest legacies as a clinician is his contribution to the development of systematic neurological examination, correlating a set of clinical signs with specific lesions. This was made possible by his pioneering long-term studies of patients, coupled with microscopic and anatomic analysis derived from eventual autopsies. This led to the first clear delineation of various neurological diseases and classic description of them, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: Charcot is just as famous for his influence on those who had studied with him: Sigmund Freud, Joseph Babinski, Pierre Janet, William James, Pierre Marie, Albert Londe, Charles-Joseph Bouchard, Georges Gilles de la Tourette, Alfred Binet, and Albert Pitres. Among the doctors trained by Charcot at the beginning of the 20th century account the Spanish neuropathologists Nicolás Achúcarro and Gonzalo Rodríguez Lafora, two distinguished disciples of Santiago Ramón y Cajal and members of the Spanish Neurological School.


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: Charcot bestowed the eponym for Tourette syndrome in honor of his student, Georges Gilles de la Tourette.


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: Although, by the 1870s, Charcot was France's best known physician, his ideas about hysteria were later refuted, and French psychiatry did not recover for decades. An example of the dismissal of Charcot's views can be found in Edward Shorter's "History of Psychiatry": Shorter states that Charcot understood "almost nothing" about major psychiatric illness, and that he was "quite lacking in common sense and grandiosely sure of his own judgement". This perspective overlooks the fact that Charcot never claimed to be a psychiatrist or to be practising psychiatry, a field that was separately organized from neurology within France's educational and public health systems. After Charcot's death, the phenomenon of "hysteria" that he had described was no longer recognized as a real neurological condition, but was considered to be an "artifact of suggestion". However, Charcot continued to have a "prominent" position in French psychiatry and psychology.


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: The negative evaluation of Charcot's work on hysteria was influenced by a significant shift in diagnostic criteria and understanding of hysteria which occurred in the decades following his death. The historical perspective on Charcot's work on hysteria has also been distorted by viewing him as a precursor of Freud. After Charcot's death, Freud and Janet wrote articles on his importance. However, Charcot's work on hysteria and hypnotism was at odds with the perspective Freud made famous, since Charcot believed in neurological determinism.


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: The Charcot-Janet school, which formed from the work of Charcot and his student Janet, contributed greatly to knowledge of multiple personality disorders.


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: Charcot claimed to have observed a higher prevalence of diseases with a hereditary component (notably arthritis and neurological disorders) in Jewish communities, where limited numbers combined with longterm endogamy. He also used Jewish patients as examples in some of his public lectures.


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: When these claims were developed by neurologist Henry Meige, and others, in conjunction with the myth of the Wandering Jew, this was used as support by the apostles of French anti-Semitism, notably the journalist Edouard Drumont. However, historian of science Ian Hacking cautions that Charcot's interest in Jews and his claims about them must be seen in their nuanced, ambiguous context: "notice how Charcot shared most of the presuppositions of the genetic approach to mental illness that are current today [1998].


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: He could not fall back on a genome project to support his scientific speculations, but he did have a closed gene pool to study, not just in that Jews were endogamous, but because many Jews in his clinic were descended from relatives, even cousins, who married each other. Scientific reasoning could motivate his constant attention to Jewish family lines, thus a reputable scientific quest merged with a great willingness to see Jews as aberrant, troublesome, ill."


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: However, by the very end of the 19th century, anti-Semitism in France had rapidly ascended, due to the Dreyfus affair. "Because of this transition, it has become all too easy to read gross and manifest anti-Semitism" retrospectively into the hospital wards of one or two decades previous.


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: By decree on 22 April 1858, Charcot was made a Knight of France's Legion of Honour. He was subsequently promoted in rank to Officer (decree: 4 April 1880), and then finally Commander (decree: 12 January 1892)


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: Charcot Island in Antarctica was discovered by his son, Jean-Baptiste Charcot, who named the Island in honor of his father.


title: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: The "Charcot Award" is given every two years by the Multiple Sclerosis International Federation for a lifetime of outstanding research into the understanding or treatment of multiple sclerosis.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: The stop-question-and-frisk program, or stop-and-frisk, in New York City, is a New York City Police Department practice of temporarily detaining, questioning, and at times searching civilians and suspects on the street for weapons and other contraband. This is what is known in other places in the United States as the "Terry" stop. The rules for the policy are contained in the state's criminal procedure law section 140.50 and based on the decision of the US Supreme Court in the case of "Terry v. Ohio".


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: In 2016, a reported 12,404 stops were made under the stop-and-frisk program. The stop-and-frisk program has previously taken place on a much wider scale. Between 2003 and 2013, over 100,000 stops were made per year, with 685,724 people being stopped at the height of the program in 2011. At this peak, over 99% of recorded non-lethal interpersonal violence in the city was committed by the New York Police Department itself.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: The program also became the subject of a racial-profiling controversy. Ninety percent of those stopped in 2017 were African-American or Latino, mostly aged 14–24. Seventy percent of those stopped were later found to be innocent. By contrast, 54.1% of the population of New York City in 2010 was African-American or Latino; however, 74.4% of individuals arrested overall were of those two racial groups.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Research shows that "persons of African and Hispanic descent were stopped more frequently than whites, even after controlling for precinct variability and race-specific estimates of crime participation."


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: The United States Supreme Court made an important ruling on the use of stop-and-frisk in the 1968 case "Terry v. Ohio", hence the stops are also referred to as "Terry" stops. While frisks were arguably illegal, until then, a police officer could search only someone who had been arrested, unless a search warrant had been obtained. In the cases of "Terry v. Ohio", "Sibron v. New York", and "Peters v. New York", the Supreme Court granted limited approval in 1968 to frisks conducted by officers lacking probable cause for an arrest in order to search for weapons if the officer suspects the subject to be armed and presently dangerous. The Court's decision made suspicion of danger to an officer grounds for a "reasonable search."


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: In the early 1980s, police officers with reasonable suspicion of a possible crime had the authority to stop someone and ask questions. If, based on the subject's answers, the suspicion level did not escalate to probable cause for an arrest, the person would be released immediately. That was only a "stop-and-question". The "frisk" part of the equation did not come into play except on two cases: if possession of a weapon was suspected, or reasonable suspicion of a possible crime escalated to probable cause to arrest for an actual crime based on facts developed after the initial stop-and-question. That all changed in the 1990s, when CompStat was developed under then-Police Commissioner William Bratton. High-ranking police officials widely incorporated the "stop, question and frisk".


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Use of stop-and-frisk is often associated with "broken windows" policing. According to the "broken windows theory," low-level crime and disorder creates an environment that encourages more serious crimes. Among the key proponents of the theory are George L. Kelling and William Bratton, who was Chief of the New York City Transit Police from 1990 to 1992 and Commissioner of the New York City Police Department from 1994 to 1996. Mayor Rudy Giuliani hired Bratton for the latter job and endorsed broken windows policing. Giuliani and Bratton presided over an expansion of the New York police department and a crackdown on low-level crimes, including fare evasion, public drinking, public urination, graffiti artists, and "squeegee men".


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Bratton acknowledged that the policy caused tension with ethnic communities and that it was less needed in an era of lower crime, but said that it should be used in small doses, "like chemotherapy."


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: In 2002, there were 97,296 "stop-and-frisk" stops made by New York police officers; 82.4% resulted in no fines or convictions. The number of stops increased dramatically in 2008 to over half a million, 88% of which did not result in any fine or conviction, peaking in 2011 to 685,724 stops, again with 88% (603,437) resulting in no conviction. Leading to the remaining 82,287 resulting in convictions. On average, from 2002 to 2013, the percentage of individuals stopped without any convictions was 87.6%.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Part of the stop-question-and-frisk program is executed under Operation Clean Halls, a program in which private property owners grant officers prior permission to enter a property for enforcement against criminal activity.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Some NYPD officers have objected publicly to the department's use of stop-question-and-frisk paperwork as a performance metric, which they claim encourages officers to overuse the practice and creates public hostility. Activists have accused the NYPD of encouraging stops through quotas, which department representatives have denied. In the vast majority of cases, no evidence of wrongdoing is found, and the stopped person is let go.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: New York police officer Adrian Schoolcraft made extensive recordings in 2008 and 2009, which documented orders from NYPD officials to search and arrest black people in the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood. Schoolcraft, who brought accusations of misconduct to NYPD investigators, was transferred to a desk job and then involuntarily committed to a psychiatric hospital. In 2010, Schoolcraft sent his tapes to the "Village Voice", which publicized them in a series of reports. Schoolcraft alleges that the NYPD has retaliated against him for exposing information about the stop-and-frisk policy. The New York Civil Liberties Union (NYCLU), LatinoJustice PRLDEF, and The Bronx Defenders filed a federal class action against this program.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: In response to allegations that the program unfairly targets African-American and Hispanic-American individuals, then-Mayor Michael Bloomberg stated that it is because African-Americans and Hispanic-Americans represent 90% of both perpetrators and victims of violent crime in the city.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: On June 17, 2012, several thousand people marched silently down Manhattan's Fifth Avenue from lower Harlem to Bloomberg's Upper East Side townhouse in protest of the stop-question-and-frisk policy. The mayor refused to end the program, contending that the program reduces crime and saves lives.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: In early July 2012, stop-question-and-frisk protesters who videotaped police stops in New York City were targeted by police for their activism. A "wanted"-style poster hung in a police precinct headquarters, without any allegation of criminal activity, accused one couple of being "professional agitators" whose "purpose is to portray officers in a negative way and too deter officers from conducting their responsibilities." Police officers later surveilled and recorded the exit of persons from a "stop stop-and-frisk" meeting held at the couple's residence, allegedly in response to an emergency call of loitering and trespass.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: In October 2012, "The Nation" published an obscenity-filled audio recording that revealed two NYPD officers conducting a hostile and racially charged stop-and-frisk of an innocent teenager from Harlem. Following its upload, the recording soon turned viral, as it triggered outrage and "shed unprecedented light" on the practice of stop-and-frisk.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: In June 2013, in an interview with WOR Radio, Michael Bloomberg responded to claims that the program disproportionately targeted minorities. Bloomberg argued that the data should be assessed based on murder suspects' descriptions and not the population as a whole. Bloomberg explained:


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: In February 2020, an audio recording surfaced of Michael Bloomberg defending the program at a February 2015 Aspen Institute event. In the speech, Bloomberg said:


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: In "Floyd v. City of New York", decided on August 12, 2013, US District Court Judge Shira Scheindlin ruled that stop-and-frisk had been used in an unconstitutional manner and directed the police to adopt a written policy to specify where such stops are authorized. Scheindlin appointed Peter L. Zimroth, a former chief lawyer for the City of New York, to oversee the program. Mayor Bloomberg indicated that the city would appeal the ruling. Scheindlin had denied pleas for a stay in her remediation of the policing policy, saying that "Ordering a stay now would send precisely the wrong signal. It would essentially confirm that the past practices... were justified and based on constitutional police practices. It would also send the message that reducing the number of stops is somehow dangerous to the residents of this city."


