title: Unix philosophy

text: McIlroy, then head of the Bell Labs Computing Sciences Research Center, and inventor of the Unix pipe, summarized the Unix philosophy as follows:


title: Unix philosophy

text: Conversely, McIlroy has criticized modern Linux as having software bloat, remarking that, "adoring admirers have fed Linux goodies to a disheartening state of obesity." He contrasts this with the earlier approach taken at Bell Labs when developing and revising Research Unix:


title: Unix philosophy

text: As stated by McIlroy, and generally accepted throughout the Unix community, Unix programs have always been expected to follow the concept of DOTADIW, or "Do One Thing And Do It Well." There are limited sources for the acronym DOTADIW on the Internet, but it is discussed at length during the development and packaging of new operating systems, especially in the Linux community.


title: Unix philosophy

text: Patrick Volkerding, the project lead of Slackware Linux, invoked this design principle in a criticism of the systemd architecture, stating that, "attempting to control services, sockets, devices, mounts, etc., all within one daemon flies in the face of the Unix concept of doing one thing and doing it well."


title: Unix philosophy

text: In his book "The Art of Unix Programming" that was first published in 2003, Eric S. Raymond (open source advocate and programmer) summarizes the Unix philosophy as KISS Principle of "Keep it Simple, Stupid." He provides a series of design rules:


title: Unix philosophy

text: In 1994, Mike Gancarz, a member of Digital Equipment Corporation's Unix Engineering Group (UEG), published "The UNIX Philosophy" based on his own Unix (Ultrix) port development at DEC in the 1980s and discussions with colleagues. He is also a member of the X Window System development team and author of Ultrix Window Manager (uwm).


title: Unix philosophy

text: The book focuses on porting UNIX to different computers during the UNIX wars of the 1980s and describes his philosophy that portability should be more important than the efficiency of using non-standard interfaces for hardware and graphics devices.


title: Unix philosophy

text: Richard P. Gabriel suggests that a key advantage of Unix was that it embodied a design philosophy he termed "worse is better", in which simplicity of both the interface "and" the implementation are more important than any other attributes of the system—including correctness, consistency, and completeness. Gabriel argues that this design style has key evolutionary advantages, though he questions the quality of some results.


title: Unix philosophy

text: For example, in the early days Unix used a monolithic kernel (which means that user processes carried out kernel system calls all on the user stack). If a signal was delivered to a process while it was blocked on a long-term I/O in the kernel, then what should be done? Should the signal be delayed, possibly for a long time (maybe indefinitely) while the I/O completed? The signal handler could not be executed when the process was in kernel mode, with sensitive kernel data on the stack. Should the kernel back-out the system call, and store it, for replay and restart later, assuming that the signal handler completes successfully?


title: Unix philosophy

text: In these cases Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie favored simplicity over perfection. The Unix system would occasionally return early from a system call with an error stating that it had done nothing—the "Interrupted System Call", or an error number 4 (codice_1) in today's systems. Of course the call had been aborted in order to call the signal handler. This could only happen for a handful of long-running system calls such as codice_2, codice_3, codice_4, and codice_5. On the plus side, this made the I/O system many times simpler to design and understand. The vast majority of user programs were never affected because they did not handle or experience signals other than codice_6 and would die right away if one was raised. For the few other programs—things like shells or text editors that respond to job control key presses—small wrappers could be added to system calls so as to retry the call right away if this codice_1 error was raised. Thus, the problem was solved in a simple manner.


title: Unix philosophy

text: In a 1981 article entitled "The truth about Unix: "The user interface is horrid"" published in "Datamation", Don Norman criticized the design philosophy of Unix for its lack of concern for the user interface. Writing from his background in cognitive science and from the perspective of the then-current philosophy of cognitive engineering, he focused on how end-users comprehend and form a personal cognitive model of systems—or, in the case of Unix, fail to understand, with the result that disastrous mistakes (such as losing an hour's worth of work) are all too easy.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: The PZL W-3 "Sokół" (English: "Falcon") is a medium-size, twin-engine, multipurpose helicopter developed and manufactured by Polish helicopter company PZL-Świdnik, now owned by Leonardo. It was the first helicopter entirely designed and produced in Poland.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: During 1973, work commenced upon what would become the W-3 Sokół at PZL Świdnik; design work was performed by an in-house team led by aeronautical engineer Stanisław Kamiński. A major influence on the design was the perceived demands from both military and civilian aviation across the Soviet Union, which was envisioned to serve as the major operator of the type. On 16 November 1979, the Sokół conducted its maiden flight. Following an intensive test programme, type certification for the helicopter was received from aviation authorities in Poland, Russia, the United States and Germany.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: During May 1993, certification of the Sokol to Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) FAR Part 29 standards was granted; it was followed by the receipt of German certification during December of that year. During 1985, low rate production of the Sokół commenced. In June 1996, the 100th Sokół was completed by the company.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: During the 1990s, PZL-Świdnik heavily pursued the development of an envisioned "Huzar" battlefield helicopter, which was to be based on the airframe of the W-3 Sokol and would have eventually involved the manufacture of 100 such attack helicopters under a tentative $350 million contract for the Polish Army. While the programme was initiated by the company, it was heavily afflicted by repeated setbacks and delays as PZL-Świdnik's financial state worsened as well as the firm often waiting for years for development funds to be issued by the Polish government with which it could formally launch the next phase of development. When a contract for the helicopter's avionics and weapon systems was awarded within a government memorandum of understanding (MoU) to an Israeli consortium, consisting of armaments manufacturer Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and defense electronics company Elbit Systems, making them the intended supplier for both the missiles and avionics for the helicopter.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: During 1998, the Polish Council of Ministers issued its recommendation for the launch of a new tender in support of the envisioned Huzar. Specifically, the tender sought an avionics and weapons systems integrator for the new rotorcraft, potentially replacing the originally selected Israeli consortium due to alleged irregularities involved in the prior arrangement's awarding. American firm Boeing, who led their own bid involving in excess of 20 separate companies, represented Elbit's chief competitor for the integration contract; at one point, it appeared that political changes to the competition had made Boeing the favourite to win the contract. While Rafael's NT-D anti-tank missile was selected, this was subject to the successful completion of several test launches; if it failed, rival bids from Boeing for the AGM-114 Hellfire, British firm GEC-Marconi with the Brimstone and the Franko-German company Euromissile's HOT 3 missile. The Israeli Government resisted breaking up its consortium for a separate avionics integration contract, stated it would refuse to release the NT-D missile unless it was also awarded the avionics bid, but reportedly softened on this stance.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: However, during mid-1999, the Polish government's plans for the Huzar helicopter were entirely abandoned, effectively ending development of the derivative immediately. In its place, a smaller fleet of W-3 Sokol, modified for the support role, was to be adopted in the short term instead. Invitations for bids for the upgrading of 50 rotorcraft, including the adoption of new rotor blades, more powerful engines, extra fuel tanks and additional armaments, was issued thereafter. At the time, Polish Prime Minister Jerzy Buzek stated that, for the long term requirement, a new tender for attack helicopter was to be issued by the end of June that year, and "we expect a decision in October or November"; the envisioned competition was to be contested by the Italian Agusta A129 Mangusta, the American Bell AH-1W/Z Super Cobra and Boeing AH-64 Apache, the European Eurocopter Tiger and South African Denel Rooivalk attack helicopters. Poland ultimately chose to pursue a relatively modest stopgap plan to upgrade its existing Mil Mi-24 fleet with Israeli-built equipment.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: During the early 2000s, PLZ Swidnik issued an offer for the upgrade of 12 Sokols previously operated by the Polish Air Force in the training role, converting them to perform the search and rescue mission instead; amongst the changes involved was the installation of Rockwell Collins-built ARC-210 transceivers and the adoption of new night-vision goggles (NVG)-compatible cockpits. In 2006, this offer was met with a corresponding contract, which would ultimately led to the production of an improved model of the rotorcraft, designated as the "W-3PL Gluszec"; in addition to the above improvements, a new flight control system and upgraded powerplants featuring full authority digital engine control (FADEC) software, were adopted, along with various changes to the communication, navigation and self-protection systems. The variant, which had been developed partially based upon combat experience gained in Iraq, attracted the attention of the Polish land forces, leading to discussions on modernising additional W-3 helicopters to the Gluszec standard. By January 2012, a follow-up order for another four Sokols re-built to the W-3PL configuration had been issued.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: During the mid-2000s, it was reported that, as part of a wider proposed industrial partnership between PLZ Swidnik and Indonesian aircraft company Indonesian Aerospace (IAe), discussions on the potential outsourcing of manufacturing work on the Sokol helicopter, focused on the airframe and some of the subassemblies, were held; it was also stated that a wider licensing agreement in respect to the Sokol had already been ruled out as IAe were not prepared to accept responsibility for marketing and sales for the helicopter.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: Following Anglo-Italian helicopter manufacturer AgustaWestland's acquisition of PZL Swidnik, the W-3 Sokol was incorporated into the new parent company's product line and has continued to be marketed and sold.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: The "PZL W-3 "Sokół" " is a medium-size, twin-engine, multipurpose rotorcraft. The helicopter employs a relatively conventional design and construction. It is powered by a pair of Pratt & Whitney Rzeszów-built PZL-10B turboshaft engines; the original powerplant, the PZL-10W, was based on the earlier PZL-10S – a licensed derivative of the Russian-designed Glushenkov TVD-10B turboprop engines which had powered the Polish-built Antonov An-28. Composites are used in the construction of the three-bladed tail and four-bladed main rotors.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: The Sokół has been offered in a number of diverse variants and is capable of performing a typical range of helicopter missions, including passenger transport, VIP, cargo, EMS, medevac, firefighting and search and rescue. When used in maritime environments, the rotorcraft is typically outfitted with floats, a transponder, a global positioning system navigation system, night-vision equipment, and a Lucas winch.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: The first civilian export customer for the W-3A variant of the type was Germany's Federal Police in Saxony.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: During 1995, South Korean operator Citiair issued a firm order for the purchase of three transport-orientated W-3A Sokół helicopters. Citiair chose fit various additional equipment on the type, including floats, as two of them were to routinely travel to the island of Ulleungdo, roughly 180 km (110 miles) from the Korean mainland, while the third was to be operated in the nation's more mountainous regions. During the same year, Polish oil company Petrobaltic ordered a single W-3RM Anaconda maritime helicopter, while primarily designed for search and rescue (SAR) duties, it was used by the company for transporting personnel, supplies and equipment to its Baltic oil drilling platforms.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: The Polish military has been a key customer for the Sokol. During the mid-1990s, a 15-year modernisation plan called for the procurement of 90 transport-orientated Sokols, along with 100 "Huzar" battlefield helicopter (a later-cancelled derivative of the Sokol). During the mid-1990s, During early 1996, Poland exchanged a batch of 11 W-3 Sokółs with the neighbouring Czech Republic in exchange for 10 Mikoyan MiG-29. Maritime-orientated W-3RM Anaconda maritime helicopters were adopted by the Polish naval service, who used the type to perform the SAR role.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: Since 2003, a batch of four W-3WA helicopters were used by the Independent Air Attack Group () of the Polish forces in Iraq in support of coalition operations in the region as a part of Poland's contribution to the Iraq War. In total, eight Polish helicopters were deployed to the region until 2008. during summer 2004, the type participated in the distribution of propaganda leaflets as part of wider efforts to undermine support for Iraqi Shia cleric Muqtada al-Sadr. On 15 December 2004, one Sokol was lost due to an accidental crash-landing near Karbala, killing three personnel onboard and injuring three more. On 18 July, 2006 another helicopter crashed at an air base in Al Diwaniyah, injuring 4 crew and 3 passengers.


