title: Aragonese language

text: In recent times, Aragonese was mostly regarded as a group of rural dialects of Spanish. Compulsory education undermined its already weak position; for example, pupils were punished for using it. However, the 1978 Spanish transition to democracy heralded literary works and studies of the language.


title: Aragonese language

text: Aragonese is the native language of the Aragonese mountain ranges of the Pyrenees, in the "comarcas" of Somontano, Jacetania, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza. Cities and towns in which Aragonese is spoken are Huesca, Graus, Monzón, Barbastro, Bielsa, Chistén, Fonz, Echo, Estadilla, Benasque, Campo, Sabiñánigo, Jaca, Plan, Ansó, Ayerbe, Broto, and El Grado.


title: Aragonese language

text: It is spoken as a second language by inhabitants of Zaragoza, Huesca, Ejea de los Caballeros, or Teruel. According to recent polls, there are about 25,500 speakers (2011) including speakers living outside the native area. In 2017, the Dirección General de Política Lingüística de Aragón estimated there were 10,000 to 12,000 active speakers of Aragonese.


title: Aragonese language

text: In 2009, the Languages Act of Aragon (Law 10/2009) recognized the "native language, original and historic" of Aragon. The language received several linguistic rights, including its use in public administration. Some of the legislation was repealed by a new law in 2013 (Law 3/2013). [See Languages Acts of Aragon for more information on the subject]


title: Aragonese language

text: Aragonese has many historical traits in common with Catalan. Some are conservative features that are also shared with the Astur-Leonese languages and Galician-Portuguese, where Spanish innovated in ways that did not spread to nearby languages.


title: Aragonese language

text: In 2010, the Academia de l'Aragonés (founded in 2006) established an orthographic standard to modernize medieval orthography and to make it more etymological. The new orthography is used by the .


title: Aragonese language

text: During the 16th century, Aragonese Moriscos wrote "aljamiado" texts (Romance texts in Arabic script), possibly because of their inability to write in Arabic. The language in these texts has a mixture of Aragonese and Castilian traits, and they are among the last known written examples of the Aragonese formerly spoken in central and southern Aragon.


title: Aragonese language

text: The definite article in Aragonese has undergone dialect-related changes, with definite articles in Old Aragonese similar to their present Spanish equivalents. There are two main forms:


title: Aragonese language

text: Neighboring Romance languages have influenced Aragonese. Catalan and Occitan influenced Aragonese for many years. Since the 15th century, Spanish has most influenced Aragonese; it was adopted throughout Aragon as the first language, limiting Aragonese to the northern region surrounding the Pyrenees. French has also influenced Aragonese; Italian loanwords have entered through other languages (such as Catalan), and Portuguese words have entered through Spanish. Germanic words came with the conquest of the region by Germanic peoples during the fifth century, and English has introduced a number of new words into the language.


title: Aragonese language

text: Words that were part of the Latin second declension—as well as words that joined it later on—are usually masculine:


title: Aragonese language

text: The names of fruit trees usually end in "-era" (a suffix derived from Latin "-aria") and are usually feminine:


title: Aragonese language

text: Just like most other Occitano-Romance languages, Aragonese has partitive and locative clitic pronouns derived from the Latin and : "/" and "/""/"; unlike Ibero-Romance.


title: Aragonese language

text: Such pronouns are present in most major Romance languages (Catalan and , Occitan and , French and , and Italian and "/").


title: Aragonese language

text: Aragonese was not written until the 12th and 13th centuries; the history "Liber Regum", , , and date from this period; there is also an Aragonese version of the "Chronicle of the Morea", differing also in its content and written in the late 14th century called .


title: Aragonese language

text: Since 1500, Spanish has been the cultural language of Aragon; many Aragonese wrote in Spanish, and during the 17th century the Argensola brothers went to Castile to teach Spanish.


title: Aragonese language

text: Aragonese became a popular village language. During the 17th century, popular literature in the language began to appear. In a 1650 Huesca literary contest, Aragonese poems were submitted by Matías Pradas, Isabel de Rodas and "Fileno, montañés".


title: Aragonese language

text: The 19th and 20th centuries have seen a renaissance of Aragonese literature in several dialects. In 1844, Braulio Foz's novel was published in the Almudévar (southern) dialect. The 20th century featured Domingo Miral's costumbrist comedies and Veremundo Méndez Coarasa's poetry, both in Hecho (western) Aragonese; Cleto Torrodellas' poetry and Tonón de Baldomera's popular writings in the Graus (eastern) dialect and Arnal Cavero's costumbrist stories and Juana Coscujuela's novel , also in the southern dialect.


title: Aragonese language

text: The 1997 Aragonese law of languages stipulated that Aragonese (and Catalan) speakers had a right to the teaching of and in their own language. Following this, Aragonese lessons started in schools in the 1997–1998 academic year. It was originally taught as an extra-curricular, non-evaluable voluntary subject in four schools. However, whilst legally schools can choose to use Aragonese as the language of instruction, as of the 2013–2014 academic year, there are no recorded instances of this option being taken in primary or secondary education. In fact, the only current scenario in which Aragonese is used as the language of instruction is in the Aragonese philology university course, which is optional, taught over the summer and in which only some of the lectures are in Aragonese.


title: Aragonese language

text: In pre-school education, students whose parents wish them to be taught Aragonese receive between thirty minutes to one hour of Aragonese lessons a week. In the 2014–2015 academic year there were 262 students recorded in pre-school Aragonese lessons.


title: Aragonese language

text: The subject of Aragonese now has a fully developed curriculum in primary education in Aragon. Despite this, in the 2014–2015 academic year there were only seven Aragonese teachers in the region across both pre-primary and primary education and none hold permanent positions, whilst the number of primary education students receiving Aragonese lessons was 320.


title: Aragonese language

text: As of 2017 there were 1068 reported Aragonese language students and 12 Aragonese language instructors in Aragon.


title: Aragonese language

text: There is no officially approved program or teaching materials for the Aragonese language at the secondary level, and though two non-official textbooks are available ( (Benítez, 2007) and (Campos, 2014)) many instructors create their own learning materials. Further, most schools with Aragonese programs that have the possibility of being offered as an examinative subject have elected not to do so.


title: Aragonese language

text: As of 2007 it is possible to use Aragonese as a language of instruction for multiple courses; however, no program is yet to instruct any curricular or examinative courses in Aragonese.


title: Aragonese language

text: Aragonese is not currently a possible field of study for a bachelor's or postgraduate degree in any official capacity, nor is Aragonese used as a medium of instruction. A bachelor's or master's degree may be obtained in Magisterio (teaching) at the University of Zaragoza; however, no specialization in Aragonese language is currently available. As such those who wish to teach Aragonese at the pre-school, primary, or secondary level must already be competent in the language by being a native speaker or by other means. Further, prospective instructors must pass an ad hoc exam curated by the individual schools at which they wish to teach in order to prove their competence, as there are no recognized standard competency exams for the Aragonese language.


title: Aragonese language

text: Since the 1994–1995 academic year, Aragonese has been an elective subject within the bachelor's degree for primary school education at the University of Zaragoza's Huesca campus.


title: X-linked recessive inheritance

text: X-linked recessive inheritance is a mode of inheritance in which a mutation in a gene on the X chromosome causes the phenotype to be always expressed in males (who are necessarily homozygous for the gene mutation because they have one X and one Y chromosome) and in females who are homozygous for the gene mutation, see zygosity. Females with one copy of the mutated gene are carriers.


title: X-linked recessive inheritance

text: X-linked inheritance means that the gene causing the trait or the disorder is located on the X chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes while males have one X and one Y chromosome. Carrier females who have only one copy of the mutation do not usually express the phenotype, although differences in X-chromosome inactivation (known as skewed X-inactivation) can lead to varying degrees of clinical expression in carrier females, since some cells will express one X allele and some will express the other. The current estimate of sequenced X-linked genes is 499, and the total, including vaguely defined traits, is 983.


title: X-linked recessive inheritance

text: In humans, inheritance of X-linked recessive traits follows a unique pattern made up of three points.


title: X-linked recessive inheritance

text: A few scholars have suggested discontinuing the use of the terms "dominant" and "recessive" when referring to X-linked inheritance. The possession of two X chromosomes in females leads to dosage issues which are alleviated by X-inactivation. Stating that the highly variable penetrance of X-linked traits in females as a result of mechanisms such as skewed X-inactivation or somatic mosaicism is difficult to reconcile with standard definitions of dominance and recessiveness, scholars have suggested referring to traits on the X chromosome simply as "X-linked."


title: X-linked recessive inheritance

text: Theoretically, a mutation in any of the may cause disease, but below are some notable ones, with short description of symptoms:


title: Netmarble

text: Netmarble Corp. (Korean: 넷마블 주식회사) is a South Korean mobile game developer. It is South Korea's largest mobile-gaming company which was founded in 2000 by Bang Jun-hyuk.


title: Netmarble

text: Netmarble developed "Lineage 2 Revolution" in 2015 and released to the public that same year. As of 2019 L2R became one of the highest-grossing mobiles in the market; exceeding 924 million dollars in 11 months since its release. Currently, Netmarble continues to update and bring new content to L2R"."


title: Netmarble

text: Netmarble produces role-playing mobile games. As of 2015, it had more than 3,000 employees and served over 120 countries worldwide. In May 2017, Bang took the company public, raising $2.4 billion.


title: Netmarble

text: Netmarble has developed mobile games including "Seven Knights", "Raven" ("Evilbane" in the U.S.) and "Everybody's Marble". It also claims a large shareholder stake in SGN, a casual game developer, and has a strategic partnership with CJ ENM.