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: On October 31, 2013, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit blocked the order requiring changes to the New York Police Department's stop-and-frisk program and removed Judge Shira Scheindlin from the case. On November 9, 2013, the city asked a federal appeals court to vacate Scheindlin's orders. On November 22, 2013, the federal appellate court rejected the city's motion for a stay of the judge's orders.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: On July 30, 2014, Southern District Court Judge Analisa Torres denied the police unions' motions to intervene and granted the proposed modification of the District Court's August 2013 remedial decision.<ref name="CCRJustive.org/files"></ref> A week later, the City of New York filed a motion to withdraw its appeal. On August 13, 2014, the Second Circuit announced the cases would be argued on October 15, 2014. On October 31, a three-judge panel on the Second Circuit unanimously ruled against the unions and allowed the city to proceed with its overhaul of the police department.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: A record 685,724 stops were made under the program in 2011; however, the number of stops made has been reduced in every year since then. A major turning point was the 2013 court case "Floyd v. City of New York" and a subsequent NYPD mandate that requires officers to thoroughly justify the reason for making a stop. In 2013, 191,558 stops were made.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Stop-and-frisk was an issue in the 2013 mayoral election. The race to succeed Bloomberg was won by Democratic Party candidate Bill de Blasio, who had pledged to reform the stop-and-frisk program, called for new leadership at the NYPD, an inspector general, and a strong racial profiling bill.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: The number of stops continued to decrease over the next two years. In August 2014, "Newsweek" reported while stop-and-frisk numbers were down, they still happen disproportionately in New York City's African-American and Latino neighborhoods. In 2015, only 22,565 stops were made.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: On September 5, 2019, a New York judge granted class-action status to a case brought by The Bronx Defenders on behalf of individuals affected by stop-and-frisk. The lawyers attest that records of individuals who underwent stop-and-frisk were retained by police, despite the law requiring that those records be sealed. The arrestees had cases which were downgraded to non-criminal status, dropped, declined by prosecutors, or thrown out by court. Despite this, personal information such as arrest reports, mugshots, details about appearance, and residential addresses remained in law enforcement databases.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: These records were used to increase the charges of individuals later arrested for unrelated crimes, and also continue to be used by the NYPD facial recognition database to track down suspects.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Opponents of the program have complained that it is racist and failed to reduce robbery, burglary, or other crime.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: As Manhattan Borough President, current New York City Comptroller Scott Stringer argued that the program constitutes harassment of blacks and Latinos because it is disproportionately directed at them.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: The NYC Bar Association casts doubt on whether police were applying the "reasonable suspicion" rule when making stops: "The sheer volume of stops that result in no determination of wrongdoing raise the question of whether police officers are consistently adhering to the constitutional requirement for reasonable suspicion for stops and frisks."


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: In a January 2018 op-ed in the "National Review", conservative writer Kyle Smith said that the steep decline in New York City's crime rate since the reduction in the use of stop-and-frisk had shown him that he was wrong about stop-and-frisk; Smith had earlier argued that reducing stop-and-frisk would increase the crime rate.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Paul J. Browne, an NYPD spokesman, defended the practice, saying "stops save lives, especially in communities disproportionately affected by crime, and especially among young men of color who last year represented 90 percent of murder victims and 96 percent of shooting victims in New York City."


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Then-mayor Michael Bloomberg defended the aspect of stopping young black and Hispanic men at rates that "do not reflect the city’s overall census numbers", saying that "the proportion of stops generally reflects our crime numbers does not mean, as the judge wrongly concluded, that the police are engaged in racial profiling; it means they are stopping people in those communities who fit descriptions of suspects or are engaged in suspicious activity."


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: NYC Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly wrote, "the statistics reinforce what crime numbers have shown for decades: that blacks in this city were disproportionately the victims of violent crime, followed by Hispanics. Their assailants were disproportionally black and Hispanic too."


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Stop-and-frisk became an issue in the 2016 presidential election, with Donald Trump attributing a nonexistent increase in murders in New York to the reduction of stop-and-frisk.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: By the time of the 2020 presidential election cycle, both Bloomberg and Trump backpedaled from their previous support of the tactic.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Democratic politician Eric Adams supports stop-and-frisk, while criticizing some specific ways it had been implemented in the past. He promised to bring the practice back in his 2021 mayoral election campaign.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: A 2007 study in the "Journal of the American Statistical Association" found that under the stop-and-frisk policy, "persons of African and Hispanic descent were stopped more frequently than whites, even after controlling for precinct variability and race-specific estimates of crime participation."


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Studies have found that street stops in New York City were not having a beneficial impact on reducing crime in practical terms, meaning that very few of the stops led to actual arrests or weapons found. Most researchers hold the position that stops based on probable cause are more effective at reducing crime.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: A 2012 study by Richard Rosenfeld and Robert Fornango found few effects of stop-and-frisk on robbery and burglary rates in New York between 2003 and 2010.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: A 2016 study found no evidence that stop-and-frisk was effective. One of the authors of that study, Jeffrey Fagan of Columbia University, said that "you can achieve really very positive crime control, reductions in crime, if you do stops using those probable-cause standards. If you just leave it up to the officers, based on their hunches, then they have almost no effect on crime." Fagan "found stops based on probable cause standards of criminal behavior were associated with a 5–9 percent decline in NYC crime in census block groups."


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: Another 2016 study by David Weisburd, Alese Wooditch, Sarit Weisburd and Sue-Ming Yang found that stop-and-frisk lowered crime, and that the size of the effect was "significant yet modest". Robert Apel noted a deterrent effect that increased with the volume of stops (finding that each additional stop reduces the probability of crime by 0.02). Weisburd et al. also noted that "the level of SQFs needed to produce meaningful crime reductions are costly in terms of police time and are potentially harmful to police legitimacy." A 2017 study also reported that stop-and-frisk was associated with modest crime reductions, and cautioned against drawing strong causal conclusions. According to the "Washington Post" fact-checker, the claim that stop-and-frisk contributed to a decline in the crime rate is unsubstantiated.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: A 2017 study in "The Journal of Politics" found that the introduction of a mandate in 2013 that officers provide thorough justifications for stopping suspects led to far fewer stops, fewer innocent persons being detained and increased the ratio of stops that ultimately produced evidence of the crime that the police stopped the suspect for.


title: Stop-and-frisk in New York City

text: A study by Matthew Friedman, controlling for relevant factors, finds "that properties exposed to more intense Stop & Frisk activity sold for significantly lower price."


title: .uk

text: .uk is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for the United Kingdom. It was first registered in July 1985, seven months after the original generic top-level domains such as .com and the first country code after .us.


title: .uk

text: , it is the fifth most popular top-level domain worldwide (after .com, .cn, .de and .net), with over 10 million registrations.


title: .uk

text: In October 1984, RFC 920 set out the creation of ccTLDs using country codes derived from the corresponding two-letter code in the ISO 3166-1 list. "GB" is the UK's ISO 3166 country code. However, the UK academic network Name Registration Scheme, JANET NRS, had defined "UK" as the top-level domain a few months before the compilation of the ISO-derived list. Consequently, .uk was chosen and registered on 24 July 1985. .gb was reserved but never widely used and it is no longer possible to register domains under that ccTLD.


title: .uk

text: As with other ccTLDs in the early days it was originally delegated by Jon Postel to a "trusted person" to manage. Andrew McDowell at UCL was assigned .uk, the first country code delegation. In time, he passed it to Willie Black at the UK Education and Research Networking Association (UKERNA). Originally, domain requests were emailed, manually screened by and then forwarded to the UK Naming Committee before being processed by UKERNA. Membership of this committee was restricted to a group of high-end ISPs who were part of a formal peering arrangement.


title: .uk

text: The Naming Committee was organised as a mailing list to which all proposed names were circulated. The members would consider the proposals under a ruleset that insisted that all domain names should be very close if not identical to a registered business name of the registrant. Members of the Naming Committee could object to any name, and if at least a small number of objections were received, the name was refused.


title: .uk

text: By the mid-1990s the growth of the Internet, and particularly the advent of the World Wide Web was pushing requests for domain name registrations up to levels that were not manageable by a group of part-time voluntary managers. Oliver Smith of Demon Internet forced the issue by providing the committee with a series of automated tools, called the "automaton", which formalised and automated the naming process end to end. This allowed many more registrations to be processed far more reliably and rapidly, and inspired individuals such as Ivan Pope to explore more entrepreneurial approaches to registration.


title: .uk

text: Various plans were put forward for the possible management of the domain, mostly Internet service providers seeking to stake a claim, each of which were naturally unacceptable to the rest of the committee. In response to this Black, as the .uk Name, stepped up with a bold proposal for a not-for-profit commercial entity to deal with the .uk domain properly. Commercial interests initially balked at this, but with widespread support Nominet UK was formed in 1996 to be the .uk Network Information Centre, a role which it continues to this day.