title: PZL W-3 Sokół

text: Since January 2012, a force of five W-3 Sokol helicopters, along with six Mil Mi-8, have been furnished with a VIP configuration and stationed at Poland's 1st Air Transport Base following a major reshuffle of assets.


title: Strangers with Candy

text: Strangers with Candy is an American comedy television series produced by Comedy Central. It first aired on April 7, 1999, and concluded its third and final season on October 2, 2000. Its timeslot was Sundays at 10:00 p.m. (ET). A prequel film of the same name was released in 2005. As of 2022, it is available to watch on Paramount+.


title: Strangers with Candy

text: The series' main character, Geraldine Antonia "Jerri" Blank (played by Amy Sedaris), was a "junkie whore"/runaway returning to high school as a freshman at age 46 at the fictional Flatpoint High School (home of the Concrete Donkeys) in the town of Flatpoint.


title: Strangers with Candy

text: Jerri ran away from home and became "a boozer, a user, and a loser" after dropping out of high school as a teenager, supporting her drug habits through prostitution, stripping, and larceny. She has been to prison several times, the last time because she "stole the TV."


title: Strangers with Candy

text: Every episode features a warped theme or moral lesson and ends with the cast and other featured actors from the episode dancing. The last episode features Flatpoint being turned into a strip mall because the show was cancelled to make room for a TV show called "Strip Mall".


title: Strangers with Candy

text: The series was first envisioned by Amy Sedaris as a parody of after school specials. While she was putting together a pitch for her series, her friends Paul Dinello and Stephen Colbert watched a bootleg copy of a "Scared Straight!"–type public-service film called "The Trip Back", in which motivational speaker Florrie Fisher recalled (among other things) her days as a New York prostitute to a group of high-school students. Seeing that Fisher strongly resembled their friend Amy Sedaris, they showed her a copy of the tape and, suitably impressed with Sedaris's imitation of Fisher, began developing a series based around the idea of Fisher going back to high school herself. Much of Jerri's past is taken from anecdotes in "The Trip Back", some of which are also in Fisher's autobiography, "The Lonely Trip Back". Several lines of dialogue in the series were taken verbatim from Fisher's public-service film.


title: Strangers with Candy

text: Sedaris, Colbert, Dinello, and Rouse were cast members of the short-lived Comedy Central series "Exit 57". They, along with Greg Hollimon and many other stars of the series, were also alumni of Chicago's Second City comedy troupe. Every script was written by Sedaris and Dinello as a team, very occasionally working with a collaborator such as Rouse or Thomas Lennon. Colbert received a co-writing credit on the unaired pilot (and later, on the prequel movie), but he did not work as a writer on the series proper.


title: Strangers with Candy

text: On February 7, 2006, film company ThinkFilm announced that it had acquired the distribution rights to a feature film based on the series. The film, a prequel to the television show, was completed in 2004 and acquired by Warner Independent at Sundance in 2005, but release of the film was delayed due to legal clearance issues. Amy Sedaris, Stephen Colbert, and Paul Dinello reprised their roles for the film; several other characters were recast because the actors who played them now looked too old to be in high school. In addition to acting, Colbert is a co-producer and Dinello is a director for the film. Worldwide Pants, a production company owned by comedian David Letterman, was also a producer. This is the company's first feature film production. A teaser trailer for the film was released in April 2006.


title: Strangers with Candy

text: The initial theatrical release was June 28, 2006, in the New York City area, followed by the remainder of the United States on July 7. A DVD of the film was released in November 2006. Amy Sedaris said of Jerri Blank that "she's like a rash; you never know when she's going to pop up."


title: Chris Leben

text: Christian Cyrus Leben (born July 21, 1980) is an American former mixed martial artist, referee, and bare knuckle boxer. A professional MMA competitor from 2002 until 2013, he most notably competed in the UFC in the Middleweight division, compiling a record of 12–10 in 22 appearances for the organization. Leben first appeared in the inaugural season of "The Ultimate Fighter" reality series, and also fought in the now-defunct WEC. He began his UFC career with five victories in a row before suffering a knockout loss to future UFC Middleweight Champion Anderson Silva, and was known for his toughness and powerful left hand. Leben was the inaugural WEC Middleweight Champion.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben is from Portland, Oregon and has one older brother and one younger sister. He grew up without his father around, and he did not even meet his father until he was 23 years old. Because of this, Leben's mother worked hard for many hours daily as a bartender so that she could support the family. Growing up Leben enjoyed skateboarding, dirt biking, and snowboarding. When he was in middle school, he began watching the UFC and became very interested in MMA. He began training in boxing, and then was on the wrestling team at Benson Polytechnic High School, picking up the sport rather quickly. Leben did not receive a very good education in his childhood, and did not know how to read or write even after graduating high school. Leben soon joined the United States Army, falsely being told by the recruiter that he would be allowed to wrestle for the army's team. When he found that he would not be allowed to wrestle for the army, Leben went AWOL and was discharged.


title: Chris Leben

text: While visiting his brother at work one day, Leben noticed an MMA gym located across the street, home to Team Quest. Trainer Robert Follis accepted Leben into the team, and soon Leben was training with Randy Couture, Matt Lindland, Nate Quarry, and Ed Herman. After refining his talent, Leben began fighting as an amateur, achieving a record of 5–0, and capturing the FCFF and UFCF middleweight titles.


title: Chris Leben

text: After his success in the amateur ranks where he went 4–0, Leben turned professional. He won his first five fights, three of them by knockout, and in the process won the Gladiator Challenge, Sportfight, and WEC Middleweight titles. Leben achieved wins against Benji Radach and Mike Swick, but suffered a decision loss to Joe Doerksen.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben was one of the most controversial and outspoken fighters on "The Ultimate Fighter 1" due to his variously abrasive and melancholy personality. In the first episode, while intoxicated, he urinated on future teammate Jason Thacker's bed, and stole his pillow. One night when everyone in the household was drinking, Leben challenged Bobby Southworth to fight who then called Leben a "fatherless bastard" on account of Leben's father being absent during his childhood, requiring Leben being physically restrained from accosting Southworth. Leben then began sobbing and proceeded to sleep outside. After a heated confrontation precipitated by Josh Koscheck and Southworth spraying a sleeping Leben with a hose, Leben broke a door with his fist. After the confrontation, UFC president Dana White set up a match between Leben and Koscheck, which Leben lost by unanimous decision due to Koscheck's ability to score points by controlling Leben on the ground.


title: Chris Leben

text: Later in the show, teammate Nate Quarry was eliminated from the competition due to an ankle injury and was able to choose a previously eliminated fighter to replace him. He chose Leben, who was later defeated by Kenny Florian due to doctor stoppage in the first semi-final match after Florian opened a cut above Leben's eye with an elbow strike. His losses on the show are not on his professional record, as the fights were classified by Nevada as exhibition bouts due to the decisions of the bouts not being disclosed until the fights aired on the show rather than being posted immediately following the fights.


title: Chris Leben

text: On April 9, 2005, Leben fought Jason Thacker on the undercard of the live finale of "The Ultimate Fighter 1". Thacker was not amused when he watched the show and found out Leben had used his bed as a urinal. Speaking with Dana White, Thacker demanded a match against Leben at the finale. The match was set up, and Leben won 95 seconds into the first round after referee stoppage due to strikes. Afterward, Leben apologized to Thacker for urinating on his bed, saying he had since given up drinking because of that sort of incident.


title: Chris Leben

text: After the show, Leben moved to Seattle, Washington to train with AMC Pankration. He has competed in several UFC events since the show and is the only person to have fought in the first six Ultimate Fight Night events, during which he earned a string of victories: a split decision win over future TUF 4 finalist Patrick Côté, an armbar submission against Edwin Dewees, a first-round TKO over Jorge Rivera, and a unanimous decision over Luigi Fioravanti. Leben was defeated by Anderson Silva at UFC Ultimate Fight Night 5 on June 28, 2006, by KO 49 seconds into the first round, but returned at UFC Fight Night 6 on August 17, 2006, where he defeated Jorge Santiago by knockout 35 seconds into the second round. He is the only fighter to fight at every event under the "Fight Night" banner.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben then lost at UFC 66 to longtime UFC veteran Jason MacDonald via technical submission due to a modified guillotine choke with less than a minute remaining in the second round.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben then lost to Kalib Starnes by a very close unanimous decision at "UFC 71" on May 26, 2007. The bout won "Fight of the Night" honors.


title: Chris Leben

text: It was reported that Leben was offered a main event fight against Mike Swick at UFC Fight Night 11, but turned down the fight for unknown reasons; it was later revealed on the Ultimate Fighter Season 1 reunion show by UFC President Dana White's call to matchmaker Joe Silva that Leben's camp turned down the fight and that Leben himself had no prior knowledge of the fight offer. Leben instead took on Terry Martin on the same UFC Fight Night 11 card. Even after being rocked with multiple punches by Martin, a half-dazed Leben defeated Martin by knockout at 3:56 of the third round.


title: Chris Leben

text: At UFC 82, he knocked out Italian Alessio Sakara in the first round, winning the "Knockout of the Night" award.


title: Chris Leben

text: On April 30, 2008, Leben was arrested in Oregon by Clackamas County Sheriffs for a DUI stemming from an earlier date. He was kept in jail and temporarily held without bond for allegedly violating his probation. Leben was then sentenced to 35 days in jail.


title: Chris Leben

text: His next fight was against Michael Bisping at UFC 89, which he lost by a unanimous decision after a full three rounds. Leben taunted Bisping throughout the last two rounds by dropping his arms and raising his chin. The judges scored the fight 30–27 (twice) and 29–28 for Bisping. Bisping used effective counter punching in the fight to keep the aggressive Leben at bay. Both fighters showed sportsmanship by congratulating one another and raising each other's arm after the fight.


title: Chris Leben

text: After the fight with Bisping, Leben tested positive for Stanozolol and was suspended for nine months and fined a third of his fight purse. He was eligible to return in July 2009. Leben admitted he had used the substance several months prior to the fight, but stated he had assumed it would have been out of his system by then.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben then fought Jake Rosholt at UFC 102 in Leben's hometown of Portland, Oregon. In the third round, he was rendered unconscious via an arm triangle choke, losing the fight by submission.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben then faced Jay Silva on January 11, 2010, at UFC Fight Night 20, winning via unanimous decision (30–27, 30–27, 30–27).


