title: Premier Volleyball League

text: The Shakey's V-League changed its name to the Premier Volleyball League (PVL) starting the 2017 season. The Spikers' Turf, which was spun-off from the league in 2015, was merged back to the PVL and was rebranded as the PVL's men's division. The renaming was part of a bid to secure more sponsorship for the league. There was a plan to rename the league to the Philippine Volleyball League instead but this was abandoned due to another entity already owning the name. The order of its conference was also changed with the league beginning with the import-laden Reinforced Conference and the Open Conference being held close to the start of the UAAP and NCAA tournaments which is usually held near the year's end. Prior to this, the Open Conference was traditionally held earlier.


title: Premier Volleyball League

text: The PVL men's division ended with the 2018 PVL Collegiate Conference as its final tournament. The men's division reverted to the Spikers' Turf. The first tournament since the revert was the Open Conference in October 2018.


title: Premier Volleyball League

text: The 2020 season was indefinitely postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic and there were plans to start the season with the Open Conference instead of the Reinforced Conference in September 2020 due to logistics issue of flying in imports for the latter.


title: Premier Volleyball League

text: In October 2020, the Philippines' Games and Amusements Board (GAB) issued a directive that players compensated for non-national team play would be considered as professionals, as well as all sporting events organized for profit. This has raised concerns regarding the status of leagues such as the PVL and its rival league, the Philippine Super Liga (PSL). The PVL in particular was concerned over the financial aspects of operating as a professional league.


title: Premier Volleyball League

text: In November 2020, the PVL announced that the league would turn professional starting with the 2021 season, believing it has enough women players to make the move. The league was already considering move for some time due to the collegiate league UAAP deciding to bar its rookies from playing in commercial leagues starting its UAAP Season 81 (2018-19) in anticipation that all college players would not be allowed to play in the PVL eventually. Prior to the league's professionalization, the PVL was considered as semi-professional and thus, its affairs were not supervised or regulated by the GAB. Six PVL teams—BaliPure, Banko Perlas, Choco Mucho, Creamline, Motolite, and Petro Gazz—agreed to the move of the PVL turning professional.


title: Premier Volleyball League

text: A new separate league, to be called the V-League, will be formed to accommodate collegiate and amateur teams which could no longer participate in the PVL due to the league's professionalization. Prior to its professionalization, the PVL hosted a collegiate conference.


title: Premier Volleyball League

text: Prior to the start of the 2021 season, five PSL teams—Chery Tiggo, Cignal HD, F2 Logistics, PLDT, and Sta. Lucia—joined the PVL, which rendered the PVL a "unified" professional league, leaving the PSL with only three inactive member teams.


title: Premier Volleyball League

text: In 2022, a plan to announce a rookie draft system to the PVL was revealed, which would have meant that teams will no longer be allowed to directly hire players like they did in the past. PVL President Ricky Palou said in an interview on One News' The Big Story that he enumerated the propositions set to improve the league, including a draft system and guidelines on trading players in 2023.


title: Premier Volleyball League

text: The PVL returns in 2022 with the organization of the PVL Open Conference. In October 2022, PVL announced the use of video challenge system for the first time in the return of the Reinforced Conference after three years. Sports Vision relaunched its collegiate competitions as the V-League with twelve men's teams and eight women's teams.


title: Premier Volleyball League

text: The Premier Volleyball League does not use a "home-and-away" format since most teams are managed by corporations. Games are presently held at the Filoil Flying V Centre (formerly Filoil Flying V Arena).


title: Premier Volleyball League

text: During the semi-finals to championship rounds of Season 10, games were held at the Mall of Asia Arena in Pasay and at the iconic PhilSports Arena in Pasig to accommodate larger spectators' attendance. Other venues in the past included the Lyceum of the Philippines University gymnasium, the Blue Eagle Gym and the Rizal Memorial Coliseum.


title: Michael Higgs

text: Michael Higgs (born 14 February 1962) is an English actor best known for prominent roles in two long-running television series: Eddie Santini in ITV1's "The Bill" and Andy Hunter in "EastEnders", in addition to an 8-episode stretch as Dr Thomas Waugh in "Bad Girls".


title: Michael Higgs

text: He is married to actress Caroline Catz, whom he met on the set of "The Bill". They have a son who was born in 2001 and a daughter who was born in 2006.


title: Enock Mwepu

text: Enock Mwepu (born 1 January 1998) is a Zambian former professional footballer who played as a midfielder.


title: Enock Mwepu

text: Having begun his career in his native Zambia, Mwepu signed for Austrian club Red Bull Salzburg in 2017 before moving to join Premier League club Brighton & Hove Albion in 2021. Mwepu represented and captained the Zambia national team. On October 10 2022, he was forced to retire following the discovery of a hereditary heart condition.


title: Enock Mwepu

text: Mwepu's career began with Kafue Celtic in Lusaka before being identified with the 2013 Airtel Rising Stars. During the 2015–16 season, Mwepu had little game time with Power Dynamos football club of Copperbelt; this precipitated into a move to NAPSA Stars at the end of the 2016 season.


title: Enock Mwepu

text: In June 2017, Mwepu joined Red Bull Salzburg and was loaned out to Salzburg's feeder club Liefering who play in Austrian Football First League. During the 2019–20 season, Mwepu established himself amongst Salzburg's starting eleven. He made his debut in the UEFA Champions League during a 4–3 loss to Liverpool at Anfield. On 18 December 2019, Mwepu extended his contract with Salzburg until summer 2024.


title: Enock Mwepu

text: On 6 July 2021, he joined Premier League side Brighton & Hove Albion on a four-year contract, for an undisclosed fee. He scored in a 3–1 pre-season friendly win at Luton Town on 31 July.


title: Enock Mwepu

text: He made his competitive "Albion" debut on 14 August in the opening game of the 2021–22 season away at Burnley where he was replaced by Adam Lallana at half time of the eventual 2–1 victory at Turf Moor. On 24 August, Mwepu assisted Jakub Moder's first "Albion" goal in the second round EFL Cup away fixture at Cardiff City where "Albion" won 2–0. He scored his first goal for "The Seagulls" on 27 October, putting them back level to 2–2 in an eventual penalty shootout loss – in which his penalty was saved – away at Leicester City in the EFL Cup. Three days later, he scored his first league goal for the Sussex side, inspiring Brighton's come back with a stunning 25–yard strike in an eventual 2–2 away draw against Liverpool.


title: Enock Mwepu

text: Mwepu had a slow start to 2022 and in general to his time in Sussex due to injury and illness, thus had limited playing time. On his first start since his return from injury Mwepu scored and made an assist for Trossard's opener in the 2–1 away win at Arsenal on 9 April, to help Brighton end their seven match run without a victory. Graham Potter spoke that Mwepu has a "slight injury in his groin which probably means that will be him for the rest of the season," after picking up the knock during the 3–0 away victory at Wolves on 30 April. His debut season with "The Seagulls" was marred by injuries though he had made a positive impact and at the club's end of season awards Mwepu won Goal of the Season for his strike at Liverpool in October. Mwepu managed to recover in time to appear as a substitute in the last game of the season, a 3–1 home victory over West Ham, with Brighton achieving their highest top flight finish in ninth place.


title: Enock Mwepu

text: On 10 October 2022, Mwepu retired from professional football at the age of 24 after being diagnosed with a rare hereditary heart condition.


title: Enock Mwepu

text: In 2014 Mwepu was part of the Zambia national under-17 team that represented the country at the 2015 African U-17 Championship, where Zambia played Niger, Nigeria and Guinea from group A. Mwepu is known for his versatility in the field of play as demonstrated at the 2017 Under-20 Africa Cup of Nations in Zambia, where he scored a goal and was among the best substitutes of the tournament.


title: Enock Mwepu

text: Mwepu scored his first international goal for Zambia in an AFCON Qualifier against Algeria on 2 September 2017 at the National Heroes Stadium in Lusaka, a match which Zambia won 3–1.


title: Transposition cipher

text: In cryptography, a transposition cipher is a method of encryption which scrambles the positions of characters ("transposition") without changing the characters themselves. Transposition ciphers reorder units of plaintext (typically characters or groups of characters) according to a regular system to produce a ciphertext which is a permutation of the plaintext. They differ from substitution ciphers, which do not change the position of units of plaintext but instead change the units themselves. Despite the difference between transposition and substitution operations, they are often combined, as in historical ciphers like the ADFGVX cipher or complex high-quality encryption methods like the modern Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).


title: Transposition cipher

text: Plaintexts can be rearranged into a ciphertext using a key, scrambling the order of characters like the shuffled pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. The resulting message is hard to decipher without the key because there are many ways the characters can be arranged.


title: Transposition cipher

text: For example, the plaintext "THIS IS WIKIPEDIA" could be encrypted to "TWDIP SIHII IKASE". To decipher the encrypted message without the key, an attacker could try to guess possible words and phrases like DIATHESIS, DISSIPATE, WIDTH, etc., but it would take them some time to reconstruct the plaintext because there are many combinations of letters and words. By contrast, someone with the key could reconstruct the message easily:


title: Transposition cipher

text: In practice, a message this short and with a predictable keyword would be broken almost immediately with cryptanalysis techniques. Transposition ciphers have several vulnerabilities (see the section on "Detection and cryptanalysis" below), and small mistakes in the encipherment process can render the entire ciphertext meaningless.