title: .uk

text: The general form of the rules (i.e. which domains can be registered and whether to allow second level domains) was set by the Naming Committee. Nominet has not made major changes to the rules, although it has introduced a new second level domain .me.uk for individuals.


title: .uk

text: Until 10 June 2014 it was not possible to register a domain name directly under .uk (such as "internet.uk"); it was only possible as a third-level domain (such as "internet.co.uk").


title: .uk

text: However, some domains delegated before the creation of Nominet UK were in existence even before 10 June 2014, for example "mod.uk" (Ministry of Defence), "parliament.uk" (Parliament), "bl.uk" and "british-library.uk" (the British Library), "nls.uk" (the National Library of Scotland), "nhs.uk" (The National Health Service), and "jet.uk" (UKAEA as operator of the Joint European Torus experimental fusion tokamak).


title: .uk

text: Currently management of the .uk domain name is delegated by IANA to Nominet UK. It is possible to directly register a domain name with Nominet UK at £80+VAT as of 2021, but it is faster and cheaper to do it via a Nominet-accredited domain registrar costing in the region of £10+VAT in 2021.


title: .uk

text: New registrations directly under .uk have been accepted by Nominet since 10 June 2014 08:00 BST; however, there was a reservation period for existing customers who already had a .co.uk, .org.uk, .me.uk, .net.uk, .ltd.uk or .plc.uk domain to claim the corresponding .uk domain, which ran until 06:00 BST on 25 June 2019.


title: .uk

text: If a domain was registered before 23:59 UTC on 28 October 2013 the user had the rights to the equivalent .uk domain (providing there was no other corresponding .co.uk, .org.uk, me.uk, .ltd.uk, .plc.uk or .net.uk registered). For example, if "your-company.co.uk" was held since 2 October 2013, the registrant of 'your-company.co.uk' had the reserved right of registering "your-company.uk", up until 06:00 BST on 25 June 2019. 123-reg and NamesCo both created such domains for their customers for free but then began demanding payment in September 2019.


title: .uk

text: .co.uk, .ltd.uk, .me.uk, .net.uk, .nic.uk, .org.uk, .plc.uk and .sch.uk are managed by Nominet UK and except for .nic.uk are available for registration by the public (though they all carry various degrees of restrictions). Other second-level domains are managed by various government agencies, and generally more strongly controlled.


title: .uk

text: Allocations are on a strict first-come, first-served basis to qualified applicants. There are no territorial restrictions: applicants need not have any connection to the UK other than those outlined below for .ltd.uk and other restricted domains.


title: .uk

text: .co.uk is by far the most used of the domains, followed by .org.uk then .me.uk. .plc.uk and .ltd.uk are only rarely used. The number of new registrations for each of the different .uk domains on a month by month basis can be seen on the Nominet UK website.


title: .uk

text: The intended restriction of .co.uk to companies is purely nominal; in practice it is open to any and all applicants. Likewise, whilst .org.uk is for organisations, there are no restrictions on registering domains. While .me.uk originally had no restrictions on registrants it has since been tightened up to require registrants to be natural persons (i.e. not companies, etc.).


title: .uk

text: However, registrants in .ltd.uk must be, and remain, private limited companies incorporated under the UK Companies Acts. In addition, names can only be registered if they correspond (in accordance with the algorithm in the rules of registration) with the exact company name, as recorded at the companies registry at Companies House. The same conditions apply for public limited companies which wish to use a .plc.uk domain name. Neither of these domains is widely used.


title: .uk

text: .net.uk is more open, but the Nominet regulations still mean that a registrant must be an ISP, or a similar body, and that the domain is not used for providing services to end-users. .nic.uk, however, is limited solely to domains operated by Nominet.


title: .uk

text: .ac.uk domains are intended for the use of higher education institutions and further education colleges, and are also used by some academic support bodies such as the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service public research establishments, and learned societies such as the Royal Society. Primary and secondary education uses .sch.uk.


title: .uk

text: Unusually, .sch.uk domains are allocated at the fourth level, with the third level being taken up by the name of the local authority (LA, previously LEA or local education authority) e.g. schoolname.leaname.sch.uk. For example, the Little Ilford School in Newham has the domain name littleilford.newham.sch.uk and the West Exe School in Exeter, Devon has the domain name westexe.devon.sch.uk. Previously applications were made in the normal way, but after Nominet came to an arrangement with the education authorities, one domain per school was issued automatically. Those that had already used another domain were still given one and were able to redirect it to their main domain.


title: Kyliegh Curran

text: Kyliegh Curran (born , 2005) is an American actress. She starred in the horror film "Doctor Sleep" and plays Harper on the Disney Channel mystery series "Secrets of Sulphur Springs". She previously played young Nala in a Broadway production of "The Lion King".


title: Kyliegh Curran

text: Curran was born in Miami, Florida on December 10, 2005. Her maternal grandfather is the Bahamian-American writer and scholar Whittington B. Johnson.


title: Kyliegh Curran

text: She started taking acting classes at seven years old. She moved to New York City for her career. Through first and second grades, Curran practiced theater at an Actors' Playhouse conservatory close to the Broadway theatre area. Curran, not finding film-related opportunities in Miami and New York, started attending the British Academy of Performing Arts in Marietta, Georgia and the Renaissance International School of Performing Arts in Milton, Georgia. As part of growing up with an acting career, she is homeschooled.


title: Kyliegh Curran

text: Curran's first show was "Madeline's Christmas" in Coral Gables, Florida. When she was 10 years old, she was cast as Young Nala in Julie Taymor's Broadway production of "The Lion King". In 2015, she was cast in her first film role in the independent film "I Can I Will I Did", which was released in 2017. While living in Georgia, she auditioned for the Stephen King-based horror film "Doctor Sleep" and was cast in a leading role opposite Ewan McGregor playing Abra, a girl with psychic powers. Following "Doctor Sleep", she began work on the Disney Channel series "Secrets of Sulphur Springs" playing Harper.


title: Kyliegh Curran

text: Living in Atlanta, Curran works with the organizations Girls, Inc. and Reach Out and Read Georgia. She is also involved with environmental issues.


title: Celluloid

text: Celluloids are a class of materials produced by mixing nitrocellulose and camphor, often with added dyes and other agents. Once much more common for its use as photographic film before the advent of safer methods, celluloid's common contemporary uses are table tennis balls, musical instruments, combs, office equipment, and guitar picks.


title: Celluloid

text: Nitrocellulose-based plastics slightly predate celluloid. Collodion, invented in 1848 and used as a wound dressing and an emulsion for photographic plates, is dried to a celluloid like film.


title: Celluloid

text: The first celluloid as a bulk material for forming objects was made in 1855 in Birmingham, England, by Alexander Parkes, who was never able to see his invention reach full fruition, after his firm went bankrupt due to scale-up costs. Parkes patented his discovery as Parkesine in 1862 after realising a solid residue remained after evaporation of the solvent from photographic collodion.


title: Celluloid

text: Parkes patented it as a clothing waterproofer for woven fabrics in the same year. Later Parkes showcased Parkesine at the 1862 International Exhibition in London, where he was awarded a bronze medal for his efforts. The introduction of Parkesine is generally regarded as the birth of the plastics industry. Parkesine was made from cellulose treated with nitric acid and a solvent. The Parkesine company ceased trading in 1868. Pictures of Parkesine are held by the Plastics Historical Society of London. There is a plaque on the wall of the site of the Parkesine Works in Hackney, London.


title: Celluloid

text: In the 1860s, an American, John Wesley Hyatt, acquired Parkes's patent and began experimenting with cellulose nitrate with the intention of manufacturing billiard balls, which until that time were made from ivory. He used cloth, ivory dust, and shellac, and on April 6, 1869, patented a method of covering billiard balls with the addition of collodion. With assistance from Peter Kinnear and other investors, Hyatt formed the Albany Billiard Ball Company (1868–1986) in Albany, New York, to manufacture the product. In 1870, John and his brother Isaiah patented a process of making a "horn-like material" with the inclusion of cellulose nitrate and camphor. Alexander Parkes and Daniel Spill "(see below)" listed camphor during their earlier experiments, calling the resultant mix "xylonite", but it was the Hyatt brothers who recognized the value of camphor and its use as a plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. They used heat and pressure to simplify the manufacture of these compounds. Isaiah Hyatt dubbed the material "celluloid" in 1872. The Hyatts later moved their company, now called the Celluloid Manufacturing Company, to Newark, New Jersey.


title: Celluloid

text: Over the years, celluloid became the common use term used for this type of plastic. In 1878 Hyatt was able to patent a process for injection moulding thermoplastics, although it took another fifty years before it could be realized commercially, and in later years celluloid was used as the base for photographic film.


title: Celluloid

text: The development of celluloid was partially spurred by the desire to reduce reliance on ivory, with itsshortages caused by overhunting. An 1883 invention allowed celluloid manufacturers to imitate the distinctive graining of ivory, and by the end of 19th century celluloid was marketed as a lighter (and three times cheaper) ivory substitute under the names "Ivarine", "Ivaleur", "French Ivory", "Parisian Ivory", "Grained Ivory", "Ivory Pyralin".


title: Celluloid

text: English inventor Daniel Spill had worked with Parkes and formed the Xylonite Co. to take over Parkes' patents, describing the new plastic products as "Xylonite". He took exception to the Hyatts' claims and pursued the brothers in a number of court cases between 1877 and 1884. Initially the judge found in Spill's favor, but ultimately it was judged that neither party held an exclusive claim and the true inventor of celluloid/xylonite was Alexander Parkes, due to his mention of camphor in his earlier experiments and patents. The judge ruled all manufacturing of celluloid could continue both in Spill's British Xylonite Company and Hyatt's' Celluloid Manufacturing Company.