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben was expected to face Aaron Simpson at UFC 114, but the bout took place on June 19, 2010, at . After a rough first round where Simpson slammed Leben a couple of times, Leben eventually connected consecutive punches on Simpson in the second that sent him stumbling across the octagon, collapsing face first at the other side of the octagon, prompting referee Josh Rosenthal to end the fight via TKO at 4:17 of the second round.


title: Chris Leben

text: After Wanderlei Silva was forced out of his UFC 116 bout with Yoshihiro Akiyama due to broken ribs, Leben agreed to fill in for Silva in the bout against Akiyama, and faced him two weeks after defeating Simpson. Although he was outstruck and outwrestled for most of the first round, Leben managed to stay competitive and keep a fast paced fight with the rapidly tiring Akiyama in the second round. In the third and final round, Leben capitalized and sunk in a triangle choke with just twenty seconds left in the fight, forcing Akiyama to submit. It was considered the best performance of Leben's career and one of the best fights of the year. After the fight, Leben called for a fight with Silva, saying "come on Wanderlei, I'll take you out, too!", though UFC president Dana White said in the post-fight press conference that a Leben-Silva affair is not under consideration. Leben won Sherdog.com's Comeback Fighter of the Year for 2010.


title: Chris Leben

text: On October 20, 2010, Leben was arrested in Honolulu, Hawaii for suspicion of driving under the influence after crashing his truck into a wall off of Kapiolani Boulevard. He was released from custody after posting bail.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben faced Brian Stann on January 1, 2011, at UFC 125 He lost the fight via TKO in the first round. After the fight between Leben and Stann, Leben's coach Burton Richardson says Leben's poor performance may have been caused by a sickness before the bout: "First, great job by Brian Stann. He never looked better. Many have commented that Chris was very slow and looked off last night. The truth is that Chris was sick. He had a fever and chills when he stepped into the cage. He was vomiting in the locker room before the fight, and after a hard warm up he didn't have a drop of sweat. Big heart to fight like that, but he was moving slow motion. He was very sharp in training. He will be back."


title: Chris Leben

text: On April 4, 2011, the UFC announced that Leben's next opponent would be Wanderlei Silva with the two scheduled to meet on July 2, 2011 at UFC 132. Leben knocked out Silva with consecutive uppercuts from the clinch, 27 seconds into the fight, resulting in the fastest knockout win in Leben's career.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben faced Mark Muñoz on November 5, 2011 at UFC 138, losing by TKO at the 5:00 mark of the 2nd round due to a cut on his left eyebrow and left him unable to see and forced a corner stoppage. On November 28, 2011, Zuffa LLC, owner of the Ultimate Fighting Championship, released information stating that Leben tested positive for oxycodone and oxymorphone following his loss to Muñoz at UFC 138. As a result of the positive test, Leben was suspended from fighting for 1 year.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben's return fight was expected to be against Karlos Vemola on December 29, 2012 at UFC 155. However, Vemola was forced out of the bout and replaced by promotional newcomer Derek Brunson. Leben was defeated via unanimous decision.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben faced Uriah Hall on December 28, 2013 at UFC 168. After almost being knocked out at the end of the first round, Leben told his corner that he was done, taking a TKO loss to Hall after the first round. UFC commentator Joe Rogan pointed out during the broadcast that Leben asked, "Was I knocked out?" as he was being led to his corner. Leben then reiterated "I'm done" multiple times before the fight was waved off. This marked Leben's fourth loss in a row.


title: Chris Leben

text: On January 20, 2014, Leben announced his retirement from MMA competition. He will refocus on coaching at The Arena in San Diego, California. He cited an increasingly talented middleweight roster, his recent losing streak and the risk of serious injury as reasons for retiring. He called himself fortunate to have never had surgery throughout his record 22-fight middleweight stint, though he predicted several of his nagging injuries will get worse with time.


title: Chris Leben

text: On February 5th, 2021 after his first round knockout win over Quentin Henry in the Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship, Leben announced his official retirement from combat sports.


title: Chris Leben

text: After two years away from active competition for Leben, it was announced by Scott Coker on Inside MMA that Leben had signed a multi-fight deal with Bellator MMA in February 2016. However, after undergoing a physical to be cleared, he failed several electrocardiogram (EKG) tests, according to the statement. Doctors discovered a "life-threatening abnormality" to the left ventricle of his heart, which was "oversized", "misshapen", and "not operating properly," thus ending any possibility of a return.


title: Chris Leben

text: After a return to MMA never materialized, Leben instead turned to bare knuckle boxing. He faced Phil Baroni at the World Bare Knuckle Fighting Federation debut card on November 9, 2018. He won the fight via TKO in the first round. In March 2019, reports surfaced that Leben had sued WBKFF for $90,000 in unpaid salary.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben made his debut for Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship on April 6, 2019. He faced Justin Baesman in the show's co-main event. Leben won the fight via knockout just 25 seconds into the first round.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben was supposed to face Brennan Ward at BKFC 6 on June 22, 2019. On June 12, news surfaced that Ward withdrew from the bout and was replaced by Dakota Cochrane. Leben lost the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Chris Leben

text: Leben faced Quentin Henry at BKFC: Knucklemania on February 5, 2021. He won the fight via knockout in the first round and subsequently announced his retirement from combat sports.


title: Chris Leben

text: In May 2007, Leben moved to East Oahu, Hawaii to accept the main coaching job at Icon Fitness MMA Gym. In addition to training at ICON, Leben and fighter Steven "The Soul Samurai" Saito opened Ultimate Fight School gym in Oahu in January, located two blocks from the University of Hawaii campus. Leben is a playable fighter in the UFC Undisputed video games. Before becoming a professional fighter, Leben worked construction and was a housepainter. Leben has a radio show called "Unfiltered MMA Radio".


title: Chris Leben

text: In 2016, Leben completed Herb Dean's mixed martial arts referee course, making him eligible to referee bouts in California. After refereeing in the regional circuit, Leben debuted in notable shows at Golden Boy Promotions: Liddell vs. Ortiz 3.


title: Chris Leben

text: Having well-documented past with substance abuse, Leben claims to be sober since 2015 and is actively advocating for clean eating and healthy lifestyle.


title: Chris Leben

text: In October 2010, Leben was arrested in Honolulu on suspicion of driving under the influence after crashing his pick-up truck near the Kapiolani Boulevard exit on Interstate H-1. He was later released on $1,000 bail.


title: Chris Leben

text: In June 2015, Leben was arrested on multiple charges after breaking into his ex-wife's San Diego, California apartment. Charges included felony possession of a weapon and 11 counts of disobeying a court order after violating a restraining order his ex-wife had filed against him. When police arrived to the apartment, they found a .45 caliber pistol on a bed that belonged to Leben. In August, Leben pleaded guilty to the felony weapons charge and to the misdemeanor charges of vandalism and violating a restraining order. He was sentenced to serve 120 days in jail and three years of probation after release.


title: Richard Denning

text: Richard Denning (March 27, 1914 – October 11, 1998) was an American actor who starred in science fiction films of the 1950s, including "Unknown Island" (1948), "Creature from the Black Lagoon" (1954), "Target Earth" (1954), "Day the World Ended" (1955), "Creature with the Atom Brain" (1955), and "The Black Scorpion" (1957). Denning also appeared in the film "An Affair to Remember" (1957) with Cary Grant and on radio with Lucille Ball in "My Favorite Husband" (1948–1951), the forerunner of television's "I Love Lucy".


title: Richard Denning

text: Denning was born as Louis Albert Heindrich Denninger Jr., in Poughkeepsie, New York. When he was 18 months old, his family moved to Los Angeles. After attending Manual Arts High School, he earned a Master of Business Administration degree from Woodbury Business College in Los Angeles. Plans called for him to take over his father's garment manufacturing business, but he developed an interest in acting. Denning enlisted in the United States Navy during World War II and served on submarines.


title: Richard Denning

text: Richard Denning was perhaps best known for his recurring starring roles in science fiction and horror films of the 1950s, and playing husband opposite Lucille Ball on the radio series that led to "I Love Lucy" in which he was replaced by Desi Arnaz as Lucy's husband.


title: Richard Denning

text: Denning began acting in minor supporting and background roles through the 1930s and early 1940s until the start of World War II. According to Denning, his military service disrupted his acting career, and after his discharge it would be a year and a half before Paramount Pictures offered him more acting work. During that time, he and his family lived in a mobile home that he alternately parked at Malibu and Palm Springs.


title: Richard Denning

text: Denning's unemployment ended when he was hired to star on the radio opposite Lucille Ball in My Favorite Husband. The CBS Radio sitcom ran for 124 episodes from July 23, 1948 through March 31, 1951 and would evolve into the groundbreaking television sitcom I Love Lucy. CBS wanted Denning to continue as the husband in the new sitcom but Lucille Ball insisted that her real life husband, Desi Arnaz, play the part. The radio stint, however, led to a role on CBS television's series adaptation of "Mr. and Mrs. North".