title: Netmarble

text: Since 2015, the company has licensed Disney-owned properties to produce games such as "" (2015), "Disney Magical Dice" (2016), and "" (2017).


title: Netmarble

text: In 2018, Netmarble named Park Sean as its new CEO. Park, the former chief strategy officer of the operator of KakaoTalk, co-headed Netmarble with incumbent chief Kwon Young-sik.


title: Netmarble

text: In April 2018, Netmarble acquired 25.71% in Big Hit Entertainment, the agency of Korean boy group BTS and TXT, becoming its second largest shareholder. As of 2021, Netmarble owns 19.31% of the Big Hit Entertainment after it changed its name to HYBE Corporation


title: Netmarble

text: Netmarble and Disney's partnership significantly deteriorated near the end of 2018 when the former announced that it can no longer support "Disney Magical Dice" and "Star Wars: Force Arena", and eventually shut down both games, leaving "Future Fight" as the only Disney-based game it supports.


title: Netmarble

text: As of 2021, Netmarble shareholders consisted of Bang Jun-hyuk (24.12%), CJ ENM (21.78%), Tencent (17.52%), NCsoft Corp. (6.8%) and Others (29.78%).


title: Chorea

text: Chorea (or choreia, occasionally) is an abnormal involuntary movement disorder, one of a group of neurological disorders called dyskinesias. The term "chorea" is derived from the ("dance"; see choreia), as the quick movements of the feet or hands are comparable to dancing.


title: Chorea

text: The term hemichorea refers to chorea of one side of the body, such as chorea of one arm but not both (analogous to hemiballismus).


title: Chorea

text: Chorea is characterized by brief, semi-directed, irregular movements that are not repetitive or rhythmic, but appear to flow from one muscle to the next. These 'dance-like' movements of chorea often occur with athetosis, which adds twisting and writhing movements. Walking may become difficult, and include odd postures and leg movements. Unlike ataxia, which affects the quality of voluntary movements, or Parkinsonism, which is a hindrance of voluntary movements, the movements of chorea and ballism occur on their own, without conscious effort. Thus, chorea is said to be a hyperkinetic movement disorder. When chorea is serious, slight movements will become thrashing motions; this form of severe chorea is referred to as ballism, or ballismus.


title: Chorea

text: Huntington's disease is a neurodegenerative disease and most common inherited cause of chorea. The condition was formerly called Huntington's chorea but was renamed because of the important non-choreic features including cognitive decline and behavioural change.


title: Chorea

text: Other genetic causes of chorea are rare. They include the classical Huntington's disease 'mimic' or phenocopy syndromes, called Huntington's disease-like syndrome types 1, 2 and 3; inherited prion disease, the spinocerebellar ataxias type 1, 3 and 17, neuroacanthocytosis, dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA), brain iron accumulation disorders, Wilson's disease, benign hereditary chorea, Friedreich's ataxia, mitochondrial disease and Rett syndrome.


title: Chorea

text: The most common acquired causes of chorea are cerebrovascular disease and, in the developing world, HIV infection—usually through its association with cryptococcal disease.


title: Chorea

text: Sydenham's chorea occurs as a complication of streptococcal infection. Twenty percent (20%) of children and adolescents with rheumatic fever develop Sydenham's chorea as a complication. It is increasingly rare, which may be partially due to penicillin, improved social conditions, and/or a natural reduction in the bacteria (Streptococcus) it has stemmed from. Psychological symptoms may precede or accompany this acquired chorea and may be relapsing and remitting. The broader spectrum of paediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection can cause chorea and are collectively referred to as PANDAS.


title: Chorea

text: Chorea gravidarum refers to choreic symptoms that occur during pregnancy. If left untreated, the disease resolves in 30% of patients before delivery but, in the other 70%, it persists. The symptoms then progressively disappear in the next few days following the delivery.


title: Chorea

text: Other acquired causes include CSF leak, systemic lupus erythematosus, antiphospholipid syndrome, kappa light-chain monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance, thyrotoxicosis, polycythaemia rubra vera, transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, coeliac disease and gluten ataxia.


title: Chorea

text: There is no standard course of treatment for chorea. Treatment depends on the type of chorea and the associated disease. Although there are many drugs that can control it, no cure has yet been identified.


title: Chorea

text: Historically, choreas like Huntington disease and Sydenham's chorea were called Saint Vitus' dance, related to a series of social phenomena of the same name.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: The Mercedes-Benz W111 was a chassis code given to a range of Mercedes-Benz vehicles produced between 1959 and 1971, including four-door saloons (1959-1968) and two-door coupés and cabriolets (1961 to 1971). Their bodywork featured distinctive tailfins that gave the models their "Heckflosse" nickname — German for "fintail".


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: Introduced with a 2.2-litre inline 6-cylinder engine, the W111 spawned a pair of variant lines which bracketed it in 1961: downscale entry-level inline 4-cylinder engined vehicles sharing the W111 chassis and bodies, designated the W110; and the W112, a high-end luxury saloon built on the W111 chassis with its body but exclusive features, elaborate appointments, and the Mercedes-Benz 300d "Adenauer's" fuel-injected 3-litre M189 six-cylinder engine – at the time the company's largest.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: Somewhat confusingly, both the W111 and W112 lines included vehicles with different Paul Bracq-designed bodywork, the 2-door coupé and cabriolet.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: Mercedes-Benz emerged from World War II as an automaker in the early 1950s with the expensive 300 "Adenauers" and exclusive 300 S grand tourers that gained it fame, but it was the simple unibody Pontons which comprised the bulk of the company's revenues.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: Work on replacing the Pontons began in 1956 with a design focused on passenger comfort and safety. The basic Ponton cabin was widened and squared off, with a large glass greenhouse improving driver visibility. A milestone in car design were front and rear crumple zones for absorbing kinetic energy on impact. The automaker also patented retractable seatbelts.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: Series production of the 4-door saloon began in August 1959, which made its debut at the Frankfurt Auto Show in the autumn. Initially the series consisted of the 220b, 220Sb, and 220SEb. These replaced the (W105) 219, the (W180) 220S and the (W128) 220SE Ponton saloons respectively. The 220b was an entry-level version with little chrome trim, simple hubcaps, and basic interior trim that lacked pockets in the doors. Prices were DM16,750, 18,500 and 20,500, with a rough sales ratio of 1:2:1.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: All models shared the 2195 cc M127 straight-six engine carried over from the previous generation, producing at 4800 rpm and capable of accelerating the heavy car to 160 km/h (155 if fitted with optional automatic gearbox). The 220Sb featured twin carburettors and produced at 5000 rpm, raising top speed to () and improving 0–100 km/h (62 mph) acceleration to 15 seconds (16 on the 220b). The top of the range 220SEb featured Bosch fuel injection producing at 4800 rpm, with a top speed of ( for auto) and a 0–100 km/h (62 mph) time of 14 seconds.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: In 1961, the W111 chassis and body were shared with the even more basic 4-cylinder W110 and a luxury W112 version built on the W111 chassis with its body and the Type 300 series' 3-litre M189 big block 6-cylinder engine, many standard power features, and a high level of interior and exterior trim. The body of the W110 featured a shorter bonnet, compared to the W111.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: In May 1965, the 220Sb and 220SEb were replaced by the new 230S. It was visually identical to the 220S, with a modernised 2306 cm M180 engine with twin Zenith carburettors producing at 5400 rpm. Top speed is ( for the auto), acceleration from 0-100 km/h (62 mph) is 13 seconds (15 with automatic transmission). As a successor to the 220b, Mercedes-Benz also introduced the 230, with the 2306 cm engine fitted into the W110 series car. A total of 41,107 230S models were built through January 1968, when the last of 4-door fintails left the production line.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: Design of a replacement for the two-door Pontons began in 1957. Since most of the chassis and drivetrain were to be unified with the saloon, the scope was focused on the exterior styling. Mercedes chose the work of engineer Paul Bracq, which featured a more square, subtle rear-end treatment, more evocative of the later squarish styling of the subsequent W108/W109 than the sharp-edged tailfins of the saloon.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: Production began in late 1960, with the coupé making its debut at the 75th anniversary of the opening of Mercedes-Benz Museum in Stuttgart in February of the next year. The convertible followed at the Frankfurt Auto Show a few months later. Almost identical to the coupé, its soft-top roof folded into a recess behind the rear seat and was covered by a tightly fitting leather "boot" in the same color as the seats. Unlike the previous generation of two-door ponton series, the 220SE designation was used for both the coupé and convertible; both received the same version of the 2195 cc M127 engine. Prices in 1962 were 32,500 for the coupé and 36,000 Dutch Guilders for the cabriolet. Options included a sliding sunroof for the coupé, automatic transmission, power steering, and individual rear seats.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: In March 1962, Mercedes-Benz released the exclusive two-door M189-powered 300SE. Like the 300 saloon, it was based on the W111 chassis but shared both Daimler's top-range 2996 cm fuel-injected engine and the unique W112 chassis designation, efforts on Mercedes' part to distance it from the maker's modest W110 and W111 lineups and link it to the prestigious W188 300S two-door luxury sports tourer. It was distinguished by a chrome strip, and featured air suspension and a higher level of interior trim and finish. Prices were 45,000 and 48,500 for the hard and soft roofs respectively.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: In summer of 1965 Mercedes-Benz launched replacements for both W111 and W112 saloons, the W108 and W109 respectively. With the tailfin fashion well eroded by the mid 1960s, the new design was based on the restrained W111 coupé, widened and squared off. Work on a future new chassis that would fully replace the Ponton-derived W111/W112 and W108/W109 was well under way. With a concept car of the first S-Class was shown in 1967, Daimler declined to develop a two-door W108/W109 vehicle, instead continuing production of the aging W111/W112 with modest changes. The 220SE was superseded in early autumn 1965 by the 250SE, which featured the new 2496 cm M129 engine. Producing at 5500 rpm, it gave the vehicle a significant improvement in top speed, ( with automatic transmission), and 0–100 km/h (62 mph) acceleration time of 12 seconds (14 with automatic transmission). Visible changes include new 14-inch wheels, which came with new hub cabs and beauty rings accommodating the larger disc brakes and new rear axle from the W108 family.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: In November 1967 the 250 SE was superseded by the 280 SE. It was powered by the new 2778 cc M130 engine, which produced at 5500 rpm. Top speed was hardly affected, but acceleration from 0-100 km/h (62 mph) improved to 10.5 seconds (13 with automatic transmission). Inside, the car received a wood veneer option on the dashboard and other minor changes, including door lock buttons and different heater levers. The hubcaps were changed yet again to a new one piece wheelcover, and the exterior mirror was changed.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: Despite its smaller engine, the 280 SE could outperform the early 1950s M189 powered 300 SE, resulting in the more expensive model's retirement.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: A final model was added in August 1969, the 280 SE 3.5, the first Mercedes post-War coupé with more than 3 litres. The car was fitted with the brand-new M116 3499 cc V8. It produced at 5800 rpm, and a top speed of ( with automatic transmission) and a 0-100 km/h (62 mph) at 9.5 seconds (11.5 for the automatic transmission). As one of several changes to modernize the aging design a lower, wider grille was incorporated and the facelifted model is often by the Germans referred to as the "flachkühler". The new grill was not a side-effect of enlarging the engine compartment to accommodate the V8 despite popular belief. Front and rear bumpers were also modified with the addition of rubber rub strips; the rear lenses changed to a flatter cleaner design. This change was carried across to the standard 280 SE. As the top of its range, the 280 SE 3.5 is seen as an ideological successor to the W112 300 SE, though it lacked the W112's air suspension.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: There were plans to place the larger M117 V8 engine in the W111 (the model would have been called 280 SE 4.5).