title: Transposition cipher

text: However, given the right conditions - long messages (e.g., over 100–200 letters), unpredictable contents, unique keys per message, strong transposition methods, and so on - guessing the right words could be computationally impossible without further information. In their book on codebreaking historical ciphers, Elonka Dunin and Klaus Schmeh describe double columnar transposition (see below) as "one of the best manual ciphers known".


title: Transposition cipher

text: The Rail Fence cipher is a form of transposition cipher that gets its name from the way in which it is encoded. In the rail fence cipher, the plaintext is written downwards and diagonally on successive "rails" of an imaginary fence, then moving up when we get to the bottom. The message is then read off in rows. For example, using three "rails" and a message of 'WE ARE DISCOVERED FLEE AT ONCE', the cipherer writes out:


title: Transposition cipher

text: The rail fence cipher follows a pattern similar to that of the scytale, (pronounced "SKIT-uhl-ee") a mechanical system of producing a transposition cipher used by the ancient Greeks. The system consisted of a cylinder and a ribbon that was wrapped around the cylinder. The message to be encrypted was written on the coiled ribbon. The letters of the original message would be rearranged when the ribbon was uncoiled from the cylinder. However, the message was easily decrypted when the ribbon recoiled on a cylinder of the same diameter as the encrypting cylinder. Using the same example as before, if the cylinder has a radius such that only three letters can fit around its circumference, the cipherer writes out:


title: Transposition cipher

text: In this example, the cylinder is running horizontally and the ribbon is wrapped around vertically. Hence, the cipherer then reads off:


title: Transposition cipher

text: In a route cipher, the plaintext is first written out in a grid of given dimensions, then read off in a pattern given in the key. For example, using the same plaintext that we used for rail fence:


title: Transposition cipher

text: The key might specify "spiral inwards, clockwise, starting from the top right". That would give a cipher text of:


title: Transposition cipher

text: Route ciphers have many more keys than a rail fence. In fact, for messages of reasonable length, the number of possible keys is potentially too great to be enumerated even by modern machinery. However, not all keys are equally good. Badly chosen routes will leave excessive chunks of plaintext, or text simply reversed, and this will give cryptanalysts a clue as to the routes.


title: Transposition cipher

text: A variation of the route cipher was the Union Route Cipher, used by Union forces during the American Civil War. This worked much like an ordinary route cipher, but transposed whole words instead of individual letters. Because this would leave certain highly sensitive words exposed, such words would first be concealed by code. The cipher clerk may also add entire null words, which were often chosen to make the ciphertext humorous.


title: Transposition cipher

text: In a columnar transposition, the message is written out in rows of a fixed length, and then read out again column by column, and the columns are chosen in some scrambled order. Both the width of the rows and the permutation of the columns are usually defined by a keyword. For example, the keyword is of length 6 (so the rows are of length 6), and the permutation is defined by the alphabetical order of the letters in the keyword. In this case, the order would be "6 3 2 4 1 5".


title: Transposition cipher

text: In a regular columnar transposition cipher, any spare spaces are filled with nulls; in an irregular columnar transposition cipher, the spaces are left blank. Finally, the message is read off in columns, in the order specified by the keyword. For example, suppose we use the keyword and the message . In a regular columnar transposition, we write this into the grid as follows:


title: Transposition cipher

text: providing five nulls (), these letters can be randomly selected as they just fill out the incomplete columns and are not part of the message. The ciphertext is then read off as:


title: Transposition cipher

text: To decipher it, the recipient has to work out the column lengths by dividing the message length by the key length. Then they can write the message out in columns again, then re-order the columns by reforming the key word.


title: Transposition cipher

text: In a variation, the message is blocked into segments that are the key length long and to each segment the same permutation (given by the key) is applied. This is equivalent to a columnar transposition where the read-out is by rows instead of columns.


title: Transposition cipher

text: Columnar transposition continued to be used for serious purposes as a component of more complex ciphers at least into the 1950s.


title: Transposition cipher

text: A single columnar transposition could be attacked by guessing possible column lengths, writing the message out in its columns (but in the wrong order, as the key is not yet known), and then looking for possible anagrams. Thus to make it stronger, a double transposition was often used. This is simply a columnar transposition applied twice. The same key can be used for both transpositions, or two different keys can be used.


title: Transposition cipher

text: As an example, we can take the result of the irregular columnar transposition in the previous section, and perform a second encryption with a different keyword, , which gives the permutation "564231":


title: Transposition cipher

text: If multiple messages of exactly the same length are encrypted using the same keys, they can be anagrammed simultaneously. This can lead to both recovery of the messages, and to recovery of the keys (so that every other message sent with those keys can be read).


title: Transposition cipher

text: During World War I, the German military used a double columnar transposition cipher, changing the keys infrequently. The system was regularly solved by the French, naming it Übchi, who were typically able to quickly find the keys once they'd intercepted a number of messages of the same length, which generally took only a few days. However, the French success became widely known and, after a publication in "Le Matin", the Germans changed to a new system on 18 November 1914.


title: Transposition cipher

text: During World War II, the double transposition cipher was used by Dutch Resistance groups, the French Maquis and the British Special Operations Executive (SOE), which was in charge of managing underground activities in Europe. It was also used by agents of the American Office of Strategic Services and as an emergency cipher for the German Army and Navy.


title: Transposition cipher

text: Until the invention of the VIC cipher, double transposition was generally regarded as the most complicated cipher that an agent could operate reliably under difficult field conditions.


title: Transposition cipher

text: The double transposition cipher can be treated as a single transposition with a key as long as the product of the lengths of the two keys.


title: Transposition cipher

text: In late 2013, a double transposition challenge, regarded by its author as undecipherable, was solved by George Lasry using a divide-and-conquer approach where each transposition was attacked individually.


title: Transposition cipher

text: A variant form of columnar transposition, proposed by Émile Victor Théodore Myszkowski in 1902, requires a keyword with recurrent letters. In usual practice, subsequent occurrences of a keyword letter are treated as if the next letter in alphabetical order, "e.g.," the keyword TOMATO yields a numeric keystring of "532164."


title: Transposition cipher

text: In Myszkowski transposition, recurrent keyword letters are numbered identically, TOMATO yielding a keystring of "432143."


title: Transposition cipher

text: A disrupted transposition cipher further complicates the transposition pattern with irregular filling of the rows of the matrix, i.e. with some spaces intentionally left blank (or blackened out like in the Rasterschlüssel 44), or filled later with either another part of the plaintext or random letters.


title: Transposition cipher

text: One possible algorithm is to start a new row whenever the plaintext reaches a password character. For example,


title: Transposition cipher

text: The columns are then taken off as per regular columnar transposition: TPRPN, KISAA, CHAIT, NBERT, EMATO, etc.


title: Transposition cipher

text: Another simple option would be to use a password that places blanks according to its number sequence. E.g. "SECRET" would be decoded to a sequence of "5,2,1,4,3,6" and cross out the 5th field of the matrix, then count again and cross out the second field, etc. The following example would be a matrix set up for columnar transposition with the columnar key "CRYPTO" and filled with crossed out fields according to the disruption key "SECRET" (marked with an asterisk), whereafter the message "we are discovered, flee at once" is placed in the leftover spaces. The resulting ciphertext (the columns read according to the transposition key) is "WCEEO ERET RIVFC EODN SELE ADA".


title: Transposition cipher

text: Another form of transposition cipher uses "grilles", or physical masks with cut-outs. This can produce a highly irregular transposition over the period specified by the size of the grille, but requires the correspondents to keep a physical key secret. Grilles were first proposed in 1550, and were still in military use for the first few months of World War One.


title: Transposition cipher

text: Since transposition does not affect the frequency of individual symbols, simple transposition can be easily detected by the cryptanalyst by doing a frequency count. If the ciphertext exhibits a frequency distribution very similar to plaintext, it is most likely a transposition.


title: Transposition cipher

text: In general, transposition methods are vulnerable to anagramming—sliding pieces of ciphertext around, then looking for sections that look like anagrams of words in English or whatever language the plaintext was written in, and solving the anagrams. Once such anagrams have been found, they reveal information about the transposition pattern, and can consequently be extended. Simpler transpositions often suffer from the property that keys very close to the correct key will reveal long sections of legible plaintext interspersed by gibberish. Consequently, such ciphers may be vulnerable to optimum seeking algorithms such as genetic algorithms and hill-climbing algorithms.


title: Transposition cipher

text: There are several specific methods for attacking messages encoded using a transposition cipher. These include:


title: Transposition cipher

text: A cipher used by the Zodiac Killer, called "Z-340", organized into triangular sections with substitution of 63 different symbols for the letters and diagonal "knight move" transposition, remained unsolved for over 51 years, until an international team of private citizens cracked it on December 5, 2020, using specialized software.


title: Transposition cipher

text: Transposition is often combined with other techniques such as evaluation methods. For example, a simple substitution cipher combined with a columnar transposition avoids the weakness of both. Replacing high frequency ciphertext symbols with high frequency plaintext letters does not reveal chunks of plaintext because of the transposition. Anagramming the transposition does not work because of the substitution. The technique is particularly powerful if combined with fractionation (see below). A disadvantage is that such ciphers are considerably more laborious and error prone than simpler ciphers.


title: Transposition cipher

text: Transposition is particularly effective when employed with fractionation – that is, a preliminary stage that divides each plaintext symbol into two or more ciphertext symbols. For example, the plaintext alphabet could be written out in a grid, and every letter in the message replaced by its co-ordinates (see Polybius square and Straddling checkerboard).


title: Transposition cipher

text: Another method of fractionation is to simply convert the message to Morse code, with a symbol for spaces as well as dots and dashes.