title: Richard Denning

text: On television, he starred as the title character in the 1950 syndicated adventure series "Ding Howe and the Flying Tigers". He was cast as Dr. Greg Graham in the 1959 series, "The Flying Doctor". He also starred as the title character in the detective series "Michael Shayne" (1960–1961) and shared title billing with Barbara Britton in the detective series "Mr. and Mrs. North" (1952–1954).


title: Richard Denning

text: In 1964-1965, Denning played Steve Scott in the comedy series "Karen". In later life, he had a recurring role as the fictitious governor of Hawaii, Paul Jameson, in the CBS television crime drama series, "Hawaii Five-O" (1968–1980), starring Jack Lord.


title: Richard Denning

text: He appeared three times on the ABC religion anthology series "Crossroads", as Dr. Ira Langston in "Chinese Checkers" (1955) and as the Reverend George Bolton in "The Bowery Bishop" and as the Reverend Lloyd E. Williams in "The Pure White Orchid" (both 1956).


title: Richard Denning

text: In other activity on radio, Denning played Uncle Jack in "It's a Crime, Mr. Collins" (1956-1957) on the Mutual Broadcasting System. He also was the second actor to play Jerry North in the radio version of "Mr. and Mrs. North".


title: Richard Denning

text: Denning later appeared in several 'B' crime drama films before starring in science fiction and horror films. In 1957, he began the first of a series of television appearances, usually as a supporting character, though he did star briefly in two television dramas, "The Flying Doctor" (1959), and "Michael Shayne" (1960–61).


title: Richard Denning

text: In 1968, Denning completed his last film, a comedy titled "I Sailed to Tahiti with an All-Girl Crew". Semi-retired and living on the island of Maui with his wife, Denning was contacted by producer Leonard Freeman, who offered him the supporting role as the governor of Hawaii in the TV detective series, "Hawaii Five-O". In order to persuade Denning to sign on in the recurring role, Freeman guaranteed Denning five-hour days and a four-day work week.


title: Richard Denning

text: Denning has a star at 6932 Hollywood Boulevard in the Television section of the Hollywood Walk of Fame. It was dedicated on February 8, 1960.


title: Richard Denning

text: In 1942, Denning married 1940s horror film queen Evelyn Ankers (co-star of "The Wolf Man", "Ghost of Frankenstein" and "Son of Dracula"), who retired from films at the age of 32 after they were married. He and Ankers had a daughter, Diana Denning (later Dwyer). After Ankers' death from cancer in 1985, he remarried to Patricia Leffingwell. Denning died of a heart attack at the age of 84 on October 11, 1998 while visiting relatives in Southern California. Denning and Ankers are buried at Makawao Veterans' Cemetery in Makawao, Hawaii.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Viper (real name Ophelia Sarkissian, formerly known as Madame Hydra) is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She is a foe of the Avengers and the X-Men.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Viper was featured in the 2013 film "The Wolverine", played by Russian actress Svetlana Khodchenkova. A variation of the character was portrayed by Mallory Jansen in the fourth season of the Marvel Cinematic Universe television series "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.".


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Ophelia Sarkissian was orphaned as a child in Hungary. Part of her face was scarred at one time, although it has since been healed. Among 12 other girls, Ophelia was taken in by HYDRA and raised by . For 22 years, Ophelia excelled and became Kraken's best student. She eventually rose through the ranks of HYDRA and frequently came into conflict with Captain America and the organization known as S.H.I.E.L.D. She first appeared as a leader of HYDRA under the codename Madame Hydra, and first fought and captured Captain America while trying to contaminate New York City's water supply. She captured Rick Jones to bait a trap for Captain America, and then subdued the Avengers with gas, planning to bury them alive, and battled Captain America again. However, she was apparently killed when Captain America and Rick Jones dodged missiles she fired at them and she was caught in their explosion. Some time later, it was revealed that the Space Phantom had exchanged places with her and her whereabouts at the time were undisclosed.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: She eventually severed her ties with HYDRA. Madame Hydra helped Jordan Stryke, a supervillain codenamed Viper, escape custody in Virginia, only to proceed in assassinating him and usurping his alias and leadership of the group known as the Serpent Squad. As the new Viper, she kidnapped Roxxon president Hugh Jones, in order to put him in thrall of the Serpent Crown. She battled Nomad and Namor the Sub-Mariner. Viper was the founder and leader of the elite criminal underworld through sheer ruthlessness, treachery, and the cunning of her black heart.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Viper took over the S.H.I.E.L.D. Helicarrier, and planned to crash it into the Congress building. She employed Boomerang and the Silver Samurai as operatives, and battled Spider-Man, Black Widow, Shang-Chi, and Nick Fury. Viper later employed the Silver Samurai as her chief operative, and attempted to kidnap Michael Kramer, a man carrying a fatal experimental disease, in order to release it on America. The Viper battled the first Spider-Woman, and became convinced that she was Merriam Drew. Drew was the mother of Spider-Woman and was considered deceased since 1931. The issue revealed Merriam had become allied to Chthon and was granted longevity in return. The Viper revealed herself to have been a pawn of Chthon for 50 years, but saved Spider-Woman's life by defying Chthon. Viper, employing Constrictor as her chief operative, captured Spider-Woman, believing she was responsible for making her think they were related. It was revealed that Chthon had actually granted Viper false memories of mothering Jessica as part of a plan to place both women under his control. Viper captured Captain America, and planned to release her new bubonic plague. Whether Viper actually has extraordinary longevity was left uncertain.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Re-employing the Silver Samurai, Viper attempted to coerce Team America into stealing the Cavourite Crystal, and then battled the New Mutants. In one of her many terrorist acts, she would try to gain control of the snake-themed organization called the Serpent Society, with Slither, Copperhead, Puff Adder, Fer-De-Lance, and Black Racer as her operatives. The latter four operatives infiltrated the Serpent Society in an attempt to take it over. Viper dispatched Cobra, Boomslang, and Copperhead to poison Washington D.C.'s water supply with a snake mutagen. Viper terrorized the White House and the President, and battled Captain America. She attempted to assassinate the organization's former leader Sidewinder, but she was betrayed by Cobra and arrested by Captain America. Viper was later freed from prison by Tyrannus. She used a snake mutagen on drug addicts, and then battled the Punisher. She then turned against and battled Tyrannus.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Madame Hydra has also been in conflict with the X-Men. She first came into contact with them upon trying to assassinate Mariko Yashida on behalf of her ally and presumed lover Silver Samurai, and tried to poison the team while disguised as Mariko's unconscious maid. She nearly killed X-Men members Rogue and Storm on two separate occasions, with Storm being nearly killed by Viper during the invasion of Khan. She also faced the New Mutants and was considered responsible for the presumed demise of Karma (Karma was only wounded and was abducted by the Shadow King for his own reasons).


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Madame Hydra is a professional terrorist and has her own organization. She has come into conflict with many superheroes and supervillains over the years. Her nihilism and tendency to spread death around her has made it hard for other villains to associate with her. Only the Red Skull has found it a charming tendency and pursued a relationship with her for a while. The relationship ended when the Skull found out Viper was using his resources to finance massacres with no apparent financial benefit for either of them.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: For a time, Viper employed a team of doppelgängers (known as "Pit-Vipers") to impersonate her. However, acting on her own, Pit-Viper 12 became involved with the Punisher during an international crime conference in Las Vegas and later tipped off S.H.I.E.L.D. to the real Viper's attempt to steal Russian nuclear missiles in Moscow. For compromising her anonymity, the Viper personally killed her treacherous double.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Later she blackmailed Wolverine into marrying her as a means to secure her criminal empire in Madripoor. Although this was a marriage of convenience, she did request to consummate the arrangement. Some time later, her body was briefly inhabited by the spirit of Ogun, and Wolverine mortally wounded her as a means of driving the spirit from her dying body. In return for seeking medical attention to save her life, Wolverine demanded a divorce. It is later implied that she actually had feelings for Wolverine.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Viper was then a member of an incarnation of the Hellfire Club, working with Courtney Ross, briefly under the title "White Warrior Princess". She has also associated with the Hand and resumed her ties with the Silver Samurai. She has also retaken the name "Madame Hydra".