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: The last 280 SE was produced in January 1971, with the 280 SE 3.5 ending in July. The total production over the decade was: 220 SEb - 16,902, 250 SE - 6,213, 280 SE - 5,187, and 280 SE 3.5 - 4,502 units. Not including 3,127 W112 300 SE models, the grand total of 2-door W111 models was 32,804 of which 7,456 were convertibles.


title: Mercedes-Benz W111

text: The indirect replacement for the coupé was the C107 "SLC", which was a hardtop coupé version of the SL roadster, with no link with the S Class range. The true successor of the W111/12 coupé was the C126 (SEC) coupé of 1981. As the R107 SL grew bigger and more luxury oriented, it assumed the position of the top of the range convertible, which meant the four-seater convertible would disappear from Mercedes-Benz's lineup for nearly two-decades, until the A124 in 1992.


title: Law of the instrument

text: The law of the instrument, law of the hammer, Maslow's hammer (or gavel), or golden hammer is a cognitive bias that involves an over-reliance on a familiar tool. Abraham Maslow wrote in 1966, "If the only tool you have is a hammer, it is tempting to treat everything as if it were a nail."


title: Law of the instrument

text: The concept is attributed both to Maslow and to Abraham Kaplan, although the hammer and nail line may not be original to either of them.


title: Law of the instrument

text: The English expression "a Birmingham screwdriver", meaning a hammer, refers to the practice of using the one tool for all purposes, and predates both Kaplan and Maslow by at least a century.


title: Law of the instrument

text: In 1868, a London periodical, "Once a Week", contained this observation: "Give a boy a hammer and chisel; show him how to use them; at once he begins to hack the doorposts, to take off the corners of shutter and window frames, until you teach him a better use for them, and how to keep his activity within bounds."


title: Law of the instrument

text: The first recorded statement of the concept was Abraham Kaplan's, in 1964: "I call it "the law of the instrument," and it may be formulated as follows: Give a small boy a hammer, and he will find that everything he encounters needs pounding."


title: Law of the instrument

text: In February 1962 Kaplan, then a professor of philosophy, gave a banquet speech at a conference of the American Educational Research Association that was being held at UCLA. An article in the June 1962 issue of the "Journal of Medical Education" stated that "the highlight of the 3-day meeting ... was to be found in Kaplan's comment on the choice of methods for research. He urged that scientists exercise good judgment in the selection of appropriate methods for their research. Because certain methods happen to be handy, or a given individual has been trained to use a specific method, is no assurance that the method is appropriate for all problems. He cited Kaplan’s Law of the Instrument: 'Give a boy a hammer and everything he meets has to be pounded.


title: Law of the instrument

text: In "The Conduct of Inquiry: Methodology for Behavioral Science" (1964), Kaplan again mentioned the law of the instrument saying, "It comes as no particular surprise to discover that a scientist formulates problems in a way which requires for their solution just those techniques in which he himself is especially skilled." And in a 1964 article for "The Library Quarterly", he again cited the law and commented: "We tend to formulate our problems in such a way as to make it seem that the solutions to those problems demand precisely what we already happen to have at hand."


title: Law of the instrument

text: In a 1963 essay collection, "Computer Simulation of Personality: Frontier of Psychological Theory", Silvan Tomkins wrote about "the tendency of jobs to be adapted to tools, rather than adapting tools to jobs". He wrote: "If one has a hammer one tends to look for nails, and if one has a computer with a storage capacity, but no feelings, one is more likely to concern oneself with remembering and with problem solving than with loving and hating." In the same book, Kenneth Mark Colby explicitly cited the law, writing: "The First Law of the Instrument states that if you give a boy a hammer, he suddenly finds that everything needs pounding. The computer program may be our current hammer, but it must be tried. One cannot decide from purely armchair considerations whether or not it will be of any value."


title: Law of the instrument

text: "Maslow's hammer," popularly phrased as "if all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail" and variants thereof, is from Abraham Maslow's "The Psychology of Science", published in 1966. Maslow wrote: "I remember seeing an elaborate and complicated automatic washing machine for automobiles that did a beautiful job of washing them. But it could do only that, and everything else that got into its clutches was treated as if it were an automobile to be washed. I suppose it is tempting, if the only tool you have is a hammer, to treat everything as if it were a nail."


title: Law of the instrument

text: In his 2003 book, "Of Paradise and Power", historian Robert Kagan suggested a corollary to the law: "When you don't have a hammer, you don't want anything to look like a nail." According to Kagan, the corollary explains the difference in views on the use of military force the United States and Europe have held since the end of World War II.


title: Law of the instrument

text: In 1967, Lee Loevinger of the Federal Communications Commission dubbed the law "Loevinger's law of irresistible use", and applied it to government: "The political science analogue is that if there is a government agency, this proves something needs regulating."


title: Law of the instrument

text: In 1984, investor Warren Buffett criticized academic studies of financial markets that made use of inappropriate mathematical approaches: "It isn't necessarily because such studies have any utility; it's simply that the data are there and academicians have worked hard to learn the mathematical skills needed to manipulate them. Once these skills are acquired, it seems sinful not to use them, even if the usage has no utility or negative utility. As a friend said, to a man with a hammer, everything looks like a nail."


title: Law of the instrument

text: The notion of a "golden hammer," "a familiar technology or concept applied obsessively to many software problems", was introduced into information technology literature in 1998 as an anti-pattern: a programming practice to be avoided.


title: Law of the instrument

text: Software developer José M. Gilgado has written that the law is still relevant in the 21st century and is highly applicable to software development. Many times software developers, he observed, "tend to use the same known tools to do a completely new different project with new constraints". He blamed this on "the comfort zone state where you don't change anything to avoid risk. The problem with using the same tools every time you can is that you don't have enough arguments to make a choice because you have nothing to compare to and is limiting your knowledge." The solution is "to keep looking for the best possible choice, even if we aren't very familiar with it". This includes using a computer language with which one is unfamiliar. He noted that the product RubyMotion enables developers to "wrap" unknown computer languages in a familiar computer language and thus avoid having to learn them. But Gilgado found this approach inadvisable, because it reinforces the habit of avoiding new tools.