title: Transposition cipher

text: When such a fractionated message is transposed, the components of individual letters become widely separated in the message, thus achieving Claude E. Shannon's diffusion. Examples of ciphers that combine fractionation and transposition include the bifid cipher, the trifid cipher, the ADFGVX cipher and the VIC cipher.


title: Transposition cipher

text: Another choice would be to replace each letter with its binary representation, transpose that, and then convert the new binary string into the corresponding ASCII characters. Looping the scrambling process on the binary string multiple times before changing it into ASCII characters would likely make it harder to break. Many modern block ciphers use more complex forms of transposition related to this simple idea.


title: Idol Star Athletics Championships

text: The Idol Star Athletics Championships (, abbr. 아육대) is a South Korean television program which aired for the first time in 2010. The program features celebrities, most notably Korean pop idols singers and groups, which compete in multi-sport events. The show is broadcast by MBC.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: Damaged is the debut studio album by the American hardcore punk band Black Flag. It was released by SST Records on December 5, 1981.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: The album was largely ignored by critics and the public at the time of its release, but has since been recognized as a classic and one of the most influential punk rock records ever made, appearing on a number of "best of" lists by fans and critics alike. The album was ranked number 340 on "Rolling Stone"s 2012 list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. "Pitchfork" also ranked it number 25 on its list of the Top 100 Albums of the 1980s.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: Black Flag had made at least two cancelled attempts to record a full-length album since the release of its first extended play "Nervous Breakdown", with singers Keith Morris, Ron Reyes, and Dez Cadena; some of the Reyes sessions became the "Jealous Again" EP, while selections from two of many Cadena sessions became the "Six Pack" EP and the "Louie Louie"/"Damaged I" single; other session outtakes later comprised the "Everything Went Black" double album. At the time of the recording, Cadena had moved to rhythm guitar (a position he had initially intended to take when Reyes was still in the band) and 20-year-old Washington, DC expatriate Henry Rollins had become the band's new lead singer weeks before the sessions occurred. Unlike Reyes, who had never sung in a studio before and Cadena, who had not even sung at all before joining the band, Rollins already had one recording credit to his name with the short-lived DC hardcore punk band State of Alert, who recorded "No Policy", an EP released earlier that year on Dischord Records.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: The band recorded their backing tracks without Rollins, who overdubbed vocals with band members Greg Ginn (guitar) and Chuck Dukowski (bass) coaching him afterward. The most complicated vocal tracks ended up being Dukowski's "What I See", which was supposed to have an improvised speech in the song's bridge but ended up having one written out by Dukowski when Rollins could not come up with anything that he was satisfied with, and "T.V. Party", which featured backing vocals from the entire band.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: The album was recorded at Unicorn Studios, on Santa Monica Blvd in West Hollywood. The band was living and rehearsing in another part of the building that housed Unicorn Studios prior to the sessions.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: Drummer Robo was wearing bracelets on his left wrist that rattled when he played; the rattling, whenever he hit his snare drum, especially when he hit downbeats on it, became part of the sound.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: The version of "Rise Above" on the album was recorded at an earlier session with Rollins and was intended purely for a single release. Another version was recorded during the album sessions but the band abandoned it and decided to include the single version instead.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: The closing track, "Damaged I", is technically Rollins's first writing credit with the band. In his book "Get in the Van", Rollins reports that he used to improvise the lyrics every night when the song was performed live. Two takes of the vocal were done, and the first was used.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: The cover art, taken by punk photographer Ed Colver, features Rollins putting his fist through a mirror. The effect was made by cracking the mirror with a hammer, while the "blood" on Rollins's wrist is a mixture of red ink and coffee. The photograph has been described as "iconic" in the pages of "Artforum".


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: Their distribution deal with Unicorn—which was associated with MCA Records—resulted in an initial pressing of 25,000 copies. MCA Records president Al Bergamo listened to the album prior to release and claimed that it was "anti-parent", although he never cited a specific lyric that led him to that conclusion. As a result, MCA refused to distribute the already-pressed-and-packaged album which bore an MCA Distributing Corp. logo on the lower right corner of the back cover. Black Flag members had to personally visit the pressing plant and apply a sticker over the MCA logo which read, "As a parent ... I found it an anti-parent record"—thus essentially throwing Bergamo's words back in his face.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: Longtime SST employee Joe Carducci has reported that the "anti-parent" statement was a red herring. In fact, according to Carducci, Unicorn Records was so poorly managed and so deeply in debt that MCA lost money in distributing "Damaged", regardless of its content, and was eager to sever its relationship with Unicorn by any possible pretext.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: SST ended up distributing "Damaged" on its own; as a result, Unicorn filed a lawsuit against Black Flag and SST, claiming breach of contract. Black Flag were suddenly enjoined from recording any more records under their own name, although SST were able to continue with its own release schedule, releasing The Minutemen's "The Punch Line" and the debuts of the Meat Puppets and Saccharine Trust. However, Unicorn released a single of an updated "T.V. Party" before the legal trouble started, a recording commissioned by MCA for the soundtrack to the film "Repo Man".


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: The legal dispute between Black Flag and Unicorn tied the band up for almost two years, during which time they released "Everything Went Black", a double album of pre-Rollins outtakes, under the names of the individual musicians and vocalists on the record. Unicorn ended up filing even more legal briefs, claiming that Black Flag had violated a court injunction against releasing new records. Ginn and Dukowski ended up doing several days in Los Angeles County Jail for contempt of court, but the case fizzled out soon afterward when Unicorn went out of business, freeing Black Flag of any further obligation to the label.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: In addition to the known unreleased version of "Rise Above" recorded during the album sessions and the alternate take of "Damaged I", a version of Black Flag's arrangement of "Louie Louie" was also recorded. According to Rollins in "Get in the Van", this version featured the band going into "a strange jam at the end until the tape ran out;" It was never mixed down in any form. As of July 2006, it was unknown if the master tapes to these outtakes were still in existence. Henry Rollins later stated on his radio show's blog that alternate versions of "What I See" and "at least one other song that I can't remember" also came out of the "Damaged" sessions, and that other outtakes from Black Flag's other albums also exist.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: According to Black Flag's engineer and live sound man Spot, a nearly complete version of "Damaged" was recorded at Golden Age Studios with Dez Cadena doing vocal duties. This session is where the tracks for the "Six Pack" EP came from. No official version of the remainder of this recording session has ever been released, although unlicensed copies have circulated in tape trading circles for years. A comparison of the unreleased Dez Cadena sessions with the released LP suggests that the vocal cadence and presentation of the Cadena sessions were used as a reference by the band prior to recording the final album.


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: Reviewing for "The Village Voice" in January 1982, Robert Christgau was generally positive toward the album: "Although the B side drags more painfully than I bet was intended, this is powerful stuff. Greg Ginn is the greatest noise guitarist since Johnny Thunders, new vocalist Henry Rollins can snarl along any tortured contour they serve up, and 'Rise Above,' 'Six Pack,' and the uproarious 'TV Party' prove they can write songs as well as gnash fragments. Inspirational Verse: 'I wanna live/I wish I was dead.'"


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: While the album did not gain much attention from the general press on its original release, the album retrospectively has been given critical acclaim and has been cited as one of the most important hardcore punk albums ever released. "Rolling Stone" in their retrospective review says that "Black Flag lived up to it, defining L.A. hardcore punk with violent guitar and the pissed-off scream of Henry Rollins, especially on "TV Party" and "Rise Above." Punks still listen to Damaged, and parents still hate it." "Pitchfork" in their retrospective review from 2002 says "Black Flag took on the essential ferocity of men about to snap, and combined that with an acidic sense of humor and these things called 'songs', a concept that many of the wannabe punkers of the day were still trying to sort out. "Damaged" hit in 1981, and by 1982, four bars bearing the Black Flag name had been airbrushed across miles and miles of spiked leather. Conflicting feelings of violence, apathy, rage, and self-satire course through this one, the essential touchstone of the entire genre of West Coast hardcore, crystallizing the turmoil of the movement. Listen to 'Rise Above' and try not to be incensed, then listen to 'TV Party' and try not to laugh out loud. That's awesome." John Dougan of AllMusic gave it a perfect five star rating saying "... Although Black Flag had been recording for three years prior to this release, the fact that Henry Rollins was now their lead singer made all the difference. His furious bellow and barely contained ferocity was the missing piece the band needed to become great. Also, guitarist/mastermind Greg Ginn wrote a slew of great songs for this record that, while suffused with the usual punk conceits (alienation, boredom, disenfranchisement), were capable of making one laugh out loud, especially the protoslacker satire 'TV Party' ..." and also noted "... Extremely controversial when it was released, Damaged endured the slings and arrows of outrageous criticism (some reacted as though this record would alone cause the fall of America's youth) to become and remain an important document of its time."


title: Damaged (Black Flag album)

text: Over the years since the album's original release it has been recognized as a punk rock classic and one of the most influential punk rock records ever made by appearing on a number of "best of" lists by magazines and critics. The album was ranked number 340 on "Rolling Stone"s list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. "Pitchfork" also ranked it number 25 on its "Top 100 Albums of the 1980s". The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".


title: Pilot error

text: Pilot error generally refers to an accident in which an action or decision made by the pilot was the cause or a contributing factor that led to the accident, but also includes the pilot's failure to make a correct decision or take proper action. Errors are intentional actions that fail to achieve their intended outcomes. Chicago Convention defines accident as "An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft [...] in which [...] a person is fatally or seriously injured [...] "except when the injuries are [...] inflicted by other persons."" Hence the definition of the "pilot error" does not include deliberate crash (and such crash is not an accident).