title: Celluloid

text: The main use was in movie and photography film industries, which used only celluloid film stock prior to the adoption of acetate safety film in the 1950s. Celluloid is highly flammable, difficult and expensive to produce and no longer widely used.


title: Celluloid

text: English photographer John Carbutt founded the Keystone Dry Plate Works in 1879 with the intention of producing gelatin dry plates. The Celluloid Manufacturing Company was contracted for this work, which was done by thinly slicing layers out of celluloid blocks and then removing the slice marks with heated pressure plates. After this, the celluloid strips were coated with a photosensitive gelatin emulsion. It is not certain exactly how long it took for Carbutt to standardize his process, but it occurred no later than 1888. A sheet of Carbutt's film was used by William Dickson for the early Edison motion picture experiments on a cylinder drum Kinetograph. However, the celluloid film base produced by this means was still considered too stiff for the needs of motion-picture photography.


title: Celluloid

text: By 1889, more flexible celluloids for photographic film were developed, and both Hannibal Goodwin and the Eastman Kodak Company obtained patents for a film product. (Ansco, which purchased Goodwin's patent after he died, was eventually successful in a patent-infringement suit against Kodak). This ability to produce photographic images on a flexible material (as opposed to a glass or metal plate) was a crucial step toward making possible the advent of motion pictures.


title: Celluloid

text: Most movie and photography films prior to the widespread move to acetate films in the 1950s were made of celluloid. Its high flammability was legendary since it self-ignites when exposed to temperatures over 150 °C in front of a hot movie-projector beam. While celluloid film was standard for 35mm theatrical productions until around 1950, motion-picture film for amateur use, such as 16mm and 8mm film, were on acetate "safety base", at least in the US.


title: Celluloid

text: Celluloid was useful for producing cheaper jewellery, jewellery boxes, hair accessories and many items that would earlier have been manufactured from ivory, horn or other expensive animal products. In these applications it was often referred to as "Ivorine" or "French Ivory", after a form of celluloid developed in France with grain lines in made to resemble ivory. It was also used for dressing table sets, dolls, picture frames, charms, hat pins, buttons, buckles, stringed instrument parts, accordions, fountain pens, cutlery handles and kitchen items. The main disadvantage the material had was that it was flammable. It was soon overtaken by Bakelite and Catalin. Table tennis balls were made from celluloid until 2014. "Parker Brothers... made some versions out of hollow Celluloid--which, because of its 'frictionless' properties, spun even faster than steel."


title: Celluloid

text: Shelf clocks and other furniture items were often covered with celluloid in a manner similar to veneer. This celluloid was printed to look like expensive woods, or materials like marble or granite. The Seth Thomas clock company called its celluloid clock material "adamantine". Celluloid enabled clockmakers to make the typical late Victorian style of black mantel clock in such a way that the wooden case appeared to be black marble, and the various pillars and other decorative elements of the case looked like semi-precious stone.


title: Celluloid

text: Celluloid was also a popular material in the construction of slide rules. It was primarily used to coat wooden slide rule faces, such as in early A.W. Faber rules, as well as cursor end pieces, such as in Keuffel and Esser rules.


title: Celluloid

text: Celluloid remains in use for musical instruments, especially accordions and guitars. Celluloid is very robust and easy to mold in difficult forms, and has great acoustic performance as cover for wooden frames since it does not block wood's natural pores. Instruments covered with celluloid can easily be recognized by the material's typical nacre-like flaming pattern. Thick celluloid panels are cooked in a bain-marie which turns them into a leather-like substance. Panels are then turned on a mold and allowed to harden for as long as three months.


title: Celluloid

text: A typical formulation of celluloid might contain 70 to 80 parts nitrocellulose, nitrated to 11% nitrogen, 30 parts camphor, 0 to 14 parts dye, 1 to 5 parts ethyl alcohol, plus stabilizers and other agents to increase stability and reduce flammability.


title: Celluloid

text: Celluloid is made from a mixture of chemicals such as nitrocellulose, camphor, alcohol, as well as colorants and fillers depending on the desired product. The first step is transforming raw cellulose into nitrocellulose by conducting a nitration reaction. This is achieved by exposing the cellulose fibers to an aqueous solution of nitric acid; the hydroxyl groups (-OH) will then be replaced with nitrate groups (-ONO) on the cellulose chain. The reaction can produce mixed products, depending on the degree of substitution of nitrogen, or the percent nitrogen content on each cellulose molecule; cellulose nitrate has 2.8 molecule of nitrogen per molecule of cellulose. It was determined that sulfuric acid was to be used as well in the reaction in order to first, catalyze the nitric acid groups so it can allow for the substitution onto the cellulose, and second, allow for the groups to easily and uniformly attach to the fibers, creating a better quality nitrocellulose. The product then must be rinsed to wash away any free acids that did not react with the fibers, dried, and kneaded. During this time, a solution of 50% camphor in alcohol is added, which then changes the macromolecule structure of nitrocellulose into a homogeneous gel of nitrocellulose and camphor. The chemical structure is not well understood, but it is determined that it is one molecule of camphor for each unit of glucose. After the mixing, the mass is pressed into blocks at a high pressure and then is fabricated for its specific use.


title: Celluloid

text: Nitrating cellulose is an extremely flammable process in which even factory explosions are not uncommon. Many western celluloid factories closed after hazardous explosions, and only two factories in China remain in business.


title: Celluloid

text: Many sources of deterioration in celluloid exist, such as thermal, chemical, photochemical, and physical. The most inherent flaw is as celluloid ages, the camphor molecules are ‘squeezed’ out of the mass due to the unsustainable pressure used in the production. That pressure causes the nitrocellulose molecules to bind back to each other or crystallize, and this results in the camphor molecules being shoved out of the material. Once exposed to the environment, camphor can undergo sublimation at room temperature, leaving the plastic as brittle nitrocellulose. Also, with exposure to excess heat, the nitrate groups can break off and expose nitrogen gases, such as nitrous oxide and nitric oxide, to the air.


title: Celluloid

text: Another factor that can cause this is excess moisture, which can accelerate deterioration of nitrocellulose with the presence of nitrate groups, either newly fragmented from heat or still trapped as a free acid from production. Both of these sources allow the accumulation of nitric acid. Another form of deterioration, photochemical deterioration, is severe in celluloid because it absorbs ultraviolet light well. The absorbed light leads to chain-breakage and stiffening.


title: Celluloid

text: Among collectors of antiques, the deterioration of celluloid is generally known as "celluloid rot." The chemical processes involved are not perfectly understood, but it is widely believed that the gases released by a piece undergoing celluloid rot can trigger celluloid rot in nearby articles of celluloid which were previously intact.


title: Greg Monroe

text: Gregory Keith Monroe Jr. (born June 4, 1990) is an American professional basketball player for the Shanxi Loongs of the Chinese Basketball Association (CBA). He was drafted by the Detroit Pistons in the 2010 NBA draft with the seventh overall pick and became the last Pistons player to wear the number 10 jersey, as the Pistons retired the number for Dennis Rodman in 2011. In his freshman season at Georgetown University, Monroe was named Big East Rookie of the Year.


title: Greg Monroe

text: Monroe attended Helen Cox High School in Harvey, Louisiana. As a senior in 2007–08, he was named a McDonald's All-American and earned "Parade" All-America first team honors after averaging 21.0 points and 14.0 rebounds per game.


title: Greg Monroe

text: Considered a five-star recruit by Rivals.com, Monroe was listed as the No. 1 power forward and the No. 8 player in the nation in 2008.


title: Greg Monroe

text: In his freshman season at Georgetown, Monroe was named the Big East Rookie of the Year and earned Big East All-Rookie team and "CBSSports.com" NCAA Freshman All-American first team honors. In 31 games, he averaged 12.7 points, 6.5 rebounds, 2.5 assists, 1.8 steals, and 1.5 blocks in 30.9 minutes per game.


title: Greg Monroe

text: In his sophomore season, Monroe was named to the All-Big East first team, Big East All-Tournament team, USBWA All-District II team, NABC Division I All-District 5 first team, AP NCAA All-America third team and NABC Division I All-America third team. In 34 games, he averaged 16.1 points, 9.6 rebounds, 3.8 assists, 1.2 steals and 1.5 blocks in 34.2 minutes per game.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On April 17, 2010, Monroe declared for the NBA draft, foregoing his final two years of college eligibility.


title: Greg Monroe

text: Monroe was selected with the seventh overall pick in the first round of the 2010 NBA draft by the Detroit Pistons. On July 6, 2010, he signed with the Pistons.


title: Greg Monroe

text: Monroe made his NBA regular season debut on October 30, 2010 against the Chicago Bulls. He came off the bench to score 2 points and 3 rebounds in 7 minutes. After coming off the bench for the first month of the season, Monroe made his first career start on December 10, 2010 against the Minnesota Timberwolves. In this game, Monroe recorded eight points, fifteen rebounds, and a block in 35 minutes of action. Despite a slow start to the season, Monroe's production increased in 2011 as he became a solid scorer and rebounder for the rebuilding Pistons. On February 23, 2011, against the Indiana Pacers, Monroe had his best game of the season with 27 points and 12 rebounds on 11–17 shooting.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On May 4, 2011, Monroe placed sixth in NBA Rookie of the Year voting totals, finishing closely behind Gary Neal of San Antonio.


title: Greg Monroe

text: During the 2011–12 season, Monroe played in and started all of Detroit's 66 games. On February 8, 2012, he was selected to play in the NBA All-Star Weekend Rising Stars Challenge. Monroe and teammate Brandon Knight were both selected for Team Shaq, despite them being drafted in different years.