title: Law of the instrument

text: Other forms of narrow-minded instrumentalism include: déformation professionnelle, a French term for "looking at things from the point of view of one's profession", and regulatory capture, the tendency for regulators to look at things from the point of view of the profession they are regulating.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: British European Airways Flight 548 was a scheduled passenger flight from London Heathrow to Brussels that crashed near Staines, Surrey, England, soon after take-off on 18 June 1972, killing all 118 people on board. The accident became known as the Staines air disaster. , it remains the deadliest air accident (as opposed to terrorist incidents) in the United Kingdom and was the deadliest air accident involving a Hawker Siddeley Trident. Two passengers initially survived the impact but died soon after from their injuries.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The aircraft suffered a deep stall in the third minute of its flight and crashed to the ground, narrowly missing a busy main road. The public inquiry principally blamed the captain for failing to maintain airspeed and configure the high-lift devices correctly. It also cited the captain's heart condition and the limited experience of the co-pilot, while noting an unspecified "technical problem" that the crew apparently resolved before take-off.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The crash took place against the background of a pilots' strike that had caused bad feelings between crew members. The strike had also disrupted services, causing Flight 548 to be loaded with the maximum weight allowable. Recommendations from the inquiry led to the mandatory installation of cockpit voice recorders in British-registered airliners. Another recommendation was for greater caution before allowing off-duty crew members to occupy flight deck seats. Some observers felt that the inquiry was unduly biased in favour of the aircraft's manufacturers.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations (IFALPA) had declared Monday 19 June 1972 (the day after the accident) as a worldwide protest strike against aircraft hijacking which had become commonplace in the early 1970s. Support was expected, but the British Air Line Pilots Association (BALPA) organised a postal ballot to ask members at BEA whether they wanted to strike. Because of the impending strike, travellers had amended their plans to avoid disruption, and as a result flight BE 548 was full, despite Sunday being traditionally a day of light travel.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: BALPA was also in an industrial dispute with BEA over pay and conditions. The dispute was controversial, those in favour being mainly younger pilots, and those against mostly older. A group of 22 BEA Trident co-pilots known as supervisory first officers (SFOs) were already on strike, citing their low status and high workload. To help train newly qualified co-pilots, SFOs were told to occupy only the third flight-deck seat of the Trident as a "P3", operating the aircraft's systems and helping the captain (known as "P1" on the BEA Trident fleet) and the co-pilot ("P2") who handled the aircraft. In other airlines and aircraft, the job of SFO/P3 was usually performed by flight engineers. As a result of being limited to the P3 role, BEA Trident SFOs/P3s were denied experience of aircraft handling, which led to loss of pay, which they resented. In addition, their status led to a regular anomaly: experienced SFO/P3s could only assist while less-experienced co-pilots actually flew the aircraft.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: Tensions came to a head shortly before the accident. Three days earlier on 15 June, a captain complained that his inexperienced co-pilot "would be useless in an emergency". Upset, the co-pilot committed a serious error on departure from Heathrow, setting the flaps fully down instead of up. The mistake was noted and remedied by the SFO, who related the event to colleagues as an example of avoidable danger. This became known among BEA pilots as the "Dublin Incident".


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: An hour and a half before the departure of BE 548, its rostered captain, Stanley Key, a former Royal Air Force pilot who had served during World War II, was involved in a quarrel in the crew room at Heathrow's Queen's Building with a first officer named Flavell. The subject was the threatened strike, which Flavell supported and Key opposed. Both of Key's flight deck crew on BE 548 witnessed the altercation, and another bystander described Key's outburst as "the most violent argument he had ever heard". Shortly afterward Key apologised to Flavell, and the matter seemed closed. Key's anti-strike views had won enemies, and graffiti against him had appeared on the flight decks of BEA Tridents, including the incident aircraft, G-ARPI ("Papa India"). The graffiti on "Papa India's" flight engineers' desk was analysed by a handwriting expert to identify who had written it, but this could not be determined. The public inquiry found that none of the graffiti had been written by crew members on BE 548 on the day of the accident.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The aircraft operating Flight BE 548 was a Hawker Siddeley Trident Series 1 short- to medium-range three-engined airliner. This particular Trident (s/n 2109) was one of twenty-four de Havilland D.H.121s (the name "Trident" was not introduced until September 1960) ordered by BEA in 1959 and was registered to the corporation in 1961 as By the time of "Papa India"s first flight on 14 April 1964, de Havilland had lost their separate identity under Hawker Siddeley Aviation, and the aircraft was delivered to BEA on 2 May 1964. The Trident I was equipped with three interconnected high-lift devices on each wing leading edge—two leading-edge droop flaps outboard and a Krueger flap on the section closest to the fuselage.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: While technically advanced, the Trident (and other aircraft with a T-tail arrangement) had potentially dangerous stalling characteristics. If its airspeed was insufficient, and particularly if its high-lift devices were not extended at the low speeds typical of climbing away after take-off or of approaching to land, it could enter a deep stall (or "superstall") condition, in which the tail control surfaces become ineffective (as they are in the turbulence zone of the stalled main wing) from which recovery was practically impossible.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The danger first came to light in a near-crash during a 1962 test flight when de Havilland pilots Peter Bugge and Ron Clear were testing the Trident's stalling characteristics by pitching its nose progressively higher, thus reducing its airspeed. The Trident entered a deep stall after a critical angle of attack was reached. Eventually, it entered a flat spin, and appeared to be about to crash, but a wing dropped during the stall, and when corrected with rudder the other wing dropped. The aircraft continued rolling left and right until the nose pitched down and the crew were able to recover to normal flight. The incident resulted in the Trident being fitted with an automatic stall warning system known as a "stick shaker", and a stall recovery system known as a "stick pusher" which automatically pitched the aircraft down to build up speed if the crew failed to respond to the warning.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: These systems were the subject of a comprehensive stall programme, involving some 3,500 stalls being performed by Hawker Siddeley before the matter was considered resolved by the Air Registration Board. The stall warning and recovery systems tended to over-react: of ten activations between the Trident entering service and June 1972, only half were genuine, although in the previous 6½ years there had been no false activations when an aircraft was in the air. When BEA Trident pilots were questioned informally by one captain, over half of the pilots said that they would disable the protection systems on activation rather than let them recover the aircraft to a safe attitude. Random checks carried out by the airline after the accident showed that this was not the case; 21 captains stated that they had witnessed their co-pilots react correctly to any stall warnings.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The aircraft model's potential to enter a deep stall was highlighted in the crash of Trident 1C "G-ARPY" on 3 June 1966 near Felthorpe in Norfolk during a test flight, with the loss of all four pilots on board. In this accident, the crew had deliberately switched off the stick shaker and stick pusher as required by the stall test schedule, and the probable cause was determined to be the crew's failure to take timely positive recovery action to counter an impending stall. The Confidential Human Factors Incident Reporting Programme (CHIRP), an experimental, voluntary, anonymous and informal system of reporting hazardous air events introduced within BEA in the late 1960s (and later adopted by the Civil Aviation Authority and NASA), brought to light two near-accidents, the "Orly" and "Naples" incidents: these involved flight crew error in the first case and suspicion of the Trident's control layout in the second case.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: In December 1968, the captain of a Trident 1C departing Paris-Orly Airport for London tried to improve climb performance by retracting the flaps shortly after take-off. This was a non-standard procedure, and shortly afterward he also retracted the leading-edge droops. This configuration of high-lift devices at a low airspeed would have resulted in a deep stall, but the co-pilot noticed the error, increased airspeed and re-extended the droops, and the flight continued normally. The event became known as the "Paris Incident" or the "Orly Incident" among BEA staff.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: In a further near-accident, a Trident 2E, "G-AVFH", climbing away from London Heathrow for Naples in May 1970 experienced what was claimed by its flight crew to have been a spontaneous uncommanded retraction of the leading-edge slats which was initially unnoticed by any of them. The aircraft's automatic systems sensed the loss of airspeed and lift and issued two stall warnings. Since the crew did not initially detect anything amiss, they disabled the automatic system. While doing so, the first officer noticed and immediately remedied the problem by re-extending the retracted slats, and the flight continued normally.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: Investigations into the event found no mechanical malfunction that could have caused the premature leading-edge device retraction, and stated that the aircraft had "just about managed to stay flying". A possible design fault in the high-lift control interlocks came under suspicion, although this was discounted during the investigation into the crash of "Papa India". The event became known as the "Naples Incident" or the "Foxtrot Hotel Incident" (after the registration of the aircraft concerned) at BEA and was examined during the accident inquiry. The forward fuselage of this aircraft is preserved and on public display at the de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre, London Colney.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: An accident affecting G-ARPI had occurred on 3 July 1968. Due to a control failure, an Airspeed Ambassador freight aircraft, "G-AMAD", deviated from the runway on landing at Heathrow and struck "G-ARPI" and its neighbouring sister aircraft, "G-ARPT", while they were parked unoccupied near Terminal 1, resulting in six fatalities from the freighter's eight occupants. "G-ARPT" was cut in two and damaged beyond economic repair; "G-ARPI" lost its tail fin, which was repaired at a cost of £750,000 (£ million today). "G-ARPI" performed satisfactorily thereafter, and the incident is thought to have had no bearing on its subsequent crash.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: Trident "G-ARPI" later suffered some minor undercarriage damage as a result of skidding off the runway at Basel during a cross-wind landing on 4 February 1970.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The crew on the day of the accident comprised Captain Stanley Key as P1, Second Officer Jeremy Keighley as P2 and Second Officer Simon Ticehurst as P3. Captain Key was 51 and had 15,000 flying hours experience, including 4,000 on Tridents. Keighley was 22 and had joined line flying a month and a half earlier, with 29 hours as P2. Ticehurst was 24 and had over 1,400 hours, including 750 hours on Tridents. The cabin crew consisted of Senior Steward Frederick Farey, Steward Alan Lamb and Stewardess Jennifer Mowat (the youngest crew member on the flight, at 19).