title: Pilot error

text: The causes of pilot error include psychological and physiological human limitations. Various forms of threat and error management have been implemented into pilot training programs to teach crew members how to deal with impending situations that arise throughout the course of a flight.


title: Pilot error

text: Accounting for the way human factors influence the actions of pilots is now considered standard practice by accident investigators when examining the chain of events that led to an accident.


title: Pilot error

text: Modern accident investigators avoid the words "pilot error", as the scope of their work is to determine the cause of an accident, rather than to apportion blame. Furthermore, any attempt to incriminate the pilots does not consider that they are part of a broader system, which in turn may be accountable for their fatigue, work pressure, or lack of training. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and its member states, therefore adopted James Reason's model of causation in 1993 in an effort to better understand the role of human factors in aviation accidents.


title: Pilot error

text: Pilot error is nevertheless a major cause of air accidents. In 2004, it was identified as the primary reason for 78.6% of disastrous general aviation (GA) accidents, and as the major cause of 75.5% of GA accidents in the United States. There are multiple factors that can cause pilot error; mistakes in the decision-making process can be due to habitual tendencies, biases, as well as a breakdown in the processing of the information coming in. For aircraft pilots, in extreme circumstances these errors are highly likely to result in fatalities.


title: Pilot error

text: Pilots work in complex environments and are routinely exposed to high amounts of situational stress in the workplace, inducing pilot error which may result in a threat to flight safety. While aircraft accidents are infrequent, they are highly visible and often involve significant numbers of fatalities. For this reason, research on causal factors and methodologies of mitigating risk associated with pilot error is exhaustive. Pilot error results from physiological and psychological limitations inherent in humans. "Causes of error include fatigue, workload, and fear as well as cognitive overload, poor interpersonal communications, imperfect information processing, and flawed decision making." Throughout the course of every flight, crews are intrinsically subjected to a variety of external threats and commit a range of errors that have the potential to negatively impact the safety of the aircraft.


title: Pilot error

text: The term "threat" is defined as any event "external to flight crew's influence which can increase the operational complexity of a flight." Threats may further be broken down into environmental threats and airline threats. Environmental threats are ultimately out of the hands of crew members and the airline, as they hold no influence on "adverse weather conditions, air traffic control shortcomings, bird strikes, and high terrain." Conversely, airline threats are not manageable by the flight crew, but may be controlled by the airline's management. These threats include "aircraft malfunctions, cabin interruptions, operational pressure, ground/ramp errors/events, cabin events and interruptions, ground maintenance errors, and inadequacies of manuals and charts."


title: Pilot error

text: The term "error" is defined as any action or inaction leading to deviation from team or organizational intentions. Error stems from physiological and psychological human limitations such as illness, medication, stress, alcohol/drug abuse, fatigue, emotion, etc. Error is inevitable in humans and is primarily related to operational and behavioral mishaps. Errors can vary from incorrect altimeter setting and deviations from flight course, to more severe errors such as exceeding maximum structural speeds or forgetting to put down landing or takeoff flaps.


title: Pilot error

text: Reasons for negative reporting of accidents include staff being too busy, confusing data entry forms, lack of training and less education, lack of feedback to staff on reported data and punitive organizational cultures. Wiegmann and Shappell invented three cognitive models to analyze approximately 4,000 pilot factors associated with more than 2,000 U.S. Navy aviation mishaps. Although the three cognitive models have slight differences in the types of errors, all three lead to the same conclusion: errors in judgment. The three steps are decision-making, goal-setting, and strategy-selection errors, all of which were highly related to primary accidents. For example, on 28 December 2014, AirAsia Flight 8501, which was carrying seven crew members and 155 passengers, crashed into the Java Sea due to several fatal mistakes made by the captain in the poor weather conditions. In this case, the captain chose to exceed the maximum climb rate for a commercial aircraft, which caused a critical stall from which he was unable to recover.


title: Pilot error

text: TEM involves the effective detection and response to internal or external factors that have the potential to degrade the safety of an aircraft's operations. Methods of teaching TEM stress replicability, or reliability of performance across recurring situations. TEM aims to prepare crews with the "coordinative and cognitive ability to handle both routine and unforeseen surprises and anomalies." The desired outcome of TEM training is the development of 'resiliency'. Resiliency, in this context, is the ability to recognize and act adaptively to disruptions which may be encountered during flight operations. TEM training occurs in various forms, with varying levels of success. Some of these training methods include data collection using the "line operations safety audit" (LOSA), implementation of crew resource management (CRM), cockpit task management (CTM), and the integrated use of checklists in both commercial and general aviation. Some other resources built into most modern aircraft that help minimize risk and manage threat and error are airborne collision and avoidance systems (ACAS) and ground proximity warning systems (GPWS). With the consolidation of onboard computer systems and the implementation of proper pilot training, airlines and crew members look to mitigate the inherent risks associated with human factors.


title: Pilot error

text: LOSA is a structured observational program designed to collect data for the development and improvement of countermeasures to operational errors. Through the audit process, trained observers are able to collect information regarding the normal procedures, protocol, and decision making processes flight crews undertake when faced with threats and errors during normal operation. This data driven analysis of threat and error management is useful for examining pilot behavior in relation to situational analysis. It provides a basis for further implementation of safety procedures or training to help mitigate errors and risks. Observers on flights which are being audited typically observe the following:


title: Pilot error

text: LOSA was developed to assist crew resource management practices in reducing human error in complex flight operations. LOSA produces beneficial data that reveals how many errors or threats are encountered per flight, the number of errors which could have resulted in a serious threat to safety, and correctness of crew action or inaction. This data has proven to be useful in the development of CRM techniques and identification of what issues need to be addressed in training.


title: Pilot error

text: CRM is the "effective use of all available resources by individuals and crews to safely and effectively accomplish a mission or task, as well as identifying and managing the conditions that lead to error." CRM training has been integrated and mandatory for most pilot training programs, and has been the accepted standard for developing human factors skills for air crews and airlines. Although there is no universal CRM program, airlines usually customize their training to best suit the needs of the organization. The principles of each program are usually closely aligned. According to the U.S. Navy, there are seven critical CRM skills:


title: Pilot error

text: These seven skills comprise the critical foundation for effective aircrew coordination. With the development and use of these core skills, flight crews "highlight the importance of identifying human factors and team dynamics to reduce human errors that lead to aviation mishaps."


title: Pilot error

text: Since the implementation of CRM circa 1979, following the need for increased research on resource management by NASA, the aviation industry has seen tremendous evolution of the application of CRM training procedures. The applications of CRM has been developed in a series of generations:


title: Pilot error

text: Today, CRM is implemented through pilot and crew training sessions, simulations, and through interactions with senior ranked personnel and flight instructors such as briefing and debriefing flights. Although it is difficult to measure the success of CRM programs, studies have been conclusive that there is a correlation between CRM programs and better risk management.


title: Pilot error

text: Cockpit task management (CTM) is the "management level activity pilots perform as they initiate, monitor, prioritize, and terminate cockpit tasks." A 'task' is defined as a process performed to achieve a goal (i.e. fly to a waypoint, descend to a desired altitude). CTM training focuses on teaching crew members how to handle concurrent tasks which compete for their attention. This includes the following processes:


title: Pilot error

text: The need for CTM training is a result of the capacity of human attentional facilities and the limitations of working memory. Crew members may devote more mental or physical resources to a particular task which demands priority or requires the immediate safety of the aircraft. CTM has been integrated to pilot training and goes hand in hand with CRM. Some aircraft operating systems have made progress in aiding CTM by combining instrument gauges into one screen. An example of this is a digital attitude indicator, which simultaneously shows the pilot the heading, airspeed, descent or ascent rate and a plethora of other pertinent information. Implementations such as these allow crews to gather multiple sources of information quickly and accurately, which frees up mental capacity to be focused on other, more prominent tasks.


title: Pilot error

text: The use of checklists before, during and after flights has established a strong presence in all types of aviation as a means of managing error and reducing the possibility of risk. Checklists are highly regulated and consist of protocols and procedures for the majority of the actions required during a flight. The objectives of checklists include "memory recall, standardization and regulation of processes or methodologies." The use of checklists in aviation has become an industry standard practice, and the completion of checklists from memory is considered a violation of protocol and pilot error. Studies have shown that increased errors in judgement and cognitive function of the brain, along with changes in memory function are a few of the effects of stress and fatigue. Both of these are inevitable human factors encountered in the commercial aviation industry. The use of checklists in emergency situations also contributes to troubleshooting and reverse examining the chain of events which may have led to the particular incident or crash. Apart from checklists issued by regulatory bodies such as the FAA or ICAO, or checklists made by aircraft manufacturers, pilots also have personal qualitative checklists aimed to ensure their fitness and ability to fly the aircraft. An example is the "IM SAFE" checklist (illness, medication, stress, alcohol, fatigue/food, emotion) and a number of other qualitative assessments which pilots may perform before or during a flight to ensure the safety of the aircraft and passengers. These checklists, along with a number of other redundancies integrated into most modern aircraft operation systems, ensure the pilot remains vigilant, and in turn, aims to reduce the risk of pilot error.