title: Greg Monroe

text: During the 2013–14 season, Monroe recorded his third consecutive season with 1,000-plus points and 600-plus rebounds, joining Grant Hill as the only Pistons to do so since 1994–95.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On June 30, 2014, the Pistons tendered a one-year qualifying offer to make Monroe a restricted free agent. On September 8, 2014, it was announced Monroe signed the Pistons' qualifying offer, thus making him an unrestricted free agent in 2015. The next day, the NBA suspended Monroe without pay for the first two games of the 2014–15 season for driving while visibly impaired in February 2014. On December 3, 2014, he scored a season-high 29 points in a 102–109 overtime loss to the Boston Celtics. On April 8, 2015, he returned to action after missing 11 games with a knee injury to record 19 points and 10 rebounds in another loss to the Celtics.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On July 9, 2015, Monroe signed a three-year, $50 million contract with the Milwaukee Bucks. He made his debut for the Bucks in their season opener on October 28, 2015, recording 22 points and 14 rebounds in a 122–97 loss to the New York Knicks. Between February 9 and March 7, 2016, Monroe had a 12-game bench stint as head coach Jason Kidd tinkered with his line-up. In his first game coming off the bench, he recorded a season-high 29 points and 12 rebounds in a 112–111 win over the Boston Celtics. Monroe returned to the starting line-up on March 9 for the Bucks' game against the Miami Heat.


title: Greg Monroe

text: Monroe was assigned a permanent bench role for the Bucks in 2016–17 by coach Kidd. On January 25, 2017, he led the Bucks with a season-high 28 points in a 114–109 loss to the Philadelphia 76ers.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On November 7, 2017, Monroe was traded, along with the rights to a protected future first-round pick and a 2018 protected second-round pick, to the Phoenix Suns in exchange for Eric Bledsoe. He was dealing with a left calf strain upon arriving in Phoenix. He made his debut for the Suns on November 16, 2017, recording 20 points and 11 rebounds in 26 minutes as a starter in a 142–116 loss to the Houston Rockets. Monroe played amid speculation that he could be traded or have his contract bought out. Six days later, he had 22 points and 15 rebounds in a 113–107 overtime loss to his former team, the Milwaukee Bucks. On January 24, 2018, he had 16 points and a season-high 17 rebounds in a 116–101 loss to the Indiana Pacers. On February 1, 2018, he was waived by the Suns.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On February 8, 2018, Monroe signed with the Boston Celtics. On April 6, 2018, he recorded his second career triple-double with 19 points, 11 rebounds and 10 assists off the bench in a 111–104 win over the Chicago Bulls. He became the first Celtics center to record a triple-double since Robert Parish did it on March 29, 1987.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On August 10, 2018, Monroe signed with the Toronto Raptors. On February 7, 2019, Monroe was traded to the Brooklyn Nets with a 2021 second-round pick in exchange for cash considerations. He was immediately waived by the Nets.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On March 24, 2019, Monroe signed a 10-day contract with the Boston Celtics. He was not re-signed by the Celtics upon the expiration of his 10-day contract.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On July 25, 2019, Monroe signed with Bayern Munich of the German Basketball Bundesliga (BBL) and EuroLeague for the 2019–20 season.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On July 30, 2020, Monroe signed with Russian club Khimki of the VTB United League and the EuroLeague for the 2020–21 season. He was named league player of the week on November 11, after contributing 28 points and ten rebounds in an 86–78 win against PBC CSKA Moscow. On January 23, 2021, Khimki terminated Monroe's contract.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On November 5, 2021, Monroe signed with the Capital City Go-Go of the NBA G League. He averaged 10.4 points and 8.8 rebounds per game.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On December 27, 2021, Monroe signed a 10-day deal with the Minnesota Timberwolves. He played his first game against the Boston Celtics and contributed 11 points, 9 rebounds, and 6 assists in the Wolves' 108-103 victory.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On January 6, 2022, Monroe signed a 10-day contract with the Washington Wizards. Monroe appeared in two games for the Wizards before his contract expired and he returned to Capital City.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On February 5, 2022, Monroe signed a 10-day contract with the Milwaukee Bucks. The same day, he scored six points and grabbed six rebounds in 15 minutes of playing time in his debut, during a 137–108 win over the Portland Trail Blazers. Ten days later, he was reacquired by the Capital City Go-Go.


title: Greg Monroe

text: On April 7, 2022, Monroe signed with the Minnesota Timberwolves for the remainder of the 2021-22 season.


title: Penile subincision

text: Penile subincision is a form of genital modification or mutilation consisting of a urethrotomy, in which the underside of the penis is incised and the urethra slit open lengthwise, from the urethral opening (meatus) toward the base. The slit can be of varying lengths.


title: Penile subincision

text: Subincision was traditionally performed around the world, notably in Australia, but also in Africa, South America and the Polynesian and Melanesian cultures of the Pacific, often as a coming of age ritual.


title: Penile subincision

text: Disadvantages include the risks inherent in the procedure itself, which is often self-performed, and increased susceptibility to sexually transmitted infections (STIs). The ability to impregnate (specifically, getting sperm into the vagina) may also be decreased.


title: Penile subincision

text: Subincisions can greatly affect urination, often resulting in hypospadias requiring the subincised male to sit or squat while urinating. The scrotum can be pulled up against the open urethra to quasi-complete the tube and allow an approximation to normal urination, while a few subincised men carry a tube with which they can aim.


title: Penile subincision

text: Subincision (like circumcision) is well documented among the peoples of the central desert of Australia such as the Arrernte and Luritja. The Arrernte word for subincision is "arilta", and occurs as a rite of passage ritual for adolescent boys. It was given to the Arrernte by Mangar-kunjer-kunja, a lizard-man spirit being from the Dreamtime. Some academics theorise that a subincised penis is thought to resemble a vulva, and the bleeding is likened to menstruation. This type of modification of the penis was also traditionally performed by the Lardil people of Mornington Island, Queensland. The young men who underwent the procedure were the only ones to learn a simple ceremonial language, Damin. In later ceremonies, repeated throughout adult life, the subincised penis would be used as a site for ritual bloodletting. According to Ken Hale, who studied Damin, no ritual initiations have been carried out in the Gulf of Carpentaria for half a century, and hence the language has also died out.


title: Penile subincision

text: Indigenous cultures of the Amazon Basin also practise subincision, as do Samburu herdboys of Kenya, who are said to perform subincisions on themselves (or sometimes their peers) at age seven to ten. In Samoa, subincision of the foreskin, skin located along the tip of the penis, was ritually performed upon young men, as in Hawaii, where subincision of the foreskin is reported to have been performed at age six or seven.


title: United States Secretary of Commerce

text: The United States secretary of commerce (SecCom) is the head of the United States Department of Commerce. The secretary serves as the principal advisor to the president of the United States on all matters relating to commerce. The secretary reports directly to the president and is a statutory member of Cabinet of the United States. The secretary is appointed by the president, with the advice and consent of the United States Senate. The secretary of commerce is concerned with promoting American businesses and industries; the department states its mission to be "to foster, promote, and develop the foreign and domestic commerce".


title: United States Secretary of Commerce

text: Until 1913, there was one secretary of commerce and labor, uniting this department with the United States Department of Labor, which is now headed by a separate United States secretary of labor.


title: United States Secretary of Commerce

text: Secretary of Commerce is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule, thus earning a salary of US$221,400, as of January 2021.


title: United States Secretary of Commerce

text: The current secretary of commerce is former Governor of Rhode Island Gina Raimondo, who was sworn in on March 3, 2021.


title: Françoise-Athénaïs de Rochechouart, Marquise de Montespan

text: Françoise-Athénaïs de Rochechouart de Mortemart, Marquise of Montespan (; Madame de Montespan; 5 October 1640 – 27 May 1707) was the most celebrated "maîtresse-en-titre" of King Louis XIV, by whom she had seven children.


text: Born into one of the oldest noble families of France, the House of Rochechouart, Madame de Montespan was called by some the "true Queen of France"' during her romantic relationship with Louis XIV, due to the pervasiveness of her influence at court during that time. Her so-called "reign" lasted from around 1667, when she first danced with Louis XIV at a ball hosted by the king's younger brother, Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, at the Louvre Palace, until her alleged involvement in the notorious "Affaire des Poisons" in the late 1670s to 1680s. Her immediate contemporary was Barbara Villiers, mistress of King Charles II of England.


text: She is an ancestress of several royal houses in Europe, including those of Spain, Italy, Bulgaria, Portugal, Belgium and Luxembourg.


text: Françoise-Athénaïs was born in October 1640 and was baptised on 5 October 1640 at the Château of Lussac-les-Châteaux, today’s Vienne department, in the Poitou-Charentes region in France. Françoise (as a "précieuse", she later adopted the name "Athénaïs"), or more formally, Mademoiselle de Tonnay-Charente, possessed the blood of two of the oldest noble families of France through her parents, Gabriel de Rochechouart, the Duke of Mortemart and the Prince of Tonnay-Charente, and , a lady-in-waiting to Anne of Austria, Queen consort of France.


text: From her father, she inherited the famous Mortemart "esprit" ("wit"). As a young girl, she often travelled with her mother between the family estates and the court at the Louvre in Paris. At the age of 12, she began her formal education at the Convent of St Mary at Saintes, where her sister Gabrielle had started hers almost a decade earlier. She was very religious and took Communion once a week, a practice that she would continue as a young woman.


text: At the age of 20, Françoise-Athénaïs became a maid-of-honour to the king's sister-in-law, Princess Henrietta Anne of England, who was known at court by the traditional honorific of "Madame". Later, because of the relationship between her mother and the queen dowager, Anne of Austria, Françoise-Athénaïs was appointed to be a lady-in-waiting to the king's wife, Maria Theresa of Spain.


text: On 28 January 1663, Françoise-Athénaïs married Louis Henri de Pardaillan de Gondrin, Marquis of Montespan, who was one year her junior. Madame de La Fayette says in her "Histoire de madame Henriette d'Angleterre" that Françoise-Athénaïs was in love with another young man, Louis de La Trémoille, who was the elder son and heir to the Duc de Noirmoutier (one of the leaders of the Fronde). However, La Trémoille had to flee to Spain after a disastrous duel, and Françoise-Athénaïs was betrothed to Montespan. The wedding ceremony took place in a chapel at the "Église Saint-Eustache" in Paris. Françoise later recounted that as she had neglected to bring along the proper kneeling cushions for the ceremony, the couple had to kneel on dog cushions. She soon became pregnant with her first child, Christine. Two weeks after her daughter's birth she danced in a Court Ballet, and less than a year later her second child was born.