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: Among the passengers were 29 Americans, 29 Belgians, 28 Britons, 12 Irish, four South Africans and three Canadians. There was also one passenger from each of French West Africa, India, Jamaica, Latin America, Nigeria and Thailand. The passengers included between 25 and 30 women and several children.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: At 15:36, flight dispatcher J. Coleman presented the load sheet to Key whose request for engine start clearance was granted three minutes later. As the doors were about to close, Coleman asked Key to accommodate a BEA flight crew that had to collect a Merchantman aircraft from Brussels. The additional weight of the three crew members necessitated the removal of a quantity of mail and freight from the Trident to ensure its total weight (less fuel) did not exceed the permitted maximum of . This was exceeded by , but as there had been considerable fuel burnoff between startup and takeoff, the total aircraft weight (including fuel) was within the maximum permitted take-off weight.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The "deadheading" crew was led by Captain John Collins, an experienced former Trident First Officer, who was allocated the observer's seat on the flight deck. One seat, occupied by a baby, was freed by the mother holding them in her arms.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The doors closed at 15:58 and at 16:00 Key requested pushback. At 16:03 BE 548 was cleared to taxi to the holding point adjacent to the start of Runway 28 Right. During taxi, at 16:06 the flight received its departure route clearance: a routing known as the "Dover One Standard Instrument Departure". This standard instrument departure involved taking-off to the west over the instrument landing system localiser and middle marker beacon of the reciprocal Runway 10 Left, turning left to intercept the 145° bearing to the Epsom non-directional beacon (NDB) (to be passed at or more), and then proceeding to Dover. Key advised the tower that he was ready for take-off and was cleared to do so. He subsequently reported an unspecified technical problem and remained at the holding point for two minutes to resolve it.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: At 16:08 Key again requested and received take-off clearance. A cross wind was blowing from 210° at . Conditions were turbulent, with driving rain and a low cloud base of ; broken cloud was also reported at , and the official report says that the crew would have been without any visual reference at "crucial times" during the flight. At 16:08:30 BE 548 began its take-off run, which lasted 44 seconds, the aircraft leaving the ground at an indicated airspeed (IAS) of . The safe climb speed (V2) of was reached quickly, and the undercarriage was retracted. After 19 seconds in the air the autopilot was engaged at and ; the autopilot's airspeed lock was engaged even though the actual required initial climb speed was .


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: At 16:09:44 (74 seconds after the start of the take-off run), passing , Key began the turn towards the Epsom NDB and reported that he was climbing as cleared and the flight entered cloud. At 16:10 (90 seconds), Key commenced a standard noise abatement procedure which involved reducing engine power. As part of this, at 16:10:03 (93 seconds) he retracted the flaps from their take-off setting of 20°. Shortly afterwards, BE 548 reported passing above ground level and was re-cleared to climb to . During the turn, the airspeed decreased to , below the target speed.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: At 16:10:24 (114 seconds), the leading-edge devices were selected to be retracted at a height above the ground of and a speed of , below the safe droop flap retraction speed of . One second afterwards, visual and audible warnings of a stall activated on the flight deck, followed at 16:10:26 (116 seconds) by a stick shake and at 16:10:27 (117 seconds) by a stick push which disconnected the autopilot, in turn activating a loud autopilot disconnect warning horn that continued to sound for the remainder of the flight. Key levelled the wings but held the aircraft's nose up, which kept the angle of attack high, further approaching a stall.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: By 16:10:32 (122 seconds), the leading-edge devices had stowed fully into the wing. The speed was , and height above the ground was , with the aircraft still held into its usual climb attitude. Key continued to hold the nose-up attitude when there was a second stick shake and stick push in the following two seconds. A third stick push followed 127 seconds into the flight but no recovery was attempted. One second later, the stall warning and recovery system was over-ridden by a flight crew member.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: At 16:10:39 (129 seconds), the aircraft had descended to and accelerated to as a result of the stall recovery system having pitched the aircraft's nose down to increase airspeed. "G-ARPI" was in a 16° banked turn to the left, still on course to intercept its assigned route. Key pulled the nose up once more to reduce airspeed slightly, to the normal 'droops extended' climb speed of , which further stalled the aircraft.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: At 16:10:43 (133 seconds), the Trident entered a deep stall. It was descending through , its nose was pitched up by 31°, and its airspeed had fallen below the minimum indication of . At 16:10:47 (137 seconds) and , the Trident was descending at . Impact with the ground came at 16:11, 150 seconds after brake release.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The aircraft just cleared high-tension overhead power lines and came to rest on a narrow strip of land surrounded by tall trees immediately south of the A30 road, and a short distance south of the King George VI Reservoir near Staines-upon-Thames. There was no fire on impact, but one broke out during the rescue effort when cutting apparatus was used.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: There were three eyewitnesses; brothers Paul and Trevor Burke, aged 9 and 13, who were walking nearby, and a motorist who called at a house to telephone the airport.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: Air traffic controllers had not noticed the disappearance from radar. Emergency services only became aware of the accident after 15 minutes and did not know the circumstances for nearly an hour. First on the scene was a nurse living nearby, who had been alerted by the boys, and an ambulance crew that happened to be driving past. A male passenger who had survived the accident was discovered in the aircraft cabin, but died soon after arrival at Ashford Hospital without recovering consciousness. A young girl was also found alive but died at the scene; there were no other survivors. Altogether, 30 ambulances and 25 fire engines attended the accident.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: Drivers formed heavy traffic jams and were described by Minister of Aerospace Michael Heseltine on BBC Television that evening as "ghouls, unfortunate ghouls". Reports that the public impeded rescue services were dismissed during the inquiry. In addition, some witnesses claimed the traffic jams were the result of the recovery and rescue, during which the police closed the A30 road.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: A BEA captain, Eric Pritchard, arrived soon after the bodies had been removed; he noted the condition of the wreckage and drew conclusions:


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The accident was the worst air disaster in the United Kingdom until the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988. The crash was the first in the United Kingdom involving the loss of more than 100 lives.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: On Monday 19 June 1972 Michael Heseltine told the House of Commons that he had directed a Court of Inquiry, an "ad hoc" tribunal popularly called a "public inquiry", to investigate and report on the accident. Public inquiries bypassed the usual British practice whereby the Accidents Investigation Branch (AIB) investigated and reported on air crashes, and were held only in cases of acute public interest. On 14 July, the High Court Judge Sir Geoffrey Lane was appointed to preside over the inquiry as Commissioner.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The British aviation community was wary of public inquiries for several reasons. In such inquiries, AIB inspectors were on an equal footing with all other parties, and the ultimate reports were not drafted by them, but by the Commissioner and his or her Assessors. Proceedings were often adversarial, with counsel for victims' families regularly attempting to secure positions for future litigation, and deadlines were frequently imposed on investigators. Pressure of work caused by the Lane Inquiry was blamed for the death of a senior AIB inspector who committed suicide during the inquiry.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The aircraft's two flight data recorders were removed for immediate examination, and investigations at the site of the accident were completed within a week. The wreckage of "Papa India" was then removed to a hangar at the Royal Aircraft Establishment in Farnborough, Hampshire, for partial re-assembly aimed at checking the integrity of its flight control systems. An inquest was held into the 118 deaths, opening on 27 June 1972.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The pathologist stated that Captain Key had an existing heart condition, atherosclerosis, and had suffered a potentially distressing arterial event caused by raised blood pressure typical of stress, an event which was often interpreted by the public as a heart attack.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: It had taken place "not more than two hours before the death and not less than about a minute" according to the pathologist's opinion given as evidence during the public inquiry. In other words, Key could have suffered it at any time between the row in the crewroom and 90 seconds after the start of the take-off run (the instant of commencing noise abatement procedures). The pathologist could not specify the degree of discomfort or incapacitation which Key might have felt. The Captain's medical state continued to be the subject of "conflicting views of medical experts" throughout the inquiry and beyond.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The public inquiry, known as the "Lane Inquiry", opened at the Piccadilly Hotel in London on 20 November 1972, and continued until 25 January 1973, with a break over Christmas, despite expectations that it would end sooner. It was opened by Geoffrey Wilkinson of the AIB with a description of the accident, and counsel for the relatives of the crew members and passengers then presented the results of their private investigations. In particular, Lee Kreindler of the New York City Bar presented claims and arguments that were considered tendentious and inadmissible by pilots and press reporters. They involved hypotheses about the mental state of Captain Key, conjecture about his physical state (Kreindler highlighted disagreements between US and British cardiologists) and allegations about BEA management. The allegations were delivered using tactics considered as "bordering on the unethical".