title: Pilot error

text: One of the most famous examples of an aircraft disaster that was attributed to pilot error was the night-time crash of Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 near Miami, Florida on 29 December 1972. The captain, first officer, and flight engineer had become fixated on a faulty landing gear light and had failed to realize that one of the crew had accidentally bumped the flight controls, altering the autopilot settings from level flight to a slow descent. Told by ATC to hold over a sparsely populated area away from the airport while they dealt with the problem (with, as a result, very few lights visible on the ground to act as an external reference), the distracted flight crew did not notice the plane losing height and the aircraft eventually struck the ground in the Everglades, killing 101 of the 176 passengers and crew. The subsequent National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) report on the incident blamed the flight crew for failing to monitor the aircraft's instruments properly. Details of the incident are now frequently used as a case study in training exercises by aircrews and air traffic controllers.


title: Pilot error

text: During 2004 in the United States, pilot error was listed as the primary cause of 78.6% of fatal general aviation accidents, and as the primary cause of 75.5% of general aviation accidents overall. For scheduled air transport, pilot error typically accounts for just over half of worldwide accidents with a known cause.


title: Serbian dinar

text: The dinar (, ; paucal: dinara / динара; abbreviation: (Latin) and дин (Cyrillic); code: RSD) is the currency of Serbia. One dinar is subdivided into 100 para. The dinar was first used in Serbia in medieval times, its earliest use dating back to 1214.


title: Serbian dinar

text: The first mention of a "Serbian dinar" dates back to the reign of Stefan Nemanjić in 1214. Until the fall of Despot Stjepan Tomašević in 1459, most of the Serbian rulers minted silver dinar coins.


title: Serbian dinar

text: The first Serbian dinars, like many other south-European coins, replicated Venetian grosso, including characters in Latin (the word 'Dux' replaced with the word 'Rex'). It was one of the main export articles of medieval Serbia for many years, considering the relative abundance of silver coming from Serbian mines. Venetians were wary of this, and Dante Alighieri went so far as to put the Serbian king of his time, Stephen Uroš II Milutin of Serbia, in Hell as a forger (along with his Portuguese and Norwegian counterparts):


title: Serbian dinar

text: Following the Ottoman conquest, different foreign currencies were used up to the mid 19th century. The Ottomans operated coin mints in Novo Brdo, Kučajna and Belgrade. The subdivision of the dinar, the "para", is named after the Turkish silver coins of the same name (from the Persian "pāra", "money, coin").


title: Serbian dinar

text: After the Principality of Serbia was formally established (1817), there were many different foreign coins in circulation. Eventually, Prince Miloš Obrenović decided to introduce some order by establishing exchange rates based on the groat (Serbian groš, French and English "piastre", Turkish "kuruş") as money of account. In 1819 Miloš published a table rating 43 different foreign coins: 10 gold, 28 silver, and 5 copper.


title: Serbian dinar

text: After the last Ottoman garrisons were withdrawn in 1867, Serbia was faced with multiple currencies in circulation. Thus, the prince Mihailo Obrenović ordered a national currency be minted.


title: Serbian dinar

text: The first bronze coins were introduced in 1868, followed by silver in 1875 and gold in 1879. The first banknotes were issued in 1876. Between 1873 and 1894, the dinar was pegged at par to the French franc. The Kingdom of Serbia also joined the Latin Monetary Union.


title: Serbian dinar

text: In 1920, the Serbian dinar was replaced at par by the Yugoslav dinar, with the Yugoslav krone also circulating together.


title: Serbian dinar

text: In 1868, bronze coins were introduced in denominations of 1, 5, and 10 paras. The obverses featured the portrait of Prince Mihailo Obrenović III. Silver coins were introduced in 1875, in denominations of 50 paras, 1 and 2 dinars, followed by 5 dinars in 1879. The first gold coins were also issued in 1879, for 20 dinars, with 10 dinars introduced in 1882. The gold coins issued for the coronation of Milan I coronation in 1882 were popularly called "milandor" (French "Milan d'Or"). In 1883, cupro-nickel 5, 10, and 20 para coins were introduced, followed by bronze 2 para coins in 1904.


title: Serbian dinar

text: In 1876, state notes were introduced in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 dinars. The Chartered National Bank followed these notes from 1884, with notes for 10 dinars backed by silver and gold notes for 50 and 100 dinars. Gold notes for 20 dinars and silver notes for 100 dinars were introduced in 1905. During World War I, silver notes for 50 and 5 dinars were introduced in 1914 and 1916, respectively. In 1915, stamps were authorized for circulation as currency in denominations of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 50 paras.


title: Serbian dinar

text: In 1941, the Yugoslav dinar was replaced, at par, by a second Serbian dinar for use in the German occupied Serbia. The dinar was pegged to the German reichsmark at a rate of 250 dinars = 1 reichsmark. This dinar circulated until 1944, when the Yugoslav dinar was reintroduced by the Yugoslav Partisans, replacing the Serbian dinar rate of 1 Yugoslav dinar = 20 Serbian dinars.


title: Serbian dinar

text: In 1942, zinc coins were introduced in denominations of 50 paras, 1 and 2 dinars, with 10 dinar coins following in 1943.


title: Serbian dinar

text: In May 1941, the Serbian National Bank introduced notes for 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 dinars. The 100 and 1,000 dinar notes were overprints, whilst the 10 dinar design was taken from an earlier Yugoslav note. Other notes were introduced in 1942 and 1943 without any new denominations being introduced.


title: Serbian dinar

text: The Serbian dinar replaced the Yugoslav dinar in 2003 when the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was transformed into the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Both Montenegro and the disputed territory of Kosovo had already adopted the Deutschmark and later the euro when the mark was replaced by it in 2002. The Serbs in North Kosovo and the enclaves within it continue to use the dinar.


title: Serbian dinar

text: Between 2003 and 2006, the Serbian dinar used the ISO 4217 code "CSD", with being the ISO 3166-1 country code for Serbia and Montenegro. When the State Union was dissolved in 2006, the dinar's ISO 4217 code was changed to the current "RSD".


title: Serbian dinar

text: Coins currently in circulation are , , , , and coins. All coins feature identical inscriptions in Serbian, using the Cyrillic and Latin scripts. The and coins are uncommon in circulation, as banknotes of the same value are used instead.


title: Serbian dinar

text: In 2003, banknotes of the (re-established) National Bank of Serbia were introduced in denominations of , , and . followed these in 2004, in 2005, and in 2006, and in 2011.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the United States' primary federal air quality law, intended to reduce and control air pollution nationwide. Initially enacted in 1963 and amended many times since, it is one of the United States' first and most influential modern environmental laws.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: As with many other major U.S. federal environmental statutes, the Clean Air Act is administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in coordination with state, local, and tribal governments. EPA develops extensive administrative regulations to carry out the law's mandates. The associated regulatory programs are often technical and complex. Among the most important, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards program sets standards for concentrations of certain pollutants in outdoor air; the National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants program sets standards for emissions of particular hazardous pollutants from specific sources. Other programs create requirements for vehicle fuels, industrial facilities, and other technologies and activities that impact air quality. Newer programs tackle specific problems, including acid rain, ozone layer protection, and climate change.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Although its exact benefits depend on what is counted, the Clean Air Act has substantially reduced air pollution and improved US air quality—benefits which EPA credits with saving trillions of dollars and many thousands of lives each year.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: In the United States, the "Clean Air Act" typically refers to the codified statute at . That statute is the product of multiple acts of Congress, one of which—the 1963 act—was actually titled the Clean Air Act, and another of which—the 1970 act—is most often referred to as such. In the U.S. Code, the statute itself is divided into subchapters, and the section numbers are not clearly related to the subchapters. However in the bills that created the law, the major divisions are called "Titles", and the law's sections are numbered according to the title (e.g., Title II begins with Section 201). In practice, EPA, courts, and attorneys often use the latter numbering scheme.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Although many parts of the statute are quite detailed, others set out only the general outlines of the law's regulatory programs, and leave many key terms undefined. Responsible agencies, primarily EPA, have therefore developed administrative regulations to carry out Congress's instructions. EPA's proposed and final regulations are published in the Federal Register, often with lengthy background histories. The existing CAA regulations are codified at 40 C.F.R. Subchapter C, Parts 50–98. These Parts more often correspond to the Clean Air Act's major regulatory programs.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) govern how much ground-level ozone (O), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM, PM), lead (Pb), sulfur dioxide (SO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO) are allowed in the outdoor air. The NAAQS set the acceptable levels of certain air pollutants in the ambient air in the United States. Prior to 1965, there was no national program for developing ambient air quality standards, and prior to 1970 the federal government did not have primary responsibility for developing them. The 1970 CAA amendments required EPA to determine which air pollutants posed the greatest threat to public health and welfare and promulgate NAAQS and air quality criteria for them. The health-based standards were called "primary" NAAQS, while standards set to protect public welfare other than health (e.g., agricultural values) were called "secondary" NAAQS. In 1971, EPA promulgated regulations for sulfur oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide (). Initially, EPA did not list lead as a criteria pollutant, controlling it through mobile source authorities, but it was required to do so after successful litigation by Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) in 1976 (). The 1977 CAA Amendments created a process for regular review of the NAAQS list, and created a permanent independent scientific review committee to provide technical input on the NAAQS to EPA. EPA added regulations for PM2.5 in 1997 (), and updates the NAAQS from time to time based on emerging environmental and health science.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) govern how much of 187 toxic air pollutants are allowed to be emitted from industrial facilities and other sources. Under the CAA, hazardous air pollutants (HAPs, or air toxics) are air pollutants other than those for which NAAQS exist, which threaten human health and welfare. The NESHAPs are the standards used for controlling, reducing, and eliminating HAPs emissions from stationary sources such as industrial facilities. The 1970 CAA required EPA to develop a list of HAPs, and then develop national emissions standards for each of them. The original NESHAPs were health-based standards. The 1990 CAA Amendments ( Title III) codified EPA's list, and required creation of technology-based standards according to "maximum achievable control technology" (MACT). Over the years, EPA has issued dozens of NESHAP regulations, which have developed NESHAPs by pollutant, by industry source category, and by industrial process. There are also NESHAPs for mobile sources (transportation), although these are primarily handled under the mobile source authorities. The 1990 amendments (adding CAA § 112(d-f)) also created a process by which EPA was required to review and update its NESHAPs every eight years, and identify any risks remaining after application of MACT, and develop additional rules necessary to protect public health.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) are rules for the equipment required to be installed in new and modified industrial facilities, and the rules for determining whether a facility is "new". The 1970 CAA required EPA to develop standards for newly-constructed and modified stationary sources (industrial facilities) using the "best system of emission reduction which (taking into account the cost of achieving such reduction) the [EPA] determines has been adequately demonstrated." EPA issued its first NSPS regulation the next year, covering steam generators, incinerators, Portland cement plants, and nitric and sulfuric acid plants (). Since then, EPA has issued dozens of NSPS regulations, primarily by source category. The requirements promote industrywide adoption of available pollution control technologies. However, because these standards apply only to new and modified sources, they promote extending the lifetimes of pre-existing facilities. In the 1977 CAA Amendments, Congress required EPA to conduct a "new source review" process (, subpart I) to determine whether maintenance and other activities rises to the level of modification requiring application of NSPS.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The Acid Rain Program (ARP) is an emissions trading program for power plants to control the pollutants that cause acid rain. The 1990 CAA Amendments created a new title to address the issue of acid rain, and particularly nitrogen oxides (NO) and sulfur dioxide (SO) emissions from electric power plants powered by fossil fuels, and other industrial sources. The Acid Rain Program was the first emissions trading program in the United States, setting a cap on total emissions that was reduced over time by way of traded emissions credits, rather than direct controls on emissions. The program evolved in two stages: the first stage required more than 100 electric generating facilities larger than 100 megawatts to meet a 3.5 million ton SO emission reduction by January 1995. The second stage gave facilities larger than 75 megawatts a January 2000 deadline. The program has achieved all of its statutory goals.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The CAA ozone program is a technology transition program intended to phase out the use of chemicals that harm the ozone layer. Consistent with the US commitments in the Montreal Protocol, CAA Title VI, added by the 1990 CAA Amendments, mandated regulations regarding the use and production of chemicals that harm Earth's stratospheric ozone layer. Under Title VI, EPA runs programs to phase out ozone-destroying substances, track their import and export, determine exemptions for their continued use, and define practices for destroying them, maintaining and servicing equipment that uses them, identifying new alternatives to those still in use, and licensing technicians to use such chemicals.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Rules for pollutants emitted from internal combustion engines in vehicles. Since 1965, Congress has mandated increasingly stringent controls on vehicle engine technology and reductions in tailpipe emissions. Today, the law requires EPA to establish and regularly update regulations for pollutants that may threaten public health, from a wide variety of classes of motor vehicles, that incorporate technology to achieve the "greatest degree of emission reduction achievable", factoring in availability, cost, energy, and safety ().