text: The couple lived in a small house close to the Louvre, which allowed Madame de Montespan to attend court and carry out her duties there as a lady-in-waiting to the Duchess of Orléans. She quickly established herself as the "reigning beauty of the court". Beauty, however, was only one of Madame de Montespan's many charms. She was a cultured and amusing conversationalist, who won the admiration of such literary figures as letter-writer Madame de Sévigné and diarist Saint-Simon. In addition, she kept abreast of political events. This had the effect of making her even more appealing to men of intellect and power. She was courted by a number of suitors including le comte de Frontenac and Marquis de La Fare.


text: Madame de Montespan astounded the court by openly resenting the position of Queen Maria Theresa of Spain. The daughter of King Philip IV of Spain and Elisabeth de France, the Queen's Spanish title, before her marriage, was "Infanta María Teresa de Austria". In France, she was known as "Marie-Thérèse d'Autriche". A scandal arose when the Duchess of Montausier, governess of the royal children and lady-in-waiting to the Queen, was accused of acting as a go-between in order to secure the governorship of the Dauphin for her husband, the Duke of Montausier.


text: By 1666, Madame de Montespan was trying to take the place of Louis XIV’s current mistress, Louise de La Vallière. Using her wit and charm, she sought to ingratiate herself with the king. She also became close to the Dauphin, whose affection for her never wavered. Even though Louise de La Vallière knew that Montespan was trying to conquer the King's heart and reportedly laughed at her miserable efforts, she definitely underestimated her new rival. Montespan cleverly cultivated friendships with both Louise and Queen Maria Theresa and when both ladies were pregnant, Madame de Montespan was asked to help them entertain the King during private dinners. Soon they regretted their decision, for Montespan now cultivated an intimate relationship with the King. Madame de Montespan was also said to have seduced the King by dropping her towel obligingly when she spotted Louis spying on her while she showered. Shortly after, Louise's position was diminished to second place. To conceal his new relationship, the King placed the ladies in connected rooms they had to share, so he could have access to both. Later, humiliated, Louise joined a convent and the spotlight belonged now to the twenty-five-year-old Athénaïs de Montespan.


text: She also became friends at court with another lady-in-waiting to the queen, Louise Boyer, the wife of Anne, Duke of Noailles. Montespan's youngest son, the Count of Toulouse, would later marry one of Boyer's granddaughters.


text: The first of Madame de Montespan's seven children with the king was born in 1669. The newborn child, a girl, is thought to have been named Louise-Françoise. The upbringing of this first child (and subsequent children) was entrusted to one of Madame de Montespan's friends, Madame Scarron (the future "marquise de Maintenon"). A son, Louis-Auguste, was born in 1670. When the third child, Louis-César, was born in 1672, a house was purchased for Scarron and the children on the Rue Vaugirard.


text: In 1673, the couple's three living illegitimate children were legitimised by Louis XIV and given the royal surname of "de Bourbon". The eldest, a son, Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, became the "duc du Maine"; the second child, a son, Louis-César de Bourbon, became the "comte de Vexin"; and the third, a daughter, Louise-Françoise de Bourbon, became "Mademoiselle de Nantes" and, in 1685, married the son of the head of the House of Condé, a cadet branch of the reigning House of Bourbon. As Madame de Montespan spent most of her time immersed in the social whirl of the court, the three had little contact with their busy mother and spent most of their childhood with their governess, Madame Scarron.


text: In 1674, an official separation with her husband was declared by the "Procureur général" Achille de Harlay, assisted by six judges at the Châtelet.


text: Due to her role in royal adultery, the Roman Catholic Church soon became her adversary. In 1675, the priest Lécuyer refused to give her absolution, which was necessary for her to take Easter communion, a requisite for all Catholics. Father Lécuyer raged,


text: The King appealed to the priest's superiors, but the Church refused to yield to the king's demands. After a short separation, the King and Madame de Montespan resumed their relationship, resulting in the birth of two more children, Françoise Marie de Bourbon, "Mademoiselle de Blois", in 1677, and Louis-Alexandre de Bourbon, "comte de Toulouse", in 1678. Both were to be legitimised in 1681.


text: The "Affaire des Poisons", which erupted in September 1677, was to be the beginning of the end of the reign of "La Montespan". Suspicion that Madame de Montespan might be capable of murder or worse began when the King's eye strayed to another beauty, the Duchess of Fontanges. Madame de Montespan's relegation to the position of superintendent of the Queen's household as a result brought matters to a head. Before any further developments in her romance with the King could occur, Mlle de Fontanges died in 1681. Many at the time suspected that she had been poisoned by her rival, although none could prove it. It is now believed that Mlle de Fontanges died from natural causes.


text: Long assumed to have been involved in the infamous "Affaire des Poisons", Madame de Montespan has never been conclusively implicated. Gabriel Nicolas de La Reynie, Paris' first Lieutenant General of Police and the chief judge of the court, before whom the famous poisoning cases were brought, heard testimony that placed Madame de Montespan's first visits to the so-called witch Catherine Monvoisin, known as La Voisin, in 1665. According to this testimony, they repeatedly carried out rituals that would create a special potion for the King. The witch and the Madame de Montespan would call on the devil and pray to him for the King's love. As a way to express her gratitude for her request, they sacrificed a newborn's life by slitting its throat with a knife. Next, the baby's body would be crushed, and the drained blood and mashed bones would be used in the mixture. Louis's food was tainted in this way for almost thirteen years, until the witch was captured after a police investigation where they uncovered the remains of 2,500 infants in La Voisin's garden. No evidence that the garden search ever actually happened has been found. In 1666, Madame de Montespan supposedly went so far as to allow a priest, Étienne Guibourg, to perform a black mass over her nude body in a blood-soaked ceremony, which also, allegedly, included infant sacrifice. Whatever the truth in these allegations, in July 1667, Madame de Montespan became the king's new mistress even though Louise de La Vallière was carrying his child, Louis de Bourbon, "comte de Vermandois".


text: In addition to seeking Louis' love, some charged Madame de Montespan with also conspiring to kill him, but inconsistencies in this testimony suggest that the royal mistress was innocent of these charges. However, suspicion was thrown onto Madame de Montespan because the name of her maid, Mlle Desœillets, was frequently mentioned in connection with "La Voisin" in the evidence brought before the "Chambre Ardente".


text: Indeed, if anyone was attempting to kill the king, it was more likely Claude de Vin des Œillets, who had an illegitimate child fathered but not publicly acknowledged by Louis. Presumably, the maid resented the loss of Louis' attention.


text: Olympia Mancini, Countess of Soissons, herself a former mistress of the king and well-known intrigante, was also implicated in the conspiracy.


text: From the end of 1680 onwards, Louvois, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, and Madame de Maintenon all helped to hush up the affair in order to prevent further scandal about the mother of the king's legitimised children. Concerning the king's need to avoid shocking scandal, Police Chief La Reynie said:


text: In 1691, no longer in royal favour, Madame de Montespan retired to the "Filles de Saint-Joseph" convent, in the "rue Saint-Dominique" in Paris, with a pension of half a million francs. In gratitude for her departure, the king made her father the governor of Paris and her brother, the duc de Vivonne, a marshal of France. Louis had previously made one of her sisters, Gabrielle, whose vows were only six years old, the abbess of the wealthy Fontevraud Abbey. Gabrielle was appointed abbess in 1670 and it is said that her beauty, wit, and knowledge surpassed Athénaïs’ qualities. The King wanted her to stay longer times at court but Gabrielle always declined and stayed only for very short times.


text: In her long retirement, Madame de Montespan donated vast sums to hospitals and charities. She was also a generous patron of the arts and letters and befriended Corneille, Racine, and La Fontaine.


text: The last years of Madame de Montespan's life were given up to a very severe penance. Real sorrow over her death was felt by her three youngest children. She died on 27 May 1707 at the age of almost sixty-seven while taking the waters at Bourbon-l'Archambault in order to try to heal an illness. The king forbade her children to wear mourning for her.


text: Athénaïs was considered "astonishingly beautiful" by the standards of her time. She had large, blue eyes, long, thick, corn-coloured hair that fell in curls about her shoulders, and a curvaceous, voluptuous body. She was droll, amusing and used her considerable wit to mock others.


text: She also had an extravagant and demanding nature and possessed enough charm to get what she wanted. She was expensive and glorious, like the Palace of Versailles itself. Her apartments were filled with pet animals and thousands of flowers; she had a private gallery, and costly jewels were showered upon her. She was highly discriminating as regards to the quality of the gems; returning them if they did not meet her exacting standards. She was given the nickname "Quanto" ("How much", in Italian). Her love for food and her numerous pregnancies caused her to gain weight in her late thirties.


text: The Château de Clagny in Versailles was built between 1674 and 1680 from the drawings of Jules Hardouin-Mansart, "Premier architecte du Roi", (First architect of the King), on land bought by Louis XIV in 1665. Madame de Sévigné wrote that its construction employed 1,200 workers and the cost was no less than 2 million "livres". The royal gardener André Le Nôtre created the gardens, which looked west toward the much larger palace of Versailles, of which Clagny was a smaller version. The château de Clagny was also famed for its gallery. In 1685, Louis XIV gave the magnificent palace to Madame de Montespan. At her death, her oldest son, the "duc du Maine", inherited Clagny and, in turn, passed it on to his son, Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, "prince de Dombes". The château reverted to the French crown in 1766 and was demolished in 1769.