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The inquiry also conducted field inspections, flew in real Tridents and "flew" the BEA Trident simulator as well as observing the Hawker Siddeley Trident control systems rig. Its members visited the reassembled wreckage of "G-ARPI" at Farnborough and were followed by the press throughout their movements. The bare facts being more-or-less uncovered soon after the event, the inquiry was frustrated by the lack of a cockpit voice recorder fitted to the accident aircraft.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The stall warning and stall recovery systems were at the centre of the inquiry, which examined in some detail their operation and why the flight crew might have over-ridden them. A three-way air pressure valve (part of the stall recovery system) was found to have been one sixth of a turn out of position, and the locking wire which secured it was missing. Calculations carried out by Hawker Siddeley determined that if the valve had been in this position during the flight then the reduction in engine power for the noise abatement procedure could have activated the warning light that indicated low air pressure in the system. The failure indications might have appeared just prior to take-off and could have accounted for the two-minute delay at the end of the runway. A captain who had flown "Papa India" on the morning of the accident flight noted no technical problems, and the public inquiry found that the position of the valve had no significant effect on the system.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The Lane Report was published on 14 April 1973. Speaking in the House of Commons, Minister for Aerospace and Shipping Michael Heseltine paid tribute to the work done by Mr Justice Lane, Sir Morien Morgan and Captain Jessop for the work they had carried out during the inquiry into the accident.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: Recommendations included an urgent call for cockpit voice recorders and for closer co-operation between the Civil Aviation Authority and British airlines. Although the report covered the state of industrial relations at BEA, no mention was made of it in its conclusions, despite the feelings of observers that it intruded directly and comprehensively onto the aircraft's flight deck. BEA ceased to exist as a separate entity in 1974, when it and the British Overseas Airways Corporation merged to form British Airways. A recommendation of the report that all British-registered civil passenger-carrying aircraft of more than all-up weight should be equipped with cockpit voice recorders resulted in their fitting becoming mandatory on larger British-registered airliners from 1973.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: One issue treated as secondary at the inquiry was the presence in the flight deck observer's seat of Captain Collins. The Lane report recommended greater caution in allowing off-duty flight crew members to occupy flight deck seats, and aired speculation that Collins might have been distracting his colleagues. The report noted that Collins' body was found to be holding a can of aerosol air freshener in its right hand. Sources close to the events of the time suggest that Collins played an altogether more positive role by attempting to lower the leading-edge devices in the final seconds of the flight; Eric Pritchard, a Trident captain who happened to be the first airman at the accident site, recalled that a fireman had stated that Collins was lying across the centre pedestal and noted himself that his earphones had fallen into the right-hand-side footwell of the flight deck, diagonally across from the observer's seat, as might be expected if he had attempted to intervene as a last resort.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: There were protests at the conduct of the inquiry by BALPA (which likened it to "a lawyers' picnic"), and by the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators which condemned the rules of evidence adopted and the adversarial nature of the proceedings. Observers also pointed to an unduly-favourable disposition by the inquiry to Hawker Siddeley, manufacturer of the Trident, and to the makers of the aircraft's systems. Debate about the inquiry continued throughout 1973 and beyond.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The accident led to a much greater emphasis on crew resource management training, a system of flight deck safety awareness that remains in use today.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: All 118 persons aboard the aircraft were killed: 112 passengers and six crew members. Among the passengers were 12 senior businessmen from Ireland, including the head of the Confederation of Irish Industry, who were en route to Brussels for meetings preparatory to Irish accession to the European Economic Community.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: A group of sixteen doctors and senior staff from the Royal London Homeopathic Hospital were also on board, and a memorial bench to them was placed close to Great Ormond Street Hospital in Queen Square.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: Former CIA official Carmel Offie, who had been dismissed for homosexuality, considered to be a security risk factor at the time, was also on board.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: Two memorials to all the victims were dedicated on 18 June 2004 in the town of Staines. The first is a stained-glass window in St Mary's Church where an annual memorial service is held on 18 June. The second is a garden near the end of Waters Drive in the Moormede Estate, close to the accident site. On 18 June 2022, the fiftieth anniversary, there was a memorial service attended by relatives of those who died, members of the emergency services, the Lord Lieutenant of Surrey, the local MP, and the chairman of British Airways.


title: British European Airways Flight 548

text: The story of the accident was featured on the thirteenth season of the Canadian television show "Mayday" in an episode entitled "Fight to the Death" (known as "Air Disasters" in the US, and as "Air Crash Investigation" in the UK and the rest of the world). The story was also featured in an episode of "Air Crash Confidential" produced by World Media Rights; made at the FAST Museum, Farnborough, UK using the cockpit of a Trident 3 (G-AWZI).


title: Sources of international law

text: International law, also known as "law of nations", refers to the body of rules which regulate the conduct of sovereign states in their relations with one another. Sources of international law include treaties, international customs, general widely recognized principles of law, the decisions of national and lower courts, and scholarly writings. They are the materials and processes out of which the rules and principles regulating the international community are developed. They have been influenced by a range of political and legal theories.


title: Sources of international law

text: Article 38(1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice is generally recognized as a definitive statement of the sources of international law. It requires the Court to apply, among other things, (a) international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting states; (b) international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law; (c) the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations; (d) subject to the provisions of Article 59, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law.


title: Sources of international law

text: During the 19th century, it was recognized by legal positivists that a sovereign could limit its authority to act by consenting to an agreement according to the principle "pacta sunt servanda". This consensual view of international law was reflected in the 1920 Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, and was later preserved in Article 38(1) of the 1946 Statute of the International Court of Justice.


title: Sources of international law

text: The core of broad principles of law is general and dynamic, and they can sometimes be reduced to a proverb or a basic idea. Unlike other types of regulations, such as ordered law or agreements, broad standards of law have not been "established" according to the right sources of law. General norms of law, on the other hand, are regarded as a component of positive law, even if they are only used as auxiliary devices. They define critical principles for the framework's actual operation and, in general, are drafted from the legal executive. General standards of law have been the subject of extensive doctrinal debate in international law, owing to the various connotations attributed to the concept and the hypothetical concerns that they raise. The use of the expression "central standards of international law," which is at the top of the overall set of laws and begins in settlement or custom (e.g., the guideline of sovereign correspondence of states or the rule of the forbiddance of danger or the use of power), and which will not be managed here, causes a lot of confusion. Given the language used in Article 38, paragraph 1(c) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. ("universal standards of law as recognised by acculturated countries"), the beginning of universal standards of law as applied at the global level has also been a source of debate. The conventional wisdom holds that these standards have their origins in homegrown general systems of laws. Once it is established that some of these broad instruments are frequently shared rules found in domestic systems, they can be utilised in international law as well. They are rational derivations that can be found in any overall group of laws: the standard of restitution for harm committed, the standard of rule understanding, or those used for the purpose of rule struggles—many of them known through Latin adages—are true models. Various general legal standards, such as “audiatur et altera” standards, “actori incumbit onus probandi”, or the method that the designated authority of benefits is also judge of the coincidental locale, have been promoted by the legal executive policy is very important of any war.


title: Sources of international law

text: On the question of preference between sources of international law, rules established by treaty will take preference if such an instrument exists. It is also argued however that international treaties and international custom are sources of international law of equal validity; new custom may supersede older treaties and new treaties may override older custom. Also, "jus cogens" (peremptory norm) is a custom, not a treaty. Judicial decisions and juristic writings are regarded as auxiliary sources of international law, whereas it is unclear whether the general principles of law recognized by 'civilized nations' should be recognized as a principal or auxiliary source of international law. Nevertheless, treaty, custom, and general principles of law are generally recognized as primary sources of international law.


title: Sources of international law

text: Treaties and conventions are the persuasive source of international law and are considered "hard law." Treaties can play the role of contracts between two or more parties, such as an extradition treaty or a defense pact. Treaties can also be legislation to regulate a particular aspect of international relations or form the constitutions of international organizations. Whether or not all treaties can be regarded as sources of law, they are sources of obligation for the parties to them. Article 38(1)(a) of the ICJ Statute, which uses the term "international conventions", concentrates upon treaties as a source of contractual obligation but also acknowledges the possibility of a state expressly accepting the obligations of a treaty to which it is not formally a party.


title: Sources of international law

text: For a treaty-based rule to be a source of law, rather than simply a source of obligation, it must either be capable of affecting non-parties or have consequences for parties more extensive than those specifically imposed by the treaty itself.


title: Sources of international law

text: Thus, the procedures or methods by treaties become legally binding are formal source of law which is a process by a legal rule comes into existence: it is law creating.


title: Sources of international law

text: Some treaties are the result of codifying existing customary law, such as laws governing the global commons, and "jus ad bellum". While the purpose is to establish a code of general application, its effectiveness depends upon the number of states that ratify or accede to the particular convention. Relatively few such instruments have a sufficient number of parties to be regarded as international law in their own right. The most obvious example is the 1949 Geneva Conventions for the Protection of War Victims.


title: Sources of international law

text: Most multi-lateral treaties fall short of achieving such a near-universal degree of formal acceptance and are dependent upon their provisions being regarded as representing customary international law and, by this indirect route, as binding upon non-parties. This outcome is possible in a number of ways:


title: Sources of international law

text: Pursuant to Chapter XVI, Article 103 of the United Nations Charter, the obligations under the United Nations Charter overrides the terms of any other treaty. Meanwhile, its Preamble affirms the establishment of the obligations out of treaties and source of international law.


title: Sources of international law

text: Article 38(1)(b) of the ICJ Statute refers to "international custom" as a source of international law, specifically emphasizing the two requirements of state practice plus acceptance of the practice as obligatory or "opinio juris sive necessitatis" (usually abbreviated as "opinio juris").


title: Sources of international law

text: Derived from the consistent practice of (originally) Western states accompanied by opinio juris (the conviction of States that the consistent practice is required by a legal obligation), customary international law is differentiated from acts of comity (mutual recognition of government acts) by the presence of "opinio juris" (although in some instances, acts of comity have developed into customary international law, i.e. diplomatic immunity). Treaties have gradually displaced much customary international law. This development is similar to the replacement of customary or common law by codified law in municipal legal settings, but customary international law continues to play a significant role in international law.


title: Sources of international law

text: When examining state practice to determine relevant rules of international law, it is necessary to take into account every activity of the organs and officials of states that relate to that purpose. There has been continuing debate over where a distinction should be drawn as to the weight that should be attributed to what states do, rather than what they say represents the law. In its most extreme form, this would involve rejecting what states say as practice and relegating it to the status of evidence of "opinio juris". A more moderate version would evaluate what a state says by reference to the occasion on which the statement was made. It is only relatively powerful countries with extensive international contacts and interests that have regular opportunities of contributing by deed to the practice of international law. The principal means of contribution to state practice for the majority of states will be at meetings of international organizations, particularly the UN General Assembly, by voting and otherwise expressing their view on matters under consideration. Moreover, there are circumstances in which what states say may be the only evidence of their view as to what conduct is required in a particular situation.


title: Sources of international law

text: The notion of practice establishing a customary rule implies that the practice is followed regularly, or that such state practice must be "common, consistent and concordant". Given the size of the international community, the practice does not have to encompass all states or be completely uniform. There has to be a sufficient degree of participation, especially on the part of states whose interests are likely to be most affected, and an absence of substantial dissent. There have been a number of occasions on which the ICJ has rejected claims that a customary rule existed because of a lack of consistency in the practice brought to its attention.