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: EPA sets standards for exhaust gases, evaporative emissions, air toxics, refueling vapor recovery, and vehicle inspection and maintenance for several classes of vehicles that travel on roadways. EPA's "light-duty vehicles" regulations cover passenger cars, minivans, passenger vans, pickup trucks, and SUVs. "Heavy-duty vehicles" regulations cover large trucks and buses. EPA first issued motorcycle emissions regulations in 1977 () and updated them in 2004 ().


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The air pollution testing system for motor vehicles was originally developed in 1972 and used driving cycles designed to simulate driving during rush-hour in Los Angeles during that era. Until 1984, EPA reported the exact fuel economy figures calculated from the test. In 1984, EPA began adjusting city (aka Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule or UDDS) results downward by 10% and highway (aka HighWay Fuel Economy Test or HWFET) results by 22% to compensate for changes in driving conditions since 1972, and to better correlate the EPA test results with real-world driving. In 1996, EPA proposed updating the Federal Testing Procedures to add a new higher-speed test (US06) and an air-conditioner-on test (SC03) to further improve the correlation of fuel economy and emission estimates with real-world reports. In December 2006 the updated testing methodology was finalized to be implemented in model year 2008 vehicles and set the precedent of a 12-year review cycle for the test procedures.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: In February 2005, EPA launched a program called "Your MPG" that allows drivers to add real-world fuel economy statistics into a database on EPA's fuel economy website and compare them with others and with the original EPA test results.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: EPA conducts fuel economy tests on very few vehicles. Two-thirds of the vehicles the EPA tests themselves are randomly selected and the remaining third is tested for specific reasons.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Although originally created as a reference point for fossil-fueled vehicles, driving cycles have been used for estimating how many miles an electric vehicle will get on a single charge.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The 1970 CAA amendments provided for regulation of aircraft emissions (), and EPA began regulating in 1973. In 2012, EPA finalized its newest restrictions on NOx emissions from gas turbine aircraft engines with rated thrusts above 26.7 kiloNewton (3 short ton-force), meaning primarily commercial jet aircraft engines, intended to match international standards. EPA has been investigating whether to regulate lead in fuels for small aircraft since 2010, but has not yet acted. The 1990 CAA Amendments ( § 222) added rules for a "nonroad" engine program (), which expanded EPA regulation to locomotives, heavy equipment and small equipment engines fueled by diesel (compression-ignition), and gas and other fuels (spark-ignition), and marine transport.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: EPA has developed a variety of voluntary programs to incentivize and promote reduction in transportation-related air pollution, including elements of the Clean Diesel Campaign, Ports Initiative, SmartWay program, and others.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The federal government has regulated the chemical composition of transportation fuels since 1967, with significant new authority added in 1970 to protect public health. One of EPA's earliest actions was the elimination of lead in U.S. gasoline beginning in 1971 (, , ), a project that has been described as "one of the great public health achievements of the 20th century." EPA continues to regulate the chemical composition of gasoline, avgas, and diesel fuel in the United States.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The 1963 act required development of State Implementation Plans (SIPs) as part of a cooperative federalist program for developing pollution control standards and programs. Rather than create a solely national program, the CAA imposes responsibilities on the U.S. states to create plans to implement the Act's requirements. EPA then reviews, amends, and approves those plans. EPA first promulgated SIP regulations in 1971 and 1972.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The 1977 CAA Amendments added SIP requirements for areas that had not attained the applicable NAAQS ("nonattainment areas"). In these areas, states were required to adopt plans that made "reasonable further progress" toward attainment until all "reasonably available control measures" could be adopted. As progress on attainment was much slower than Congress originally instructed, major amendments to SIP requirements in nonattainment areas were part of the 1990 CAA Amendments.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The 1977 CAA Amendments modified the SIP requirements by adding "Prevention of Significant Deterioration" (PSD) requirements. These requirements protect areas, including particularly wilderness areas and national parks, that already met the NAAQS. The PSD provision requires SIPs to preserve good quality air in addition to cleaning up bad air. The new law also required New Source Review (investigations of proposed construction of new polluting facilities) to examine whether PSD requirements would be met.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The 1990 amendments authorized a national operating permit program, sometimes called the "Title V Program", covering thousands of large industrial and commercial sources. It required large businesses to address pollutants released into the air, measure their quantity, and have a plan to control and minimize them as well as to periodically report. This consolidated requirements for a facility into a single document. In non-attainment areas, permits were required for sources that emit as little as 50, 25, or 10 tons per year of VOCs depending on the severity of the region's non-attainment status. Most permits are issued by state and local agencies. If the state does not adequately monitor requirements, the EPA may take control. The public may request to view the permits by contacting the EPA. The permit is limited to no more than five years and requires a renewal.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: One of the most public aspects of the Clean Air Act, EPA is empowered to monitor compliance with the law's many requirements, seek penalties for violations, and compel regulated entities to come into compliance. Enforcement cases are usually settled, with penalties assessed well below maximum statutory limits. Recently, many of the largest Clean Air Act settlements have been reached with automakers accused of circumventing the Act's vehicle and fuel standards (e.g., the 2015 "Dieselgate" scandal).