text: Louis XIV also had a pleasure pavilion, called the Trianon de Porcelaine built for Madame de Montespan, and surrounded by gardens, on the site of the former hamlet of Trianon which he had purchased near the Palace of Versailles. It was meant as a hideaway for the couple. Because of the fragility of the earthenware tiles used in its construction, the "Trianon de porcelaine" was demolished in 1687 and replaced by the Grand Trianon of pink marble ("marbre rose des Pyrénées").


text: Popular Culture: In the 1979 comedy movie "Love at first bite" Dracula's servant Renfield mentions one of his Master's past loves, The Countess de Montespan.


title: Paulo Muwanga

text: Paulo Frobisher Muwanga Seddugge Muyanja (4 April 1924 – 1 April 1991) was a Ugandan politician who served briefly as "de facto" president, and later as prime minister, of Uganda.


title: Paulo Muwanga

text: Paulo Frobisher Muwanga Seddugge Muyanja was born in Uganda on 4 April 1924. He joined the East African Posts and Telecommunications Administration (1943–50) before entering politics in 1950. He served as a member of Parliament from 1962 to 1964, before becoming ambassador to Egypt (1964–70) and France (1970–72). He was then in exile in England from 1972 to 1978, before returning to fight in the Uganda–Tanzania War (1978–9). He served briefly as minister of internal affairs, first under Yusuf Lule and then under Godfrey Binaisa. Binaisa attempted to have Muwanga demoted to an ambassador in February 1980, but Muwanga appealed directly to the National Consultative Commission. He was reappointed, this time as minister of labour, the same month, and held that position until May 1980.


title: Paulo Muwanga

text: On 12 May 1980, the army overthrew Binaisa and installed a six-man Military Commission headed by Muwanga. The commission was the "de facto" president of Uganda for a few days until the establishment of the Presidential Commission of Uganda. That commission, with Muwanga as chairman, held the powers of the president of Uganda between 22 May and 15 December 1980.


title: Paulo Muwanga

text: Following the elections held on 10 December 1980, Muwanga installed himself as the head of the Electoral Commission and declared Milton Obote's Uganda People's Congress the winner. The election results were contested, leading Yoweri Museveni to undertake a guerilla war in protest.


title: Paulo Muwanga

text: Between 1980 and 1985, he served as Vice President of Uganda and minister of defence under Obote. He was briefly prime minister of Uganda (1 August – 25 August 1985) under President Tito Okello, before being succeeded by Abraham Waligo.


title: Slim Jim Phantom

text: James McDonnell (born March 21, 1961), known by the stage name Slim Jim Phantom, is the drummer for Stray Cats. Alongside bandmates Brian Setzer and Lee Rocker, he spearheaded the neo-rockabilly movement of the early 1980s.


title: Slim Jim Phantom

text: Phantom currently plays in the band Kat Men with Imelda May guitarist Darrel Higham and is the host of the weekly radio show "Rockabilly Rave-up" on the satellite radio station Underground Garage.


title: Slim Jim Phantom

text: Born in Brooklyn and raised in Massapequa, New York, Phantom grew up listening to his parents' jazz records and began playing drums by the age of ten. He took lessons with Mousie Alexander, who played with Benny Goodman, studying jazz and working through books by Jim Chapin and Ted Reed.


title: Slim Jim Phantom

text: During downtime from Stray Cats, Phantom played in swing, rockabilly, and jump blues combo The Swing Cats with Rocker and ex-Polecats guitarist Danny B. Harvey, as well as rockabilly and glam rock project Phantom, Rocker & Slick with Rocker and guitarist Earl Slick. Phantom also played with Jerry Lee Lewis.


title: Slim Jim Phantom

text: He later formed Col. Parker with former Guns N' Roses guitarist Gilby Clarke, releasing the album "Rock n Roll Music" in 2001.


title: Slim Jim Phantom

text: Most recently, he has been involved in the eponymous roots-rock band Slim Jim's Phantom Trio; rock-and-roll supergroup Dead Men Walking with Kirk Brandon and Mike Peters, and Captain Sensible; and rockabilly supergroup The Head Cat with Danny B. Harvey and the late Motörhead vocalist and bassist Lemmy. He also hosts the Rockabilly Raveup show on "Little Steven's Underground Garage".


title: Slim Jim Phantom

text: He was married to actress Britt Ekland from 1984 to 1992 and has a son, T.J. (born 1988), with her. , he is married to Jennie Vee, bassist for Eagles of Death Metal.


title: Milana Nagaraj

text: Milana Nagaraj (born 25 April 1989) is an Indian actress primarily known for her work in Kannada films. She made her acting debut in 2013 with the Kannada film "Nam Duniya Nam Style" She is a recipient of one Filmfare Award and one SIIMA Award.


title: Milana Nagaraj

text: Nagaraj first major work was the 2013 film "Brindavana", for which she received Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress – Kannada nomination. Post a serious of failures, she received praises for her portrayal of Nidhi in "Love Mocktail" and its sequel "Love Mocktail 2". For the former she won Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress – South and SIIMA Award for Best Actress – Kannada.


title: Milana Nagaraj

text: Milana was born in Hassan. She completed her schooling and college education in Hassan. She completed her BE in computer science from Vivekananda Institute of Technology (VKIT), Bengaluru. She was a state-level swimmer,


title: Milana Nagaraj

text: In February 2021, Milana married her long-time boyfriend Krishna, at a private ceremony in the outskirts of Bengaluru.


title: Milana Nagaraj

text: Nagaraj made her acting debut with the 2013 Kannada language film "Nam Duniya Nam Style". "Times of India" noted "Milana Nagaraj excels with good expressions and dialogue delivery." The same year, she portrayed Madhu opposite Darshan Thoogudeepa in "Brindavana", a remake of Telugu film "Brindavanam". "Times of India" said that Milana "impresses" with her expressions.


title: Milana Nagaraj

text: She next appeared as Purvi in the 2015 film, "Charlie", opposite Krishna. Nagaraj has two releases in 2017. She first made her Malayalam film debut with "Avarude Raavukal". Her second film of the year was "Jani" opposite Vijay Raghavendra.


title: Milana Nagaraj

text: Nagaraj made her film comeback, post a three year hiatus with Darling Krishna's 2020 film "Love Mocktail". She portrayed Nidhi, software employee opposite Krishna. "Times of India" noted Nagaraj "chips in with a mature performance." While "The News Minute" found Nagaraj's character "refreshing" and said she "plays her part well". The same year, she played the lead in "Matte Udbhava".


title: Milana Nagaraj

text: In 2022, she reprised Nidhi in "Love Mocktail 2", a sequel to "Love Mocktail". "Deccan Herald" mentioned, "Nagaraj's effort is a fine mix of understanding the character and bringing new layers to it." "The New Indian Express" said, "The presence of Milana as Nidhi too is as fun as it is emotional."


title: Milana Nagaraj

text: Nagaraj next portrayed Renu Rona opposite Sudeepa in "Vikrant Rona". "Bollywood Hungama" stated, "Nagaraj is nice in a cameo."


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat for Humanity International (HFHI), generally referred to as Habitat for Humanity or Habitat, is a US non-governmental, and nonprofit organization which was founded in 1976 by couple Millard and Linda Fuller. Habitat for Humanity is a Christian organization. The international operational headquarters are located in Americus, Georgia, United States, with the administrative headquarters located in Atlanta. As of 2020, Habitat for Humanity operates in more than 70 countries.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: The mission statement of Habitat for Humanity is "Seeking to put God's love into action, Habitat for Humanity brings people together to build homes, communities, and hope". Homes are built using volunteer labor and Habitat makes no profit from the sales. In some locations outside the United States, Habitat for Humanity charges interest to protect against inflation, a policy that has been in place since 1986.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: The organization operates with financial support from national governments, philanthropic foundations, corporations, and mass media companies. Notable donors include AARP, AbbVie, Coca-Cola, Delta Air Lines, Mastercard, Merck, Pfizer, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, TD Ameritrade, and Wells Fargo, among others.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat has helped more than 35 million people construct, rehabilitate or preserve homes since its founding in 1976. As of 2013, Habitat was the largest not-for-profit builder in the world.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat for Humanity traces its origins to the time Linda and Millard Fuller spent at Koinonia Farm in 1965. The couple had a successful business in Montgomery, Alabama before they started a new life of Christian service.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat for Humanity performs an extensive background check on potential homeowners, including character references, employer interviews, and audit of finances. The applicants are required to sign release forms authorizing Habitat for Humanity to perform this background check. This ensures that Habitat's risk is reasonable when selling a home and that the applicant family is in a suitable financial position to take on the responsibility of a mortgage.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: There are typically a First and a Second Mortgage. The Second Mortgage is put in place to protect any equity that is left that is not captured in the first mortgage. The homeowners pay down the first mortgage, and after a stated period of time (which varies from affiliate to affiliate) of living in the same home, the Second Mortgage is forgiven (however, it is not always forgiven). However, The Right of First Refusal stays in force until the mortgage is paid in full.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Homeowners are usually expected to put approximately 500hours of "sweat equity" into their own or other project homes, although this amount may vary by location, the number of wage-earning adults in each family, and the recipients' health issues. This sweat equity acts as the down payment on the home. Every hour spent earning this sweat equity must be approved and signed off on by an official Habitat for Humanity representative. Sweat equity has no monetary value and cannot be 'refunded'.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Once construction on the home is finished and the sweat equity is completed in full, the homeowner purchases the home with a 0% to 2% interest mortgage (in the United States) featuring monthly payments (including taxes and insurance) that do not exceed 30% of the household's monthly income.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Mortgage payments from homeowners are deposited into a locally administered "Fund for Humanity", the proceeds of which go toward future construction. In an effort to discourage predatory lenders from targeting Habitat homeowner families, mortgage agreements require the Habitat for Humanity affiliate the right of first refusal. Until the mortgage is paid in full, a Habitat home has no equity and can only be sold back to Habitat for Humanity. Should a homeowner family decide to sell their home during the period of their mortgage, the affiliate will buy it back at market value. Often affiliates will have a shared appreciation model that will allow the affiliate to recapture a portion of the equity in the home depending on the time the family lived in the home and paid on the mortgage.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: The typically no interest mortgage payments permit a family the freedom to manage their finances more effectively. Some locations require prospective homeowners attend money management courses.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat relies on volunteer labor in order to construct simple and affordable homes with its partner families, as well as to build community and civil society in the areas in which it works. Many churches and other houses of worship (synagogues, temples, mosques etc.) sponsor houses and provide a large number of volunteers from their congregations. Some corporations and businesses that value good corporate citizenship provide financial support to the projects and/or donate materials for use in construction. Many politicians and celebrities have volunteered with Habitat, reflecting its profile as a highly regarded non-profit.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat builds simple houses with locally appropriate materials. In many communities, Habitat affiliates and national offices are exploring areas of green building, including energy efficiency and sustainability. In the United States, many affiliates are building homes that are LEED certified. In 2010, Habitat for Humanity Tajikistan won a national Global Energy Award for their resource-saving bio-sand water filter project.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat affiliates and national offices contribute a percentage of the unrestricted funds they raise locally to be used in building homes by a Habitat national office overseas. For instance, Habitat New Zealand's tithe helps to support an equal number of housing outcomes abroad, predominantly in the Pacific region.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat homeowners in the United States and Canada pay no interest on their no-profit mortgages. Some Habitat for Humanity affiliates outside the United States adjust the no-profit loans to compensate for the inflation rate in their area, with the goal that "the repayments from one house should ideally build another house of the same design".