title: Sources of international law

text: Within the context of a specific dispute, however, it is not necessary to establish the generality of practice. A rule may apply if a state has accepted the rule as applicable to it individually, or because the two states belong to a group of states between which the rule applies.


title: Sources of international law

text: A dissenting state is entitled to deny the opposability of a rule in question if it can demonstrate its persistent objection to that rule, either as a member of a regional group or by virtue of its membership of the international community. It is not easy for a single state to maintain its dissent. Also, rules of the "jus cogens" have a universal character and apply to all states, irrespective of their wishes.


title: Sources of international law

text: Demand for rules that are responsive to increasingly rapid changes has led to the suggestion that there can be, in appropriate circumstances, such a concept as "instant custom". Even within traditional doctrine, the ICJ has recognized that passage of a short period of time is not necessarily a bar to the formation of a new rule. Because of this, the question is sometimes raised as to whether the word "custom" is suitable to a process that could occur with great rapidity.


title: Sources of international law

text: It may be argued that the practice of international organizations, most notably that of the United Nations, as it appears in the resolutions of the Security Council and the General Assembly, are an additional source of international law, even though it is not mentioned as such in Article 38(1) of the 1946 Statute of the International Court of Justice. Article 38(1) is closely based on the corresponding provision of the 1920 Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, thus predating the role that international organizations have come to play in the international plane. That is, the provision of Article 38(1) may be regarded as 'dated", and this can most vividly be seen in the mention made of 'civilized nations', a mentioning that appears all the more quaint after the decolonization process that took place in the early 1960s and the participation of nearly all nations of the world in the United Nations.


title: Sources of international law

text: A wealth of state practice does not usually carry with it a presumption that "opinio juris" exists. “Not only must the acts concerned amount to a settled practice, but they must also be such, or be carried out in such a way, as to be evidence of a belief that this practice is rendered obligatory by the existence of a rule of law requiring it.”


title: Sources of international law

text: In cases where practice (of which evidence is given) comprises abstentions from acting, consistency of conduct might not establish the existence of a rule of customary international law. The fact that no nuclear weapons have been used since 1945, for example, does not render their use illegal on the basis of a customary obligation because the necessary "opinio juris" was lacking.


title: Sources of international law

text: Although the ICJ has frequently referred to "opinio juris" as being an equal footing with state practice, the role of the psychological element in the creation of customary law is uncertain.


title: Sources of international law

text: A peremptory norm or "jus cogens" (Latin for "compelling law" or "strong law") is a principle of international law considered so fundamental that it overrides all other sources of international law, including even the Charter of the United Nations. The principle of "jus cogens" is enshrined in Article 53 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties:


title: Sources of international law

text: Rules of "jus cogens" generally require or forbid the state to do particular acts or respect certain rights. However, some define criminal offenses which the state must enforce against individuals. Generally included on lists of such norms are prohibitions of such crimes and internationally wrongful acts as waging aggressive war, war crimes, crimes against humanity, piracy, genocide, apartheid, slavery and torture.


title: Sources of international law

text: The evidence supporting the emergence of a rule of "jus cogens" will be essentially similar to that required to establish the creation of a new rule of customary international law. Indeed, "jus cogens" could be thought of as a special principle of custom with a superadded "opinions juries". The European Court of Human Rights has stressed the international public policy aspect of the "jus cogens".


title: Sources of international law

text: The scope of general principles of law, to which Article 38(1) of the Statute of the ICJ refers, is unclear and controversial but may include such legal principles that are common to a large number of systems of municipal law. Given the limits of treaties or custom as sources of international law, Article 38(1) may be looked upon as a directive to the Court to fill any gap in the law and prevent a nonliquet by reference to the general principles.


title: Sources of international law

text: In earlier stages of the development of international law, rules were frequently drawn from municipal law. In the 19th century, legal positivists rejected the idea that international law could come from any source that did not involve state will or consent but were prepared to allow for the application of general principles of law, provided that they had in some way been accepted by states as part of the legal order. Thus Article 38(1)(c), for example, speaks of general principles "recognized" by states. An area that demonstrates the adoption of municipal approaches is the law applied to the relationship between international officials and their employing organizations, although today the principles are regarded as established international law.


title: Sources of international law

text: The significance of general principles has undoubtedly been lessened by the increased intensity of treaty and institutional relations between states. Nevertheless, the concepts of estoppel and equity have been employed in the adjudication of international disputes. For example, a state that has, by its conduct, encouraged another state to believe in the existence of a certain legal or factual situation, and to rely on that belief, may be estopped from asserting a contrary situation in its dealings. The principle of good faith was said by the ICJ to be "[o]ne of the basic principles governing the creation and performance of legal obligations". Similarly, there have been frequent references to equity. It is generally agreed that equity cannot be employed to subvert legal rules (that is, operate "contra legem"). This "equity as law" perception is reinforced by references to equitable principles in the text of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982, though this may be little more than an admission as to the existence, and legitimation, of the discretion of the adjudicator.


title: Sources of international law

text: However, the principles of estoppel and equity in the international context do not retain all the connotations they do under common law. The reference to the principles as "general" signify that, if rules were to be adapted from municipal law, they should be at a sufficient level of generality to encompass similar rules existing in many municipal systems. Principles of municipal law should be regarded as sources of inspiration rather than as sources of rules of direct application.


title: Sources of international law

text: According to Article 38(1)(d) of its Statute, the ICJ is also to apply "judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law". It is difficult to tell what influence these materials have on the development of the law. Pleadings in cases before the ICJ are often replete with references to case law and to legal literature.


title: Sources of international law

text: The decisions of international and municipal courts and the publications of academics can be referred to, not as a source of law as such, but as a means of recognizing the law established in other sources. In practice, the International Court of Justice does not refer to domestic decisions although it does invoke its previous case-law.


title: Sources of international law

text: There is no rule of stare decisis in international law. The decision of the Court has no binding force except between the parties and in respect of that particular case. Nevertheless, often the Court would refer to its past decisions and advisory opinions to support its explanation of a present case.


title: Sources of international law

text: Often the International Court of Justice will consider General Assembly resolutions as indicative of customary international law.


title: Sources of international law

text: Article 38(1)(d) of the "International Court of Justice Statute" states that the 'teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations' are also among the 'subsidiary means for the determination of the rules of law'. The scholarly works of prominent jurists are not sources of international law but are essential in developing the rules that are sourced in treaties, custom and the general principles of law. This is accepted practice in the interpretation of international law and was utilized by the United States Supreme Court in "The Paquete Habana" case (175 US (1900) 677 at 700-1). In the practice of the International Court of Justice, citations to teachings in decisions are exceptional, but Judges routinely refer to them in their individual opinions.


title: Mores

text: Mores (, sometimes ; , plural form of singular , meaning "manner, custom, usage, or habit") are social norms that are widely observed within a particular society or culture. Mores determine what is considered morally acceptable or unacceptable within any given culture. A folkway is what is created through interaction and that process is what organizes interactions through routine, repetition, habit and consistency.


title: Mores

text: William Graham Sumner (1840–1910), an early U.S. sociologist, introduced both the terms "mores" (1898)


title: Mores

text: Mores are strict in the sense that they determine the difference between right and wrong in a given society, people may be punished for their immorality which is common place in many societies in the world, at times with disapproval or ostracizing. The main examples of traditional customs and conventions that are mores may include; lying, cheating, causing harm, alcohol use, drug use, marriage beliefs, gossip, slander, jealousy, disgracing or disrespecting parents, refusal to attend a funeral, politically incorrect humor, sports cheating, vandalism, leaving trash, plagiarism, bribery, corruption, saving face in the East, respecting your elders, religious prescriptions and fiduciary responsibility. Folkways are ways of thinking, acting and behaving in social groups which are agreed upon by the masses and are useful for the ordering of society. Folkways are spread through imitation, oral means or observation, and are meant to encompass the material, spiritual and verbal aspects of culture. Folkways meet the problems of social life, we feel security and order from their acceptance and application. Examples of folkways include; Acceptable dress, manners, social etiquette, body language, posture, level of privacy, working hours and five day work week, acceptability of social drinking - abstaining or not from drinking during certain working hours, actions and behaviours in public places, school, university, business and religious institution, ceremonial situations, ritual, customary services and keeping personal space.


title: Mores

text: The English word morality comes from the same Latin root "mōrēs", as does the English noun "moral". However, mores do not, as is commonly supposed, necessarily carry connotations of morality. Rather, morality can be seen as a subset of mores, held to be of central importance in view of their content, and often formalized into some kind of moral code or even into customary law. Etymological derivations include "More danico", "More judaico", "More veneto", "Coitus more ferarum", and "O tempora, o mores!".


title: Mores

text: The Greek terms equivalent to Latin "mores" are "ethos" (ἔθος, ἦθος, 'character') or "nomos" (νόμος, 'law'). As with the relation of "mores" to "morality", "ethos" is the basis of the term "ethics", while "nomos" gives the suffix "-onomy", as in astronomy.


title: Mores

text: The meaning of all these terms extend to all customs of proper behavior in a given society, both religious and profane, from more trivial conventional aspects of custom, etiquette or politeness—"folkways" enforced by gentle social pressure, but going beyond mere "folkways" or conventions in including moral codes and notions of justice—down to strict taboos, behavior that is unthinkable within the society in question, very commonly including incest and murder, but also the commitment of outrages specific to the individual society such as blasphemy. Such religious or sacral customs may vary. Some examples include funerary services, matrimonial services; circumcision and covering of the hair in Judaism, Christian ten commandments, New Commandment and the sacraments or for example baptism, and Protestant work ethic, Shahada, prayer, alms, the fast and the pilgrimage as well as modesty in Islam, and religious diet.