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Much of EPA's regulation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions occurs under the programs discussed above. EPA began regulating GHG emissions following the Supreme Court's ruling in "Massachusetts v. EPA", the EPA's subsequent endangerment finding, and development of specific regulations for various sources.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The EPA's authority to regulate carbon dioxide emissions was questioned by the Supreme Court in "West Virginia v. EPA" but restored by Congress with the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, which clarified that carbon dioxide is one of the pollutants covered by the Clean Air Act.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Standards for mobile sources have been established pursuant to Section 202 of the CAA, and GHGs from stationary sources are controlled under the authority of Part C of Title I of the Act. The EPA's auto emission standards for greenhouse gas emissions issued in 2010 and 2012 are intended to cut emissions from targeted vehicles by half, double fuel economy of passenger cars and light-duty trucks by 2025 and save over $4 billion barrels of oil and $1.7 trillion for consumers. The agency has also proposed a two-phase program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for medium and heavy duty trucks and buses. In addition, EPA oversees the national greenhouse gas inventory reporting program.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Following the Supreme Court decision in "West Virginia v. EPA", which ruled that Congress did not grant EPA to require "outside the fence" options for limiting carbon dioxide at power plants, Congress passed the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, which in amending the Clean Air Act, specifically defined carbon dioxide, hydrofluorocarbons, methane, nitrous oxide, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride as greenhouse gases to be regulated by the EPA, as well as giving the EPA the ability to regulate the inclusion of renewable sources, notably, through a $27 billion green bank, among other methods.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Other important but less foundational Clean Air Act regulatory programs tend to build on or cut across the above programs:


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Between the Second Industrial Revolution and the 1960s, the United States experienced increasingly severe air pollution. Following the 1948 Donora smog event, the public began to discuss air pollution as a major problem, states began to pass a series of laws to reduce air pollution, and Congress began discussing whether to take further action in response. At the time, the primary federal agencies interested in air pollution were the United States Bureau of Mines, which was interested in "smoke abatement" (reducing smoke from coal burning), and the United States Public Health Service, which handled industrial hygiene and was concerned with the causes of lung health problems.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: After several years of proposals and hearings, Congress passed the first federal legislation to address air pollution in 1955. The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 authorized a research and training program, sending $3 million per year to the U.S. Public Health Service for five years, but did not directly regulate pollution sources. The 1955 Act's research program was extended in 1959, 1960, and 1962 while Congress considered whether to regulate further.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Beginning in 1963, Congress began expanding federal air pollution control law to accelerate the elimination of air pollution throughout the country. The new law's programs were initially administered by the U.S. Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, and the Air Pollution Office of the U.S. Public Health Service, until they were transferred to the newly-created EPA immediately before major amendments in 1970. EPA has administered the Clean Air Act ever since, and Congress added major regulatory programs in 1977 and 1990. Most recently, the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in "Massachusetts v. EPA" resulted in an expansion of EPA's CAA regulatory activities to cover greenhouse gases.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Clean Air Act of 1963 and Early Amendments. The Clean Air Act of 1963 () was the first federal legislation to permit the U.S. federal government to take direct action to control air pollution. It extended the 1955 research program, encouraged cooperative state, local, and federal action to reduce air pollution, appropriated $95 million over three years to support the development of state pollution control programs, and authorized the HEW Secretary to organize conferences and take direct action against interstate air pollution where state action was deemed to be insufficient.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act () amended the 1963 Clean Air Act and set the first federal vehicle emissions standards, beginning with the 1968 models. These standards were reductions from 1963 emissions levels: 72% reduction for hydrocarbons, 56% reduction for carbon monoxide, and 100% reduction for crankcase hydrocarbons.. The law also added a new section to authorize abatement of international air pollution.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The Air Quality Act of 1967 () authorized planning grants to state air pollution control agencies, permitted the creation of interstate air pollution control agencies, and required HEW to define air quality regions and develop technical documentation that would allow states to set ambient air quality and pollution control technology standards, and required states to submit implementation plans for improvement of air quality, and permitted HEW to take direct abatement action in air pollution emergencies. It also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques. This enabled the federal government to increase its activities to investigate enforcing interstate air pollution transport, and, for the first time, to perform far-reaching ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections. The 1967 act also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques. While only six states had air pollution programs in 1960, all 50 states had air pollution programs by 1970 due to the federal funding and legislation of the 1960s.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: 1970 Amendments. In the Clean Air Amendments of 1970 (), Congress greatly expanded the federal mandate by requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both industrial and mobile sources. The law established the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), New Source Performance Standards (NSPS); and National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs), and significantly strengthened federal enforcement authority, all toward achieving aggressive air pollution reduction goals.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: To implement the strict amendments, EPA Administrator William Ruckelshaus spent 60% of his time during his first term on the automobile industry, whose emissions were to be reduced 90% under the new law. Senators had been frustrated at the industry's failure to cut emissions under previous, weaker air laws.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: 1977 Amendments. Major amendments were added to the "Clean Air Act" in 1977 (1977 CAAA) (91 Stat. 685, ). The 1977 Amendments primarily concerned provisions for the Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) of air quality in areas attaining the NAAQS. The 1977 CAAA also contained requirements pertaining to sources in non-attainment areas for NAAQS. A non-attainment area is a geographic area that does not meet one or more of the federal air quality standards. Both of these 1977 CAAA established major permit review requirements to ensure attainment and maintenance of the NAAQS. These amendments also included the adoption of an offset trading policy originally applied to Los Angeles in 1974 that enables new sources to offset their emissions by purchasing extra reductions from existing sources.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 required Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) of air quality for areas attaining the NAAQS and added requirements for non-attainment areas.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: 1990 Amendments. Another set of major amendments to the Clean Air Act occurred in 1990 (1990 CAAA) (104 Stat. 2468, ). The 1990 CAAA substantially increased the authority and responsibility of the federal government. New regulatory programs were authorized for control of acid deposition (acid rain) and for the issuance of stationary source operating permits. The NESHAPs were incorporated into a greatly expanded program for controlling toxic air pollutants. The provisions for attainment and maintenance of NAAQS were substantially modified and expanded. Other revisions included provisions regarding stratospheric ozone protection, increased enforcement authority, and expanded research programs.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The 1990 Clean Air Act added regulatory programs for control of acid deposition (acid rain) and stationary source operating permits. The provisions aimed at reducing sulfur dioxide emissions included a cap-and-trade program, which gave power companies more flexibility in meeting the law's goals compared to earlier iterations of the Clean Air Act. The amendments moved considerably beyond the original criteria pollutants, expanding the NESHAP program with a list of 189 hazardous air pollutants to be controlled within hundreds of source categories, according to a specific schedule. The NAAQS program was also expanded. Other new provisions covered stratospheric ozone protection, increased enforcement authority and expanded research programs.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Further amendments were made in 1990 to address the problems of acid rain, ozone depletion, and toxic air pollution, and to establish a national permit program for stationary sources, and increased enforcement authority. The amendments also established new auto gasoline reformulation requirements, set Reid vapor pressure (RVP) standards to control evaporative emissions from gasoline, and mandated new gasoline formulations sold from May to September in many states. Reviewing his tenure as EPA Administrator under President George H. W. Bush, William K. Reilly characterized passage of the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act as his most notable accomplishment.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Federalism. The Constitution contains no provisions listing environmental standards as an enumerated Federal power, and until 1970 these were essentially handled at the state and local level. However, legislators of the 1960s had been heavily influenced by New Deal-era ideologies of government, allowing considerable expansion of Federal authority, often in excess of what was strictly allowed in the Constitution. The Clean Air Act provided the EPA with enforcement authority and requiring states to develop State Implementation Plans for how they would meet new national ambient air quality standards by 1977. This cooperative federal model continues today. The law recognizes that states should lead in carrying out the Clean Air Act, because pollution control problems often require special understanding of local conditions such as geography, industrial activity, transportation and housing patterns. However, states are not allowed to have weaker controls than the national minimum criteria set by EPA. EPA must approve each SIP, and if a SIP is not acceptable, EPA can retain CAA enforcement in that state. For example, California was unable to meet the new standards set by the 1970 amendments, which led to a lawsuit and a federal state implementation plan for the state. The federal government also assists the states by providing scientific research, expert studies, engineering designs, and money to support clean air programs.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: The law also prevents states from setting standards that are more strict than the federal standards, but carves out a special exemption for California due to its past issues with smog pollution in the metropolitan areas. In practice, when California's environmental agencies decide on new vehicle emission standards, they are submitted to the EPA for approval under this waiver, with the most recent approval in 2009. The California standard was adopted by twelve other states, and established the "de facto" standard that automobile manufacturers subsequently accepted, to avoid having to develop different emission systems in their vehicles for different states. However, in September 2019, President Donald Trump attempted to revoke this waiver, arguing that the stricter emissions have made cars too expensive, and by removing them, will make vehicles safer. EPA's Andrew Wheeler also stated that while the agency respects federalism, it could not allow one state to dictate standards for the entire nation. California's governor Gavin Newsom considered the move part of Trump's "political vendetta" against California and stated his intent to sue the federal government. Twenty-three states, along with the District of Columbia and the cities of New York City and Los Angeles, joined California in a federal lawsuit challenging the administration's decision. In March 2022 the Biden administration reversed the Trump-era rule, allowing California to again set stricter auto emissions standards.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: 2022 Amendments. The Inflation Reduction Act, the budget reconciliation bill signed by President Joe Biden in August 2022, amends the Clean Air Act to allow the EPA to administer $27 billion in grants to green banks nationwide, through a funding mechanism to be called the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund. Over $12 billion will broadly go to states and localities for various direct investments in decarbonization startups, more than $7 billion will go to investments in low-income and historically disadvantaged communities, and $7 billion will go to similar communities with no financing alternatives.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: According to a 2022 review study in the "Journal of Economic Literature", there is overwhelming causal evidence that shows that the CAA improved air quality.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: According to the most recent study by EPA, when compared to the baseline of the 1970 and 1977 regulatory programs, by 2020 the updates initiated by the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments would be costing the United States about $60 billion per year, while benefiting the United States (in monetized health and lives saved) about $2 trillion per year. In 2020, a study prepared for the Natural Resources Defense Council estimated annual benefits at 370,000 avoided premature deaths, 189,000 fewer hospital admissions, and net economic benefits of up to $3.8 trillion (32 times the cost of the regulations). Other studies have reached similar conclusions.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Mobile sources including automobiles, trains, and boat engines have become 99% cleaner for pollutants like hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particle emissions since the 1970s. The allowable emissions of volatile organic chemicals, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and lead from individual cars have also been reduced by more than 90%, resulting in decreased national emissions of these pollutants despite a more than 400% increase in total miles driven yearly. Since the 1980s, 1/4th of ground level ozone has been cut, mercury emissions have been cut by 80%, and since the change from leaded gas to unleaded gas 90% of atmospheric lead pollution has been reduced. A 2018 study found that the Clean Air Act contributed to the 60% decline in pollution emissions by the manufacturing industry between 1990 and 2008.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Since its inception, the authority given to the EPA by Congress and the EPA's rulemaking within the Clean Air Act has been subject to numerous lawsuits. Some of the major suits where the Clean Air Act has been focal point of litigation include the following:


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: As poor air quality is still an issue in the United States, it's been noted that it is 1.5 times more likely for a person of color to live in an area burdened with air pollution than it is for a white person. While the United States is still being affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, research has shown that if someone lives in an area that experiences air pollution, they are 8% more likely to experience long-term COVID effects and could potentially have a fatal outcome. This creates a disparity between people of color in America and white Americans even though the air pollution that these communities face is often a result of redlining which places communities of color in areas where the industries that pollute the air, as well as high traffic roadways, reside. Solutions proposed by the Sierra Club and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) include funding clean energy transportation services, lower acceptable emission levels, and enforce the Clean Air Act that is already in place more intensely. While the Clean Air Act has been generally effective since it was enacted in 1970, there have been efforts from the fossil fuel industry to override the regulations which have led to worse air pollution in many communities.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: An example of an area where the Clean Air Act has not been too effective is the San Joaquin Valley which experiences poor air quality conditions that stem from harmful agricultural practices, heavy traffic on major roadways, and the oil industrial businesses. Research shows that the leading air pollutant in the region is known as, PM 2.5, or fine particulate matter and causes health issues in pregnant women exposed to it such as more severe asthma, decreased FEV1, compromised immunity, and an increased risk of premature birth. Other symptoms that come from exposure to PM 2.5 include chronic bronchitis, reduced lung function in children, and heart and lung-related hospitalizations that can potentially lead to premature death especially if the individual has previous health concerns. It's been noted that in 2004, a mass decrease in PM 2.5 pollution occurred because of a decline in agricultural and biomass burning practices, however, it is still a common occurrence today and PM 2.5 levels have increased. Organizations such as the California Air Resources Board (CARB) have recommended that more sufficient regulations be implemented in the San Joaquin Valley to reduce toxic emissions into the atmosphere. There are now efforts from the EPA, the CARB, and the San Joaquin Valley Air Pollution Control District to enforce regulations from the Clean Air Act and fund further efforts to live in a more sustainable fashion.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: As of 2017, some US cities still do not meet all national ambient air quality standards. It is likely that tens of thousands of premature deaths are still being caused by fine-particle pollution and ground-level ozone pollution.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Climate change poses a challenge to the management of conventional air pollutants in the United States due to warmer, dryer summer conditions that can lead to increased air stagnation episodes. Prolonged droughts that may contribute to wildfires would also result in regionally high levels of air particles.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Transboundary air pollution (both entering and exiting the United States) is not directly regulated by the Clean Air Act, requiring international negotiations and ongoing agreements with other nations, particularly Canada and Mexico.


title: Clean Air Act (United States)

text: Environmental justice continues to be an ongoing challenge for the Clean Air Act. By promoting pollution reduction, the Clean Air Act helps reduce heightened exposure to air pollution among communities of color and low-income communities. But African American populations are "consistently over represented" in areas with the poorest air quality. Dense populations of low-income and minority communities inhabit the most polluted areas across the United States, which is considered to exacerbate health problems among these populations. High levels of exposure to air pollution is linked to several health conditions, including asthma, cancer, premature death, and infant mortality, each of which disproportionately impact communities of color and low-income communities. The pollution reduction achieved by the Clean Air Act is associated with a decline in each of these conditions and can promote environmental justice for communities that are disproportionately impacted by air pollution and diminished health status.


title: Jan Ullrich

text: Jan Ullrich (; born 2 December 1973) is a German former professional road bicycle racer. Ullrich won gold and silver medals in the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. He won the 1999 Vuelta a España and the HEW Cyclassics in front of a home crowd in Hamburg in 1997. He had podium finishes in the hilly classic Clásica de San Sebastián. His victorious ride in the 1997 Tour de France led to a bicycle boom in Germany. He retired in February 2007.


title: Jan Ullrich

text: In 2006, Ullrich was barred from the Tour de France amid speculation of having doped. In February 2012, Ullrich was found guilty of a doping offence by the Court of Arbitration for Sport. He was retroactively banned from 22 August 2011, and all results gained since May 2005 were removed from his Palmarès. He admitted to blood doping in 2013.


title: Jan Ullrich

text: At a young age, Ullrich joined SG Dynamo Rostock () in his hometown. He won his first bicycle race at the age of nine while riding in sports shoes and on a rented bicycle. He was educated in the sports training system of the German Democratic Republic attending the KJS sports school in Berlin in 1986. In 1988, he was champion of the German Democratic Republic. The school closed two years after the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989. He, his trainer Peter Sager, and teammates joined an amateur club in Hamburg until 1994. In 1991, he was 5th in the amateur cyclo-cross world championships.


title: Jan Ullrich

text: In 1993, aged 19, Ullrich won the amateur road title at the UCI Road World Championships in Oslo, as Lance Armstrong won the professional championship. The following year, he finished third behind Chris Boardman and Andrea Chiurato in the world time trial championship in Sicily.


title: Jan Ullrich

text: Ullrich was inconspicuous in his first 18 months as a professional. In 1995 he became national time trial champion. He also achieved top ten placings on stages of the 1995 Tour de Suisse. At 21 he wanted to start the 1995 Tour de France but Godefroot thought it was early. Instead he went to the small German stage race, the Hofbräu Cup, where he ended third. Ullrich started the 1995 Vuelta a España later that year only to abandon on stage 12.


title: Jan Ullrich

text: Ullrich gave up a place in the 1996 German Olympic team to ride his first Tour. He finished the prologue 33 seconds down. He stayed within the top 20 until the mountains on stage 7 when Miguel Indurain cracked. Ullrich finished 30 seconds back, 22 behind his teammate Bjarne Riis while Indurain finished four minutes down. On the following stage, he finished in the same group as Indurain 40 seconds behind Riis. On stage 9, Riis rode into the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification while Ullrich finished 44 seconds back and also into 5th place overall 1-minute 38 seconds from Riis.


title: Jan Ullrich

text: Over the final mountains, Ullrich rode into second place behind Riis, but he conceded time on each mountain stage, eventually being nearly four minutes behind Riis. He won the final individual time trial and secured his first Tour stage win. He cut 2 minutes 18 seconds into Riis's lead. This led Indurain to comment that Ullrich would win the Tour some day, adding that it was a remarkable victory considering that Ullrich had been helping Riis. Ullrich dismissed suggestions he would have done better if he had not had to help Riis, saying Riis had inspired the team. Jan finished his first tour in second place at 1-minute 41 seconds from his teammate Bjarne Riis.


title: Jan Ullrich

text: Ullrich had 2 wins before the 1997 Tour; a stage in the Tour de Suisse and the national Road Race championship a week before the tour. He became favorite in the 1997 Tour de France. He started strongly, finishing second in the prologue behind Chris Boardman. On stage 9, the first mountain stage which was won by Laurent Brochard, Ullrich worked for Riis. Only on the last ascent when Richard Virenque attacked did Ullrich react. Riis struggled to keep up and finished 30 seconds behind Virenque, Marco Pantani and Ullrich. On stage 10 from Luchon to Andorra Arcalis, with Riis again falling back, Ullrich dropped back to the team car to ask permission to attack. He returned to the lead group and pushed up the climb leaving Pantani and Virenque. He finished a minute ahead which earned his first yellow jersey as leader of the general classification. "L'Équipe", greeted Ullrich with "Voilà le Patron" ("Here is the boss"). Ullrich won the Stage 12 time trial with three minutes between himself and the second placed rider, Virenque, who had started three minutes in front of him.


title: Jan Ullrich

text: Marco Pantani attacked on the stage to the Alpe d'Huez. Ullrich, who was nine minutes ahead of Pantani overall, limited his losses to 47 seconds. Pantani attacked again on the Morzine stage and won, while Ullrich again limited his losses. In the final time trial, won by Abraham Olano, Ullrich extended his lead over Virenque and the following day became the first German to win the Tour de France. At 23, Ullrich was the fourth youngest winner of the Tour since 1947. Two weeks later, he won the Hews Cycling Classic in Hamburg. A further two weeks later Ullrich was beaten by Davide Rebellin in a sprint in the GP Suisse. He was chosen "sports person of the year" in Germany in 1997.


title: Jan Ullrich

text: Ullrich was defending champion in 1998. He took the lead in the general classification on stage 7, a time trial, over 58 km of undulating roads. However, on stage 15 Marco Pantani blew the Tour apart with a victory which began on the Galibier. Ullrich was without support when Pantani attacked. Pantani topped the Galibier alone. It was misty and the roads were wet. The descent was dangerous and Pantani increased his lead. By the bottom of the final climb, Les Deux Alpes, Pantani had nearly four minutes. Telekom brought Udo Bölts and then Riis to pace Ullrich. Pantani was race leader as he crossed the line. Ullrich finished almost nine minutes back, dropping to fourth position, six minutes behind Pantani.