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: For a time, Viper was the dictator of the nation of Madripoor, using the nation's resources to support global terrorism via HYDRA. She was overthrown by new S.H.I.E.L.D. Director Tony Stark and Tyger Tiger, the latter of whom is now ruler of Madripoor.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: During the "Dark Reign" storyline, Viper is seen leaving her lover, the Silver Samurai, to rejoin Baron von Strucker and the ruling council of HYDRA. It was revealed that she is no longer Madame Hydra, as she was replaced by Contessa Valentina Allegra de Fontaine, taking up the mantle of Madame Hydra, wearing an elaborate tentacle headdress and elaborate HYDRA robes.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Viper is kidnapped by the mysterious group Leviathan, who are determined to find out the location of a mysterious box that both she and Madame Hydra procured from the Yashidas. Madame Hydra arrived at the Leviathan headquarters and offered the box to its leader, much to Viper's dismay. Madame Hydra then shot Viper to death. However, when HYDRA arrived, the Hive resurrected her, giving her tentacles that stemmed from her head, and she renamed herself Madame Hydra.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Following the "Fear Itself" storyline, Madame Hydra joins up with H.A.M.M.E.R. after Norman Osborn escapes from the Raft and regains leadership. After the defeat of Osborn and the Dark Avengers, Madame Hydra uses the resources of the now-defunct H.A.M.M.E.R. to begin rebuilding HYDRA. She later tips off Spider-Woman and Hawkeye about a heist Mister Negative is planning on a S.H.I.E.L.D. warehouse. While the Avengers deal with Mister Negative, Madame Hydra attacks a different S.H.I.E.L.D. facility and steals several captive Skrulls left over from the Secret Invasion.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Madame Hydra later led an attack on Avengers Tower while the team is away. She and the rest of her forces are defeated by Angel and his younger self from earlier in the timestream.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: In "Death of Wolverine", she was revealed by Nuke as the "Green Queen" and current leader of Madripoor who sent out a contract to capture Wolverine.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Viper is part of the HYDRA High Council that the new Madame Hydra is collecting to assist Steve Rogers, who had his history altered by the Red Skull's clone using Kobik's powers to be a HYDRA sleeper agent for years.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: During the "Secret Empire" storyline, Viper attends the meeting of the HYDRA High Council and talks about the opening of two new detention facilities to double the amount of Inhumans held in indefinite custody. While doing business with some men, Viper is told by a HYDRA agent that they have apprehended Black Widow. This is part of a diversion so that the Champions can infiltrate a HYDRA base. When Viper figures out that Widow is planning to kill Hydra Supreme, Viper tries to persuade Widow to join up with her enterprise.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: During the "Hunt for Wolverine" storyline, Viper is seen in Madripoor where she leads the Femme Fatales (consisting of Knockout, Bloodlust, Mindblast, Snake Whip, and Sapphire Styx) into ambushing Kitty Pryde, Domino, Jubilee, Psylocke, and Storm at the King's Impresario Restaurant. While Psylocke, Rogue, and Storm are defeated and taken prisoner by Madame Hydra and the Femme Fatales, Kitty Pryde escapes with Domino and Jubilee. Viper congratulates the Femme Fatales for their work as they now have Psylocke, Rogue, and Storm as their prisoners. Mindblast suggests that they put a bounty on the ones that escaped, stating that every gang member in Lowtown will be looking for them. Viper states that she will discuss with her client on where to proceed next and to deposit Rogue and Storm to the client as "special guests." As Viper gives the status report to a representative of her client, she mentions that Sapphire Styx is still draining off of Psylocke just like she did with Magneto. The representative tells Viper that Sapphire Styx tends to prefer the life force of the mutants and tells Viper to focus on delivering the package as all that they are serves the will of Soteira. As Snake Whip asks if they are going to ignore Sapphire Styx's vampiric appetite, Viper says that they have to obey the representative's orders and "let the @#$%& feed." Viper is contacted by a representative of Soteira who was displeased that the launch was delayed by a torrential rainstorm and suggest that they launch before sunrise. While reluctantly taking the representative's suggestion, Viper and Snake Whip check up on Sapphire Styx who knocks down Snake Whip and claims that Wolverine's Patch alias is present even though Sapphire is the only one who can see him. Viper calls Knockout and Mindblast away from the prisoners to help deal with Sapphire. After hearing that the launch site for the rocket bound for Soteira is under attack, Viper gives the orders to launch it now. After Sapphire Styx explodes, Viper maintains the higher ground while Snake Whip joins the fight. When the Femme Fatales are defeated, Viper flees as Magneto plans to pursue her in order to purge Madripoor of Viper's criminal empire.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Viper has no superhuman abilities but her strength, speed, reflexes, agility, dexterity, coordination, balance and endurance are on the order of an Olympic athlete. She is a great swordsman and even greater marksman with most long range weapons, and has extensive training in hand-to-hand combat. Viper occasionally employs poisoned weapons with snake-motifs, such as venomous darts or artificial fangs filled with poison. She utilizes experimental weaponry, including a ring that enables teleportation, and in "X-Treme X-Men", she made use of razor-sharp claw attachments apparently built into her gloves. A brilliant strategist and tactician with extensive combat tactical experience, Viper is highly skilled in the management of criminal organizations and very well connected in the international criminal underworld. She is also a master of stealth and espionage. Perhaps her greatest strengths are her influence, the financial resources at her disposal due to her stature in organized crime, and an uncanny luck which has allowed her to cheat death in situations where lesser people would have died. Viper may or may not have supernaturally augmented longevity.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: Viper is usually armed with various ray pistols and conventional handguns. She has also used various other special weaponry, including poison-tipped throwing darts, knives, and whips. She has sharpened and elongated canine teeth with hollows inside them. She keeps a special poison in them, to which she has an immunity.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: In the "Age of Apocalypse" reality, Viper was married to the Silver Samurai. She and her husband fought their way from the islands of Japan through hordes of Apocalypse's Infinites. Viper was killed saving Samurai's life, leading to the Silver Samurai accepting Magneto's offer to join the X-Men.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: One of the alternate dimensions that is visited in "Exiles" #91-95 has been overtaken by a version of Madame Hydra. This world (Earth-1720) was dominated by Madame Hydra (actually Susan Storm Richards), her lover Wolverine, and their top assassin Slaymaster. However, before the Exiles can exact retribution, Madame Hydra and her lackeys escape into the omniverse to seek out other worlds to conquer.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: The "Ultimate Marvel" version of Viper appears in "Ultimatum: Spider-Man Requiem" along with HYDRA. She attacks Tony Stark's offices in order to retrieve the Iron Man armor, but is subdued by Iron Man with the help of Spider-Man, and taken into custody by S.H.I.E.L.D.


title: Viper (Madame Hydra)

text: An action figure of Viper was released in the 2012 series of Marvel Legends figures from Hasbro, one of two figures using similar body molds (with different heads) marketed as "Marvel's Madames", the other figure being Madame Masque.


title: Chibiusa

text: Chibiusa's birth name and official title is . She is adopted as a member of her mother's family, using the alias Usagi Tsukino, in the 20th century. She is given her nickname to differentiate from the older Usagi Tsukino (Sailor Moon). The nickname is a combination of "chibi" (meaning 'small person' or 'small child') and her given name, Usagi.


title: Chibiusa

text: Adding in Usagi's child to the Sailor Moon storyline, as well as her name, Chibiusa for a "chibi" (little) Usagi, was the idea of Naoko Takeuchi's editor, Fumio Osano. Takeuchi has stated that she did not think much about how Chibiusa's hair would look, besides it having odango like Usagi's hair and being pink; and that she used a Chibiusa doll for reference on the hair.


title: Chibiusa

text: The first appearance of Chibiusa as a Sailor Soldier is in a side story, a year and a half before Sailor Chibi Moon made her debut in the manga. In the first Picture Diary, Chibiusa is rescued by Sailors Moon and Venus and dreams that night about becoming a "soldier of love and justice" herself. She calls herself "Sailor Chibiusa Moon" and appears in a uniform slightly different from the one she wears later, most notably including a cape.


title: Chibiusa

text: Takeuchi struggled with a name for Black Lady, initially calling her "the Black Queen" and retaining her childlike appearance. Takeuchi also noted that the leg-slit on Black Lady's dress was even more revealing in the anime than in the manga, something which shocked her as she had wondered if the slit was going too far in her drawings of Black Lady.


title: Chibiusa

text: Author Naoko Takeuchi describes Chibiusa as a precocious person who likes pulling pranks. She is the daughter of Neo-Queen Serenity and King Endymion. Her real name is the same as her mother's, but is called "Chibiusa" in Japanese to avoid confusion between the two. Silver Millennium was a matriarchy, which is why Chibi-Usa has Tsukino as her surname rather than Chiba. Besides that Mamoru wanted her to take Usagi’s name rather than his own, as he had absolutely no attachment to his surname.


title: Chibiusa

text: Her name in several English-language versions of Sailor Moon, "Rini", is a diminutive of "Serena", the name of her mother. She is known for having pink hair put into a unique style that resembles rabbit ears on top of her head. Chibiusa's hair is apparently truly pink, and not just colored that way for stylistic purposes; its color is stated in the manga's first Picture Diary and in the poem about her in the "Sailor Stars" CD single.


title: Chibiusa

text: Exposure to the Silver Crystal renders all of Crystal Tokyo's inhabitants functionally immortal, and her frequent time traveling further complicates approximation of her age.


title: Chibiusa

text: Chibiusa is five years old approximate in both civil registration and physical appearance; however, she possesses a degree of intellectual maturity that is normally non-existent in a five-year-old girl. In act 20 of the manga, it is stated that she is chronologically 900 years old, which lends credibility to her apparent wisdom, maturity, and rather serious personality over her teenage biological mother Usagi (in the 20th century). Her youthful appearance attributed to the fact that her physical body inexplicably halted its natural aging process when she was five. The reason for this is assumed to be caused by having not "awakened" as a Sailor Guardian, which eventually occurred when she first became Sailor Chibi Moon.


title: Chibiusa

text: The candles on a birthday cake in one memory indicate that she is about five years old when first introduced. By the time of the "Dream" story arc, she claims to be 902. In "Sailor Moon Crystal", it is stated clearly that she is 900 years old. She seems to be the equivalent of a 7 or 8 year old when she returns later. In the manga, after the "Infinity" story arc, it's mentioned she is in second grade; in the "Stars" story arc, she is in sixth grade; in the "Sailor Moon Parallel" story arc, she is in the ninth grade.


title: Chibiusa

text: Chibiusa's affections come into conflict. Despite being self-aware of the fact that Usagi Tsukino and Mamoru Chiba are her biological parents, she does not immediately identify them as such, instead suspiciously viewing them as strangers who look like them. There is evidence that Chibiusa has a hard time identifying Usagi and Mamoru as being her parents due to observing a sharp contrast in personality between their "immature" present selves and their "wise" future selves. However, it is worth mentioning their forms Neo Queen Serenity and King Endymion are centuries into the future, leaving enough time for the couples' personalities to mature. She also reacts differently toward Usagi and Mamoru than she does towards King Endymion and Neo Queen Serenity, being more respectful to the latter but more spontaneous to the former; it is not clear if she prefers one set over the other. Chibiusa develops an electra complex towards her teenage father Mamoru (in the 20th century) and always refers to him as Mamo-chan—an affectionate nickname by Usagi—much to Usagi's fury and expense. This attraction does not transfer towards their future selves.


title: Chibiusa

text: In the anime, she often berates Usagi for being clumsy and irresponsible. In "", she describes Usagi as "a klutz, a ditz, and a crybaby;" however, there are many instances where Usagi and Chibiusa show their love and concern for one another, such as when Sailor Moon breaks down crying after Mistress 9 takes Chibiusa's pure heart crystal, or when she dives off a balcony to save her. Nevertheless, the two often bicker, often behaving more like sisters than mother and daughter; however, in the manga, although both bicker towards one another, Chibiusa is shown to have an admiration for Usagi. At times, a mother and daughter relationship is established between the two, shown in various everyday actions such as Usagi holding Chibiusa's hand to cross the street, etc. In "Sailor Moon Crystal", Usagi talks to Chibiusa as in a mix of motherly and sister fashion; the two eventually regards each other as best friends.