title: Mores

text: While cultural universals are by definition part of the "mores" of every society (hence also called "empty universals"), the customary norms specific to a given society are a defining aspect of the cultural identity of an ethnicity or a nation. Coping with the differences between two sets of cultural conventions is a question of intercultural competence.


title: Mores

text: Differences in the "mores" of various nations are at the root of ethnic stereotype, or in the case of reflection upon one's own "mores", autostereotypes.


title: Mores

text: The customary norms in a given society may include indigenous land rights, honour, filial piety, customary law and the customary international law that affects countries who may not have codified their customary norms. Land rights of indigenous peoples is under customary land tenure, its a system of arrangement in-line with customs and norms. This is the case in colonies. An example of a norm is an culture of honor exists in some societies, where the family is viewed as the main source of honor and the conduct of family members reflects upon their family honor. For instance some writers say in Rome to have an honorable stance, to be equals with someone, existed for those who are most similar to one another (family and friends) this could be due to the competing for public recognition and therefore for personal and public honor, over rhetoric, sport, war, wealth and virtue. To protrude, stand out, be recognized and demonstrate this "A Roman could win such a “competition” by pointing to past evidences of their honor" and "Or, a critic might be refuted by one’s performance in a fresh showdown in which one’s bona fides could be plainly demonstrated." Honor culture only can exist if the society has for males the shared code, a standard to uphold, guidelines and rules to follow, do not want to break those rules and how to interact successfully and to engage, this exists within a "closed" community of equals. Filial piety is ethics towards ones family, as Fung Yu-lan states "the ideological basis for traditional [Chinese] society" and according to Confucious repay a burden debt back to ones parents or caregiver but its also traditional in another sense so as to fulfill an obligation to ones own ancestors, also to modern scholars it suggests extends a attitude of respect to superiors also, who are deserving to have that respect.


title: Nancy Olson

text: Nancy Ann Olson (born July 14, 1928) is an American actress. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role in "Sunset Boulevard" (1950). She co-starred with William Holden in four films, and later appeared in "The Absent-Minded Professor" (1961) and its sequel, "Son of Flubber" (1963), as well as the disaster film "Airport 1975" (1974). Olson retired from acting in the


title: Nancy Olson

text: Olson was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin on July 14, 1928, the daughter of Evelyn Bertha (née Bergstrom), who was of Swedish descent, and Henry John Olson, who was a physician. She has a brother, David.


title: Nancy Olson

text: Olson was signed to a film contract by Paramount Pictures in 1948, and, after a few supporting roles, producers began to consider her for more prominent parts. She was up for the role of Delilah in Cecil B. DeMille's film "Samson and Delilah" (1949), for which Olson later said she was not suited. She was passed over in favor of Hedy Lamarr. Her first big role came in "Canadian Pacific" (also 1949) with Randolph Scott, then Billy Wilder cast her for his upcoming project. In "Sunset Boulevard" (1950), she played Betty Schaefer, for which she gained an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress. Her pairing with William Holden was considered a success, and she appeared with him in three other films ("Union Station", "Force of Arms", and "Submarine Command", the second and third released the following year), but none repeated their success in "Sunset Boulevard". Other film credits include "Big Jim McLain" (1952), "So Big" (1953), "Battle Cry" (1955), and "Dumbbells" (2014).


title: Nancy Olson

text: Olson made several appearances in films for the Walt Disney studio. "The Absent-Minded Professor" (1961) and "Son of Flubber" (1963) paired her with Fred MacMurray and were popular with movie-goers. She also appeared alongside Hayley Mills in "Pollyanna" (1960) and Dean Jones in "Snowball Express" (1972). Olson then moved to New York City where she appeared on Broadway.


title: Nancy Olson

text: Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, she did guest roles on television. Olson guest-starred on the Television series "The Big Valley" playing the mother of Ron Howard in the December 1, 1965, episode entitled "Night of the Wolf". Olson is the only female guest starring on "The Big Valley" to ever marry the character Nick Barkley. Olson has been retired since the mid-1980s, although she made a brief, uncredited appearance in "Flubber", the 1997 remake of "The Absent-Minded Professor".


title: Nancy Olson

text: In 1950, Olson became the third wife of lyricist Alan Jay Lerner. They had two daughters, Liza and Jennifer. They divorced in 1957.


title: Nancy Olson

text: In 1962, she married long-time Capitol Records executive Alan W. Livingston, best known for creating Bozo the Clown and for signing Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland and other singers to Capitol. He died in 2009; they had one son, Christopher.


title: Nancy Olson

text: Olson is a registered Democrat, and over the years, she has made several monetary donations to the party under her married name.


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: Katrina Elizabeth Leskanich ( ; born April 10, 1960) is an American musician and the former lead singer of the pop rock band Katrina and the Waves. Their song "Walking on Sunshine" was an international hit in 1985. In 1997, the band won the Eurovision Song Contest for the United Kingdom with the song "Love Shine a Light".


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: Leskanich was born in Topeka, Kansas. Her father was an American of Ukrainian descent and a Vietnam Veteran who became a colonel in the United States Air Force. Katrina and her five siblings (four sisters and one brother) moved frequently as children. The family arrived in the United Kingdom in 1976. She graduated from RAF Lakenheath high school in 1978.


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: Mama's Cookin', a pop cover band hailing from Feltwell, Norfolk, England, was founded in 1978. It featured Leskanich on vocals and keyboards, her then-boyfriend (and fellow American) Vince de la Cruz on vocals and lead guitar, and Marcos de la Cruz on drums. By late 1980, Alex Cooper had joined the band on drums, with Bob Jakins on bass. Mama's Cookin' proceeded to gig steadily in England over the next two years, specializing in covers of songs by American acts.


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: In 1981, singer/songwriter/guitarist Kimberley Rew joined Mama's Cookin', and the five-piece group was quickly renamed The Waves after a band Rew and Cooper had been in together in the mid-1970s. The Waves were initially fronted by Rew. However, over the first year of the Waves' existence, Rew began to write material for Leskanich to sing, and she was soon the primary vocalist. The Waves made their initial recorded appearances on a 1982 single ("Nightmare"/"Hey, War Pig!"); both tracks were included on the 1982 Rew solo album called "The Bible of Bop". The Waves then issued their debut EP, "Shock Horror!", later in 1982. Around this time, bassist Jakins left the band. He was not replaced, as de la Cruz took over on bass and the band was rechristened Katrina and the Waves.


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: In early 1983, the fledgling band recorded—at their own expense—an LP of their original material designed to be sold at gigs. Rew wrote all the songs on this LP, while Leskanich sang eight of the album's ten tracks.


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: The LP was shopped around to various labels, but only Attic Records in Canada responded with an offer. Consequently, although they were based in England, Katrina and The Waves' first album "Walking on Sunshine" was released only in Canada.


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: The album garnered enough critical attention and radio play to merit a Canadian tour. In 1984, the group released a follow-up album in Canada ("Katrina and the Waves 2"), with Leskanich now handling all the lead vocals. Also in 1984, their song "Going Down to Liverpool" was covered by The Bangles, which added to their profile. With the group building a fan base with their recordings and extensive touring, major label interest began to build, and Katrina and the Waves signed an international deal with Capitol Records in 1985.


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: The band re-recorded, remixed, or overdubbed 10 songs from their earlier Canadian releases to create their self-titled international debut album in 1985.


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: The "Katrina and the Waves" album was a substantial critical and commercial success, and the group had a worldwide hit with the song "Walking on Sunshine," (No. 9 US, No. 8 UK, a completely re-recorded, and substantially rearranged version of the song when compared to its initial 1983 Canada-only release). A Grammy award nomination for "Best New Artist" followed, as did constant touring, both of which helped to spur sales of new releases. A follow-up single to "Walking on Sunshine" called "Do You Want Crying" (written by de la Cruz) also became a top 40 US hit, reaching No. 37 in the late summer of 1985.


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: The band's follow-up album, entitled "Waves", did not meet with the same measure of success as the first album. The album did spin off a minor UK and US hit in the form of the Rew-penned "Is That It?" (No. 70 US, No. 82 UK). "Sun Street" (a de la Cruz composition) was a UK Top 30 hit in 1986. However, Capitol dropped the band after the "Waves" album failed to meet expectations. The band subsequently recorded a 1989 album for Capitol-distributed SBK Records called "Break of Hearts", a harder, more rock-oriented effort than their previous releases. The album included "That's the Way", which reached No. 16 in the US.


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: Throughout the 1990s, Katrina and the Waves recorded fairly steadily, though most releases were available only in continental Europe and/or Canada. They also recorded the song "We Gotta Get Out of This Place" with Eric Burdon for the TV series "China Beach" in 1990.


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: On May 3, 1997, after having somewhat faded into obscurity, the band won the Eurovision Song Contest 1997 for the United Kingdom with "Love Shine a Light". Reacting to the win, Leskanich said it was the second landslide victory in a week; the song won by a record points margin, and Tony Blair had won the 1997 British general election two days previously. The song won by a then-record margin of 70 points over the Irish runner-up. The song went to No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart (becoming the band's biggest-ever hit) and Katrina and The Waves performed an unprecedented four weeks running on the BBC One TV show "Top of the Pops".


title: Katrina Leskanich

text: After the Waves broke up in 1999, Leskanich launched a solo career. She released her first solo CD, "Katrina Leskanich", through Universal Records in Britain in 2005.