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat ReStores are retail outlets that sell new and used building and household materials donated by small businesses, large companies, job sites, and individuals. Proceeds from ReStores help local affiliates fund the construction of Habitat houses within the community. Many affiliates across the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand operate successful ReStoressome of which raise enough funds to build an additional 10 or more houses per year. Many ReStores cover the administrative costs of the Habitat affiliate so that 100% of donor funds can be put toward home construction and rehabilitation projects.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat for Humanity International develops and supports special programs to engage volunteers from all walks of life in Habitat's mission and work.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Solid Ground was a global advocacy campaign of Habitat for Humanity International focused on improving access to land for shelter. The Solid Ground campaign had four sub-themes: secure tenure, gender equality, slum upgrading, and disaster resilience. Through the Solid Ground campaign, Habitat for Humanity and partner organizations worked in 42 countries around the world to change land policy and systems at all levels of government. This campaign affected the lives of over 3 million people worldwide.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat for Humanity's "A Brush With Kindness" is a locally operated program serving low-income homeowners who struggle to maintain the exterior of their homes. The program is a holistic approach to providing affordable housing and assisting communities as well as families. Groups of volunteers help homeowners with exterior maintenance. This typically includes painting, minor exterior repairs, landscaping, weatherization and exterior clean-up.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: As suggested by the name, Habitat for Humanity International places a strong emphasis on building homes around the world. Volunteers today can build with Habitat affiliates in nearly 30 countries on Global Village Trips. After having gone through training, trip leaders organize travel plans with the support of the Americus-headquartered Global Village Department, first formally established in 1988. Participants from all over are then able to register for trips to their destination of choice. Teams generally number between eight and fifteen, with trips usually lasting between nine and fourteen days.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: to experience another culture while making a difference in the lives of others ... work alongside members of the host community in building decent, affordable housing ... [and] help raise awareness of the burden of poverty housing and create a true global village of love, community, homes and hope.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: National Service refers to national service programs that are funded by the Corporation for National and Community Service. The goal of the Habitat for Humanity National Service program is to help local Habitat affiliates operate more efficiently and effectively by maximizing existing volunteers, increasing capacity for new volunteers and most importantly, meeting the housing needs of communities by building more houses for low-income families.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: AmeriCorps is a network of national service programs that engage more than 75,000 Americans each year in intensive service to meet critical needs in education, public safety, health and the environment. Habitat for Humanity International was one of the first nonprofits contacted by the Corporation for National and Community Service when AmeriCorps was formed in 1993. In the 2008–2009 program year, over 500 AmeriCorps members at affiliates all over the country will help build nearly 2,000 houses and recruit and retain nearly 200,000 community volunteers. Those volunteers will provide an estimated 1,600,000 volunteer hours. The members themselves will contribute 850,000 hours.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: RV Care-A-Vanners is a volunteer program in which volunteers travel in their personal recreational vehicles, making stops at local Habitat affiliates to assist in house construction and renovations. RV Care-A-Vanner volunteers each pay their own expenses, which may be tax deductible.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Many RV Care-A-Vanners help local Habitat affiliates raise the awareness of poverty housing and homelessness by speaking to churches, civic groups and local media. Individual Care-A-Vanners often make donations to their local Habitat affiliate and some even organize fund-raising teams and sponsor entire houses.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Originating in 1991 with a Charlotte, North Carolina home built entirely by a crew of female volunteers, Habitat's Women Build program encourages women to make a difference by building homes and communities. Women Build projects provide an environment in which women can feel comfortable learning construction skills they might not otherwise have the opportunity to learn. Globally, more than 1,400 homes have been completed by Women Build volunteers.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Women all over the United States participate in National Women Build Week. The week-long build leading up to Mother's Day is designed to showcase the skills of Women Build volunteers and to motivate new volunteers to help families and change communities.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Lowe's is a major sponsor and underwriter of Women Build, and has generously supported each National Women Build Week. In addition to competitive grant opportunities, Lowe's offers a series of free how-to clinics for U.S. Women Build affiliates.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat for Humanity's Youth Programs seek to involve young people, ages 5 to 25, in Habitat's mission and work. In accordance with U.S. federal guidelines, youth must be at least 16 years old to be on an active construction site, and must be 18 years old to engage in certain build activities.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: A campus chapter is a student-led, student-initiated organization on a high school or college campus that partners with the local Habitat affiliate to fulfill the four functions of a campus chapter. The four functions of a campus chapter are: building, fundraising, advocating and educating.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat for Humanity runs a year-round alternative break program known as Collegiate Challenge for student groups age 16 to 25. Although summer, fall, and winter break trips are available, most participants go during their spring break. Collegiate Challenge participants travel to host sites throughout the United States and spend one week working in partnership with the local Habitat affiliate, the local community, and partner families to help eliminate poverty housing in the area. Host affiliates provide housing for the groups, as well as a place to shower and cook meals for the week. More than 14,000 volunteers took part in Collegiate Challenge in 2011, making it one of the world's largest alternative break programs. Since its inception in 1989, nearly 240,000 students have participated in Collegiate Challenge and have donated more than $25 million to Habitat for Humanity affiliates.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: For one week during the summer, students ages 16 to 18 can experience Habitat's work outside of their communities. In addition to a week of building, students also learn about the need for Habitat through educational activities.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Youth United is a Habitat for Humanity program run by youth and for youth ages 5 to 25. It brings young people together from all walks of life to play active roles in transforming their communities. Youth United mobilizes young people to sponsor and build a house with their local Habitat affiliate.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter became involved with Habitat for Humanity in 1984 and has since become its highest profile proponent. He has been involved in fund-raising and publicity as well as actual homebuilding, taking part in the annual Jimmy Carter Work Project "blitz build".


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: In 2008, Habitat for Humanity celebrated the 25th annual building project with the Carters and renamed it to include Mrs. Carter. The Jimmy & Rosalynn Carter Work Project focused on supporting the Gulf Coast community seeking to rebuild after hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Despite periodic downpours, volunteers got most of the work done during one week in June to finish building and fixing 60 houses and framing 48 more.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: In November 2009, volunteers joined Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter in the Mekong River region of Southeast Asia. Houses were built in the countries of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Yunnan Province in China. The week-long project served nearly 166 families. It also began a five-year Habitat for Humanity initiative to work with 50,000 families across the five countries.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: During Home Builders Blitz 2008, more than 1,000 building industry professionals in 110 Habitat for Humanity affiliates built 263 new homes across the United States. This was the second national Home Builders Blitz program, which was begun on the local level in 2002 in Raleigh, North Carolina. Since then, the professional homebuilders industry has supported Habitat by building more than 800 homes.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Tom Gipson, a Habitat volunteer and professional homebuilder who started the Home Builder's Blitz program, was named the "Ultimate Volunteer" in a 2009 contest by ABC's "The View".


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: The AmeriCorps Build-a-Thon is an annual signature event that brings together AmeriCorps members and alumni in a week long blitz build. The Build-a-Thon provides the host affiliate an opportunity to advance and highlight local house-building efforts. It also serves as an annual meeting of AmeriCorps volunteers who might otherwise lack any opportunity to meet.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: The event is held across the United States and highlights a different Habitat affiliate each year. In the past, Build-a-Thons have occurred in Cedar Rapids, Iowa; the Gulf Coast; Dallas, Texas; Mobile County, Alabama; and Jacksonville, Florida.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: The 2010, Habitat AmeriCorps Build-a-Thon was held in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, hosted by Cedar Valley Habitat for Humanity. This was the second consecutive year that Cedar Valley Habitat hosted the event. More than 500 Habitat for Humanity AmeriCorps National and AmeriCorps VISTA members from across the country came together to build, rehabilitate and repair more than 20 homes. In 2015, the Build-a-Thon was held in New Orleans in remembrance of Hurricane Katrina.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Home is the Key is Habitat for Humanity’s annual cause marketing campaign occurring each spring. The campaign raises support through partnerships and donors, and has won several industry awards.


title: Habitat for Humanity

text: Habitat initiated a special program to help restore housing to the areas affected by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. The effort was focused on getting local affiliates in the area back on their feet and prepared to build for their communities. It also became a catalyst for other organizations, like the St. Bernard Project, corporations and the government to provide help and support in rebuilding the area and has received considerable national media attention. Habitat restored around 300 homes for Katrina efforts.