title: Chibiusa

text: Before Usagi's discovery of Chibiusa's real identity, Chibiusa was kept under surveillance by Usagi- believing that Chibiusa may possibly be an enemy agent. Throughout the progression of the "Black Moon" Arc, Usagi slowly reaches an understanding of Chibiusa's motives and reasons for her actions- until her feelings towards Chibiusa is replaced from anguish and jealousy, to love and sympathy. A contrast in the beginning and end of "Sailor Moon Crystal"'s "Black Moon" Arc is shown, in which Usagi expresses her rage upon Chibiusa's arrival, whilst in the latter as the season ends Usagi is shown to be tearfully enjoying Chibiusa's return.


title: Chibiusa

text: Chibiusa started out socially awkward; she quickly became popular with her classmates. In the manga, she once became president of her class. Her initial shyness could be attributed to the fact that she was teased in the 30th century for not having any Soldier powers. As the manga progresses, she gradually matures, becoming more comfortable with herself and more confident with her Soldier abilities. Because her dream in the manga is to become a beautiful lady, her actions and ideals are often are based around this goal. She tries to be a perfectionist and starts off trying to do everything alone and for herself. This view evolves as she realizes what maturity really is and what it really means to be an adult. In the original anime, she is more judgmental and does not mature as much as her manga counterpart. But she does in Sailor Moon Crystal and gets along better with Usagi.


title: Chibiusa

text: Chibiusa's dream is to one day become a real lady, to have her own prince, and to be friends with everyone she knows. Meanwhile, she is a fairly ordinary little girl; she likes the colors pink and red, pudding, pancakes, and rabbits. Her favorite school subject is drawing, while her least favorites are language classes. Her least favorite food is listed in the manga as carrots, just like Usagi, but they both eat them in the anime. Chibiusa hates homemaking and "taking care of the house" and is afraid of such things as thunder and lightning, ghosts, vampires, dentists, and needles. She also likes to collect things with rabbits on them, and belongs to the Gardening Committee at school. She is very short when she first appears, but grows slightly taller as she gets older.


title: Chibiusa

text: As a character with different incarnations, special powers, transformations and a long lifetime virtually spanned between the 20th and the 30th centuries, Chibiusa gains multiple aspects and aliases as the series progresses.


title: Chibiusa

text: Sailor Chibi Moon is Chibiusa's identity as a Sailor Soldier. Her uniforms resemble Sailor Moon's, colored primarily in cherry blossom pink and red, with a prominent motif of small hearts, joined later by crescent moons and stars. Due to her small stature, certain details of her uniforms are slightly abbreviated and her body becomes a bit older, and taller. She is given various titles throughout the series, including Princess Soldier, Apprentice Soldier, and Soldier in Training. As the daughter of Sailor Moon and Tuxedo Mask, she exhibits traits of both parents in battle. Her personality is no different from when she is a civilian, although certain powers are unavailable to her in that form.


title: Chibiusa

text: In the manga Sailor Chibi Moon's powers are significant, able to destroy and kill enemies. She attacks in tandem with Sailor Moon, often combining attacks with her, and combining one with Tuxedo Mask. Late in the series, it is heavily implied that she will marry her own prince in the future, Helios. She also develops and matures as a Sailor Soldier throughout the manga, assisted by her own guardians, the Sailor Quartet, and eventually saving Sailor Moon's life.


title: Chibiusa

text: In the anime she is made into more of a comic character that has little to no effect on her enemies. She uses mainly distraction techniques and plays a side role, instead of a role that is directly useful to the Sailor Soldiers. While her powers are specifically based on Sailor Moon's in words, they are more like that of her father's — distractions rather than effective attacks. She links her powers with her parents' in the movies, but not in the TV series. It is clear, though, that she does have some true raw power, as seen in Episode 81, and in the final battle sequences where she uses the Silver Crystal. However, when she uses her powers as a regular character this rarely comes into play.


title: Chibiusa

text: Her powers in the musicals are based on both her anime and manga incarnations. In "Last Dracul" she heads to the enemy hideout alone only to have her attacks fail; In the revised version of "Transylvania no Mori" she laments that a phrase from a game similar to Red light Green light is more useful than her most powerful attack when dealing with the Sammael Quartet. Conversely, in the same musicals she is able to combine her powers with Sailor Moon for multiple powerful attacks that damage/heal enemies. It is only in the fourth season of the anime that she gains a more relevant role as Pegasus gives her a new compact to become Super Sailor Chibi Moon for the first time, and she becomes the only one able to summon him to give assistance to Sailor Moon in performing the attacks that defeat the enemies' minions.


title: Chibiusa

text: As she grows stronger, Sailor Chibi Moon gains additional power, and at key points her uniform changes to reflect this. The first change is first seen in act 33 of the manga, when the Holy Chalice of the future allows her to turn into Super Sailor Chibi Moon (or Super Sailor Mini Moon in the English anime). Later, Pegasus gives her a compact which lets her transform without the Grail. In episode 128 of the anime, this gift is what causes her to become Super Sailor Chibi Moon for the first time. A third form appears in Act 42 of the manga, unnamed but analogous to Eternal Sailor Moon ("sans" wings). In the official visual book for Sailor Moon Eternal, this form was named "Eternal Sailor Chibi Moon".


title: Chibiusa

text: , official name and title is often shortened by her parents and family friends to to better differentiate her from her mother; this is the name that Chibiusa is known by in her 30th century timeline.


title: Chibiusa

text: In the manga, this form appears more frequently and receives more explanation. It is the name given to her by her parents so she often uses this to identify herself in the future. The only other character to use it, besides the royal family and its friends and allies, is Diana, who periodically calls her by Small Lady and uses honorific endings "-denka" to indicate that Chibiusa is a non-sovereign crown princess. Her princess form also appears in "Artbooks IV" and the "Materials Collection", in which she is drawn among the other Sailor Soldiers in their specific gowns. She wears a light pink gown unique from all the others.


title: Chibiusa

text: In the anime, Chibiusa changes into her princess form when she needs more power than her Soldier or civilian forms allow, similar to how her parents can become Prince Endymion and Princess Serenity when they need more power. In this form, she wears a dress and jewelry identical to that of Princess Serenity, albeit smaller. This happens twice, during the final battles of the second and fourth series. Like her mother, Chibiusa grows a pair of functioning, angelic wings during the "SuperS" climax. She does this after Usagi, as Serenity, grabs her while they are falling, and the two of them collide with Pegasus. It is unknown if she grew the wings on her own or with Usagi's or Pegasus' help. The Chibiusa of the future, Small Lady, is also shown in her princess dress when she is not transformed, so this form is not exclusive to power-ups.


title: Chibiusa

text: In the anime, it is not told where she got the name from, but again it is only used by the royal family and friends. She mainly goes by Chibiusa, even to the point where in the 20th century she asks Setsuna to call her Chibiusa instead of Small Lady.


title: Chibiusa

text: In act 40 of the manga, it is stated that when she is old enough she will become Princess Lady Serenity. This form is shown in "Artbooks IV" and "V" and in Helios' dreams. In the end, when the enemy is defeated and Helios has departed on the back of the "real" Pegasus, Chibiusa thinks to herself that when she has grown up, he will become her "prince." This older future form is never shown or mentioned in the anime, though an older Chibiusa is shown in episode 158 when she and Usagi switch ages.


title: Chibiusa

text: During the Black Moon Clan arc, Chibiusa was lost in a space-time storm and then found by Wiseman who then preyed on her frustration and despondencies, deceiving her in entering a faustian deal which turns her into his agent , known as Wicked Lady in the DiC dub. Infused with the energies of the Malefic Black Crystal, causing the Black Moon insignia to appear on her head, Black Lady resembles Chibiusa as an adult in an organdy and satin dress, Black Crystal earrings, and hair longer than Usagi's.


title: Chibiusa

text: Obsessively in love with Mamoru, Black Lady abducted Tuxedo Mask when he entered the space-time storm after Wiseman turned her into his servant. In the anime reboot "Sailor Moon Crystal", Black Lady was also present as a shadowy silhouette to insult Rubeus as Wiseman kills him. She later reveals herself to Demand and Safir after the Malefic Black Crystal Reactor had a meltdown, taking the two to Wiseman. Black Lady later confronts the Sailor Guardians directly to take their Silver Crystal, discarding her birthright while summoning additional chucks of Malefic Back Crystal to speed up 30th Century Earth's destruction. But when Sailor Pluto sacrificed herself to prevent Demand from accidentally destroying the universe with the two Silver Crystals, Black Lady emotionally broke down upon remembering her friendship with Pluto. Black Lady's anguished crying awakened the future Silver Crystal's power, shattering Wiseman's spell over her as she reverts to her original form and reawakens as Sailor Chibi Moon.


title: Chibiusa

text: In the original anime, weaponizing Luna-P rather than discard the toy when it recognized her, Black Lady's memories were greatly distorted to have her assumed that she was unloved by both her parents and gave her motivation to kill them and the Sailor Guardians. But Black Lady is purified back to Chibiusa when Sailor Moon assumed the appearance of Neo-Queen Serenity and embraced her.


title: Chibiusa

text: Black Lady also appears in the Sailor Moon musicals "Tanjou! Ankoku no Princess Black Lady" and its revision "Tanjou! Ankoku no Princess Black Lady [Kaiteiban] -Wakusei Nemesis no Nazo-".


title: Chibiusa

text: From Chibiusa's first appearance, her primary tool is the cat-faced rubber ball called Luna-P (alternately called "Lunaball" or "Luna Sphere" in the DiC anime). Luna-P is a mechanical object strongly resembling Luna, which Chibiusa regards as her closest friend and which acts as her guardian. It can be used as a communication device, particularly with Sailor Pluto, and can be transformed into other objects Chibiusa may need by use of a special phrase, such as "Luna-P Transform" in the manga, or "Luna-P Kitty Magic" in the anime. While the manga and "Crystal" depicted her knocking Luna-P away, Black Lady overwrites the toy's programming with the Black Crystal's power to use as a weapon in the original anime.


title: Chibiusa

text: Chibiusa travels through time at various points in the series using the Key of Space-Time given to her by Sailor Pluto (in the manga and "Crystal", she stole it). She time-travels by holding up the key and shouting, "Time Guardian! Tear apart the sky, and open the space-time door to me! I call the true name of the almighty god of time, the time guardian's father! Chronos! Reveal to me the path of light!"


title: Chibiusa

text: Chibiusa is not shown using "unassisted" powers until she transforms into a Sailor Soldier by activating a special device and shouting a certain phrase. Originally this is "Moon Prism Power, Make-up!" In the manga, her becoming a Soldier at the end of the second story arc is shown, whereas in the anime it happens off-screen and is not revealed until partway into the third arc. She does not initially have a full anime transformation sequence.


title: Chibiusa

text: In the manga, Sailor Chibi Moon's first act as a Sailor Soldier is to use the Moon Rod of the future (analogous to Sailor Moon's rod of the present) to perform a double "Moon Princess Halation" with Sailor Moon, destroying Death Phantom. During the third story arc, she uses her own Moon Rod (called the Pink Moon Stick in the anime) in conjunction with her first solo power, "Pink Sugar Heart Attack". This is a reasonably effective attack in the manga, but is nearly useless in the anime and is mainly used for comedic effect. It often lacks sufficient range to hit a monster or fails to initiate at all. The damage it deals can be strong enough to shatter glass.


title: Chibiusa

text: At the end of the manga's third arc, she assists Super Sailor Moon by briefly upgrading to Super form herself using the Holy Grail of the future. Neither is able to maintain this form under her own strength until the fourth story arc, when they are empowered by Pegasus to take on Super forms whenever they need to via "Moon Crisis, Make-up!" In the anime, this is the first time Chibiusa takes on her Super form, and throughout the fourth series she and Sailor Moon share a single transformation sequence.


title: Chibiusa

text: Sailor Chibi Moon is strengthened significantly in the fourth story arc by Pegasus, who takes refuge in the Golden Mirror of her dreams. He grants her a new transformation (shared with Usagi, in the anime), and gives her two special items with which to contact him: the Stallion Reve, for simple communication, and the Crystal Carillon to summon him in battle. Using the latter, fashioned from her old Pink Moon Stick and retaining all its powers, she summons Pegasus by shouting "Twinkle Yell!" This allows Sailor Moon to power up and make her final blow. Furthermore, in the anime only, Sailor Chibi Moon is given the Golden Crystal, which she uses to call on the power of dreams. In the manga, Chibiusa is also briefly entrusted with the Deep Aqua Mirror, Sailor Neptune's Talisman, and can use it to teleport to Neptune's location.


title: Chibiusa

text: Together with Tuxedo Mask, she performs "Pink Sugar Tuxedo Attack," and continues to occasionally join Sailor Moon in one-off power-ups of the latter's attacks, including "Rainbow Double Moon Heart Ache" and "Double Starlight Honeymoon Therapy Kiss". Only one of these is used in the anime: "Moon Gorgeous Meditation," which is only ever shown as a joint power, using the Kaleido Moon Scopes, which are given to them by Mamoru in the manga and Pegasus in the anime. She also uses several comedic one-offs, including fending off a vampire with "Garlic Attack" jump-kicking with Sailor Moon, and amplifying the sound of her crying to a deafening level with her hair-pieces.


title: Chibiusa

text: At the end of the fourth arc, in the manga only, the Silver Crystal of the future evolves into Chibiusa's own Pink Moon Crystal, and she gains the ability to transform into her third, most powerful Soldier form. When she returns from the future in the final story arc with her guardians, the Sailor Quartet, they perform "Pink Ladies Freezing Kiss" together.


title: Chibiusa

text: In the original Japanese anime series, Chibiusa is voiced by Kae Araki. Misato Fukuen provides her voice in "Sailor Moon Crystal".


title: Chibiusa

text: In the DIC/Cloverway edited English-language adaptation, the voice of "Rini" is provided first by Tracey Hoyt (in the "R" series and movies) and then by Stephanie Beard (in the "S" and "SuperS" series); Elizabeth Saunders provided the voice of "Wicked Lady". In Viz Media's English re-dub by Studiopolis, Chibiusa's voice is provided by Sandy Fox in both her normal and "Black Lady" forms.


title: Chibiusa

text: In the stage musicals, Chibiusa was frequently double-cast, and has been played by 15 actresses: , , , , , Arisu Izawa, , , , , , , , , and Airi Kanda. In 2001, Mao Kawasaki went on to portray her evil adult form, Black Lady. This form was also portrayed by and . Ayano Gunji, the longest running Chibiusa actress, stated that the manga and anime of "Sailor Moon" was #1, and she was happy to watch the show. She also stated she became even happier when she was able to wear Chibi Moon's costume, and wanted to live actively like Chibiusa.


title: Chibiusa

text: The Japanese official "Sailor Moon" character popularity poll listed Chibiusa, Sailor Chibi Moon, Princess Lady Serenity, and Black Lady as separate entities. In 1993, with fifty choices, Chibiusa was the most popular character, Black Lady was the thirteenth most popular, and Luna-P, an item of Chibiusa's, was the seventeenth most popular character. In 1994, with fifty one choices, Sailor Chibi Moon was the second most popular character, Chibiusa was the eighth most popular, and Luna-P was the twenty sixth most popular character. In early 1996, with fifty one choices, Sailor Chibi Moon was again the second most popular character, Chibiusa was the eleventh most popular, and Princess Lady Serenity, an older form of Small Lady, was the twenty fourth most popular character.


title: Chibiusa

text: Despite this, Chibiusa has been described by Jonathan Clements and Helen McCarthy as "unpopular" even among Japanese audiences, at least in the anime.


title: Reflector sight

text: A reflector sight or reflex sight is an optical sight that allows the user to look through a partially reflecting glass element and see an illuminated projection of an aiming point or some other image superimposed on the field of view. These sights work on the simple optical principle that anything at the focus of a lens or curved mirror (such as an illuminated reticle) will appear to be sitting in front of the viewer at infinity. Reflector sights employ some sort of "reflector" to allow the viewer to see the infinity image and the field of view at the same time, either by bouncing the image created by lens off a slanted glass plate, or by using a mostly clear curved glass reflector that images the reticle while the viewer looks through the reflector. Since the reticle is at infinity it stays in alignment with the device to which the sight is attached regardless of the viewer's eye position, removing most of the parallax and other sighting errors found in simple sighting devices.


title: Reflector sight

text: Since their invention in 1900, reflector sights have come to be used as gun sights on various weapons. They were used on fighter aircraft, in a limited capacity in World War I, widely used in World War II, and still used as the base component in many types of modern head-up displays. They have been used in other types of (usually large) weapons as well, such as anti-aircraft gun sights, anti-tank gun sights, and any other role where the operator had to engage fast moving targets over a wide field of view, and the sight itself could be supplied with sufficient electrical power to function. There was some limited use of the sight on small arms after World War II, but the sight came into widespread use during the late 1970s with the invention of the red dot sight. This sight uses a red light-emitting diode (LED) as its illumination source, making a durable, dependable sight with an extremely long illumination run time.


title: Reflector sight

text: Reflector sights are also used in civilian applications such as sights on surveying equipment, optical telescope pointing aids, and camera viewfinders.


title: Reflector sight

text: Reflector sights work by using a lens or an image-forming curved mirror with a luminous or reflective overlay image or reticle at its focus, creating an optical collimator that produces a virtual image of that reticle. The image is reflected off some form of angled beam splitter or the partially silvered collimating curved mirror itself so that the observer (looking through the beam splitter or mirror) will see the image at the focus of the collimating optics superimposed in the sight's field of view in focus at ranges up to infinity. Since the optical collimator produces a reticle image made up of collimated light, light that is nearly parallel, the light making up that image is theoretically perfectly parallel with the axis of the device or gun barrel it is aligned with, i.e. with no parallax at infinity. The collimated reticle image can also be seen at any eye position in the cylindrical volume of collimated light created by the sight behind the optical window. But this also means, for targets closer than infinity, sighting towards the edge of the optical window can make the reticle move in relation to the target since the observer is sighting down a parallel light bundle at the edge. Eye movement perpendicular to the device's optical axis will make the reticle image move in exact relationship to eye position in the cylindrical column of light created by the collimating optics.


title: Reflector sight

text: A common type (used in applications such as aircraft gun sights) uses a collimating lens and a beam splitter. This type tends to be bulky since it requires at least two optical components, the lens and the beam splitter/glass plate. The reticle collimation optics are situated at 90° to the optical path making lighting difficult, usually needing additional electric illumination, condensing lenses, etc. A more compact type replaces the lens/beam splitter configuration with a half silvered or dichroic curved collimating mirror set at an angle that performs both tasks of focusing and combining the image of an offset reticle. This type is most often seen as the red dot type used on small arms. It is also possible to place the reticle between the viewer and the curved mirror at the mirror's focus. The reticle itself is too close to the eye to be in focus but the curved mirror presents the viewer with an image of the reticle at infinity. This type was invented by Dutch optical engineer Lieuwe Van Albada in 1932, originally as a camera viewfinder, and was also used as a gunsight on World War II bazookas: the US M9 and M9A1 "Bazooka" featured the D7161556 folding ""Reflecting Sight Assembly"".


title: Reflector sight

text: The viewing portion of a reflector sight does not use any refractive optical elements, it is simply a projected reticle bounced off a beam splitter or curved mirror right into the users eye. This gives it the defining characteristics of not needing considerable experience and skill to use, as opposed to simple mechanical sights such as iron sights. A reflector sight also does not have the field of view and eye relief problems of sights based on optical telescopes: depending on design constraints their field of view is the user's naked eye field of view, and their non-focusing collimated nature means they don't have the optical telescopes constraint of eye relief. Reflector sights can be combined with telescopes, usually by placing the telescope directly behind the sight so it can view the projected reticle creating a telescopic sight, but this re-introduces the problems of narrow field of view and limited eye relief. The primary drawback of reflector sight is that they need some way to illuminate the reticle to function. Reticles illuminated by ambient light are hard to use in low light situations, and sights with electrical illumination stop functioning altogether if that system fails.


title: Reflector sight

text: The idea of a reflector sight originated in 1900 with Irish optical designer and telescope maker Howard Grubb in patent No.12108. Grubb conceived of his ""Gun Sight for large and small Ordnance"" as a better alternative to the difficult to use iron sight while avoiding the telescopic sight's limited field of view, greater apparent target speed, parallax errors, and the danger of keeping the eye against an eye stop. In the 1901 the "Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society" he described his invention as:


title: Reflector sight

text: It was noted soon after its invention that the sight could be a good alternative to iron sights and also had uses in surveying and measuring equipment. The reflector sight was first used on German fighter aircraft in 1918 and widely adopted on all kinds of fighter and bomber aircraft in the 1930s. By World War II the reflector sight was being used on many types of weapons besides aircraft, including anti-aircraft guns, naval guns, anti-tank weapons, and many other weapons where the user needed the simplicity and quick target acquisition nature of the sight. Through its development in the 1930s and into World War II the sight was also being referred to in some applications by the abbreviation ""reflex sight"".


title: Reflector sight

text: Reflector sights were invented as an improved gun-sight and since their invention they have been adapted to many types of weapons. When used with different types of guns, reflector sights are considered an improvement over simple iron sights (sights composed of two spaced metal aiming points that have to be aligned). Iron sights take considerable experience and skill in the user who has to hold a proper eye position and focus exclusively on the front sight, keeping it centered on the (unfocused) rear sight, while keeping the whole centered on a target at different distances, requiring alignment of all three "planes of focus" to achieve a hit. The reflector sight's single, parallax-free virtual image, in focus with the target, removes this aiming problem, helping poor, average, and expert shooters alike.


title: Reflector sight

text: Since the collimated image produced by the sight is only truly parallax free at infinity, the sight has an error circle equal to the diameter of the collimating optics for any target at a finite distance. Depending on the eye position behind the sight and the closeness of the target this induces some aiming error. For larger targets at a distance (given the non-magnifying, quick target acquisitions nature of the sight) this aiming error is considered trivial. On small arms aimed at close targets this is compensated for by keeping the reticle in the middle of the optical window (sighting down its optical axis). Some manufacturers of small arms sights also make models with the optical collimator set at a finite distance. This gives the sight parallax due to eye movement the size of the optical window at close range which diminishes to a minimal size at the set distance (somewhere around a desired target range of 25-50 yards).


title: Reflector sight

text: Compared to standard telescopic sights, a reflector sight can be held at any distance from the eye (does not require a designed eye relief), and at almost any angle, without distorting the image of the target or reticle. They are often used with both eyes open (the brain will tend to automatically superimpose the illuminated reticle image coming from the dominant eye onto the other eye's unobstructed view), giving the shooter normal depth perception and full field of view. Since Reflector sights are not dependent on eye relief, they can theoretically be placed in any mechanically-convenient mounting position on a weapon.


title: Reflector sight

text: The earliest record of the reflector sight being used with fighter aircraft was in 1918. The optical firm of "Optische Anstalt Oigee" of Berlin, working from the Grubb patents, developed two versions what came to be known as the Oigee Reflector Sight. Both used a 45 degree angle glass beam splitter and electrical illumination and were used to aim the plane's machine guns. One version was used in operational trials on the biplane Albatros D.Va and triplane Fokker Dr.1 fighters. There was some interest in this sight after World War I but reflector sights in general were not widely adopted for fighter and bomber aircraft until the 1930s, first by the French, then by most other major airforces. These sights were not only used for aiming fighter aircraft, they were used with aircraft defensive guns and in bombsights.


title: Reflector sight

text: Reflector sights as aircraft gun-sights have many advantages. The pilot/gunner need not position their head to align the sight line precisely as they did in two-point mechanical sights, head position is only limited to that determined by the optics in the collimator, mostly by the diameter of the collimator lens. The sight does not interfere with the overall view, particularly when the collimator light is turned off. Both eyes may be used simultaneously for sighting.


title: Reflector sight

text: The optical nature of the reflector sight meant it was possible to feed other information into field of view, such as modifications of the aiming point due to deflection determined by input from a gyroscope. 1939 saw the development by the British of the first of these gyro gunsights, reflector sights adjusted by gyroscope for the aircraft's speed and rate of turn, enabling the display of a lead-adjusted sighting reticle that lagged the actual "boresight" of the weapon(s), allowing the boresight to lead the target in a turn by the proper amount for an effective strike


title: Reflector sight

text: As reflector sight designs advanced after World War II, giving the pilot more and more information, they eventually evolved into the head-up display (HUD). The illuminated reticle was eventually replaced by a video screen at the focus of the collimating optics that not only gave a sighting point and information from a lead-finding computer and radar, but also various aircraft indicators (such as an artificial horizon, compass, altitude and airspeed indicators), facilitating the visual tracking of targets or the transition from instrument to visual methods during landings.


title: Reflector sight

text: The idea of attaching a reflector sight to a firearm has been around since its invention in 1900. Soon after World War II models appeared for rifles and shotguns including the Nydar shotgun sight (1945), which used a curved semi-reflective mirror to reflect an ambient lit reticle, and the Giese electric gunsight (1947), which had a battery-powered illuminated reticle. Later types included the Qwik-Point (1970) and the Thompson Insta-Sight. Both were beam-splitter type reflector sights that used ambient light: illuminating a green crosshair in the Insta-Sight, and a red plastic rod "light pipe" that produced a red aiming spot reticle in the Qwik-Point.


title: Reflector sight

text: The mid- to late 1970s saw the introduction of what are usually referred to as red dot sights, a type that gives the user a simple bright red dot as an aiming point. The typical configuration for this sight is a compact curved mirror reflector design with a red light-emitting diode (LED) at its focus. Using an LED as a reticle is an innovation that greatly improves the reliability and general usefulness of the sight: there is no need for other optical elements to focus light behind a reticle; the mirror can use a dichroic coating to reflect just the red spectrum, passing through most other light; and the LED itself is solid state and consumes very little power, allowing battery-powered sights to run for hundreds and even tens of thousands of hours.


title: Reflector sight

text: Reflector sights for military firearms (usually referred to as reflex sights) took a long time to be adopted. The US House Committee on Armed Services noted as far back as 1975 on the suitability of the use of reflex sight for the M16 rifle, but the US military did not widely introduce reflector sights until the early 2000s with the Aimpoint CompM2 red dot sight, designated the "M68 Close Combat Optic".


title: Reflector sight

text: Many reticle illumination and pattern options are available. Common light sources used in firearm reflector sights include battery powered lights, fiber optic light collectors, and even tritium capsules. Some sights are specifically designed to be visible when viewed through night vision devices. The color of a sight reticle is often red or amber for visibility against most backgrounds. Some sights use a chevron or triangular pattern instead, to aid precision aiming and range estimation, and still others provide selectable patterns.


title: Reflector sight

text: Sights that use dot reticles are almost invariably measured in minutes of arc, sometimes called "minutes of angle" or "moa". Moa is a convenient measure for shooters using Imperial or US customary units, since 1 moa subtends approximately at a distance of , which makes moa a convenient unit to use in ballistics calculations. A 5 moa (1.5 milliradian) dot is small enough not to obscure most targets, and large enough to quickly acquire a proper "sight picture". For many types of action shooting, a larger dot has traditionally been preferred; 7, 10, 15 or even 20 moa (2, 3, 4.5 or 6 mil) have been used; often these will be combined with horizontal and/or vertical lines to provide a level reference.


title: Reflector sight

text: Most sights have either active or passive adjustments for the reticle brightness, which help the shooter adapt to different lighting conditions. A very dim reticle will help prevent loss of night vision in low-light conditions, while a brighter reticle will display more clearly in full sunlight.


title: Reflector sight

text: Modern optical reflector sights designed for firearms and other uses fall into two housing-configurations: "tubed" and "open".


title: Reflector sight

text: Reflector sights have been used over the years in nautical navigation devices and surveying equipment. Albada type sights were used on early large format cameras, "Point and shoot" type cameras, and on simple disposable cameras.


title: Reflector sight

text: These sights are also used on astronomical telescopes as finderscopes, to help aim the telescope at the desired object. There are many commercial models, the first of which was the Telrad, invented by amateur astronomer Steve Kufeld in the late 1970s. Others are now available from companies such as Apogee, Celestron, Photon, Rigel, and Televue.


title: Reflector sight

text: Reflector sights are also used in the entertainment industry in productions such as live theater on "Follow Spot" spotlights. Sights such as Telrad's adapted for use and the purpose built Spot Dot allow the spotlight operator to aim the light without turning it on.


title: Cinnarizine

text: Cinnarizine is an antihistamine and calcium channel blocker of the diphenylmethylpiperazine group. It is prescribed for nausea and vomiting due to motion sickness or other sources such as chemotherapy, vertigo, or Ménière's disease.


title: Cinnarizine

text: Cinnarizine was first synthesized as R1575 by Janssen Pharmaceutica in 1955. The nonproprietary name is derived from the cinnamyl substituent on one of the nitrogen atoms, combined with the generic ending "-rizine" for "antihistaminics/cerebral (or peripheral) vasodilators". It is not available in the United States or Canada. It has also been cited as one of the most used drugs for seasickness within the British Royal Navy.


title: Cinnarizine

text: Cinnarizine is predominantly used to treat nausea and vomiting associated with motion sickness, vertigo, Ménière's disease, or Cogan's syndrome.


title: Cinnarizine

text: In fact, it is one of only a select few drugs that has shown a beneficial effect in the chronic treatment of the vertigo and tinnitus, associated with Meniere's disease. However, due to increased levels of drowsiness caused by the medication, it is generally of limited use in pilots and aircrew who must be dependably alert. In a clinical study (n=181), treatment with cinnarizine reduced the occurrence of moderate vertigo experience by 65.8% and extreme vertigo by 89.8%.


title: Cinnarizine

text: It acts by interfering with the signal transmission between vestibular apparatus of the inner ear and the vomiting centre of the hypothalamus by limiting the activity of the vestibular hair cells which send signals about movement. The disparity of signal processing between inner ear motion receptors and the visual senses is abolished, so that the confusion of brain whether the individual is moving or standing is reduced. Vomiting in motion sickness could be a physiological compensatory mechanism of the brain to keep the individual from moving so that it can adjust to the signal perception, but the true evolutionary reason for this malady is currently unknown.


title: Cinnarizine

text: When prescribed for balance problems and vertigo, cinnarizine is typically taken two or three times daily depending on the amount of each dose and when used to treat motion sickness, the pill is taken at least two hours before travelling and then again every four hours during travel. However, a recent 2012 study comparing the effects of cinnarizine to transdermal scopolamine for the treatment of seasickness, concluded that scopolamine was reported as significantly more effective and as having fewer adverse side effects than cinnarizine. This led to the conclusion that transdermal scopolamine is likely a better option for the treatment of motion sickness in naval crew and other sea travelers.